Mecanical Ventilation

C M Y CM MY CY CMY K
Noninvasive Ventilation Second Edition
EUROPEAN RESPIRATORY MONOGRAPH

Monograph 41, November 2008
Noninvasive
Ventilation
Second Edition
Edited by
J-F. Muir, N. Ambrosino and A.K. Simonds
The European Respiratory Monograph 41
Published November 2008

ISSN 1025-448x
ISBN: 978-1-904097-62-4 EUROPEAN
RESPIRATORY
SOCIETY
Printed by Latimer Trend & Co. Ltd, Plymouth, UK
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Noninvasive Ventilation
Second Edition
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European Respiratory Monograph 41

November 2008
Editor in Chief
K. Larsson
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and useful scientific detail, drawing on specific case studies and looking into the diagnosis and
management of individual patients. Previously published titles in this series are listed at the back of
this book with details of how they can be purchased.
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Noninvasive Ventilation
Second Edition
Edited by
J-F. Muir, N. Ambrosino and A.K. Simonds
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Published by European Respiratory Society Journals Ltd ©2008

November 2008
Hardback ISBN: 978-1-904097-61-7
Paperback ISBN: 978-1-904097-62-4
ISSN: 1025-448x
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Contents MON 41.qxd 03/12/2008 10:48 Page 1
The European Respiratory Monograph
Number 41 November 2008

CONTENTS
The Guest Editors vii
Preface viii
Introduction ix
Part 1 Acute respiratory failure and NIV
1. Physiological rationale of noninvasive mechanical ventilation use in acute 3

respiratory failure
G. Prinianakis, M. Klimathianaki, D. Georgopoulos
2. NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory failure in obstructive pulmonary 24

diseases
N. Ambrosino, A. Corrado
3. Management of acute respiratory failure in restrictive disorders 37

(obesity excluded)
J.C. Winck, M. Gonçalves
4. NIV for acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in obese patients 47

A. Cuvelier, N. Amiot, B. Lamia, L.C. Molano, J-F. Muir
5. NIV: indication in case of acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure 60

(pulmonary oedema and immunosuppressed patients excluded)
M. Ferrer, A. Torres
6. NIV for cardiogenic pulmonary oedema 72

A. Gray, D. Schlosshan, M.W. Elliott
7. NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory failure and immunosuppression 94

G. Hilbert
8. NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory failure in children 110

O. Nørregaard
9. NIV: use during the pre-hospital management of patients with acute 133
respiratory failure
F. Thys, S. Spencer, F. Verschuren, N. Delvau, J. Roeseler, F. Templier
10. NIV for weaning from mechanical ventilation and post-extubation ARF 143
C. Girault
11. NIV for acute respiratory failure: modes of ventilation and ventilators 154
F. Vargas, A. Thille, A. Lyazidi, L. Brochard
12. NIV in the acute setting: technical aspects, initiation, monitoring and choice 173
of interface
S.M. Maggiore, G. Mercurio, C. Volpe
Contents MON 41.qxd 03/12/2008 10:48 Page 2
13. Where to perform NIV 189

S.D.W. Miller, M. Latham, M.W. Elliott
Part II Chronic respiratory failure and noninvasive ventilation
14. NIV and obstructive lung diseases 203

J-F. Muir, C. Molano, A. Cuvelier
15. NIV and neuromuscular disease 224

A.K. Simonds
16. NIV and chronic respiratory failure secondary to restrictive thoracic 240
disorders (obesity excluded)
W. Windisch, M. Dreher
17. NIV and chronic respiratory failure secondary to obesity 251

J-P. Janssens, J-L. Pépin, Y.F. Guo
18. NIV and pulmonary rehabilitation 265

N. Ambrosino, N. Carpenè, M. Gherardi
19. NIV and chronic respiratory failure in children 272

B. Fauroux, G. Aubertin, F. Lofaso
20. NIV and palliative care 287

R. Scala, S. Nava
21. Domiciliary ventilators: from bench to bedside 307

L. Vignaux, J-P. Janssens, P. Jolliet
22. Noninvasive mechanical ventilation in chronic respiratory failure: 319

ventilators and interfaces
J.H. Storre, B. Schönhofer
23. Interfaces and humidification in the home setting 338

P. Navalesi, P. Frigerio, C. Gregoretti
24. Sleep and NIV: monitoring of the patient under home ventilation 350
J-L. Pépin, J.C. Borel, J-P. Janssens, R. Tamisier, P. Lévy
25. NIV: discharging the ventilator-dependent patient 367

J. Escarrabill
26. Cost-effectiveness of NIV applied to chronic respiratory failure 377

E.M. Clini, E. Crisafulli, M. Moretti, L.M. Fabbri
27. Home NIV: results and lessons from a European survey 392
J. Goldring, J. Wedzicha
28. Future trends in noninvasive mechanical ventilation in adults 400

D. Robert, L. Argaud
Statements of interest 415

Mono 41 CV.qxd 02/12/2008 15:27 Page 1
The Guest Editors
J-F. Muir N. Ambrosino A.K. Simonds
The Guest Editors
J-F. Muir is a Professor of Pulmonology and Head of both the Respiratory Diseases Dept and
Respiratory Intensive Care unit at the Rouen University Hospital, France. He has a special interest in
acute and chronic mechanical ventilation and sleep studies.
N. Ambrosino's research activity has been devoted to: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, respi-
ratory critical care, pulmonary rehabilitation and home respiratory care. He has also contributed to
the development of the use of noninvasive mechanical ventilation techniques in acute and chronic
respiratory failure with several clinical trials and original experimental studies. He was the former
head of the Pulmonary Rehabilitation Working Group of the European Respiratory Society, and he
currently sits on the editorial boards of several international journals.
A.K. Simonds is a Consultant in Respiratory Medicine at Royal Brompton Hospital, London. She
runs the Home Ventilation service for adults and children and has a long term clinical and research
interest in acute and chronic: noninvasive ventilation, new ventilatory modes, neuromuscular disor-
ders, sleep disordered breathing, endstage lung disease, palliative care and ethics.
Preface
The view on treatment of patients with severe respiratory disorders in general, and of
patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in particular, has changed
during the past decades. The former, often nihilistic, approach has changed into an
attitude towards more active engagement in, and treatment of, severely ill patients. In
this context, noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has been brought into focus as a valuable
alternative treatment, both in acute respiratory failure and chronic respiratory diseases.
The growing interest in NIV has been reflected in the European Respiratory Monograph
(ERM) through the years and the present issue on NIV is a comprehensive review of the
field. It updates areas that were covered in the previous 2001 ERM edition and adds a
number of new aspects on how NIV may be an option in the treatment of patients with
primary respiratory and nonrespiratory disorders. In the current issue there are new
chapters on treatment of acute and chronic respiratory failure in obese patients. Acute
respiratory failure in immunocompromised patients has been given its own chapter and
there are specific chapters on the use of NIV in pre-hospital patients and in palliative
care. Furthermore, treatment of cardiogenic pulmonary oedema with NIV has a devoted
chapter.
The present updated and extended ERM on NIV, written and edited by the most
appreciated experts in the field, is a must for every clinician who makes contact with
patients who suffer from acute or chronic respiratory failure, in whom NIV may be
considered. This issue will certainly constitute a highly appreciated source of
information and knowledge, both for clinicians and scientists.
K. Larsson
Editor in Chief
Eur Respir Mon, 2008, 41, viii. Printed in UK - all rights reserved. Copyright ERS Journals Ltd 2008; European Respiratory Monograph;
ISSN 1025-448x.
viii
INTRODUCTION
J-F. Muir*, N. Ambrosino#,", A.K. Simonds+
*Pneumology and Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France, #Pulmonary
Diseases and Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Cardio-Thoracic Dept, University Hospital Pisa, Pisa, and
"
Weaning and Pulmonary Rehabilitation Unit, Auxilium Vitae, Volterra, Italy, and +Academic Unit of Sleep
and Breathing, Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK.
Correspondence: J-F. Muir, Service de Pneumologie et Unité de Soins Intensifs Respiratoires, Hôpital de
Bois-Guillaume, CHU de Rouen, 76031 Rouen, France. Fax: 33 232889000; E-mail: jean-francois.
[email protected]
In August 2001, the first edition of a European Respiratory Monograph (ERM)

devoted to noninvasive mechanical ventilation (NIV) was published [1]. Now is a good
time for a second edition, in order to take into account and consolidate views on the
numerous developments that have occurred on a variety fronts.
NIV is not a recent concept, having been developed in the 19th century. Subsequent
milestones date from the 1950s, with the iron lung in the polio era; the 1960s, with the
first attempts at mask ventilation; the 1970s, when mouth ventilation was used
increasingly; and the 1980s, when nasal interfaces improved and pressure support
ventilation emerged. The 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century have highlighted
the importance of pressure support ventilation and of sleep investigation in respiratory
medicine, and have demonstrated the changing profile of the underlying causes of
chronic and acute respiratory failure, the disease of this century, in particular the
growing burden of morbid obesity.
The current ERM has been thoroughly renewed and rewritten. We hope that it will
afford medical teams daily confronted with acute and chronic respiratory failure a
substantial overview of the new aspects of NIV, including pathophysiological
indications, technology and monitoring. It is essential that these developments are
understood if, over time, we want to improve survival and also optimise ventilator–
patient interaction and health-related quality of life.
We would like to warmly thank all the contributors for their enthusiasm and hard
work and, in addition, acknowledge K. Larsson (Editor in Chief) and the European
Respiratory Society Publications Dept for their excellent technical help.
References
1. Muir JF, Ambrosino N, Simonds AK, eds. Noninvasive Mechanical Ventilation. Eur Respir Mon
2001; 16.
Eur Respir Mon, 2008, 41, ix. Printed in UK - all rights reserved. Copyright ERS Journals Ltd 2008; European Respiratory Monograph;
ISSN 1025-448x.
ix
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Part I
Acute respiratory failure

and NIV

CHAPTER 1
Physiological rationale of noninvasive

mechanical ventilation use in acute
respiratory failure
G. Prinianakis, M. Klimathianaki, D. Georgopoulos
Intensive Care Medicine Dept, University Hospital of Heraklion, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Correspondence: D. Georgopoulos, Dept of Intensive Care, University Hospital of Heraklion, University of

Crete, Heraklion, Crete 71110, Greece. Fax: 30 2810392636; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
The present article will begin with a general presentation of the effects of noninvasive
mechanical ventilation (NIMV) on the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. It is
important to note that these are the physiological effects of NIMV and that they are
applicable during both normal conditions and various disease states. Depending on the
pathophysiology of respiratory failure of any given disease state, the various
physiological effects of NIMV may have relatively greater or lesser importance or
may even be undesirable. Consequently, knowing the underlying pathophysiology is
fundamental for adapting NIMV mode and parameters to the specific disease state in
order to maximise benefits and minimise any adverse effects. A short review of major
pathophysiological patterns in relation to NIMV physiology is included.
Effect of NIMV on respiratory mechanics

Equation of motion
The simplified equation of motion:
Ptot(t) 5 Pres(t) + Pel(t) (1)
describes the relationship between any driving pressure (Ptot(t)) applied to the
respiratory system (RS) at any time (t), and the opposing resistive (Pres(t)) and elastic
(Pel(t)) pressures of the RS (inertia is considered to be negligible).
Pres(t) is the pressure dissipated to overcome resistance to flow:
Pres(t) 5 V9(t)?Rrs (2)
where V9(t) is instantaneous gas flow and Rrs is the resistance of the RS.
Pel(t) is the elastic recoil pressure exerted by the RS when volume increases above
passive functional residual capacity (FRC),
Pel(t) 5 V(t)?Ers (3)
where V(t) is instantaneous volume relative to passive FRC, and Ers is the elastance of
the RS. Note that tidal volume (VT) is not always equal to volume above passive FRC.
When dynamic hyperinflation (DH) exists, at end-expiration the RS has not reached
passive FRC and the trapped volume exerts additional outward elastic recoil pressure,
which is called ‘‘intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure’’ (PEEPi). When the next
Eur Respir Mon, 2008, 41, 3–23. Printed in UK - all rights reserved. Copyright ERS Journals Ltd 2008; European Respiratory Monograph;
ISSN 1025-448x.
3
G. PRINIANAKIS ET AL.
Paw (Pvent)
Pres = V´·Rrs
Passive FRC
DV
Pel=DV·Ers
PmusI
Fig. 1. – Schematic representation of pressures acting on the respiratory system during assisted mechanical
ventilation. Pressure generated by inspiratory muscles (PmusI) and ventilator (Paw) drive inspiratory flow (V9) into the
lungs (open arrows), which is opposed by resistive (Pres) and elastic (Pel) pressures (closed arrows). Rrs: resistance of
respiratory system; FRC: functional residual capacity; DV: change in volume; Ers: elastance of the respiratory system.
inspiration starts, Ptot must first overcome the elastic threshold of PEEPi before any
flow is produced and VT enters the RS. Thus, equation 3 may be rewritten as:
Pel(t) 5 VT(t)?Ers + PEEPi (4)
where VT(t) is the instantaneous VT.
The equation of motion is always applicable to the RS at any phase of the respiratory
cycle (i.e. during inspiration or expiration) and regardless of the ventilation mode (i.e.
spontaneous breathing, invasive or noninvasive mechanical ventilation (MV), assisted or
controlled MV, pressure or volume targeted etc.).
During spontaneous breathing, the only Ptot applied to the RS is that generated by
the respiratory muscles Pmus(t), while during MV (invasive or non-invasive), the
inspiratory pressure provided by the ventilator Paw(t) is also incorporated into the
equation (fig. 1), which can then be expressed as follows:
Ptot(t) 5 Pmus(t) + Paw(t) 5 V9(t)?Rrs + VT(t)?Ers + PEEPi (5)
Effect of continuous positive airway pressure/PEEP

During continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)/PEEP, a constant positive
pressure is applied to the RS throughout the respiratory cycle (i.e. during both
inspiration and expiration), while the patient breathes spontaneously. Since this pressure
is constant, it does not generate flow and it does not increase VT [1, 2] and it can not be
considered to be a form of noninvasive ventilation in a strict sense; yet, it exerts
important effects to respiratory system mechanics.
FRC increase. When CPAP/PEEP is applied, passive FRC is increased by a volume DV

that depends on the Ers and can be calculated from:
CPAP 5 DV?Ers (6)
or
DV 5 CPAP / Ers (7)
In other words, CPAP supplies the Ptot to overcome the additional Pel imposed by the
additional volume (DV) above passive FRC. The effect of this increase might be
beneficial or detrimental, depending on the underlying pathophysiology.
4
RATIONALE OF NIV IN ARF
This increase in FRC might prevent or reverse atelectasis, and thus improve shunt and
ventilation/perfusion (V9/Q9) relationships and gas exchange. Alternatively, when
excessive, it might cause hyperinflation and increase of functional dead space volume
(VD), therefore worsening V9/Q9 relationships. Excessive FRC increase will also pose a
mechanical disadvantage to the inspiratory muscles, because it shortens their length and
according to their length–strength relationship, their capacity to produce pressure will
be reduced. This is very important for the diaphragm, which becomes increasingly
flattened when FRC increases. The disadvantaged inspiratory muscles will also have to
work on a less steep portion of the RS pressure–volume curve (i.e. Ers increases). All
these physiological effects of CPAP should be appreciated when choosing the
appropriate CPAP/PEEP level for a given patient.
Decrease of elastic workload due to DH. When DH is present, the disadvantaged

inspiratory muscles have to overcome the additional elastic threshold of PEEPi before
generating inspiratory flow [3]. This additional elastic workload may be significant.
When CPAP/PEEP is applied externally, it supplies all or part of the driving pressure
required to overcome PEEPi, and equation 5 can be expressed as:
Ptot(t) 5 Pmus(t) 5 V9(t)?Rrs + VT(t)?Ers + (PEEPi - CPAP) (8)
for spontaneous breathing with CPAP. It is obvious that pressure generated by
inspiratory muscles is not wasted to overcome PEEPi and thus is available for
generating inspiratory flow and pull air into the lungs. Thus, CPAP may indirectly
increase VT by unloading the inspiratory muscles.
For NIMV with assisted inspiration, equation (5) becomes:
Ptot(t) 5 Pmus(t) + Paw(t) 5 V9(t)?Rrs + VT(t)?Ers + (PEEPi - PEEP) (9)
Again PEEP applied externally unloads the inspiratory muscles in exactly the same
manner presented for CPAP [1]. Additionally, it permits faster and easier triggering of
the assisted inspiration, thus improving patient–ventilator synchrony.
This effect of CPAP/PEEP is of major importance in clinical situations where DH is
significant (i.e. disease states with obstructive pathophysiology pattern like chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or asthma).
Effect of positive inspiratory pressure

During NIMV with assisted inspiration, PEEP is combined with positive inspiratory
pressure. The delivery of positive inspiratory pressure is triggered by the patient’s
inspiratory effort, and usually titrated to produce either constant volume (assist volume
control; AVC) or constant pressure (pressure-support ventilation; PSV). In both modes,
equation 9 is applicable. It is evident, from equation 9, that Paw(t) delivered by the
ventilator is meant to act as an ‘‘additional inspiratory muscle’’; this is true for PSV but
not for AVC.
AVC. In this mode, inspiratory pressure delivered by the ventilator is titrated in order
to achieve a preset constant volume target. This ensures that the preset volume will be
delivered, despite any changes in the mechanical properties of the RS and in the
magnitude of the patient’s inspiratory effort. The minimum inspiratory effort required
by the patient is to trigger the ventilator. Alternatively, when the patient increases their
inspiratory effort, due to increased ventilatory needs, the inspiratory pressure delivered
by the ventilator will decrease in order to keep the constant volume target [4]. The
greater the patient’s inspiratory effort, the lesser the ventilator’s assistance. The
ventilator might even deliver negative inspiratory pressure (i.e. pull air back), when the
patient makes an adequately strong inspiratory effort, in order not to exceed the preset
5
volume target (fig. 2e and f). Thus, in AVC the ventilator antagonizes, rather than
assists, the patient. Additionally, it has been shown that some home ventilators are
inaccurate in delivering the preset VT, especially when faced with deteriorating
mechanical properties of the RS [5]. For this reason, AVC has been disfavored for
use as NIMV in the acute setting [6] and, currently, is used merely for home NIMV for
patients with chronic respiratory failure due to neuromuscular disease [7, 8]. Therefore,
this mode of ventilation will not be focused on any further.
Pressure support. In this mode, inspiratory pressure delivered by the ventilator is

constant to the preset pressure level, regardless of the magnitude of the patient’s
inspiratory effort (fig. 2c and d). In this mode, the ventilator truly acts as an ‘‘additional
inspiratory muscle’’, increasing Ptot(t) and thus increasing VT and minute ventilation
(V9E) [2]. It also unloads the fatigued inspiratory muscles [2] by decreasing their
inspiratory work of breathing and oxygen consumption. For these reasons, it has gained
widespread acceptance as a mode of delivering NIMV in both the acute and chronic
setting [6–8]. However, caution is needed because, despite the perceived simplicity in its
settings, inspiratory and expiratory synchronisation with patient’s respiratory effort is
not always optimal (see section on patient–ventilator interaction). Patient–ventilator
dys-synchrony is very common with PSV, and its effects may diminish or even totally
cancel out the beneficial role of PSV [9].
With PSV, breath-by-breath delivered VT will depend on not only the pressure-support
level, but also on the patient’s inspiratory effort and the mechanical properties of the RS
(i.e. Rrs, Ers, presence of DH). When the patient increases their inspiratory effort, they are
able to partially increase the delivered VT (within the limits of patient–ventilator
interaction) while the ventilator’s assistance remains constant [4]. Thus, in PSV, the
ventilator assists the patient with constant pressure support and certainly does not
antagonise; however, it does not follow up and does not adapt according to the patient’s
ventilatory needs (fig 2c and d). The only assist mode capable of adapting to the patient’s
breathing pattern and ventilatory needs is proportional assist ventilation (PAV).
Ventilators with mixed volume and pressure-targeted modes. In an effort to combine

the advantages of pressure- and volume-targeted modes into one ventilation mode, new
hybrid modes such as average volume-assured pressure support [10] and adaptive
servoventilation [11] have recently been introduced in the NIMV setting.
PAV
With PAV, inspiratory pressure delivered by the ventilator is instantaneously adapted
to keep up with the patient’s instantaneous inspiratory effort. When the patient
increases their inspiratory effort due to increased ventilatory needs, the ventilator
proportionally increases the delivered Paw [4]. When the patient terminates their
inspiratory effort, it is immediately sensed by the ventilator, which promptly terminates
the delivered Paw and thus patient–ventilator synchrony is optimised.
In contrast to the previously mentioned assist modes, a preset target level of volume,
pressure or flow does not exist. What is preset is only the proportionality between the
patient’s inspiratory effort and the ventilator’s assistance.
The principle underlying PAV is that any changes in instantaneous flow represent
changes in patient’s inspiratory effort. Again, equation 9 is applicable.
Flow and volume leaving the ventilator are continuously measured. When the patient
increases Pmus(t), alveolar pressure will decrease and this will cause additional
instantaneous flow (and volume) to leave the ventilator. This is sensed by the ventilator
6
a) 70 b) c)
60
50
PET,CO2 mmHg
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
d) 30 e) f)
25
20
15
Paw cmH2O
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
g) 3 h) i)
2
1
Flow L·s-1
0
-1
-2
-3
j) 3 k) l)
2
1
Volume L
0
-1
-2
-3
m) 20 n) o)
10
Poes cmH2O
-10
-20
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
- + - + - +
Time s Time s Time s
Fig. 2. – Effect of increased inspiratory drive on respiratory motor and ventilatory output, and airway pressure
during different modes of noninvasive assisted mechanical ventilation. End-tidal carbon dioxide tension (PET,CO2),
airway pressure (Paw), flow (inspiration up), volume (inspiration up), and oesophageal (Poes) pressure in a
representative subject during a, d, g, j, m) proportional assist ventilation, b, e, h, k, n) pressure support and c, f, i, l, o)
assist-volume control without (-) and with (+) CO2 challenge. Of note is the different response in Paw after CO2
challenge between the different modes of support. 1 mmHg 5 0.133 kPa. Reproduced from [4].
7
which responds by instantaneously increasing Paw(t) proportionally to the sensed increase

in instantaneous flow (and volume). Further details on PAV design and application [12]
are beyond the scope of this article. What is important for NIMV physiology is the
improved patient–ventilator synchrony and the breath-by-breath adaptability of the
delivered assist according to the patient’s ventilatory needs (fig 2a and b).
Cardiovascular effects of NIMV

The cardiovascular effects of (both invasive and noninvasive) MV are complex and
mediated through different mechanisms, often interdependent or counteracting (fig. 3) [14].
The most important cardiovascular effects of NIMV are: decreased venous return
(VR); decreased left ventricle (LV) afterload; decreased work of breathing (WOB) and
oxygen consumption; and effect on pulmonary vascular resistance (RV afterload).
Any change in pleural pressure during the respiratory cycle will be transmitted to the
heart; therefore, the pressure gradients for both systemic VR (preload to RV and LV)
and systemic arterial outflow (LV afterload) will also change [15].
Spontaneous inspiratory efforts decrease pleural pressure, which can become
extremely negative during acute or chronic respiratory failure, when respiratory system
mechanics and when lung gas exchange properties are altered [16–18]. When positive
inspiratory pressure is applied and the respiratory muscles are unloaded, these negative
pleural pressure swings during inspiration will be decreased or even abolished.
Furthermore, PEEP/CPAP increases pleural pressure during expiration [18, 19].
Positive pressure during acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
Positive
intrathoracic
Improved Work of pressure
arterial respiratory
oxygenation muscles
Gradient of Gradient between the Abolition of negative

systemic venous left ventricle and the swings in intrathoracic
return extrathoracic arteries pressure
Right ventricular Left-ventricular

preload afterload
Intrathoracic blood volume
Cardiac improvement
Fig. 3. – Schematic physiological effects of positive-pressure ventilation in a case of acute cardiogenic pulmonary
oedema. Reproduced from [13] with permission from the publisher.
8
Decreased VR (RV and LV preload)

Any NIMV-induced increase in pleural pressure will increase right atrial pressure and
consequently decrease the pressure gradient for systemic VR, which will decrease. This
will lead to a decrease of both RV and LV preload. The consequences will depend on the
underlying cardiovascular status [20]. If the patient is relatively hypovolaemic, or has
pre-existing RV failure, then NIMV may severely impede VR, leading to a decreased
Cardiac output (CO), decreased mixed venous oxygen saturatution (SV,O2) and
paradoxical worsening of arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2), or even cardiovascular
collapse [21]. Conversely, in hypervolaemic congestive heart failure, this NIMV-induced
decrease in VR is much less, yet beneficial [22, 23].
Decreased LV afterload
The exaggerated negative pleural pressure swings during laboured spontaneous
breathing increase LV afterload, while NIMV-induced increase in pleural pressure will
decrease it. For the normal heart, cardiac function is mostly preload rather than
afterload dependent [19], so the effects of pleural pressure on LV afterload have limited
clinical significance. Conversely, when LV is dilated, with impaired contractility, cardiac
function heavily depends on afterload. For such patients the beneficial effects of NIMV
on LV afterload reduction are of major clinical importance [19, 20, 22, 23] .
Decreased WOB and oxygen consumption by respiratory muscles

During lung disease states the respiratory WOB and consequently oxygen
consumption by respiratory muscles is severely increased. This causes a shift of blood
flow to the respiratory muscles, so that for the same CO blood flow and oxygen delivery
to other organs will be decreased, leading to peripheral tissue hypoperfusion, lactic
acidosis and decreased SV,O2 (due to a greater oxygen extraction ratio by the hypoxic
tissues). As a consequence, Sa,O2 will also decrease, even without any other change in
lung gas exchange properties. These effects are greater in patients with a limited
cardiovascular reserve, who are unable to increase CO in response to the increased
demand. Even NIMV may unload the respiratory muscles and decrease their oxygen
consumption [18], thus increasing oxygen delivery to other organs, increasing SV,O2 and
Sa,O2 and decreasing lactic acidosis [14].
Effect on pulmonary vascular resistance (RV afterload)

Pulmonary capillaries are situated within the alveolar septa, therefore they are subject
to compression by adjacent alveolar pressure. They are also subject to hypoxic
pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) when adjacent alveolar oxygen partial pressure
PA,O2 falls below 7.98 kPa (60 mmHg). NIMV (mainly CPAP/PEEP application) may
reverse HPV by inducing recruitment of atelectatic regions, thus reducing PVR.
Adversely, when NIMV induces hyperinflation (excess PEEP) rather than recruitment,
pulmonary capillaries are compressed and PVR is increased. This increase in RV
afterload, if severe, may precipitate acute RV failure, again also depending on the
previous cardiovascular status of the patient.
For interpreting and anticipating the cardiovascular effects of NIMV, apart from
knowledge of the aforementioned mechanisms, the physician should also be aware of
three important points as follows. First, the importance of underlying cardiovascular
9
status (including intravascular volume, ventricular pump function and myocardial

reserve), as it was presented above. Furthermore, the cardiovascular response to NIMV-
induced increase in pleural pressure may be used as a clue to the underlying
haemodynamic status of the patient. Secondly, Paw is variably transmitted to the
pleural space; positive airway pressures (inspiratory pressure and CPAP/PEEP)
delivered by the ventilator are variably transmitted to the pleural space (Ppleural)
depending on the RS mechanical properties, particularly on the compliance of the lungs
(CL) versus the compliance of the chest wall (CCW). When CL is low, pressure is mostly
dissipated to inflate the stiff lungs (high transpulmonary pressure required). Conversely,
when CL is high, little pressure is dissipated to inflate the compliant lungs (low
transpulmonary pressure required) and, thus, pressure is mostly transmitted to the
pleural place. This effect is exaggerated when CCW is low, which means that a high
Ppleural is dissipated to inflate the stiff chest wall (high distending pressure required
across the chest wall). Therefore, pressure transmitted to the pleural space and thus
affecting cardiovascular structures depends on not only the magnitude of Paw/PEEP
delivered by the ventilator but also the RS mechanical properties. Finally, Withdrawal
of MV is accompanied by the opposite cardiovascular effects. Withdrawal of NIMV in
patients with limited cardiovascular status may precipitate myocardial ischaemia and
heart failure, which might manifest as overt acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
(ACPO) or as otherwise unexplained weaning failure.
Patient–ventilator interaction during NIMV

During assisted modes of mechanical ventilation, including noninvasive ventilation,
the synchrony between patient and ventilator is fundamental for successful patient
outcome. Synchrony is defined as the condition when the ventilator fully meets the
patient’s ventilation demands. In other words, the patient’s neural timing and flow
demand coincide with ventilator timing and flow supply, a condition which rarely occurs
in daily clinical practice. During NIMV, dys-synchrony is even worse because of the
presence of air leaks and the alert status of the patients. These factors make the problem
of patient–ventilator synchrony during NIMV more complex than that described for
invasive mechanical ventilation.
The dys-synchrony between patient and ventilator depends on factors related both to
the ventilator and the patient [24, 25]. The ventilator-related factors include the
triggering variable, the variable that controls gas delivery, and the cycling off criterion.
Patient-related factors include the respiratory system mechanics and the Pmus
characteristics.
The trigger variable

Commonly used trigger variables during NIMV are flow or pressure trigger. With
these variables, the patient effort must generate a preset decrease in airway pressure or in
ventilator bias flow in order to trigger the assisted breath. NAVA et al. [26] found that in
both normal and COPD patients, flow triggering is better than pressure triggering in
terms of patient inspiratory effort and triggering delay.
Under certain conditions, however, the inspiratory muscle contraction does not
trigger the ventilator, a dys-synchrony phenomenon called ‘‘missing’’ or ‘‘ineffective’’
effort occurs [27, 28]. Ineffective efforts are common in patients who exhibit DH, due to
excessive level of mechanical support and altered mechanical properties. Indeed,
excessive support results in high VT, which, in combination with a long time constant,
10
may force the mechanical inspiration to invade into the patient’s neural expiration.
Consequently, the following inspiratory effort is likely to begin at end expiratory lung
volume above passive FRC, which may lead to ineffective effort.
Recently, a new microprocessor-controlled positive pressure ventilatory assist system
has been introduced (BiPAP Vision; Respironics, Pittsburg, PA, USA), which has new
algorithms to trigger the ventilator. These are designed to improve patient–ventilator
interaction, with the flow waveform mainly used to trigger the ventilator. This method
of triggering is referred to as the ‘‘shape signal method’’. It is based on the generation of
a new flow signal (flow-shape signal) by offsetting the signal from the actual flow by
0.25 L?s-1 and delaying it for 300 ms. This intentional delay causes the flow shape signal
to be slightly behind the patient’s actual flow rate. As a result, a sudden decrease in
expiratory flow, due to an inspiratory effort will cross the shape signal and this creates a
signal for ventilator triggering (fig. 4). This triggering method was found to be more
sensitive to patient effort than the flow triggering, with less ineffective patient efforts
[29]. Similarly, the flow-shape signal can be used to terminate the mechanical breath.
A new ventilation mode called neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) has recently
been developed, in which the ventilator supports the patient effort according to the
diaphragm electrical activity [30]. With this mode, synchrony between neural and
mechanical timing should be guaranteed at any phase of respiration despite PEEPi or
altered respiratory mechanics. Indeed, animal studies have shown that NAVA can be
effective in delivering noninvasive ventilation, even when the interface is excessively leaky,
and can unload the respiratory muscles while maintaining synchrony with the subject’s
demand [30]. Improved patient–ventilator interactions have been shown in humans,
during helmet NIMV using NAVA versus conventional triggering methods [31].
Interfaces choice is also important to improve patient–ventilator synchrony.
NAVALESI et al. [32] have demonstrated, in COPD patients, that the helmet significantly
worsens patient–ventilator synchrony when compared with the facemask; indicated by
longer delays between inspiratory muscle effort and support delivery, both at the onset
and at the end of inspiration, and by the occurrence of wasted efforts.
NIMV use may improve the respiratory system mechanics and decrease DH. DIAZ
et al. [33] showed that when NIMV is applied to severe stable hypercapnic COPD
patients, it significantly decreases pulmonary hyperinflation and inspiratory loads, due
to the adoption of a slow deep-breathing pattern by the patients.
In everyday clinical practice, a more-sensitive trigger threshold is set, in order to
reduce the number of ineffective efforts; however, this strategy in not always
advantageous. By setting a more sensitive threshold in the presence of air leaks, water
in the ventilator circuit or large heart stroke volume may lead to a mechanical breath
that is not patient triggered. This dys-synchrony phenomenon is called autotriggering
[25]. Therefore, when ventilator trigger level is set, the lowest possible threshold, that
does not result in autotriggering, should be chosen.
The variable that controls gas delivery

During NIMV, either AVC or PSV can be used as ventilation mode. Generally, it is
accepted that patients with poor respiratory drive are the appropriate candidates to
receive AVC. GIRAULT et al. [34] studied the physiological effects of the two modes, in
patients suffering from acute respiratory failure. Briefly, they found that both modes of
gas delivery are efficient in improving breathing pattern and gas exchange. These
physiological effects though are achieved with a lower inspiratory workload but at the
expense of a higher respiratory discomfort with AVC compared with PSV mode [34].
11
a) 1.0
0.8
0.6
#
0.4
Flow L·s-1
0.2
¶
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
#
-0.8
b) 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Flow L·s-1
0.2 #
¶
0.0
-0.2
#
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time s
Fig. 4. – Flow–time waveform in two patients ventilated with a Vision ventilator on pressure support mode.
Inspiration is down and expiration is up. The flow shape signal, generated by offsetting (0.25 L?s–1; ) and delaying
(300 ms) the actual flow during inspiration and expiration (#) and the electronic signal rising in proportion to actual
inspiratory flow in each breath (") are shown. a) Mechanical breath was triggered and terminated by the shape
method. During expiration the actual flow decreased abruptly (due to the onset of inspiratory effort), crossed the flow
shape signal and triggered the ventilator. Reproduced from [29] with permission from the publisher.
Usually, assist level is set according to clinical and/or physiological variables.

VITACCA et al. [35] demonstrated that when using clinical variables to set pressure
support, almost half of their home ventilated patients showed ineffective efforts. Even
by using more invasive techniques, such as gastric and oesophageal balloons, they did
not totally avoid patient–ventilator dys-synchrony [35].
PAV is a ventilatory mode in which the ventilator follows the patient’s neural output
(see preceding section on PAV), so, in theory, it achieves perfect patient–ventilator
interaction. Generally, using PAV noninvasively may improve gas exchange and
dyspnoea [36, 37], but no difference was found in terms of patient–ventilator synchrony
when compared with PSV in stable COPD patients [38]. Furthermore, these studies have
demonstrated no differences in clinical endpoints, such as mortality, number of
endotracheal intubations and length of hospital stay [36, 37].
PAV is underused in everyday clinical practice because setting the ventilator
parameters is complex. In fact, the ventilator settings must be adjusted every time the
patient’s mechanical proprieties change. ‘‘PAV+’’, a new sophisticated option of PAV,
12
which semicontinuously estimates patient’s mechanical properties noninvasively, may

simplify PAV application in clinical practice [39].
Recently, the effects of varying pressurisation rate, the incremental increase in Paw per
time unit, have been assessed in 15 COPD patients on NIMV. No significant differences
were found in breathing pattern and gas exchange between four different pressurisation
rates. The fastest rate seemed to reduce the pressure–time product, an estimate of
oxygen consumption of diaphragm; however, this resulted in increased air leaking and
worse patient tolerance, as measured with a visual scale. Patient–ventilator synchrony
was assessed by calculating the ratio between the neural and mechanical inspiratory
time. With the fastest pressurisation rate, this ratio was shorter, indicating that the
mechanical inspiration invaded into the patient neural expiration. Two factors seemed
to determine NIMV tolerance: the presence of high air leaks and the dys-synchrony
between neural and mechanical inspiratory time [40].
During noninvasive ventilation, setting pressure-support level is difficult because of
the presence of mask air leaks. SCHETTINO et al. [41] have shown that the leaks increase
in proportion to the pressure delivered into the mask. Although modern ventilators
compensate for mask leaking, still any pressure support increase may lead to decreased
VT because of leaks [41].
The cycling-off criterion

Ventilators permit transition from inspiration to expiration according to a
predetermined cycling-off criterion. The most commonly used criterion is the decrease
of inspiratory flow to a predetermined percentage of peak inspiratory flow.
During noninvasive ventilation, the presence of leaks may lead to a prolonged
mechanical inspiration because inspiratory flow does not reach the cycling-off criterion.
Consequently, the machine’s inspiration invades into the patient’s expiratory phase, a
phenomenon known as delayed cycling-off. CALDERINI et al. [42] have compared time
cycling with flow cycling and they found that using time-cycling criterion essentially
reduced the inspiratory effort and WOB, and improved expiratory synchronisation (fig. 5).
Every effort should be made to minimise mask air leaks. However, excessive tightness
of the mask may lead to patient discomfort and NIMV intolerance. It should be noted
that high pressurisation rate increases air leakage despite sufficient mask fitting, which
may provoke delayed cycling off (fig. 6) [40].
COPD: physiological role of NIMV

The cardinal feature of COPD pathophysiology is DH. DH is the result of expiratory
flow limitation (EFL), due to the increased Rrs and compliance of the respiratory system
(Crs) which prolong the time constant (t 5 Rrs 6 Crs) for lung emptying and increase
the end-expiratory lung volume above passive FRC. DH poses important mechanical
disadvantages for the inspiratory muscles, which have to overcome additional elastic
load (PEEPi) to initiate inspiratory flow (or trigger the ventilator during MV [43] and
must also operate on the flat part of the Crs curve (fig. 7). Conversely, the pressure
generating capacity of the shortened inspiratory muscles is additionally limited by DH
(fig. 8). These pathophysiological mechanisms apply to stable COPD, but are further
exaggerated during exacerbations [44].
NIMV is capable of partly reversing this pathophysiology and thus unloading the
respiratory muscles (fig. 8). PEEP/CPAP decreases the elastic workload due to DH,
because it supplies all or part of the Ptot required to overcome PEEPi and initiate
13
a) 2.0
1.5
Flow L·s-1
1.0
0.5
0
-0.5
b)
Poes cmH2O
20
c) 25
20
15
Paw cmH2O
10
5
0
-5
Time cycling Flow cycling
Time s
Fig. 5. – A representative experimental record of a) flow, b) oesophageal pressure (Poes) and c) airway pressure (Paw) in a
patient treated with noninvasive mechanical ventilation using time and conventional flow percentage as cycling-off criteria.
The perfect synchronisation between patient and machine during time cycling off criterion. With flow cycling off criterion,
the prolonged mechanical assist into the neural expiratory time results into wasted next inspiratory effort, as evident by the
following negative deflections on the Poes curve. Reproduced from [42] with permission from the publisher.
inspiratory flow (or trigger the ventilator). The addition of positive inspiratory pressure
further unloads the inspiratory muscles and increases VT, V9E and improves gas
exchange [1, 46]. NIMV has been used with favorable physiological and clinical
outcomes for both stable COPD (PSV and AVC) [1] and for exacerbations (mostly PSV
[46] and recently PAV), as well as to facilitate weaning from invasive MV.
In a principal study of NIMV during COPD exacerbation, APPENDINI et al. [46]
showed that PEEP/CPAP set between 80% and 90% of dynamic PEEPi decreased the
diaphragmatic pressure-time product (PTPdi), and additional PSV further decreased
PTPdi, increased VT and V9E and improved gas exchange.
During stable COPD, long term NIMV has been shown to decrease inspiratory
muscle workload due to dynamic PEEPi [35]. The beneficial effects of long-term NIMV
seem to persist also during the period of daytime spontaneous breathing. WINDISCH et
al. [47] showed that controlled nocturnal NIMV therapy is capable of increasing VT and
V9E during the three subsequent hours of daytime spontaneous breathing and of
sustaining increased diurnal VT and V9E. It has also been shown that PSV induces a
decrease of daytime lung hyperinflation, as quantified by the decreased total lung
14
1.1
1.0 s
s s s
s
s s
s s s
s
s s s
s s
0.9 s s
s
s s
s s
s s
s s
VT,exp:VT,insp
0.8 s s
s s
s s
s s
0.7 s
s
s
0.6 s
s
s s
0.5 s
0.4
30 80 120 200
Pressurisation rate cmH2O·s-1
Fig. 6. – Amount of air leaks through the mask, as assessed by the ratio between expiratory (VT,exp) and inspiratory
tidal volume (VT,insp) in the different values of pressurisation rate for each patient. The amount of leak was bigger at
highest (200 cmH2O?s-1) pressurisation rate. Reproduced from [40] with permission from the publisher.
a) Volume b) Volume
TLC TLC
IRV
IRV
IC
VT
IC
EELV
VT DP
EELV
DP
ITL
RV
RV
EELV EELV
Pressure PEEPi
Pressure
Fig. 7. – Schematic representation of mechanical effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
exacerbation. Representative pressure–volume plots during a) stable COPD and b) COPD exacerbation. During
exacerbation, worsening expiratory flow limitation results in dynamic hyperinflation with increased end-expiratory
lung volume (EELV) and residual volume (RV). Corresponding reductions occur in inspiratory capacity (IC) and
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). Total lung capacity (TLC) is unchanged. As a result, tidal breathing becomes
shifted rightward on the pressure–volume curve, closer to TLC. Mechanically, increased pressures must be generated
to maintain tidal volume (VT). At EELV during exacerbation, intrapulmonary pressures do not return to zero,
representing the development of intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEPi), which imposes increased
inspiratory threshold loading (ITL) on the inspiratory muscles; during the subsequent respiratory cycle, PEEPi must
first be overcome in order to generate inspiratory flow. From [44] with permission.
15
Bronchospasm
Airway mucus
Airway inflammation
Diaphragm Raw
flattening Air trapping
PEEPi Elastic
recoil
Muscle
weakness
CPAP/ Work of
Dyspnoea PEEP breathing
IPPV
Respiratory
muscle VT Pa,CO2
failure
Fig. 8. – Schematic physiological effects of noninvasive mechanical ventilation in chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease. Continuos positive airway pressure (CPAP)/ positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) decreases the elastic
work of breathing because it supplies all or part of the driving pressure required to overcome intrinsic PEEP (PEEPi)
and initiate inspiratory flow. The addition of inspiratory positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) further unloads the
inspiratory muscles and increases tidal volume (VT) and decreases arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2).
Raw: airway resistance. Published from [45] with permission from the publisher.
capacity (y10%), FRC (y25%) and residual volume (y35%), and the increased VT
(y180 mL) [33]. Mouth occlusion pressure (P0.1), a measure of inspiratory drive, also
decreases, while 6 min walking distance increases [48]. NIMV (PSV plus PEEP) has also
been reported to exert positive cardiovascular effects in stable COPD patients, including
improved heart rate variability, decreased circulating natriuretic peptide levels and
enhanced functional performance [49]. There is no consensus regarding the titration to
optimal level of PSV [35, 50, 51] . Noninvasive PAV has also been studied for stable
COPD, and was comparable to PSV in increasing VT and V9E, and in unloading
inspiratory muscles [38].
Recently, a method to noninvasively detect expiratory flow limitation by the
difference between mean inspiratory and expiratory reactance, measured with a forced-
oscillation technique has been proposed for titration of CPAP/PEEP level in stable
COPD patients, so that increase of operating lung volumes, by PEEP/CPAP, above the
levels imposed by EFL and concomitant disadvantageous effects may be avoided [52].
Congestive heart failure: physiological role of NIMV

NIMV in the setting of congestive heart function (CHF) has three major goals: to
improve cardiac function; to unload the respiratory muscles; and to improve gas
exchange. It is mainly used for management of ACPO, but it has also been studied in
chronic stable CHF.
ACPO
ACPO represents a vicious cycle of progressive LV (systolic and/or diastolic) failure,
which results in a progressive decrease in systemic CO as well as increase in extravascular
16
lung water in lung interstitium and alveoli. The interstitial oedema, apart from worsening
gas exchange, may also cause lung resistance and elastance to increase; therefore,
inspiratory muscles must generate greater pressure swings to sustain the increased
ventilatory demands (fig. 9) [18, 19]. Oxygen consumption by respiratory muscles is
increased but cannot be satisfied by the already limited CO, thus metabolic acidosis, as
well as progressive muscle fatigue, may occur. Of even greater clinical importance are the
effects of the increased negative intra-thoracic pressure swings on the failing heart; VR
and thus RV (and LV) preload increases, while LV afterload also increases [19].
Additionally, the overloaded RV may become dilated and, through ventricular
interdependence (i.e. interventricular septum shift), may further impose LV diastolic
dysfunction. These pathophysiological mechanisms not only increase myocardial oxygen
demand but also compromise oxygen delivery and, thus, may further precipitate
myocardial ischaemia and worsen heart failure.
NIMV has mostly been studied in LV systolic failure (i.e. with a decreased ejection
fraction (EF)), and has consistently been shown to break this vicious cycle (fig. 3).
CPAP/PEEP application increases expiratory pleural pressure [18, 19], and consequently
decreases VR, RV and LV preload, RV dilatation, and improves LV diastolic function
[53]. It additionally decreases LV afterload by decreasing LV transmural pressure during
systole [18, 19] and, thus, also improves LV systolic function, decreases LV stroke work
and decreases myocardial oxygen consumption [54]. It has also been shown to unload
the inspiratory muscles [18, 19]. End-expiratory lung volume increases [55], thus
improving lung gas-exchange properties and respiratory mechanics [18, 56–58].
The addition of positive inspiratory pressure (mainly studied is PSV), and recently
PAV may further unload the inspiratory muscles [59, 60], decrease or even totally
a) -20 b)
Poes cmH2O
+20
ECG
c) -20 d)
Poes cmH2O
+20
ECG
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time s Time s
Fig. 9. – Oesophageal pressure (Poes) and electrocardiogram recordings from a healthy subject (a and b) and a patient
with congestive heart failure (CHF; c and d) at baseline (a and c) and on 10 cmH2O of continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP; b and d). Note that in the healthy subject, CPAP caused both end-expiratory Poes and peak inspiratory
Poes to become more positive but caused no change in the amplitude of the inspiratory Poes swing. Respiratory rate also
decreased. In the patient with CHF, the Poes amplitude at baseline was greater than in the healthy subject. On CPAP,
end-expiratory Poes becomes more positive and Poes amplitude is reduced, such that peak inspiratory Poes becomes more
positive. Respiratory rate did not change. Reproduced from [19], with permission from the publisher.
17
abolish the detrimental negative inthrathoracic pressure swings, and may also decrease
inspiratory muscle work of breathing and oxygen consumption.
It is important to note that these direct effects of NIMV take advantage of the heart–
lung interactions and occur above and beyond any change in gas exchange. Gas
exchange is also greatly improved, both by the improved gas exchange properties of the
lung and by the indirect effect of increased cardiac output and decreased oxygen
consumption by the inspiratory muscles [18].
NIMV has also been studied in LV diastolic failure (i.e. with a preserved EF . 45%),
and is also associated with clinical improvement [61], although debate exists about its
exact pathophysiological effects in this setting [62]. The NIMV-induced decrease in
cardiac preload and LV end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) may be detrimental and actually
decrease stroke volume in patients with impaired diastolic filling, which displays a steep
curve for LV diastolic pressure in relation to volume. Indeed, BENDJELID et al. [61] showed
that, in a small group of patients presenting with ACPO with preserved systolic function,
CPAP decreased LVEDV, albeit to a lesser degree compared with patients with systolic
dysfunction, and does not increase LV EF. Yet, CPAP was associated with consistent
clinical improvement even in the diastolic dysfunction group [61]. A possible explanation
of these findings might be that patients with diastolic dysfunction who present with
ACPO, in contrast to stable diastolic HF, might already be excessively volume
overloaded, so that any decrease in preload and LVEDV has beneficial rather than
detrimental effects, setting LV in a more favorable position on its compliance curve. In
addition, noncardiac-function beneficial effects of NIMV (i.e. decreased work and oxygen
cost of breathing, improved gas exchange and lung mechanical properties) may contribute
to the clinical benefit. Nevertheless, treating physicians should be aware of a possible
detrimental effect of NIMV-induced preload decrease in patients with LV diastolic failure,
depending on their underlying RV and LV function and hydration status.
Chronic CHF
NIMV in chronic CHF exerts similar effects to those presented above for ACPO,
since pathophysiology is similar, and many of the studies presented previously were
performed on stable rather than acutely decompensated CHF patients [19, 53, 54].
Additionally, it has been shown that CPAP may increase the low heart rate variability
these patients exhibit and is recognised as a poor prognostic factor [55].
Nocturnal long-term NIMV (mainly CPAP but also adaptive servoventilation) has
been used for the management of central sleep apnoea and Cheyne–Stokes respiration
(CSA-CSR), which is a cardinal feature of chronic CHF [11, 63–66]. CPAP improves
cardiac function, as evidenced by the increased LV ejection, decreased mitral
regurgitation and decreased plasma atrial natriuretic and norepinephrine levels [58,
63, 64]. Similar effects have been shown when pressure support is added (BiPAP) [65].
Exercise capacity also improved [57, 63]. Although, the clinical significance of long-term
NIMV in CHF with CSA-CSR is doubtful, especially in the face of potent
pharmacological treatments like b-blockers that have been introduced in the manage-
ment of stable CHF [63, 66].
It should be noted that CPAP has been successfully used in the management of
obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) which is a major comorbidity in many patients with
CHF [66, 67]. Although beyond of the scope of this discussion about the physiological
basis of NIMV in CHF, again the beneficial effect of CPAP on cardiac function is
mainly mediated by keeping the obstructed upper airway open and thus abolishing the
detrimental large negative inspiratory intrathoracic pressure swings [68].
18
NIMV during weaning

Reverse pathophysiological mechanisms are expected to occur during abrupt
withdrawal of NIMV and shift from positive to negative intrathoracic pressures,
culminating in: a) increased VR and cardiac preload; b) increased LV afterload; c)
decreased LV diastolic compliance due to myocardial ischaemia and/or biventricular
interdependence; and d) increased WOB and increased myocardial oxygen consumption
[67]. These mechanisms may precipitate ACPO and myocardial ischaemia. Although
these effects have mainly been studied during withdrawal from invasive MV [69], they
are also applicable in the NIMV setting and treating physicians should be aware of and
expect possible worsening of cardiac function during weaning from NIMV.
NIMV has been proposed as a tool for weaning from invasive MV, in patients who
failed a spontaneous breathing trial. VITACCA et al. [70] showed that in patients affected
by chronic respiratory disorders who failed to sustain spontaneous breathing,
postextubation PSV delivered non-invasively was equally effective in reducing work
of breathing and dyspnoea level, and in improving arterial blood gases compared with
pre-extubation, invasively delivered PSV.
Conclusion
Thorough understanding of the physiological effects of noninvasive mechanical
ventilation on respiratory system mechanics and heart–lung interactions, as well as the
principles of patient–ventilator interaction are fundamental for rational noninvasive
mechanical ventilation application in the clinical setting. Noninvasive mechanical
ventilation effects should be interpreted in the context of the pathophysiology of the
underlying disease and the cardiovascular status of the patient. Pathophysiological
rationale for the two most common acute noninvasive mechanical ventilation
applications, in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations and acute
cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, were presented as an example.
Summary
Noninvasive mechanical ventilation (NIMV) exerts multiple effects on respiratory
(functional residual capacity increase, elastic workload decrease due to dynamic
hyperinflation and decrease of inspiratory muscle workload) and cardiovascular
systems (left ventricle afterload decrease, venous return and right ventricle preload
decrease and O2 consumption decrease). The relative importance of these effects
depends on the underlying pathophysiology. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
and acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema are two of the most common NIMV
indications and are used in the present chapter as an example of rational physiological
application of NIMV.
For optimal performance of NIMV, attention must be paid to patient–ventilator
interaction during NIMV, by tailoring mode (assist volume control, pressure-support
ventilation or proportional assist ventilation) and trigger and cycling-off parameters
to the specific patient needs.
In conclusion, when NIMV is rationally applied to carefully chosen patients with the
appropriate indication, it has physiological effects similar to those of invasive
mechanical ventilation, with fewer complications.
Keywords: Acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, cardiovascular effects, COPD,

noninvasive mechanical ventilation, patient–ventilator interaction, respiratory effects.
19
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22
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23
CHAPTER 2
NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory

failure in obstructive pulmonary diseases
N. Ambrosino*,#, A. Corrado"
*Pulmonary Diseases and Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Cardio-Thoracic Dept, University Hospital Pisa,
Pisa, #Weaning and Pulmonary Rehabilitation Unit, Auxilium Vitae, Volterra and "Pulmonary Intensive Care
Unit, Respiratory Sleep Disorders Diagnosis and Treatment Centre, Regional Reference Centre for
Diagnosis and Treatment of Respiratory Insufficiency, University Hospital, Careggi, Florence, Italy.
Correspondence: N. Ambrosino, U.O. Pneumologia, Dipartimento Cardio-Toracico, Azienda Ospedaliero-

Universitaria Pisana, Via Paradisa 2, Cisanello, 56124 Pisa, Italy. Fax: 39 050996779;
E-mail: [email protected]
The acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

The most severe patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are
likely to undergo severe exacerbations of their disease often needing hospital admission
[1]. Acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD) are important events in the natural
course of disease [2] leading to worsening in lung function and in health-related quality
of life [3, 4] and, when associated with acute respiratory failure (ARF), to severe short-
and long-term prognosis [5, 6]. Although the relationship between AECOPD frequency
and severity of airflow obstruction is not particularly close, prevalence of AECOPD
increases with disease severity [7], and new evidence indicates a possible role for
extrapulmonary factors in their genesis [8].
The pharmacological management of AECOPD is outside the scope of this chapter
and can be found elsewhere [9]. A stepwise drug therapy is recommended for both home
and hospital management. Hospital management includes proper assessment of severity,
diagnosis of the cause, controlled oxygen therapy and/or mechanical ventilation with an
early noninvasive approach as the first line of intervention [10, 11]. A very severe life-
threatening episode requires direct admission into the intensive care unit (ICU). When
the cause of acute-on-chronic respiratory failure due to AECOPD is reversible, medical
treatment works to maximise lung function and reverse the precipitating cause, whereas
ventilatory support aims to gain time by unloading respiratory muscles, increasing
ventilation (thus reducing dyspnoea and respiratory rate) and improving arterial
oxygenation and eventually hypercapnia and related respiratory acidosis [12].
Most of the complications of invasive mechanical ventilation (table 1) are related to
the endotracheal intubation (ETI) or to the placement of a tracheostomy tube, to baro-
or volu-trauma and to the loss of airway defence mechanisms; some others may follow
the extubation or complicate long-term tracheostomy [13]. Different modalities of
noninvasive mechanical ventilation may avoid most of these complications, ensuring at
the same time a similar degree of efficacy [14]. Ventilation-acquired pneumonia (VAP)
and other nosocomial infections are reduced by noninvasive ventilation, because the
airway defence mechanisms are preserved and there is less requirement for invasive
monitoring [15, 16]. These modalities enhance the patient’s comfort by allowing for
eating, drinking, coughing and communication, and avoiding the need for sedation,
without an increase in costs and nurse workload compared with invasive mechanical
ISSN 1025-448x.
24
NIV IN ACUTE RESPIRATORY FAILURE
Table 1. – Complications of invasive mechanical ventilation
Related to tube insertion

Aspiration of gastric contents
Trauma of teeth, pharynx, oesophagus, larynx and trachea
Sinusitis (nasotracheal intubation)
Need for sedation
Related to mechanical ventilation
Arrhythmias and hypotension
Barotrauma
Related to tracheostomy
Haemorrhage
Trauma of trachea and oesophagus
False lumen intubation
Stomal infections and mediastinitis
Tracheomalacia, tracheal stenoses and granulation tissue formation
Tracheo-oesophageal or tracheoarterial fistulas
Caused by loss of airway defence mechanisms
Airway colonisation with Gram-negative bacteria
Pneumonia
Occurring after removal of the endotracheal tube
Hoarseness, sore throat, cough and sputum
Haemoptysis
Vocal cord dysfunction and laryngeal swelling
Reproduced from AMBROSINO and VAGHEGGINI [10].
ventilation [17]. Many devices have been used in the past to deliver noninvasive
mechanical ventilation, including both noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV)
and intermittent negative pressure ventilation (INPV), but in recent years there has been
prevalent use of NPPV [18].
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation

Although continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is not considered a form of
ventilation since no inspiratory aid is applied, according to the International Consensus
Conference in 2001 [19], NPPV is defined as any form of ventilatory support applied
without ETI, and is considered to include: CPAP, with or without inspiratory pressure
support; volume- and pressure-cycled systems; proportional assist ventilation; and the
use of helium–oxygen (heliox) gas mixtures [20]. NPPV is one of the most important
developments in pulmonology over the past 15 yrs [21]. Indeed, a study in 349 ICUs in
23 countries describing current mechanical ventilation practices and assessing the
influence of interval randomised trials, when compared with findings from a 1998
cohort, found that, in 2004, the use of NPPV increased (11.1 versus 4.4%) [22].
Different conditions leading to acute or acute-on-chronic respiratory failure have
been treated with NPPV, but only a few are supported by strong evidence. NPPV leads
to prevention of ETI in patients with AECOPD (the topic of this chapter) or acute
cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, in immunocompromised patients, and is also a means
of weaning from invasive mechanical ventilation in patients with AECOPD who
undergo ETI. Weaker evidence supports the use of NPPV for patients with post-
operative or post-extubation ARF, patients with ARF due to asthma exacerbations,
pneumonia, acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome, during
bronchoscopy, or as a means of pre-oxygenation before ETI in critically ill patients
with severe hypoxaemia [10, 11].
25
N. AMBROSINO, A. CORRADO
The goals of NPPV may be different according to the underlying pathologies. During
AECOPD or acute asthma, the goal of NPPV is to reduce hypercapnia by unloading the
respiratory muscles and increasing alveolar ventilation, thereby reducing hypercapnia,
improving respiratory acidosis until the underlying problem can be reversed [18]. Several
prospective, randomised, controlled studies [23–30], systematic reviews and meta-
analyses [31–33] show a good level of evidence for clinical efficacy of NPPV in the
treatment of ARF due to AECOPD. Compared with standard medical therapy alone,
NPPV improved survival, reduced the need for ETI and the rate of complications, and
shortened the hospital and ICU length of stay. Based on these observations, NPPV has
been proposed as the first-line ventilatory strategy in this condition with different timing
and location according to the level of ARF severity [10, 11, 34, 35].
Severity of ARF
In patients with ‘‘mild’’ AECOPD, without respiratory acidosis (pH .7.35), NPPV
did not prove to be more effective than standard medical therapy in preventing ARF or
in improving mortality and length of hospitalisation, whereas .50% of the patients did
not tolerate NPPV [24, 36]. In patients with mild to moderate ARF, as assessed by pH
levels between 7.30 and 7.35, NPPV was successfully administered to prevent ETI in
different settings, including the ward [29]. In even more severely ill patients (pH ,7.25),
the rate of NPPV failure was inversely related to the severity of respiratory acidosis,
rising to 52–62% [26, 28]. The use of NPPV as an alternative to the ETI did not affect the
mortality rate or the duration of ventilatory support, but the patients treated with
NPPV underwent a lower rate of complications (e.g. VAP or difficult weaning) [30].
Severe encephalopathy was considered a contraindication to NPPV due to the concern
that a depressed sensorium would predispose the patient to aspiration [15]. More recent
observations of NPPV use in patients with altered levels of consciousness due to
hypercapnic ARF have been reported [37, 38]. In a prospective case–control multicentre
study of patients with AECOPD and moderate to severe hypercapnic encephalopathy, the
use of NPPV versus conventional (invasive) mechanical ventilation (CMV) was associated
with similar short- and long-term survivals, fewer nosocomial infections and shorter
durations of mechanical ventilation and hospitalisation in the subgroup of patients treated
successfully with NPPV [39]. SCALA et al. [39] suggest an initial cautious NPPV trial in
patients with AECOPD and hypercapnic encephalopathy, as long as there are no other
contraindications and the technique is administered by an experienced team in a closely
monitored setting where ETI is always readily available (table 2).
Asthma
In contrast with AECOPD, the use of NPPV in severe exacerbation of asthma leading
to ARF is supported by less evidence. MEDURI et al. [40] reported successful use of
Table 2. – Reported contraindications for noninvasive positive pressure ventilation
Cardiac or respiratory arrest

Severe encephalopathy
Severe gastrointestinal bleeding
Severe haemodynamic instability with or without unstable cardiac angina
Facial surgery or trauma
Upper airway obstruction
Inability to protect the airway and/or high risk of aspiration
Inability to clear secretions
26
NPPV in 17 episodes of status asthmaticus and severe ARF, as assessed by a mean pH of

7.25. NPPV resulted in a rapid improvement in physiological variables; only two patients
required ETI. A retrospective, noncontrolled study reported favourable outcomes in 22
patients with status asthmaticus treated with NPPV because of persistent hypercapnia
[41]. Other studies also report favourable outcomes [42]. Nevertheless, two more recent
controlled trials reported inconclusive results [43, 44]. Owing to the small sample size of
these studies, a recent Cochrane analysis concluded that evidence for use of NPPV in acute
asthma was ‘‘promising’’ but ‘‘controversial’’ [45] and the British Thoracic Society
Standards of Care Committee stated that NPPV ‘‘should not be used routinely in acute
asthma’’, but that a trial might be considered in patients not promptly responding to
standard treatments [46].
Successful NPPV
Successful use of NPPV in ARF due to AECOPD depends on the following several
factors.
Clinical conditions. Selection of appropriate patients is crucial to the success of NPPV

in AECOPD. Success of NPPV is not proven in conditions listed in table 2, which have
been considered as exclusion criteria in randomised controlled trials [47]. Clinical
judgment is important in taking decisions on NPPV and can be helped by predictive
factors in the choice of this modality. An improvement in arterial blood gases and in
sensorium, as assessed by means of the score described by KELLY and MATTHAY [48], or
the response to NPPV of a combination of several clinical and physiological parameters
after the first hour or two of treatment, are used as predictors of success or failure in
COPD patients [49–51]. Airway colonisation by nonfermenting Gram-negative bacilli is
strongly associated with NPPV failure [52]. Although these predictive factors must be
kept in mind for successful NPPV, there is a caveat that, despite an initial brief
improvement with NPPV, some COPD patients with severe ARF, particularly those
with more severe functional impairment during the stable state, may have a late
worsening (after .48 h), often requiring ETI [53].
Trained team. As with other therapies, NPPV application also follows a learning curve.
With time, caregivers become more and more confident with NPPV, with success rates
remaining stable or even improving despite increasing severity of treated patients [54]. A
retrospective cohort study in French medical ICUs found that training in NPPV
implementation may be an important factor in improving survival and reducing
nosocomial infections in critical patients with AECOPD [55]. In this regard, JOLLIET et
al. [56] reported that NPPV was not as time-consuming as they reported 10 yrs before [57].
Monitoring and location. Close clinical and functional monitoring is crucial, especially
during the initial period of NPPV. The main concepts for adequate monitoring of NPPV
can be summarised as follows: strict nurse supervision of respiratory and neurological
conditions of patient; noninvasive monitoring; and preference for ventilators with
availability of airway pressure, expired volume and airflow monitoring. The problem of
monitoring is strictly related to the location for NPPV, which can actually determine
NPPV outcome. Treating a severe hypoxaemia with or without hypercapnia might be
dangerous in a general ward, whereas it is safer in a monitored high-technology setting
like an ICU. In other words, selection of patients must take into account the location
available to perform NPPV (fig. 1) [59]. Several studies support the effectiveness of
27
Severity Location Intervention
pH >7.35 Ward Drugs+oxygen
Ward
pH 7.357.25
RIICU NPPV
ICU
pH <7.25, alertness
T-Trial# NPPV
pH <7.20 and/or: Success Failure
Neurological status
Fatigue Extubation Early extubation
ETI indication
MOF Discharge NPPV ETI
Fig. 1. – Flow chart of the application of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) in acute exacerbations of
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, according to the severity of acute respiratory failure. RIICU: respiratory
intermediate intensive care unit; ICU: intensive care unit; ETI: endotracheal intubation; MOF: multiple organ failure.
#
: as described in [58]. Reproduced from AMBROSINO and VAGHEGGINI [10].
NPPV in the ICU, the respiratory intermediate ICUs, the general ward and the
emergency departments [60]. Despite the demonstrated success of NPPV at least in some
clinical conditions, the utilisation rates for NPPV vary enormously among different
acute care hospitals within the same region [61]. In a survey of practice of NPPV in
Ontario, Canada, the two most common indications for NPPV use were COPD and
congestive heart failure [62]. Physician characteristics, such as awareness of the
literature, were predictive of NPPV use for AECOPD, whereas perceived NPPV efficacy
was predictive of use for many indications, including congestive heart failure. Recently,
case series have also reported effectiveness of NPPV treatment in patients with
moderate-to-severe ARF (pH ,7.25) and AECOPD in general ward settings [63]. Given
the prevalence of patients presenting with severe respiratory acidosis, further studies are
needed to better outline the role of NPPV in non-ICU settings.
What’s new?
The use of a heliox mixture seems very promising during NPPV in AECOPD in
further reducing dyspnoea, work of breathing and length of hospital stay, but not in
improving the success rate [64–67]. The use of heliox is difficult because of the lack of
availability of approved heliox delivery systems, and appropriately designed randomised
controlled trials are necessary in order to define the role for heliox mixtures during
NPPV in AECOPD patients [68].
Despite the advantages of NPPV in ARF, a large number of failures are due to patient
refusal to continue the often uncomfortable sessions. Therefore, sedation might have a
role in success of this procedure. A cross-sectional web-based survey showed that most
physicians infrequently use sedation and analgesic therapy for NPPV to treat ARF, but
practices vary widely within and between specialties and geographic regions [69]. A
recent pilot study showed that remifentanil-based sedation is safe and effective in the
treatment of NPPV failure due to low tolerance [70].
28
Negative pressure ventilation

With negative-pressure ventilators the chest wall is exposed to subatmospheric
pressure during inspiration, resulting in airflow into the lungs through the mouth and
nose. When the pressure around the chest wall returns to atmospheric, expiration occurs
passively owing to the elastic recoil of the lungs and chest wall [71].
All negative pressure devices have two major components: an applicator where a
negative (subatmospheric) pressure is generated at the surface of the body during
inspiration and a pump that effects pressure changes [71]. The cuirass (or shell) covers
the anterior surface of the chest and upper abdomen. It is connected to the negative
pressure pump through a tube and hose inlet on the centre. Standard sizes are available
for commercial devices, whereas it is possible to tailor custom-made shells to patients
with thoracic deformities [72]. All body suits, like the ‘‘pneumowrap’’ or ‘‘ponchowrap’’
applicators, are fitted over a rigid grid including the patient’s ribcage and upper
abdomen. The grid is anchored posteriorly with a backplate. The pneumowrap is
attached to the negative pressure pump in a way similar to the cuirass.
The modern ‘‘iron lung’’ or a ‘‘tank ventilator’’ is made of aluminium and plastic. All the
patient’s body rests on a thin mattress except his/her head, which protrudes through a
porthole at one end of the ventilator. In most designs, the head and the neck may rest to
ensure comfort and to prevent upper airway collapse. Most tank ventilators have windows,
allowing patient observation, and portholes through which catheters and monitor leads can
be passed and which allow access to the patient for procedures. In some models, the
patient’s head can be raised so that aspiration may be prevented. Negative pressure is
generated by bellows pumps incorporated into the structure of the ventilator or by separate
rotary pumps. Most of the pumps used are pressure cycled, i.e. the ventilator will continue
to develop a subatmospheric pressure until a set level is reached. With this modality the set
pressure is the independent variable, whereas the tidal volume depends on the mechanical
characteristics of the patient (besides the amount of leaks). With most tank ventilators the
caregiver can set the pressure to be delivered during inspiration and expiration
independently, and also set inspiratory and expiratory times [71]. Volume-cycled pumps
have also been used; however, these devices cannot compensate for variable air leaks from
the applicator and their use is limited. At the present time, there are five modes for delivering
negative pressure ventilation: INPV, negative/positive pressure, continuous negative
pressure (CNEP), negative pressure/CNEP and external high frequency oscillation [71].
INPV is the most commonly used mode. When operating in this mode, the respirator
generates a set negative pressure around the body to initiate (or assist) inspiration.
Expiration is passive and expiratory pressure at the anterior thoracic surface is
atmospheric. During CNEP, subatmospheric pressure surrounds the patient throughout
the respiratory cycle, the patient can breathe spontaneously or the respirator can be set
to superimpose cycles of increased negative pressure. The clinical effect of CNEP is
somewhat similar to that associated with positive end-expiratory pressure, but its
cardiovascular effects differ [73]. All negative-pressure ventilators provide a control
mode; additionally, some devices provide a ‘‘trigger’’ whereby patient-generated
negative pressure at the nares or tracheotomy stoma initiates a machine breath. Other
devices use a thermistor at the nares to trigger a breath. Nevertheless, up to now these
modalities are still experimental.
Clinical studies
Early anecdotal reports [74–77] indicated a positive effect of INPV in ARF.
Nevertheless, starting from the 1960s, COPD patients were generally treated with
29
positive pressure ventilation through an endotracheal tube. More recently, there has
been a renewed interest in INPV. Iron lung, cuirass and ponchowrap ventilators have
been successfully used in AECOPD [78–81]. INPV was associated with good short- and
long-term prognosis when used as first-line treatment in severe COPD patients with
ARF [82, 83]. In a case–control study of very severe patients (pH 7.24, Acute Physiology
and Chronic Health Evaluation II score 25), INPV was as effective as invasive
mechanical ventilation and resulted in a similar length of hospital stay for the treatment
of acute-on-chronic respiratory failure, but it was associated with a shorter duration of
ventilation [84]. If NPPV is more successful with early application and lower severity of
respiratory acidosis [49], the results of the study by CORRADO et al. [84] seem to indicate
that INPV may be effective in a later stage of disease, similar to that requiring ETI. A
possible explanation for the favourable effects of INPV in these studies [83, 84] may be a
more beneficial effect on cardiopulmonary haemodynamics than seen with positive
pressure ventilation [85]. Nevertheless, direct comparisons of INPV versus NPPV are not
available. More recently, it has been reported that with sequential combination of INPV
and NPPV, ETI was avoided in most unselected patients with acute-on-chronic
respiratory failure needing ventilatory support [86, 87]. In recent years, the effectiveness
of INPV for the treatment of acute-on-chronic respiratory failure in COPD patients has
been confirmed in two case–control studies and in one randomised prospective control
study [88, 89].
The studies suggest the following conclusions. 1) Physiological studies suggest that
INPV is able to improve breathing pattern and arterial blood gases and to unload the
respiratory muscles, thus fulfilling the aims of mechanical ventilation [71]. 2) Whereas
prospective, randomised, controlled studies of INPV versus standard medical therapy
are lacking, studies show that INPV, compared with CMV, had a similar degree of
efficacy and was associated with a lower number of complications [83, 84]. 3) The most
recent and ‘‘positive’’ reports come from one Italian centre only, and these results might
also have been influenced by the specific expertise of that team. This clearly limits the
potential widespread usefulness of the technique [82–84, 86, 88, 89]. 4) Uncontrolled but
historically controlled retrospective and controlled but not randomised clinical studies
show that INPV (by iron lung) is able to reduce the need for ETI and related
complications even in patients with severe respiratory acidosis [71]. 5) Although the
most recent reports are rather convincing on the usefulness of INPV in the treatment of
acute or chronic respiratory failure, there are some difficulties in trying to introduce this
modality in the vast majority of ICUs where NPPV is preferred as a noninvasive
modality of mechanical ventilation [90]. The reason for this choice may be more due to
the fact that iron lungs are more cumbersome and expensive than ventilators designed
for NPPV, than due to the side-effects reported with those devices.
Advantages, contraindications and side-effects

Like NPPV, the major advantage of INPV is the avoidance of ETI and its related
complications, while preserving physiological functions, such as speech, cough,
swallowing and feeding. As with NPPV, bronchoscopic manoeuvres are allowed during
INPV, which additionally may help techniques like laser therapy [91, 92]. Nevertheless,
when treating patients with INPV several limitations should be considered. 1) The lack of
upper airway protection, especially in unconscious and/or neurological patients, may
result in aspiration, given the reported effect on the lower oesophageal sphincter, an effect
to be prevented by pre-medication with metoclopramide [93]. 2) Upper airway obstruction
may occur [94] or be enhanced in unconscious patients, in patients with neurological
disorders with bulbar dysfunction and in those with sleep apnoeas syndrome.
30
Nevertheless, it has been reported that in unconscious patients with normal bulbar
function, the placement of a nasogastric tube and the positioning of an oropharyngeal
airway can minimise the risk of aspiration and/or airway collapsibility [78].
Conclusions
Noninvasive mechanical ventilation has assumed an important role in managing
patients with acute respiratory failure due to acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease. Even in conditions in which noninvasive positive pressure
ventilation or intermittent negative pressure ventilation have strong evidence of success,
patients should be monitored closely for signs of treatment failure and promptly
intubated before a crisis develops. The application of either modality by a trained and
experienced team, with careful patient selection and appropriate location and setting,
should optimise patient outcomes. It must be clear that noninvasive mechanical
ventilation is not a panacea, nor the ‘‘poor men’s’’ technique of mechanical ventilation.
Conversely, it cannot replace endotracheal intubation in all circumstances. With limited
intermittent negative pressure ventilation facilities and expertise in most countries, it
seems that noninvasive positive pressure ventilation will remain the most widely applied
noninvasive ventilatory method, with intermittent negative pressure ventilation
continuing as a viable option in some centres.
Summary
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) and intermittent negative pressure
ventilation (INPV) are techniques for delivering mechanical ventilation avoiding the
complications of endotracheal intubation (ETI). We review the evidence supporting
the use of noninvasive ventilation in acute respiratory failure (ARF) due to chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Strong evidence supports the use of NPPV for ARF to prevent ETI in patients with
acute exacerbations of COPD. There is increasing evidence that in ARF due to
COPD, INPV is as effective as NPPV and invasive mechanical ventilation and that a
combination strategy of INPV and NPPV reduces the need for ETI. Noninvasive
ventilation should be applied under close clinical and physiological monitoring for
signs of treatment failure, and ETI should be promptly available in such cases. A
trained team, careful patient selection and optimal choice of devices can optimise
outcome.
Noninvasive mechanical ventilation is increasingly used in the management of ARF
due to acute exacerbation of COPD. With limited INPV facilities and expertise in
most countries, it seems that NPPV will remain the most widely applied noninvasive
ventilatory method, with INPV continuing as a viable option in some centres.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,

endotracheal intubation, mechanical ventilation, noninvasive ventilation.
31
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36
CHAPTER 3
Management of acute respiratory failure in

restrictive disorders (obesity excluded)
J.C. Winck, M. Gonçalves
Serviço de Pneumologia, Faculdade de Medicina do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
Correspondence: J.C. Winck, Serviço de Pneumologia, Faculdade de Medicina do Porto, Alameda Prof
Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal. Fax: 351 225512215; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
International surveys performed in intensive care units (ICUs) around the world in
1996 and 1998, showed that neuromuscular patients corresponded to 1.8–10% of
patients receiving mechanical ventilation [1, 2]. An Italian survey of respiratory ICUs in
1997–1998 showed that chest wall and neuromuscular disorders accounted for 9% of
patients admitted [3].
Restrictive disorders are the most-frequent indication for long-term home mechanical
ventilation, with thoracic cage and neuromuscular patients accounting for 65% of
patients ventilated at home in Europe [4].
Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has been shown to be the first line intervention for acute
respiratory failure (ARF) due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [5]. In
patients with ARF due to restrictive disorders, the evidence is lower; although published
studies demonstrate positive results [6]. In fact, randomised clinical trials (RCT) of NIV in
ARF tend to exclude patients with restrictive disorders. In the only RCT of NIV in ARF
that included patients with neuromuscular diseases (NMDs; n56), the authors did not
discuss those patients because the group was too small for analysis [7].
While PORTIER et al. [8], in a prospective multicentre study of patients with acute-on-
chronic respiratory failure (including 16.7% with restrictive disorders), suggested that
the underlying disorder did not influence prognosis, ROBINO et al. [9], in a retrospective
study with the largest sample of restrictive patients published to date (mainly with chest
wall disorders (CWD)), suggested that effectiveness of NIV was less in this group of
patients.
Recently, BANFI et al. [10] successfully managed seven patients with kyphoscoliosis
(KS) with infection-related respiratory failure at home. In fact, by increasing daily
duration of mechanical ventilation to .20 h, respiratory acidosis was corrected and the
patients were returned to their baseline condition in 4 weeks.
It seems that respiratory failure due to these disorders needs a different approach
from the more-common obstructive pulmonary diseases [9, 11].
ARF in chest wall disorders

Patients with severe KS and acute decompensation of respiratory failure, exhibit
marked decrease of pulmonary compliance but, contrary to in COPD, increase in airway
resistance and intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEPi) seem to play only a
ISSN 1025-448x.
37
J.C. WINCK, M. GONÇALVES
secondary role [12]. Because cough is not impaired like in NMD, secretion management
is not so critical in this context, and management of ARF may be easier.
Some case series have shown that ARF occurring in KS can be managed noninvasively,
either through negative [13] or positive pressure ventilation [6, 14]. Recently BANFI et al.
[10] have shown reversal of respiratory acidosis in KS patients with ARF, by increasing
duration of home mechanical ventilation up to .20 h, both with volume and pressure-
cycled ventilators.
ARF in neuromuscular disorders

In neuromuscular disorders, the normality of the respiratory function requires the
integrity of three main respiratory muscles: 1) inspiratory muscles, responsible for
ventilation; 2) expiratory muscles, involved in the ability to cough; and 3) bulbar
muscles, that protect against the risk of aspiration [15]. Laryngeal weakness and
swallowing dysfunction can lead to aspiration, which is the main reason for failure of
noninvasive respiratory aids during ARF in NMD [16].
In patients with previous NMD, respiratory failure is commonly triggered by upper
respiratory tract infections [17]. This can impair the three muscle components [11, 17].
Those patients normally present with rapid shallow breathing, tachycardia, accessory-
muscle use, thoraco-abdominal asynchrony and orthopnoea. Blood gases, vital capacity,
maximum inspiratory and expiratory pressures, and peak cough flow should be
evaluated and used to give useful information about the integrity of the respiratory
muscle system. In accord with the disease and objective parameters, the need for
mechanical ventilation can be predicted. Hypercapnia is a late finding of impending
ventilatory failure whereas hypoxaemia may suggest atelectasis and secretion
encumbrance or pneumonia.
In order to avoid NMD patients being admitted to hospital with ARF, a regular
follow-up of all chronic NMD patients with lung function evaluation, in order to
establish domiciliary noninvasive respiratory aids, is fundamental [18]. Moreover a pro-
active intervention with intensification of home mechanical assisted cough and NIV,
guided by oxygen saturation, has been proposed by some authors [19]. In fact, this
protocol reduces hospitalisation for NMD cases followed in specific outpatient clinics.
However, there will always be cases where ARF will be the presentation for NMD,
especially those with a rapid evolution like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) [20, 21];
apart from those patients, acute neuromuscular disorders (such as Guillain–Barré
syndrome (GBS)) together with the ICU-acquired neuromuscular disorders are the most
frequent NMD associated with ARF (table 1).
ARF in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Analysing a large US database, LECHTZIN et al. [22], reported that, in hospitalised
ALS patients, mortality was 15%. According to conventional protocols, patients with
Table 1. – Major neuromuscular disorders (NMD) associated with acute respiratory failure
Motor Nerves Neuromuscular junction Myopathies Spinal cord Acquired NMD

Amyotrophic lateral Myasthenia gravis Myotonic dystrophy Trauma Critical illness
sclerosis myoneuropathy
Guillain–Barré syndrome Duchenne muscular Transverse myelitis
dystrophy
38
ARF IN RESTRICTIVE DISORDERS
ALS, who present acutely in respiratory failure and require endotracheal intubation and
invasive ventilation, are rarely weaned and rarely return home [23].
If the cause of ARF is secretion encumbrance and assisted mucus clearance
techniques are unavailable at home, a strict protocol of mechanical in-exsufflation
(MIE) should be implemented (sometimes with a 5-min frequency), together with
continuous NIV, until blood gases are normalised [24]. It should be noted that patients
with NMD and excessive secretions/atelectasis may require the use of very frequent
assisted-cough techniques, which require time-consuming care from nursing staff and
respiratory therapists; this makes the help of family caregivers essential [25]. This will
reverse the majority of cases [26]; however, some patients can be intubated for 24/48 h to
rest and optimise secretion clearance with MIE through an endotracheal tube [24].
Subsequently it might be possible to extubate them directly with continuous NIV.
There are not many studies analysing the role of NIV in ARF due to ALS. In 2000,
VIANELLO et al. [27] published the first study, prospectively comparing the efficacy of
NIV combined with cricothyroidotomy (‘‘minitracheostomy’’) and conventional
mechanical ventilation via endotracheal tube in 14 patients with ARF and NMD
(including three patients with ALS). Mean pH was 7.29 in both groups, mortality was
lower and ICU stay was shorter in the NIV group compared with controls, suggesting
that their ‘‘noninvasive ventilatory approach’’ could be a first-line intervention in this
setting.
In 2005, VIANELLO et al. [28] evaluated the short-term outcomes of 11 NMD patients
(including two patients with ALS), not as severely acidotic (mean pH of 7.36), with
acute upper respiratory tract infections and tracheobronchial mucous encumbrance.
Apart from NIV, they were submitted to MIE treatment in addition to standard
physical therapy. The outcomes were compared with 16 historically matched controls,
who had received chest physical therapy alone. The treatment failure (defined as the
need for cricothyroidotomy or endotracheal intubation, despite treatment) was
significantly lower in the MIE group than in the conventional chest physical treatments
group (2 out of 11 and 10 out of 16 cases, respectively). No side effects were related to
the use of MIE alone, while the need of bronchoscopy assisted suctioning was similar in
the two groups (5 out of 11 and 6 out of 16 cases, respectively).
As noted by GONÇALVES and BACH in their commentary [25], some mistakes
concerning the use of the MIE probably compromised the final results. Setting the
machine at very low insufflation and exsufflation pressures (,30 cmH2O), and
forgetting the abdominal thrust during the exsufflation phase were reasons for
suboptimal results. These low pressures have been shown not to be effective in lung
models [29] as well as in clinical studies [30, 31] and accordingly, did not effectively avert
bronchoscopy-assisted aspiration. Moreover, using the MIE 2.7 times a day as described
may be insufficient. In fact, as mentioned before, during an acute episode of respiratory
tract infection, MIE may have to be applied very frequently, and the only way to solve
this problem is to allow the primary care providers or relatives to stay at the bedside to
use it anytime as required [32].
SERVERA et al. [16] in a non-ICU setting, prospectively evaluated the efficacy of
continuous NIV together with coughing aids (including MIE) to avoid endotracheal
intubation for 17 patients with NMD during ARF. The studied group had a mean pH of
7.38 and included 11 patients with ALS (5 of which with bulbar dysfunction). There was
treatment failure in 20.8% and mortality in 8.3% cases, significantly related with patients
with severe bulbar impairment. The patients in which NIV and assisted coughing may be
unsuccessful and those who cannot cooperate may have a more invasive approach:
endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation followed by tracheostomy [33] or as
VIANELLO et al. [34] proposed cricothyroidotomy. However, even in bulbar ALS
patients, MIE should be tried, since HANAYAMA et al. [35] described an ALS woman
39
with immeasurable peak cough flow (PCF), already with a gastrostomy, in which MIE
was able to clear bronchial secretions and reverse ARF.
In the present authors’ experience, with 11 consecutive nonbulbar ALS with ARF,
noninvasive respiratory aids (i.e. continuous NIV and high-intensity mechanical assisted
cough) had a success rate of 100%, with resolution of respiratory failure, and discharge
after 8 days (fig. 1) [26]. With this protocol, MIE resolved atelectasis and none of those
patients needed endotracheal intubation or fibreoptic bronchoscopy assisted aspiration
(fig. 2).
Concerning the mode of noninvasive ventilation, it is preferable to use volume-cycled
ventilators in assist control, with high tidal volumes, for sufficient lung expansion and to
allow air-stacking for coughing [16, 26]. This can be performed during the day using a
mouthpiece and at night with a nasal or oral interface. As soon as the patient learns to
air-stack and can autonomously produce PCF above 160 L?min-1, assisted coughing can
be reduced in frequency, provided that oxygen saturation levels on the ventilator are
.95% [36]. In the beginning, the patient will need continuous NIV but, at discharge, will
return to the previous duration of home NIV [16, 26].
When patients with ALS under home mechanical ventilation need to be hospitalised
due to ARF, there are some technical as well as ethical aspects that need to be
considered. It needs to be confirmed if all noninvasive respiratory aids were optimised at
home, if the patient has refused tracheostomy, if bulbar impairment is severe and if the
risk of aspiration is high. Lung function status, previous to the decompensation, can be
helpful in the decision making. Discussions about aggressiveness of resuscitation should
have been carried out with the family and patient in a stable state [37].
Another issue is when nonbulbar patients with NMD are intubated because of failure
of NIV or due to a more-conventional approach. In this context, it is a common attitude
to gradually reduce the support of the ventilator until the patient is weaned.
Unfortunately NMD patients with a pre-existing respiratory dysfunction often fail to
wean from invasive ventilation and are almost invariably tracheostomised. MIE in these
cases can be very successful to help clear secretions, first via the tube and, then, after the
tube is removed via an oronasal mask, while the ventilation is delivered through
noninvasive interfaces. MIE, applied in this circumstance, avoids mucus encumbrance,
250 250
Arterial tension mmHg
200 200
PCF L·min-1
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
Baseline Discharge
Fig. 1. – Outcomes of 11 patients with nonbulbar amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and acute respiratory failure. Peak
cough flow (PCF; h), and arterial oxygen (Pa,O2; &) and carbon dioxide (Pa,CO2; &) tension were measured. The
length of stay was 7.9¡8.9 days, at administration pH 7.37¡1.3, Pa,O2 7.69¡1.12 kPa (57.8¡8.4 mmHg), Pa,CO2
8.61¡3.47 kPa (64.7¡26.1 mmHg) and 0 treatment failure. 1 mmHg 5 0.133 kPa.
40
a) b)
Fig. 2. – Resolution of left lower lobe atelectasis in one amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patient a) before and b) after
mechanical in-exsufflation.
the need of blind suctioning through the nose and definitely tracheostomy for patients,
who are ventilator dependent 24 h per day.
ARF in Guillain–Barré syndrome and in myasthenia gravis

In the developed world, GBS and myasthenia gravis (MG) account for the majority of
cases of respiratory failure associated with NMD.
Although the use of NIV in this setting has not been extensively evaluated [38–40], it
should be always attempted unless there is significant bulbar dysfunction. In fact, GBS
and MG are similar to other NMDs where a noninvasive respiratory aids protocol has
avoided endotracheal intubation [16, 26, 28]. The only difference is that contrary to the
majority of ALS and NMD patients with ARF, those patients are naı̈ve to NIV.
According to the literature, 25-50% of GBS patients and 15–27% MG patients require
mechanical ventilation [41, 42]. A practical rule (the ‘‘20/30/40 rule’’) proposed by LAWN
et al. [43] in which a vital capacity (VC) ,20 mL?kg-1, maximal inspiratory pressure
,-30 cmH2O and maximal expiratory pressure ,40 cmH2O were associated with
progression to respiratory failure, may be useful in deciding whether to initiate
ventilatory support. These simple bedside tests of respiratory function may be clinically
generalisable to other neuromuscular conditions.
ARF in Guillain–Barré syndrome

GBS is an acute immune-mediated polyneuropathy, with an incidence of 0.6–2 cases per
100,000 inhabitants [44]. Mechanical ventilation was required in ƒ50% of patients and
was a risk factor for a poor outcome [45, 46]. Traditionally, patients are subjected to
prolonged invasive ventilation, with a 49% incidence of atelectasis and 25% mortality [47].
Moreover, 7% of patients will need ventilatory support after 1 yr [46]. Recently, PEARSE et
al. [38] used NIV for 2 weeks in a patient with respiratory failure secondary to GBS. In
this patient with preserved bulbar function, NIV was applied continuously with a pressure
support of 10 cmH2O in the first days and withdrawn at 2 weeks, avoiding the
complications of mechanical ventilation. However, WIJDICKS et al. [48] report the failure
of bilevel ventilation in two cases of GBS. Those patients deteriorated under low levels of
pressure support, presumably due to worsening hypoventilation and sputum retention.
41
So, it must be kept in mind that NIV can worsen gastric distension caused by
disautomony and may contribute to poor tolerance and efficacy. However, with strict
monitoring and trained staff, it is possible to apply NIV in this setting, especially if
effective secretion clearance techniques [26, 31] are used rather than traditional chest
physiotherapy or tracheal suctioning via nasopharyngeal airways, which are unpleasant
and even deleterious to the patients.
ARF in myasthenia gravis

MG is the most frequent disease of the neuromuscular junction, characterised by the
reduction in the number of acetylcholine post-synaptic receptors and, in 80% of cases,
with the antibodies’ antireceptors. The incidence of MG is 0.4 cases per 100,000
inhabitants [49]. Only a minority of cases will be diagnosed during an episode of ARF [50];
more commonly patients already diagnosed have an exacerbation of myasthenic weakness
(myasthenic crisis (MC)) causing ARF [39, 40]. Contrary to GBS, monitoring of serial VC
does not predict the necessity of ventilatory assistance due to the erratic nature of the
variation [49].
Traditionally patients with MC are managed using endotracheal intubation and
mechanical ventilation. Recent work from the Mayo Clinic showed that NIV can be an
alternative [39, 51]. In fact, use of low span bilevel positive pressure ventilation prevented
intubation in 70% of cases even in patients with bulbar weakness [51]. In a more
representative series (60 episodes of MC in 52 patients), the same group confirmed that
NIV was an effective treatment for ARF in MG, significantly reducing the ICU stay [39].
The only predictor of NIV failure was an arterial carbon dioxide tension exceeding
5.99 kPa (45 mmHg). This was somewhat contradicted by AGARWAL et al. [40] who
described a patients with a MC and hypercapnic acidosis, successfully managed with
higher levels of bilevel positive pressure ventilation.
Although the majority may be weaned from mechanical ventilation after a myasthenic
crisis, some patients develop chronic respiratory failure and need long-term mechanical
ventilation.
ARF in spinal cord injury

Demographic data from the US spinal cord injury (SCI) database in 1973–2003 show
a significant increase in the percentage of cervical injuries and ventilator-dependent
cases, with 6.8% of SCI patients requiring ventilation on discharge in 2000–2003 [52].
Most SCI patients who require ventilatory support undergo tracheostomy during their
acute hospitalisation [53]. Despite improvements in SCI medical management, re-
hospitalisation rates remain high, associated with respiratory complications [54].
Cervical spine injuries can be separated into higher-cervical cord injuries (levels C1
and C2) and mid- and lower-cervical cord injuries (C3 to C8). The former produce
almost total respiratory muscle paralysis, while the latter have limited expiratory
function. Lesions from C3-C5 cause also significant compromise of inspiration [53].
During the 1980s, survival for ventilatory dependent tetraplegic patients ranged from
63% at age 3 yrs [55] to 33% at age 5 yrs [56]. In those times, only 51% of SCI patients
with C3 injury levels were able to be weaned [56]. Life expectancy was considerably
improved in those successfully weaned [57].
High level tetraplegic patients are perfect candidates for noninvasive ventilatory
assistance due to their young age, intact mental status and bulbar musculature [58]. In
fact, BACH [59] suggested that patients with lesions under C1 level, can be managed by
42
using noninvasive respiratory aids (up to continuous noninvasive IPPV and manually
and mechanically assisted coughing) provided that they are able to generate assisted
peak cough flow .160 L?min-1.
It is recommended that all patients with acute SCI have their VC measured every 6 h
during the first few days of admission. If symptoms or signs of impending ventilatory
failure develop or VC decreases to ,1500 mL, the patient should be placed on
continuous oximetry monitoring and trained in using MIV and manually and
mechanically assisted coughing [60].
When patients with SCI are tracheostomised, there will always be the potential for
decannulation. Although this topic is beyond the scope of the present chapter, it must be
emphasised that, even in patients with little ventilator-free breathing ability, a switch to
NIV and ‘‘aggressive’’ mechanical insufflation–exsufflation can lead to successful
decannulation [61].
Critical-illness myoneuropathy
ICU-acquired NMD is reported in 25% of patients who have been ventilated for i7
days [62]. This figure increases in patients with sepsis and severe acute asthma [63].
Normally, patients present with diffuse skeletal-muscle weakness and difficulty in
weaning. ICU-acquired NMD is associated with a longer duration of mechanical
ventilation, longer ICU stay and increased mortality [63]. Cough inefficacy and
reduction in maximal respiratory pressures have been reported in these patients [64],
suggesting the implementation of secretion-clearance techniques together with
noninvasive ventilatory support could play a role [11]. Although studies reporting
application of noninvasive respiratory aids in this context are lacking, in the present
authors’ experience, application of this protocol in ICU-acquired NMD has allowed
decannulation and weaning in a significant number of patients (data not published).
Critical illness myoneuropathy has also been implicated in respiratory failure that
develops after discharge from the ICU [64]. Recovery of peripheral and respiratory
muscle function is highly variable, with some patients having persisting weakness at
2 yrs follow-up.
Summary
Although noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has an established role for stable patients
with restrictive disorders and chronic respiratory failure, evidence from randomised
clinical trials in the acute setting is lacking. However, based on the published studies,
NIV associated with cough assistance is very effective in neuromuscular diseases
(NMDs) with acute respiratory failure (ARF), especially those without significant
bulbar dysfunction.
With evidence emerging for myasthenia gravis and Guillain–Barré syndrome, patients
with ARF and pre-existing NMD (most already trained in NIV) are the best
candidates for a noninvasive respiratory aids protocol.
Secretion-clearance techniques are critically important in managing NMD patients
and they may be the weak link in the management of ARF!
Continuous volume cycled ventilation (through a nasal or oral interface) associated
with high intensity mechanical in-exsufflation may be very effective in the hands of
experienced staff with the proper protocols.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, mechanical in-exsufflation, neuromuscular

disorders, noninvasive ventilation, secretion management.
43
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46
CHAPTER 4
NIV for acute hypercapnic respiratory failure

in obese patients
A. Cuvelier, N. Amiot, B. Lamia, L.C. Molano, J-F. Muir
Pulmonary and Intensive Care Dept, Rouen University Hospital & UPRES EA 3830 (IFR MP23), Institute for
Biomedical Research, University of Rouen, Rouen, France.
Correspondence: A. Cuvelier, Service de Pneumologie et Soins Intensifs Respiratoires, Hôpital de Bois-

Guillaume, CHU de Rouen, 76031 Rouen, France. Fax: 33 232889094; E-mail: antoine.cuvelier@chu-
rouen.fr
In the Western world, the prevalence of obese patients in intensive care units (ICU) is
increasing. Additionally, morbid obesity has dramatic consequences on pulmonary
function [1]. Therefore, respiratory physicians and intensivists are more likely to manage
a larger number of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure (AHRF) episodes in patients
with a body mass index (BMI) .30 kg?m-2. Cor pulmonale is a major cause of ICU
admission, which requires mechanical ventilation with higher mortality in obese
compared with nonobese patients [2]. It is, therefore, surprising that experience of
AHRF in obese patients has rarely been reported in the literature and, consequently,
evidence-based guidelines remain to be established [3]. If there are very few data in the
literature about noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in obese patients with hypoxaemic
respiratory failure [4], there are cumulating reports that suggest that NIV plays a key
role in the treatment of obese patients with AHRF [5].
AHRF in obese patients: epidemiological data

Clinical characteristics and specificities of obese patients hospitalised in ICUs are
currently not well established. In a retrospective cohort study in obese and nonobese
patients, it has been shown that obese patients had more major comorbidities than
nonobese patients, with a higher prevalence of COPD, sleep respiratory disorders, cor
pulmonale and pulmonary hypertension [2]. Similarly, obese patients had a higher
prevalence of coronary heart diseases and systemic hypertension. In this study, it has
been highlighted that pneumonia and hypoxaemic acute respiratory failure were the
most frequent hospitalisation reasons for obese patients in the ICU [2]. Although both
cohorts had the same severity at admission, mean length of hospital stay was longer in
obese patients compared with nonobese patients. This more-prolonged stay was
associated with a higher incidence of complications during ICU stay and a more
prolonged weaning period [6]. A total of 12% of obese patients were tracheostomised
compared with only 4% in nonobese patients.
KOENIG [7] found that the probability of inhalation pneumonia was increased in obese
patients, especially during post-surgery, due to an increase in abdominal pressure,
increased incidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux and an augmented gastric pH. This
should be paralleled with physiopathological consequences of obesity with an increased
respiratory work during weaning, due to increased airway resistance, a low thoracic
ISSN 1025-448x.
47
A. CUVELIER ET AL.
compliance and a decreased efficacy of respiratory muscles. SHARP et al. [8]

demonstrated in 1964 that respiratory work was 2–4-fold higher in obese patients.
Earlier studies found that morbid obesity was associated with higher mortality in the
ICU but more-recent prospective data have questioned these results. EL-SOHL et al. [2]
reported a 2-fold higher mortality in obese patients in the ICU (30 versus 17%) and these
patients mostly die from bacterial infections, right heart failure, acute pancreatitis,
pulmonary oedema and congestive heart failure. In their series, mortality in ventilated
obese patients was 49% and BMI was considered an independent predictive factor of
mortality. These authors also showed that morbid obesity was associated with
prolonged mechanical ventilation [2, 9] and higher ICU length of stay [9], and that
Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score was, in fact, not
a satisfactory immediate prognosis index in these patients [2].
Physiopathology of AHRF in obese patients

In the present authors’ experience, uncompensated respiratory acidosis in obese
patients is the reason to hospitalise 20% of patients in their ICU. In these patients,
uncompensated respiratory acidosis may be the consequence of an authentic acute
alveolar hypoventilation or the consequence of an acute exacerbation of chronic
pulmonary hypoventilation when the patients have daytime hypercapnia at stable state
(the so-called ‘‘acute-on-chronic respiratory failure’’). This distinction is usually not
necessary because the triggering factors, physiopathology and management of both
conditions are similar.
One or several triggering factors, such as pneumonia, pulmonary oedema, drug
overdose and pulmonary embolism, may be identified, but their incidence does not seem
to be higher than in a cohort of nonobese patients [2]. Conversely, a significantly higher
proportion of obese patients present with cor pulmonale [2]. In the present authors’
experience, no triggering factor has been identified in a majority of obese patients
presenting with AHRF, which suggests the underlying responsibility of sleep related
breathing disorders (SRBDs) that are associated with obesity [10, 11]. In a reference
study, RABEC et al. suggest a simple classification of obese patients with AHRF
according to their SRBD profile and their pulmonary comorbidity. At the present
authors’ centre, they routinely use the clinical approach according to RABEC et al. [12]
that rationalises the management of the acute episode and the indication of domiciliary
ventilation after discharge.
Obstructive sleep apnoeas

A definite diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) is provided by a
ventilatory polygraphy or a polysomnography. The diagnosis of OSAS implies that the
diurnal arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) will be normalised when the patient is
treated by continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). The persistence of hypercapnia
despite a well-performed CPAP treatment suggests an associated ventilatory or
pulmonary disorder.
The incidence of AHRF in a cohort of OSAS patients remains unknown.
ORDRONNEAU et al. [13] reported 25 patients in whom a diagnosis of OSAS was
performed within 4 months after an ICU stay for AHRF. They were all invasively
ventilated during 12¡2 days and discharged alive from ICU. These patients were
compared with 182 other OSAS patients where the diagnosis of SRBDs was obtained
during the routine activity of a sleep laboratory. Apnoea/hypopnoea index (AHI) at
48
NIV FOR AHRF
stable state was not different between the two groups but OSAS patients diagnosed after
ICU stay had a more pronounced daytime hypoxaemia, more pronounced daytime
hypercapnia and a higher percentage of the night spent with arterial oxygen saturation
measured by pulse oximetry (Sp,O2) ,90% (59¡13 versus 39¡13%, respectively).
Moreover, they were more susceptible to have low forced expiratory volume in one
second (FEV1; 1.96¡0.5 versus 2.35¡0.8 L, respectively) and low FEV1/forced vital
capacity (FVC; 65¡15 and 71¡11%, respectively) but this difference did not reach
statistical significance. This study suggests that the severity of nocturnal desaturations is
a better predictor of AHRF compared with apnoea/hypopnoea index (AHI) and that
OSAS in COPD may also increase the risk of further AHRF. This last point has to be
further evaluated in a large cohort of patients with this overlap syndrome.
Sleep alveolar hypoventilation

Alveolar hypoventilation and therefore daytime hypercapnia in obesity is currently
explained by three mechanisms, which may overlap: decreased thoracic compliance,
alteration of ventilatory control and increased upper airways resistance. Alveolar
hypoventilation is the hallmark of the recently described obesity–hypoventilation
syndrome (OHS), previously known as ‘‘Pickwickian’’ syndrome. This diagnosis is
defined by the association of a BMI.30 kg?m-2 and a diurnal hypoventilation i.e. a
daytime hypercapnia. When diagnosing OHS, most authors are very careful to exclude a
concomitant chronic pulmonary disease that could also be responsible for chronic
hypercapnia like COPD, thoracic deformation or neuromuscular disease. Clinicians
should be aware that 80–90% of OHS patients have concomitant nocturnal hypoventila-
tion and obstructive sleep apnoeas [14, 15]. Natural history of OHS is still poorly
understood and the impact of associated OSAS in the development of chronic respiratory
failure is still a subject of debate. Importantly, most of the current knowledge about the
OHS has been assessed in patients indicated for nocturnal evaluation in a sleep laboratory,
mainly because of suspected OSAS. Clinical assessments of chronic respiratory failure in a
nonselected population of obese patients are more difficult to perform but may produce
nonbiased information about the disease [16].
Incidence of AHRF appears to be high in a population of patients with OHS;
KESSLER et al. [17] reported that about half of their OHS patients were hospitalised i1
time in the ICU before a definite diagnosis was performed. Moreover, the incidence of
mechanical ventilation was high in their patients with most of them having had invasive
ventilation.
Concomitant chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a very common diagnosis in the
general population and is a major confounding factor when assessing pulmonary
consequences of obesity. Currently, there is some evidence which suggests that COPD
and obesity may act additively and perhaps synergistically in order to precipitate the
development of chronic respiratory failure in obese patients.
COPD by itself is responsible for nocturnal hypoventilation and significant
desaturations that appear during sleep stage 3–4 and are more pronounced during
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. These desaturations are attributed to a decreased
activity of accessory respiratory muscles, decreased tidal volume during sleep (-20%
during stage 3–4 non-REM sleep and -40% during REM sleep) and an increased dead
space volume [18]. In COPD patients with obesity, this sleep pattern is added to the
ventilatory consequences of obesity as previously described.
49
A. CUVELIER ET AL.
The overlap syndrome (concomitant COPD and OSAS) was identified in 1985 by
FLENLEY [19]. This condition is now considered in the presence of the three following
criteria: clinical history of COPD or emphysema, FEV1/FVC ,70% and a definite
diagnosis of OSAS [19]. Because OSAS and COPD are both prevalent diseases in the
general population, it is therefore not surprising to find this association. The overlap
syndrome is the final diagnosis in y10–15% of OSAS patients investigated in a
respiratory sleep laboratory, due to a high clinical suspicion of nocturnal respiratory
events [20, 21].
The association of OSAS and COPD is not related to a specific clinical pattern
compared with isolated OSAS, especially when considering diurnal hypersomnolence
and dyspnoea. However, patients with overlap syndrome have more-severe nocturnal
desaturations compared with OSAS or COPD patients. Moreover, the amplitude of
these desaturations seems to be roughly similar to the addition of the desaturations due
to OSAS and those due to COPD [22]; especially during REM sleep. Another specificity
is that y40% of patients with overlap syndrome in fact develop diurnal hypercapnia
despite an obstructive airway pattern that is less severe than during COPD alone (as
judged by the FEV1) [21]. This diurnal hypercapnia is correlated to the severity of the
nocturnal desaturation [20] and is more-frequently accompanied by pulmonary
hypertension than during isolated OSAS [20]. Inversely, pulmonary hypertension may
be encountered at a stable state during OSAS and is not specifically associated to a
coexisting COPD [23]. Pulmonary hypertension is a marker of sustained hypoxaemia
and a major prognostic factor during chronic respiratory diseases. The incidence of
acute respiratory failure (ARF) in a cohort of patients with overlap syndrome is
currently not known but the previous study by ORDRONNEAU et al. [13] indicates that it
is probably an important recruitment factor in ICU.
Evaluation of AHRF in obese patients

AHRF in obese patients is associated with respiratory encephalopathy, right heart
failure with dyspnoea, peripheral oedema and diurnal hypersomnolence [24]. Chest
radiograph often reveals cardiomegaly with interstitial or alveolar oedema with its
‘‘butterfly’’ pattern. This is frequent in obese patients who often have cardiac
comorbidities or even a specific cardiomyopathy [25]. SRBDs may be clinically suspected
during sleep with typical hypoventilation or even central apnoeas lasting 10–20 s. Some
patients have obstructive apnoeas with ineffective breathing efforts followed by deep noisy
inspirations. Nocturnal oximetry is not sufficiently sensitive to achieve a definite diagnosis
of SRBDs, particularly as sleep is quite altered in patients in the ICU and because
additional oxygen interferes with recording sleep data.
Ventilatory polygraphy and polysomnography

Performing polysomnography in the ICU, according to the quality criteria required,
in a sleep laboratory is difficult and practically impossible. However, ventilatory
polygraphs, even if not sensitive, produce highly specific information regarding SRBDs,
whatever the sleep architecture. This approach has revolutionised the diagnosis of OSAS
in stable state patients since the disease is no longer diagnosed in a sleep laboratory
using electroencephalogram (EEG) but at home with simple-to-use ambulatory
polygraphs, without assessment of sleep architecture. In the present authors’ experience,
hypoventilation or obstructive/central apnoeas are so prevalent in obese patients with
AHRF that polysomnographies should be reserved only for clinical research.
50
NIV FOR AHRF
Ventilatory polygraphs combine a transcutaneous oximetry, analysis of cardiac

frequency, thoracic and abdominal movements by two impedance plethysmographic
bands, and an analysis of nasal/mouth airflow with a dedicated sensor. Optionally, a
body position sensor and a microphone in order to analyse tracheal sounds may be
added. Nocturnal ventilatory polygraphy in the acute setting is not aimed at providing a
quantitative analysis of SRBDs but is rather to help characterise the main nocturnal
profiles (fig. 1). More-recent devices combine ventilatory assessments with a simplified
EEG signal but their performance should still be evaluated in clinical practice. From the
present authors’ point of view, a sleep respiratory pattern in the ICU does not signify a
definite diagnosis at stable state. For instance, the clinician should be aware that
diagnosing hypoventilation in the ICU during AHRF does not signify that the patient
has OHS at stable state. There is an apparent modification of ventilatory patterns in
obese patients between acute and stable state. For instance, in the present authors’
experience, a significant proportion of patients with hypoventilation during AHRF will
not have daytime or even nocturnal hypoventilation after returning at stable state.
Therefore, identifying sleep respiratory events in the ICU should not be confused with
confirming a definite diagnosis of OHS, OSAS or OHS and OSAS [26]. All patients
should be definitely diagnosed with a polysomnography in a sleep laboratory after
returning to stable state, usually within the first three months after ICU discharge.
Apart from diagnosing the nocturnal respiratory pattern during AHRF, a potential
benefit of polygraphy in ICU is to determine how the ventilator should be set in order to
correct the nocturnal/daytime hypoventilation and/or the central/obstructive apnoeas
that characterise these patients in AHRF. This approach will be discussed in the
following paragraph of this chapter. Finally, the choice of a performing polygraph
requires not only choosing a nonfragile and easy-to-set material but also effective
software in order to interpret the data (fig. 1). The automatic interpretation of
obstructive or central SRBD, based on the software, should never be definitive and a
manual analysis by a trained physician is mandatory. In the present authors’ experience,
this work takes y20–30 min per patient. Clearly, the performance of the software may
vary from one model to the other and is one of the most relevant criteria when choosing
one device over the other.
The optimal timing to perform polygraphy in the ICU is not clear. Some authors
prefer short-term assessments for only 30–180 min [27, 28]. Due to a low sensibility
Microphone
Microphone
Susternal
pressure
Flow
Airway
pressure
Thoracic
Abdominal
Oesophageal
pressure
Sp,O2
Leaks
Fig. 1. – A representative polygraphic record under noninvasive ventilation in an obese patient with acute hypercapnic
respiratory failure. An oesophageal record was simultaneously performed in order to assess possible asynchronies and
identify poor patient–ventilator interactions. Sp,O2: arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry.
51
A. CUVELIER ET AL.
(polygraphy may be subnormal especially if the patient did not sleep during these
minutes), the present authors suggest that full-night recordings in fact provide better
assessments. In their experience, ventilatory polygraphy in spontaneous breathing is
performed as soon as respiratory acidosis is controlled. The trained staff on call during
the night provide an additional clinical judgment about sleep quality and respiration
during sleep. Low-flow oxygen may be used if necessary but always maintained as low as
possible in order to optimise the interpretation of the Sp,O2 recording. The authors
suggest that these polygraphic recordings during AHRF should never be performed
outside the ICU (i.e. never in the ward or sleep laboratory).
Clinical results
The advantage of a rapid diagnosis of respiratory events in obese patients with AHRF
has been confirmed by previous clinical studies, during a period where NIV or CPAP
were not used in routine practice. In the 1970s, a diagnosis of Pickwickian syndrome was
usually associated with 30–40% mortality, and clinicians were aware of the high
incidence of carbonarcosis in these patients. More recently, BUCKLE et al. [27] reported
their own experience regarding polysomnography in nine patients hospitalised in the
ICU for hypoxaemic or hypercapnic respiratory failure. Their approach led to an
aetiological diagnosis (six patients with OHS, two patients with neuromuscular disorder
and one patient with COPD) and permitted to choose the most adapted therapeutics
(CPAP, NIV and oxygen) in order to improve SRBD. According to these authors,
performing polysomnography avoided endotracheal intubation in half of the patients.
Moreover, this exploration helped to set and monitor the ventilatory settings.
RESTA et al. [28] detailed how they performed polysomnographies for at least 3 h in 14
obese patients hospitalised for AHRF, during the first 3–5 days after admission. A
second polysomnographic assessment was performed at least 6 weeks after the AHRF
episode in a sleep laboratory. A total of 10 (71.3%) patients had obstructive apnoeas or
hypopnoeas and two (14.3%) patients had central apnoeas. A characteristic pattern of
nocturnal hypoventilation was found in the majority of cases and was the sole SRBD
pattern in only two (14.3%) patients. All patients required to be mechanically ventilated
with low-flow oxygen; eight of them were discharged home with domiciliary CPAP and
five patients with domiciliary pressure-cycled NIV.
Obviously, sleep hypoventilation is the major abnormality encountered in the great
majority if not all obese patients with AHRF. However, neither the natural history of
SRBD in obese patients nor the physiopathology of the AHRF episodes in these
patients is clearly understood. The present authors suggest that a semiologic description
of SRBD in the acute setting should not presume of a clinical diagnosis at stable state.
Obviously, if a patient has nocturnal hypoventilation during AHRF, this does not
signify that they have OHS at stable state. In the absence of further knowledge about
natural history of SRBD, either in the acute or chronic settings, a definite pulmonary
diagnosis in obese patients should be restricted to the chest physician according to
clinical history, polysomnography and pulmonary function tests that will be performed
after ICU discharge.
Mechanical ventilation in obese patients with AHRF

Due to the fact that hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis worsen under oxygen
therapy alone, obese patients with AHRF should be managed by mechanical ventilation
52
NIV FOR AHRF
as soon as Pa,CO2 rise .6.0 kPa and/or pH ƒ7.35. Pa,CO2 is one of the key parameter to
be monitored by iterative arterial blood gas samplings and possibly by alternative less
invasive methodologies like transcutaneous Pa,CO2 [29, 30]. Pharmacological manage-
ment by respiratory analeptics and/or diuretics is of minor clinical benefit in obese
patients with AHRF.
There is a physiopathological rationale for using NIV in obese patients with AHRF,
in order to decrease respiratory load, increase thoracic compliance, improve nocturnal
alveolar hypoventilation and to reset respiratory centres. In a pioneering work, PANKOW
et al. [31] have compared diurnal physiological respiratory parameters under
spontaneous breathing and during bi-level NIV in 18 patients with BMI .40 mg?kg-1.
They considered three categories of patients: simple obesity (n55), OSAS (n57) and
OHS (n56). No significant difference was observed between each group; however, in all
patients, an improvement of tidal volume and a decreased respiratory rate were
observed under NIV in the OSAS and OHS groups. End-tidal carbon dioxide tension
(PET,CO2) was not modified in cases of simple obesity and OSAS but was decreased in
OHS patients. An important result was that muscular activity was significantly reduced
(y40%) in the three patient groups, indicating that NIV is able to decrease the load
imposed to respiratory muscles in morbidly obese patients.
NIV: case series

SHIVARAM et al. [32] treated six patients with morbid obesity (159¡19% of ideal
weight) associated with OSAS and hospitalized for AHRF (pH 7.23¡0.03, Pa,CO2 of
10.6¡0.5 kPa). All these patients were treated by CPAP with additional oxygen and
their clinical status improved in the 24 h after mechanical ventilation was initiated.
STURANI et al. [33] confirmed the benefit of noninvasive ventilation in six other obese
patients (BMI 50.3¡4.8 kg?m-2) with AHRF and encephalopathy. Their patients were
ventilated with a bi-level mode and a 10?min-1 backup frequency (inspiratory positive
airway pressure (IPAP) 18 cmH20, expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP)
7 cmH20). IPAP was progressively increased by 2 cmH20 increments, according to the
clinical status. A 2–4 L?min-1 additional oxygen flow was necessary in most of the
patients. These authors observed a rapid improvement of clinical status and arterial
blood gases in ,24 h, without requiring endotracheal intubation. Index of nocturnal
respiratory events was 63¡9 at the end of an ICU stay. In a retrospective study from the
present authors’ group, an immediate success was observed in 20 obese patients with
AHRF and treated with bi-level NIV [26]. Two delayed NIV failures requiring
endotracheal intubation were observed; 1 month later, polysomnography revealed
OSAS in nine patients and OHS in 11 other patients who were treated by domiciliary
NIV [26].
The most important experience was from RABEC et al. [12], who described the clinical
evolution in 41 obese patients hospitalised for AHRF and treated by bi-level NIV (initial
settings: IPAP 16 cmH20, EPAP 4 cmH20). A total of six patients had OSAS, 19 had
OHS, four had COPD without OSAS and 10 had overlap syndrome (COPD plus
OSAS). Mean age was 63¡11 yrs, BMI was 42¡9 kg?m-2, pH at admission was
7.32¡0.04, Pa,CO2 was 9.4¡1.7 kPa. 39 (95%) out of 41 patients were successfully
treated by NIV without requiring endotracheal intubation. Mean Pa,CO2 dropped to
6.7¡0.8 kPa after 7 days of mechanical ventilation.
Case series concerning NIV in AHRF obese patients remain scarce, noncontrolled
and have included only a small number of patients. By comparison with the major
benefits of NIV prescribed in COPD patients hospitalised for AHRF [34, 35], the ability
of NIV to prevent endotracheal intubation, decrease the number of complications and
53
A. CUVELIER ET AL.
decrease the hospital length of stay in the obese patients with AHRF has still to be
properly demonstrated. However, the therapeutic benefits in the previously mentioned
studies were so remarkable that any future randomised studies might be considered as
unethical. From the present authors’ point of view, NIV is the first step when managing
AHRF in obese patients and should be routinely considered outside the classical
contraindications that imply immediate intubation (table 1).
NIV for AHRF in patients with OHS

Ventilatory assistance is aimed at improving alveolar hypoventilation and, therefore,
positive inspiratory pressure will be the most important parameter to be established.
Positive expiratory pressure does not provide any therapeutic effect, per se, since
patients with OHS do not have associated obstructive apnoeas or hypopnoeas [36]. The
optimal ventilatory mode is pressure support, using turbine-driven ventilators or ICU
ventilators. A backup frequency rate is required in most cases, due of the likelihood of
sleep central apnoeas. If a single circuit is used, it should be equipped with an expiratory
valve or an intentional calibrated leak. In this previous case, a slight expiratory positive
pressure is required in order to limit CO2 rebreathing. Clinical series show that OHS
patients with AHRF require high levels of inspiratory positive pressures (often
.22 cmH20) due to low thoracic compliance in this disease. Another ventilatory mode
in these patients is flow-preset mode that allows a better control of delivered volumes.
AHRF in obese patients is one of the last medical situations where pressure support may
be less effective than flow-preset modes. After discharge, most OHS patients are
managed with nocturnal bi-level NIV without additional oxygen [37].
NIV for AHRF in obese patients with OHS + OSAS

Hypercapnia and even AHRF may reappear in some of these patients if discharged
home with CPAP alone. Indeed, alveolar hypoventilation during AHRF is not always
related to OSAS and it is therefore reasonable to use bi-level NIV on a first-line basis
during AHRF episodes. Again, a backup frequency rate is highly suggested because of
abnormal ventilatory control in some of these patients. In the present authors’
experience, mean efficient expiratory positive pressure levels are usually 6–9 cmH20 [26].
This critical pressure is aimed at stabilising upper airways and to prevent collapse during
the subsequent inspirations. After improvement of alveolar hypoventilation, some of
these patients may be switched to domiciliary CPAP (with or without additional
oxygen), according to the results of a polysomnographic recording in the sleep
laboratory. Finally, a limited number of overlap (OHS plus OSAS) patients may benefit
from flow-preset domiciliary ventilation [38].
Table 1. – Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) contraindications in obese patients with acute hypercapnic
respiratory failure
Ventricular arythmias
Bradycardia
Unstable haemodynamics
Respiratory encephalopathy that does not improve under NIV
Stridor or previously identified anatomic upper airways obstruction
Refractory hypoxaemia
54
NIV FOR AHRF
NIV for AHRF in patients with overlap syndrome (COPD plus OSAS)
Bi-level noninvasive pressure support is the cardinal treatment for these patients [12]
even though flow-preset ventilatory mode may be also successful in some patients. After
discharge from the ICU, CPAP is still an option but some authors have found that
CPAP is sometimes poorly tolerated and hypercapnia may reappear [39]. A majority of
these patients are more comfortably treated by bi-level and even flow-preset NIV.
Nocturnal oxygen therapy is required in the majority of these patients. The relatively
high morbidity and mortality in patients with overlap syndrome after hospitalisation for
AHRF [13] justifies early recognition of this morbid association and requires to
regularly re-evaluate the treatment.
NIV: conclusion
The main specificities of ventilatory management of obese patients with AHRF are
the following: the high efficiency of noninvasive bi-level mode, a back-up frequency rate,
an additional oxygen therapy, higher inspiratory pressures if patients have overlap
syndrome or OHS, elevated expiratory positive pressures if patients have pure or
associated OSAS. When bi-level mode fails and if intubation criteria are not met
(table 1) then the patient should be switched to a flow-preset mode [38, 40, 41]. Based on
a relatively limited number of published reports, NIV failure rate in obese patients with
AHRF varies from 0 to 36%, which is a better result than encountered in COPD patients
with acute exacerbation. DUARTE et al. [42] found that patients failing with bi-level NIV
have a greater BMI and this would be an argument in favor of switching to flow-preset
mode. However, their study was a retrospective design and intubation criteria were not
applied prospectively.
Invasive ventilation
Obese patients requiring invasive ventilation have prolonged ICU and hospital
lengths of stay compared with patients managed by NIV [2, 42]. Clearly, intubation of
an obese patient with AHRF in obese patients should be limited to those with NIV
contraindications or NIV failure during an ICU stay (table 1). These situations have
become rare in units that have developed SRBD evaluation and where clinical staff have
been trained and developed expertise with NIV.
Endotracheal intubation may be a difficult procedure to perform in obese patients
because of a short neck, a macroglossia and thickness of oropharyngeal soft tissues [43].
Clinicians should be aware of potential difficulty to expose the glottis during direct
laryngoscopy, a situation that may be anticipated with the Mallampati clinical score that
has been modified by SAMSOON and YOUNG [44]. Other tests predictive of a difficult
intubation have been described [45]. Performing intubation is also difficult in patients
who previously have had uvulo-palato-pharyngoplasty. Difficult intubation is
associated with a non-negligible morbidity and mortality and one of the solutions is
probably to guide the tube in the trachea with the aid of a fibrescope.
Invasive ventilation settings have some specificity in obese patients because of the
increase of airway resistances and the decrease of thoracic compliances. Tidal volumes
should not be set according to the real weight but rather based on ideal weight and
secondarily adjusted according to airway pressures and serial arterial blood gas results.
Trendelenburg posture improves mechanical ventilation in obese patients, by increasing
tidal volume and by decreasing respiratory frequency [46]. A slight level of expiratory
positive pressure is required in order to prevent segmental and sub-segmental atelectasis.
55
A. CUVELIER ET AL.
Otherwise, the ventilatory settings are similar to those prescribed in nonobese patients
with flow-preset in sedated patients that are secondarily switched to pressure support as
soon as sedation is stopped. Clearly, sedation duration should be shortened as much as
possible and weaning protocols for benzodiazepines are of high clinical value [47].
During the weaning procedure, a cuff-leak test should be routinely performed, because
of a frequent narrowing of the upper airways. Mechanical ventilation is therefore
converted to NIV and, especially in patients in whom long-term NIV is indicated,
according to sleep studies under spontaneous breathing. NIV has been shown to be
effective in averting respiratory failure in severely obese patients when applied during
the first 48 h post-extubation [48]. The benefits seem to be greater in obese patients
having chronic hypercapnia at stable state [48].
Tracheostomy is now rarely performed in obese patients hospitalised for AHRF
because of the rapid expansion of NIV procedures. In a long-term setting, tracheostomy
may be indicated when NIV fails or is contra-indicated, mainly because of iterative
inhalations. Tracheostomy is usually performed by percutaneous dilatation (Ciaglia
technique). This technique has been evaluated in 13 obese patients and appears to be as
easy and without additional complications to perform in obese than in nonobese
patients [49]. On a long-term basis, rigid cannulas are often badly tolerated due to the
short and thickened neck.
Summary
Acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in obese patients is an increasing cause of
hospitalisation in intensive care units. Despite a few publications on this topic,
noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has become the main modality of ventilatory assistance
for these patients. NIV specificities are: efficacy of the bilevel mode, mandatory back-
up frequency, additional oxygen therapy required, positive inspiratory pressures
elevated in patients having obesity–hypoventilation syndrome (OHS) or associated
COPD and obstructive sleep apneas (OSAS), positive expiratory pressure elevated in
case of OSAS. Flow-preset mode should be tested in case of failure with bilevel mode.
In patients with COPD or OHS, an associated nocturnal alveolar hypoventilation at
stable state justifies to institute domiciliary NIV. The ventilatory settings will be set
according to arterial blood gases and polysomnography a few months after discharge
from AHRF.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, obesity, obesity-hypoventilation syndrome,

overlap syndrome, sleep apnea.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank R. Medeiros (University of Rouen,

Rouen, France), for helpful assistance when editing the manuscript.
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47. Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O’Connor MF, Hall JB. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in
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58
NIV FOR AHRF
48. El-Solh AA, Aquilina A, Pineda L, Dhanvantri V, Grant B, Bouquin P. Noninvasive ventilation
for prevention of post-extubation respiratory failure in obese patients. Eur Respir J 2006; 28:
588–595.
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1426–1429.
59
CHAPTER 5
NIV: indication in case of acute hypoxaemic

respiratory failure (pulmonary oedema and
immunosuppressed patients excluded)
M. Ferrer*,#, A. Torres#,"
*Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos e Intermedios Respiratorios, Servei de Pneumologia, Hospital Clı́nic,

"
Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Universitat de Barcelona, and
#
Centre de Investigación Biomédica En Red-Entermedades Respiratorias (CibeRes, CB06/06/0028),
Barcelona, Spain.
Correspondence: M. Ferrer, Servei de Pneumologia, Hospital Clı́nic, Villarroel 170, 08036 Barcelona,
Spain. Fax: 34 932275549; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Based on controlled clinical trials that demonstrate a marked decrease in the needs for
intubation, as well as improved morbidity and mortality, noninvasive ventilation (NIV)
is now considered as a first-line ventilatory treatment in selected patients with severe
exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and hypercapnic
respiratory failure [1–4]. The benefits of NIV appear to be the consequence of avoiding
tracheal intubation and the associated morbidity and mortality. Morbidity includes an
increased risk for ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) [5], ventilator-induced lung
injury [6], increased needs of sedation that contribute to prolonged ventilation and
complications of the upper airway related to prolonged translaryngeal intubation.
Other patients, who show benefits from the use of NIV, are those affected by acute
cardiogenic pulmonary oedema (CPO). Both NIV and continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP) are equally effective in decreasing the needs for intubation and
improving mortality in these patients [7, 8]. Finally, immunosuppressed patients have
poor outcome when they develop pulmonary infiltrates and acute hypoxaemic
respiratory failure (AHRF); in these patients, NIV seems to decrease the needs for
intubation and the related morbidity and mortality [9, 10].
However, the role of NIV in other type of patient is still under debate. It is possible
that other populations at risk of complications related to invasive mechanical
ventilation may benefit from the use of NIV. However, the efficacy of NIV in patients
with different types of AHRF is less evident from controlled clinical trials. The first
problem in addressing patients with AHRF is the heterogeneity of this condition.
Studies assessing the outcome of patients with AHRF, treated with NIV in the intensive
care unit (ICU) identified up to nine different groups of patients, with substantial
differences in outcomes among them (fig. 1) [11]. Moreover, the majority of clinical
trials that have assessed the efficacy of NIV in patients with AHRF, studied mixed
populations of patients, which resulted in controversial results when all trials were
analysed together.
Therefore, the present chapter will analyse the role of NIV in the management of
patients with AHRF from clinical trials with mixed and specific populations of patients.
ISSN 1025-448x.
60
INDICATION IN AHRF
100 100
80 80
n
n
Failure rate %
60 n 60
Patients n
n
n
n
40 40
n
20 n 20
n
0 0
pneumonia
Hospital-acquired
ARDS-pulmonary
Pulmonary contusion
pneumonia
Community-acquired
oedema
Pulmonary fibrosis
ARDS-extrapulmonary
Atelectasis
Cardiogenic pulmonary
Inhalation pneumonia
Fig. 1. – Causes of acute hypoxemic respiratory failure and frequency of noninvasive ventilation failure. Acute
respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) patients were divided into pulmonary and extra-pulmonary origin. &: number
of patients; &: percentage of patients that required intubation. Adapted from [11].
Severe community-acquired pneumonia

Severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is defined as those cases that require
admission to an ICU. Direct admission to an ICU is required for patients with septic
shock or acute respiratory failure (ARF) requiring invasive mechanical ventilation,
defined as major severity criteria in the current Infectious Disease Society of America/
American Thoracic Society guidelines used to define severe CAP [12]. Admission to an
ICU is also recommended for patients with other minor severity criteria (table 1).
Among all criteria that define severe CAP, the need for invasive ventilation, severe
arterial hypoxaemia and increased respiratory rate are related to AHRF.
Despite the fact that the main aspect in the management of patients with pneumonia
is an appropriate initial empirical antimicrobial treatment, the supportive measures
(respiratory failure, shock, renal failure and protection of the airways, among others)
are also essential in patients with severe CAP. The background for the use of NIV in
severe CAP is related to the presence of severe ARF. Invasive ventilation is indicated in
case of life-threatening respiratory failure; however, invasive ventilation is associated
with increased risk of severe complications. Since, in general, the main objective of NIV
in severe ARF is help in overcoming the acute episode without the need for invasive
mechanical ventilation; by avoiding tracheal intubation, morbidity and mortality with
decrease in these patients (fig. 2).
NIV and pneumonia

Pneumonia in patients treated with NIV is persistently associated with poor outcome in
the literature. The first study, which found this association, was a retrospective analysis of
61
M. FERRER, A. TORRES
Table 1. – Criteria for severe community-acquired pneumonia according to the Infectious Disease Society of
America/American Thoracic Society guidelines adapted from [12]
Minor criteria
Respiratory rate# i30 breaths?min-1
Pa,O2/FI,O2# ƒ250
Multilobar infiltrates
Confusion/disorientation
Uraemia (blood urea nitrogen level i20 mg?dL-1)
Leukopoenia (WBC count ,46109 cells?L-1)
Thrombocytopoenia (platelet count ,1006109 cells?L-1)
Hypothermia (core temperature ,36uC)
Hypotension requiring aggressive fluid resuscitation
Major criteria
Invasive mechanical ventilation
Septic shock with the need for vasopressors
Pa,O2: arterial oxgen tension; FI,O2: inspiratory oxygen fraction; WBC: white blood cell. #: noninvasive ventilation
can substitute for respiratory rate i30 breaths?min-1 or Pa,O2/FI,O2 ƒ250.
59 episodes of ARF in 47 patients with COPD exacerbations. NIV was effective in 46

patients and failed in 13 patients, who required tracheal intubation and invasive
mechanical ventilation [13]. Among others, a univariate analysis assessing predictors of
NIV failure found pneumonia as the cause of exacerbation associated with a higher failure
of NIV. In that study, pneumonia was the cause of 38% of unsuccessful episodes and 9%
of successful episodes of ARF. While the failure rate of patients with other causes of
exacerbation was 16%, the failure rate of patients with pneumonia was 56%.
A multinational study in 8 ICUs analysed the evolution of 356 patients, who received
NIV for an episode of severe AHRF, in relation to the aetiology of the episode [11].
Among the different causes of AHRF, the highest rates of tracheal intubation
corresponded to patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS; 51%) and
CAP (50%; fig. 1). A multivariate analysis of predictors of NIV failure found the
presence of ARDS or CAP to be a significant and independent predictor of NIV failure,
with an adjusted odds ratio of 3.75. Other independent predictors of NIV failure were
age .40 yrs, higher scores of severity at ICU admission and worse hypoxaemia after 1 h
of NIV treatment.
Another prospective study analysed 24 patients without underlying chronic
respiratory disease who were treated with NIV because of severe CAP and ARF [14].
In general, the use of NIV was followed by a decrease in respiratory rate and increase in
Severe acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure
IMV leads to increased morbidity and mortality
Main goal of NIV: Avoid ETI
Avoidance of ETI
Improved morbidity and mortality?
Fig. 2. – Rationale for using noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in severe acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure.
IMV: invasive mechanical ventilation; ETI: endotracheal intubation.
62
INDICATION IN AHRF
arterial hypoxaemia after 30 mins, with return to the baseline values after NIV was
removed. The overall intubation rate was 67% in these patients. Among others,
advanced age and lower levels of arterial oxygenation were predictors for intubation.
Likewise, intubation was associated with higher mortality and longer hospital stay. By
contrast, those patients in whom NIV prevented intubation had a very favourable
outcome. Due to the good outcome in these patients when tracheal intubation was
avoided and the fact that the assessment of the efficacy of NIV resulted in minimal delay
in intubation, the authors of that study suggested that these patients may undergo a trial
of NIV with appropriate monitoring in order to avoid unnecessary delay in intubation.
This contrast between a favourable physiological response to NIV and a poor clinical
evolution of patients with severe CAP was observed in another study in patients with
severe AHRF, 18 with severe CAP and 15 with CPO [15]. Both groups had similar
baseline levels of arterial hypoxaemia, respiratory rate and cardiac frequency. The
improvement in arterial hypoxaemia and cardiac frequency was similar in both groups
of patients, while respiratory frequency improved only in patients with CPO when NIV
was applied. Likewise, the intubation rate was higher and the hospital stay was longer in
patients with pneumonia.
In light of these results it can be concluded that, in patients with severe AHRF who
need NIV, those whose cause of respiratory failure is pneumonia are among those with
worse outcomes, even with similar levels of arterial hypoxaemia. However, prospective
randomised clinical trials are needed in order to assess whether NIV is effective in
patients with severe CAP.
Evidences on the efficacy of NIV in CAP

Few controlled trials have assessed the efficacy of NIV in patients with severe
pneumonia. The only prospective randomised controlled trial in patients with severe
CAP included 56 patients, who were allocated to receive conventional treatment with or
without NIV [16]. That study demonstrated that patients who had received NIV
together with conventional treatment had lower rate of tracheal intubation and a shorter
stay in the intermediate care unit than those who received conventional treatment only
(21 versus 50%, respectively; p,0.03); although the length of hospital stay and hospital
mortality were similar between both groups. That study also showed, in a subset
analysis, that the significant benefits of NIV occurred in patients with COPD and
hypercapnic respiratory failure only; this subset of patients had also a lower mortality
after 2 months (11 versus 63%, respectively; p50.05). By contrast, patients with neither
COPD nor hypercapnic respiratory failure did not benefit from NIV. Although those
results were promising, the routine use of NIV in patients with CAP and without COPD
has not been clearly established.
A more-recent prospective randomised controlled trial in patients with severe AHRF
demonstrated that NIV decreased ICU mortality and the need for tracheal intubation,
compared with high-concentration oxygen therapy [17]. Moreover, a subgroup analysis
observed that patients with pneumonia as the cause of the episode of AHRF were those
in whom NIV showed significant benefits; in this subset of patients, the benefits in
decreasing tracheal intubation and ICU mortality remained. With regard to the other
subsets of patients, there was a nonsignificant trend to a lower rate of NIV failure in
patients with thoracic trauma, and NIV failure in patients from this study with CPO and
ARDS was very low and high, respectively, without differences between patients treated
with NIV and those from the control group [17]. In that study, the use of NIV resulted in
a faster improvement of arterial hypoxaemia and tachypnoea, compared with high-
63
concentration oxygen therapy (fig. 3). Likewise, NIV was also associated with a lower
rate of septic shock and a trend to a lower incidence of hospital-acquired pneumonia.
In summary, patients with severe CAP, who receive NIV as a support for severe
AHRG, are among those with the highest rate of NIV failure. For this reason, when
NIV is indicated in these patients, they should be managed in a setting with appropriate
resources in staff and equipment for a correct monitoring in order to detect evidences of
NIV failure early and, therefore, avoid unnecessary delay in the intubation of patients.
However, an appropriate selection of patients with severe CAP, and the addition of NIV
to the standard treatment may decrease the likelihood to need intubation.
a) 225
200
l
125 l l l
l
Pa,O2/FI,O2
l
150 * *
*
l * t t t
125 t
t t
t
100 t
l
0
b) 40
l
t
35
Respiratory frequency
t
t
l t
30 * t
l * t
l l t
l t
l
25
l
0
Bas 12 34 68 12 24 48 72
Time h
Fig. 3. – Time-course evolution (mean+SEM) of arterial hypoxaemia, as assessed by a) the arterial oxgen tension
(Pa,O2)/inspiratory oxygen fraction (FI,O2) ratio and b) respiratory frequency in the noninvasive ventilation (NIV; $)
and control (,) groups. Both variables improved with time in both groups. After Bonferroni correction, the
improvement of the two variables was significantly greater in the NIV group after 3–4 h randomisation and remained
significantly greater 6–8 and 24 h after randomisation for Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio and respiratory frequency, respectively.
The number of patients under study at baseline (Bas), 1–2, 3–4, 6–8, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h were 51, 51, 50, 49, 44, 35, 21
and 12, respectively for the NIV group, and 54, 54, 52, 49, 44, 38, 20 and 15, respectively for the control group. The
time-course decrease of patients corresponds to those meeting criteria to terminate the protocol. *: p,0.05 compared
with the NIV and control groups. Adapted from [17].
64
INDICATION IN AHRF
ARDS
Patients with ARDS are among those with the worst outcome when they receive NIV
as a support measure for severe AHRF, with high rates of NIV failure [11, 17, 18] and
limited efficacy in different studies. The severity of arterial hypoxaemia and the frequent
impairment of pulmonary mechanics in those patients may explain the high intubation
rate shown in several studies, regardless of NIV use or not.
To date, there are no controlled clinical trials that have assesses the efficacy of NIV
specifically in patients with acute lung injury (ALI)/ARDS. A prospective observational
study in 54 patients with ALI, who received NIV, found that shock, metabolic acidosis
and profound hypoxaemia predicted NIV failure [18]. In that study, the observed
mortality of patients who failed NIV was higher than that predicted by the Acute
Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE)-II score, suggesting that NIV
should be used very cautiously, or not at all, in patients with predictors of NIV failure.
Another prospective multicentre cohort study investigated the application of NIV as a
first-line intervention in 147 patients with early ARDS [19]. In that study, NIV improved
hypoxaemia and avoided intubation in 54% of patients and avoidance of intubation was
associated with a lower incidence of VAP and a lower ICU mortality rate. Intubation
was more common in older patients and patients with higher severity scores or the need
for a higher level of positive end-expiratory pressure of pressure support ventilation. The
variables independently associated with NIV failure were higher severity scores and
failure to improve hypoxaemia after 1 h of NIV.
Other causes of severe ARF

An important part of the first published series assessing the efficacy of NIV in patients
with AHRF included patients with different causes of AHRF. There series could not
establish the efficacy of NIV in this subset of patients and showed disparate results,
mainly because of the heterogeneity of AHRF, since patients with CPO, ARDS and
trauma were also included [20]. Moreover, some of these initial studies observed that the
efficacy of NIV was limited in patients with AHRF of different origin, compared with
patients with hypercapnic respiratory failure [21].
The first randomised clinical trial performed specifically in hypoxaemic patients
compared NIV with tracheal intubation in 64 patients with severe AHRF and predefined
criteria for initiating ventilatory support [22]. Among the patients who received NIV, only
31% required intubation. Likewise, the improvement in arterial oxygenation after the
protocol was implemented was similar in patients from both groups; the incidence of
severe infectious complications was lower in patients who received NIV compared with
those who were initially intubated (3 versus 31%, respectively). There was also a trend to a
lower ICU mortality and shorter length of stay [22].
In contrast with these favourable results, another controlled clinical trial assessed the
efficacy of NIV in an emergency department for patients with ARF by different causes.
That study did not find a decrease in the intubation rate of patients who received NIV [23].
It also found a trend towards a higher mortality in the group of patients treated with NIV
(25 versus 0% in the control group), attributed to an unnecessary delay in tracheal
intubation. That study included a small amount of patients and patients were unevenly
distributed between the treatment and the control group, despite randomisation, in such a
way that patients in the NIV group had higher severity scores than those in the control
group [23]. However, that study highlighted that NIV may not be successful in every
hospital setting because the expertise may differ from one institution to another.
65
Despite the fact that the evidence in the use of NIV in patients with AHRF is mainly
favourable, more controlled clinical trials are needed to better establish and define what
subsets of such a wide range of patients may benefit from using NIV.
The efficacy of NIV in patients with AHRF not due to CPO was assessed in a
systematic review and meta-analysis [24]. That review found that the addition of NIV to
standard care in this setting reduced the rate of tracheal intubation (absolute risk
reduction 23%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 10–35%), ICU length of stay (absolute
reduction 2 days; 95% CI 1–3 days), and ICU mortality (absolute risk reduction 17%;
95% CI 8–26%). However, trial results were significantly heterogeneous. The authors
concluded that randomised trials suggest that patients with AHRF are less likely to
require tracheal intubation when NIV is added to standard therapy but the effect on
mortality is less clear and the heterogeneity found among studies suggests that
effectiveness varies among different populations. As a result, that systematic review of
the literature did not support the routine use of NIV in all patients with AHRF [24].
The efficacy of CPAP using face masks in patients with severe AHRF, compared with
oxygen therapy, was assessed in a randomised controlled trial. The study consisted of
patients with pneumonia, in 54% of the population, and pulmonary oedema, in the rest.
The authors assessed the physiological benefits of CPAP, as well as the effect in
decreasing the needs for tracheal intubation [25]. Despite the fact that patients receiving
CPAP had an initially better improvement of arterial oxygenation and comfort than
those who received oxygen therapy, there were no differences in the needs for tracheal
intubation, hospital mortality and ICU length of stay (fig. 4).
The different clinical efficacy between NIV and CPAP may be explained by the results of
a physiological study performed in 10 patients with severe AHRF of different origin. This
study compared the short-term effect of CPAP at 10 cmH2O (CPAP-10) and 2
combinations of NIV with pressure-support ventilation (PSV): an inspiratory support
level of 10 cmH2O with positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 10 cmH2O (PSV 10-10)
and an inspiratory support level of 15 cmH2O with PEEP of 5 cmH2O (PSV 15-5) [26].
Compared with spontaneous breathing, the respiratory frequency decreased with the
highest levels of inspiratory support (PSV 15-5). By contrast, arterial oxygenation
improved similarly with CPAP-10 and PSV 10-10, while this increase failed to reach
statistical significance for PSV 15-5. Finally, the work of breathing decreased with both
modalities of NIV but not with CPAP (fig. 5), although the highest reduction in dyspnoea
was achieved with PSV 15-5. In summary, in patients with severe AHRF, it is necessary to
combine NIV with PEEP in order to decrease the inspiratory effort; CPAP improves
arterial oxygenation but does not unload the respiratory muscles. Moreover, high levels of
inspiratory support are needed to ameliorate dyspnoea. These results explain why NIV
with PEEP is preferred over CPAP in patients with severe AHRF, in general, particularly
those with severe pneumonia.
ARF in the post-operative period

The respiratory function may be substantially modified during the post-operative
period. These patients often develop atelectasis due to a decrease in the pulmonary
volumes (vital capacity, functional residual capacity, tidal volume) and diaphragm
dysfunction, which may last up to 7 days, with important deterioration in arterial
oxygenation. Moreover, swallowing disorders and vomiting may cause aspiration
during the post-operative period.
Both NIV and CPAP are frequently used in these clinical situations. Physiological
studies have shown that CPAP is effective in improving arterial oxygenation after
66
INDICATION IN AHRF
a) 250
225
***
l
200
PaO2/FI,O2
175
150 n n
l
125
100
b) 40
35
30
n
l
25
20
Baseline 60 min
Fig. 4. – Initial evolution of a) the arterial hypoxaemia, assessed by the arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2)/inspiratory
oxygen fraction (FI,O2) ratio and b) the respiratory rate for patients treated with continuous positive airway pressure
(CPAP) plus oxygen ($) compared with those treated with oxygen alone (&), from baseline to 60 min after the
initiation of treatment. ***: p,0.001 for the CPAP plus oxygen group.
extubation without adverse haemodynamic effect, during post-operative period of

cardiac or thoracic surgery [27]. This study, however, demonstrated that 9–10 cmH2O is
the minimal effective level of positive airway pressure for this purpose, since lower levels
of airway pressure are not appropriately transmitted to the tracheal and thoracic cavity.
The same authors had demonstrated that nasal CPAP improved arterial oxygenation
and avoided reintubation in 90% of cases in patients who had worsening of arterial
oxygenation after elective surgery [28]. By contrast, physiological studies in patients
extubated after elective cardiac surgery have shown that NIV caused haemodynamic
changes, with improvement in the cardiac index and without changes in systemic and
pulmonary artery pressure or in arterial oxygenation [29].
Several randomised clinical trials have assessed the efficacy of NIV in post-operative
ARF from different causes. In patients with solid organ transplantation and post-
operative ARF, NIV improved arterial oxygenation and decreased the needs for
tracheal intubation, compared with conventional treatment [9].
A physiological study in patients submitted to elective lung resection showed that,
compared with standard medical therapy, the addition of NIV resulted in improved
arterial oxygenation without changes in arterial carbon dioxide levels, dead space or
pleural leaks [30]. A randomised controlled trial in patients who developed ARF during
67
a) 34 b) 270
*
240
32
210 * l
PaO2/FIO2
30 l
l
l * 180
l
28 l l
l
150
l
26 l 120
c) 400 d) 4
300 l 3
l
PTPdi
l l
P0.1
l
l
200 2
*
*
* l
l
*
l l
100 1
CPAP-10
Final
Initial
PSV 10-10
PSV 15-5
CPAP-10
Final
Initial
PSV 10-10
PSV 15-5
Fig. 5. – Average changes in respiratory variables (respiratory frequency, arterial hypoxaemia, assessed by the
arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2)/inspiratory oxygen fraction (FI,O2) ratio, work of breathing, assessed by the pressure-
time product of the diaphragm (PTPdi) and the respiratory drive, assessed by the occlusion pressure (P0.1)) comparing
the initial and final values during spontaneous breathing with the three ventilatory modalities. CPAP-10: continuous
positive airway pressure of 10 cmH2O; PSV 10-10: pressure-support ventilation (PSV) of 10 cmH2O with positive end-
expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 10 cmH2O; PSV 15-5: PSV of 15 cmH2O and PEEP of 5 cmH2O. *: p,0.05.
the post-operative period of lung cancer resection demonstrated that NIV was effective
in decreasing the needs for tracheal intubation and improving hospital mortality [31].
The efficacy of NIV in those studies seems, however, related to the underlying diseases
of patients rather than the post-operative respiratory complications.
In obese patients with restrictive ventilatory disorder undergoing gastroplasty, nasal
NIV during the post-operative period improved diaphragm dysfunction and accelerated
recovery of patients [32]. A prospective observational study in patients who had ARF
after abdominal surgery showed that the use of NIV resulted in avoidance of intubation
in 67% of cases [33]. Patients who required intubation had worse arterial oxygenation
and more extended bilateral pulmonary infiltrates than those who escaped from
intubation. In that study, arterial oxygenation and tachypnoea improved only in the
non-intubated patients, with a reduction in the hospital stay and mortality, compared
with the intubated patients. A randomised controlled trial in patients with ARF after
major abdominal surgery compared the use of CPAP and oxygen therapy [34]. That
study showed that CPAP reduced the rate of tracheal intubation, compared with oxygen
68
INDICATION IN AHRF
therapy (1% versus 10%, respectively; p50.005), as well as other severe complications,
although the reduction of hospital mortality was not significant.
Summary
The randomised clinical trials of the literature suggest that patients with severe acute
hypoxaemic respiratory failure have, in general, a lower likelihood of needing tracheal
intubation when noninvasive ventilation, as a support for respiratory failure, is added
to the standard medical treatment. However, the effects of noninvasive ventilation on
mortality are less evident and the heterogeneity of the different published studies
suggests that the efficacy may be different among different populations. Therefore,
the results of the literature do not support the routine use of noninvasive ventilation
in all patients with severe acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure.
Keywords: Acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome,

noninvasive ventilation, post-operative respiratory failure, severe pneumonia.
Support Statement: This chapter was supported by Centro de Investigación Biomédica En Red-
Enfermedades Respiratorias (CibeRes, CB06/06/0028) and 2005 SGR 00822.
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8. Peter JV, Moran JL, Phillips-Hughes J, Graham P, Bersten AD. Effect of non-invasive positive
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9. Antonelli M, Conti G, Bufi M, et al. Noninvasive ventilation for treatment of acute respiratory failure
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12. Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American
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15. Domenighetti G, Gayer R, Gentilini R. Noninvasive pressure support ventilation in non-COPD
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16. Confalonieri M, Potena A, Carbone G, Porta RD, Tolley EA, Umberto Meduri G. Acute
respiratory failure in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia. A prospective
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17. Ferrer M, Esquinas A, Leon M, Gonzalez G, Alarcon A, Torres A. Noninvasive ventilation in
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18. Rana S, Jenad H, Gay PC, Buck CF, Hubmayr RD, Gajic O. Failure of non-invasive ventilation
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20. Meduri GU, Turner RE, Abou-Shala N, Wunderink R, Tolley E. Noninvasive positive pressure
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21. Wysocki M, Tric L, Wolff MA, Millet H, Herman B. Noninvasive pressure support ventilation in
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22. Antonelli M, Conti G, Rocco M, et al. A comparison of noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation
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23. Wood KA, Lewis L, Von Harz B, Kollef MH. The use of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation
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24. Keenan SP, Sinuff T, Cook DJ, Hill NS. Does noninvasive positive pressure ventilation improve
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25. Delclaux C, L’Her E, Alberti C, et al. Treatment of acute hypoxemic nonhypercapnic respiratory
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27. Kindgen-Milles D, Buhl R, Loer SA, Müller E. Nasal CPAP therapy: effects of different CPAP
levels on pressure transmission into the trachea and pulmonary oxygen transfer. Acta Anaesthesiol
Scand 2002; 46: 860–865.
28. Kindgen-Milles D, Buhl R, Gabriel A, Böhner H, Müller E. Nasal continuous positive airway
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31. Auriant I, Jallot A, Hervé P, et al. Noninvasive ventilation reduces mortality in acute respiratory
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32. Joris JL, Sottiaux TM, Chiche JD, Desaive CJ, Lamy ML. Effect of bi-level positive airway
pressure (BiPAP) nasal ventilation on the postoperative pulmonary restrictive syndrome in obese
patients undergoing gastroplasty. Chest 1997; 111: 665–670.
33. Jaber S, Delay JM, Chanques G, et al. Outcomes of patients with acute respiratory failure after
abdominal surgery treated with noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. Chest 2005; 128: 2688–2695.
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postoperative hypoxemia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 293: 589–595.
71
CHAPTER 6
NIV for cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
A. Gray*, D. Schlosshan#, M.W. Elliott"
*Dept of Respiratory Medicine, St James’s University Hospital and #Dept of Cardiology, Leeds General
Infirmary, Leeds, and "Dept of Emergency Medicine, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
Correspondence: M.W. Elliott, Dept of Respiratory Medicine, St James’s University Hospital, Beckett Street,
Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK. Fax: 44 1132066042; E-mail: [email protected]
The epidemiology of acute heart failure

Acute heart failure (AHF) is one of the leading causes of admission to hospital in
Europe and the USA [1]. In the USA, .1 million patients are admitted to hospital
resulting in 6.5 million bed-days [1]. European data suggest AHF admissions result in
1 million and 1.4 million bed-days, annually, in the UK and France, respectively [1].
Heart failure is the most common reason for admission in patients aged .65 yrs [2] and
results in a considerable readmission rate to hospital [1, 2]. Most importantly, there is
significant short- and long-term mortality [1, 2]. It is anticipated that the prevalence of
heart failure will continue to rise [2, 3].
Definitions
Unlike acute coronary syndromes AHF is a generic term encompassing the ‘‘complex
clinical syndrome that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that
impairs the ventricle to fill or eject blood’’ [4]. This has led to inconsistencies and lack of
consensus on the definitions, epidemiology, pathophysiology and clinical management
of AHF [2], as well as the development of relevant research outcomes [2, 5]. A number of
professional bodies and authorities have attempted to address this by producing
consensus statements [2, 4–7]. ‘‘Acute decompensated heart failure’’ is a clinical
condition in which the patient, with known heart failure, has an acute or subacute
deterioration in their symptoms requiring intervention. An international working group
has recently defined these patients as presenting with an ‘‘AHF syndrome’’ [2]. Patients
may present de novo or have previously recognised heart failure. These patients
primarily present to hospital with signs and symptoms that relate to pulmonary
congestion occurring as a result of elevated left ventricular filling pressures with the
accompanying symptoms of dyspnoea and fatigue [8]. Cardiac output may be impaired
or preserved. Patients have preserved left ventricular function and diastolic heart failure,
are older and predominantly female [9, 10].
Epidemiology and patient characteristics

There is increasing information available from registries and surveys from Europe
(EuroHeart Failure Survey I and II [11, 12], the Italian Acute Heart Failure Survey [13]
ISSN 1025-448x.
72
NIV FOR CPO
and EFICA [14]) and North America (Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National
Registry (ADHERE) [3] and Organized Program To Initiate life-saving treatment In
hospitalized patients with Heart Failure (OPTIMIZE-HF) registries [15]) that enable a
clearer understanding of the characteristics of patients admitted with AHF syndromes,
including presenting symptoms and physiology including severity of illness, manage-
ment strategies, use of resource and clinical outcomes. It is clear that populations,
clinical management and outcomes vary considerably depending on setting and
geographical location [2, 16].
The ADHERE [3] had data on approximately 105,000 heart failure patients from 274
hospitals in the USA up to 2004. The mean age of patients was 72 yrs and 52% were
female. Common comorbidities included hypertension (73%), coronary heart disease
(57%) and diabetes (44%). A total of 46% of patients had preserved left ventricular
function. The median length of stay was 4.3 days and there was an in-hospital mortality
rate of 4% and 5% received mechanical ventilation.
The EuroHeart failure II survey [12] reported on 3,580 patients with AHF from
across Europe. The mean age was 69.9 yrs and 61% were male. A total of 37.1% had de
novo heart failure. Pulmonary oedema accounted for 16.2% and hypertensive heart
failure for 11.4% of admissions, as defined by the European Society of Cardiology 2005
guidelines. Over one-third of patients had preserved left ventricular function and 6.7%
died during hospital admission. The median length of stay was 9 days and
approximately one-half were admitted to coronary or critical care. A total of 13.9%
received either noninvasive ventilation (NIV) or invasive ventilation, increasing to
31.5% if the patient was classified as having pulmonary oedema as the primary
presenting condition. Ventilatory support was markedly more common in the EFICA
study investigating the characteristics of 599 patients admitted with AHF to 60 critical
care units in France [14]. In this study, 35% were endotracheally intubated and
ventilated and 24% received noninvasive ventilatory support. However, these patients
were sicker (4-week mortality was 27.4%) and had a significant rate of cardiogenic
shock, compared with other studies.
An Italian national survey from 2004 [13] included 206 hospitals with cardiology
services enrolled 2,807 patients in a 3-month period and characterised them according to
the 2001 European Society of Cardiology Guidelines. The mean age was 73 yrs; 44%
had de novo heart failure and in 49.6%, pulmonary oedema was the principal presenting
symptom. A total of 89% of the patients had impaired left ventricular function. The
median length of hospital stay was 9 days and there was a 7.3% in-hospital mortality
rate, which increased to 12.8% by 6 months.
Heart failure classifications

As previously described, AHF is recognised to be a heterogeneous syndrome, which
can be classified in a variety of ways depending upon clinical presentation,
pathophysiological processes, previous or de novo heart failure or associated acute
coronary syndrome. Clinical management should, therefore, be tailored towards this
rather than a unified approach across the disease spectrum. GHEORGHIADE et al. [2] have
recently classified patients presenting with AHF into eight groups and suggest that
management should be targeted to the presenting symptoms (table 1). A similar
classification suggested by the European Society of Cardiology [6] also includes
subgroups of patients with hypertension, right heart failure, cardiogenic shock and
isolated pulmonary oedema.
73
A. GRAY ET AL.
Table 1. – Clinical presentations of acute heart failure
Clinical presentation Incidence# Signs and symptoms Characteristics

Elevated systolic blood .50% Usually develop abruptly Predominantly pulmonary (radiographic/
pressure clinical), rather than systemic, congestion
due to rapid fluid redistribution from
systemic to pulmonary circulation; many
patients have preserved ejection fraction
Normal systolic blood .40% Develop gradually (days Despite high ventricular filling pressure,
pressure or weeks) and are radiographic pulmonary congestion may
associated with significant be minimal because of pulmonary
systemic congestion vasculaturelymphatics adaptation due to
chronic elevated left atrial pressures
Low systolic blood pressure ,8% Usually have a low Many of those patients have advanced or
(,90 mm Hg) cardiac output with signs end-stage heart failure
of organ hypoperfusion
Cardiogenic shock ,1% Rapid onset Primarily complicating acute Mycoplasma
fulminant myocarditis
Pulmonary oedema ,3%" Rapid or gradual onset Clinical: severe dyspnoea, tachypnea,
tachycardia and hypoxaemia, requiring
immediate airway intervention.
Radiographic: present in up to 80% of
patients; often not associated with clinical
pulmonary oedema
‘‘Flash’’ pulmonary oedema unknown Abrupt onset Precipitated by severe systemic hyper-
tension. Uncorrected, respiratory failure
and death ensue. Patients are easily
treated with vasodilators and diuretics.
After blood pressure normalisation and
reinstitution of routine medications,
patients can be discharged within 24 h
Isolated right heart failure unknown Rapid or gradual onset Not well characterised; there are no
epidemiological data (e.g., acute cor
pulmonale, right ventricular infarct)
Acute coronary syndromes unknown Rapid or gradual onset Many such patients may have signs and
(y25% of acute coronary symptoms of heart failure that resolve
syndromes patients have after initial therapy or resolution of
signs/symptoms of heart ischaemia
failure)
Post-cardiac surgery heart unknown Rapid or gradual onset Occurring in patients with or without
failure previous ventricular dysfunction, often
related to worsening diastolic function
and volume overload immediately after
surgery
Reproduced from [2], with permission from the publisher. #: of all acute heart failure syndrome admissions;
"
: incidence may be related to the definition used (clinical or radiographic).
Cardiopulmonary interactions and the effect of positive pressure

ventilation
In order to understand possible mechanisms of benefits of positive pressure
ventilation in patients with heart failure, it is first important to understand the
interaction of the heart and lungs during normal respiration. As the heart is located
within the thorax, there is a close and continuous interaction between changes in
intracardiac pressures and intrathoracic pressure (PIT). During normal respiration,
phasic changes in lung volume and PIT can simultaneously change most determinants of
cardiac function including cardiac frequency, preload, contractility and afterload.
74
NIV FOR CPO
During spontaneous inspiration, PIT decreases and returns towards the baseline
during expiration. The degree to which PIT and lung volume change is a function of
airway resistance and both lung and chest wall compliance. Positive pressure ventilation
induces opposite changes in PIT [17].
Circulatory components are affected by the PIT, depending on their location. The
heart and the intrathoracic aorta lie within the thorax and are therefore affected by
changes in PIT. The extrathoracic aorta lies outside the thorax and is consequently not
affected by PIT but by atmospheric pressure; because of this anatomical relationship,
PINSKY [18] described the heart within the thorax as ‘‘a pressure chamber within another
pressure chamber’’. The difference between the pressure in the heart and the pressure
surrounding the heart (i.e. PIT) affects both systemic venous return to the right ventricle
(RV) and systemic outflow from the left ventricle (LV).
During inspiration, PIT decreases, thus reducing right atrial (RA) pressure. Therefore,
the pressure gradient for venous return from the periphery to the right heart increases
during inspiration leading to increased venous return and increased right diastolic
volume [19]. As a result, RV stroke volume increases during inspiration [20, 21]. This
effect is somewhat dampened by an increase in RV afterload caused by an increase in
alveolar pressure [22]. Therefore, both RV preload and RV afterload are increased
during inspiration, leading to an increase in RV diastolic volume [20, 21].
The effects of inspiration on left ventricular outflow are generally opposite. Normal
inspiratory effort is accompanied by a fall in left ventricular stroke volume [23–25]. The
magnitude appears to be related to the depth of inspiration, i.e. the increasing negativity
of the pleural pressure [26]. BUDA et al. [26] and others [22, 27] proposed the following
model to explain the relationship between PIT and left ventricular outflow during deep
inspiration: increasing negativity of PIT during inspiration decreases the pressure
surrounding the LV. During systole the inward contraction of the LV is impeded by the
opposite force of the negative PIT. LV transmural pressure (Ptm) is calculated as follows:
Ptm5 PLV – PIT (1)
where PLV is the LV systolic pressure. The LV is therefore required to generate higher
pressure to overcome the PIT in addition to the aortic diastolic pressure to eject blood
during systole. Left ventricular afterload is therefore determined by the difference
between aortic diastolic pressure (equal to PLV) and PIT. Therefore afterload increases
not only through increasing aortic pressure but also through a fall in PIT. This
increase in afterload leads to a decrease in stroke volume and increase in end-systolic
volume.
In summary, there is a close interaction between determinants of cardiac function and
changes in lung volumes and PIT. A fall in PIT during inspiration has opposing effects
on the RV and LV. This acts to increase venous return to the right heart and decrease
stroke volume for the left heart. During normal respiration, however, the net effect on
the cardiovascular system is minimal. Conditions associated with large changes in PIT,
however, are known to significantly affect cardiac performance and filling through these
mechanisms.
Acute effects of NIV on the normal heart

Positive pressure ventilation significantly increases PIT and is therefore expected to
affect cardiac haemodynamics through similar mechanisms, but in the opposite
direction. The combined effect of positive pressure ventilation provided either by
75
A. GRAY ET AL.
positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) or continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)

in a normal heart is to decrease right and left ventricular preload, increase RV afterload
and decrease LV afterload. As the normal heart is largely preload dependent, the sum of
these effects is such that cardiac output frequently falls with CPAP or PEEP [26, 28–30].
These effects can be exacerbated at higher levels of positive pressure ventilation and
hypovolaemia.
Acute effects of NIV on cardiac haemodynamics in heart failure

Much of the work on heart failure in humans has been done in patients with chronic
heart failure (CHF). In many cases, acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema (CPO) occurs
in patients with a background of CHF. Many of the principles in patients with CHF also
apply in acute CPO. Following the pioneering studies in the 1970s on the haemodynamic
effects of PIT on cardiac haemodynamics, PINSKY et al. [31] postulated that increases in
PIT would have different effects on the failing heart compared to the normal heart. This
hypothesis was based on the assumption that a failing heart is less sensitive to changes in
preload and more sensitive to changes in afterload compared with a normal heart. The
hypothesis was that the afterload lowering effects of positive PIT may have a beneficial
effect on cardiac function in the failing heart. In an early study performed on
anaesthetised dogs with left ventricular failure it was first observed that intermittent
positive pressure ventilation led to improved cardiac function [31]. Subsequently, it was
observed that phasic high PIT support applied to anaesthetised patients in cardiogenic
shock augmented cardiac output, mean arterial pressure and ejection fraction, while LV
filling remained unaltered [32]. Beneficial acute effects on cardiac output in humans with
heart failure were also seen in other studies [33, 34].
BRADLEY et al. [35] demonstrated that CPAP at a level of 5 cmH2O caused an increase
in cardiac output of 30% in patients with CHF, caused by dilated cardiomyopathy and a
pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PPCW) .12 mmHg. Patients with a PPCW
,12 mmHg however decreased their cardiac out put in response to CPAP. DE
HOYOS et al. [36] extended these findings by the observation that 5–10 cmH2O produced
a dose-related augmentation in cardiac output when applied acutely to patients with
CHF and elevated PPCW. In contrast, in both control subjects and patients with heart
failure and normal PPCW (,12 mmHg) there was a dose-related decrease in cardiac and
stroke volume indices, while on continuous positive airway pressure.
These studies and others [37] confirmed that LV filling was a strong determinant of
augmented cardiac output and stroke volume in the failing heart in response to CPAP. It
was postulated that patients with low LV preload are more preload dependent and that
any decrease in preload caused by NIV, potentially leads to leftwards shift on the
Frank–Starling curve and a fall in cardiac output.
NAUGHTON et al. [38] confirmed that CPAP has a significant effect on afterload in
patients with CHF. The effects, of graduated CPAP from 0 to 10 cmH2O, on PIT were
studied and several important observations were made. The amplitude of the inspiratory
oesophageal pressure amplitude was more negative than in healthy subjects, suggesting
that patients with CHF needed to generate greater inspiratory force during inspiration;
this, in turn resulted in greater LV transmural pressure in patients with CHF. CPAP
significantly reduced negative oesophageal pressure swings and decreased LV
transmural pressure in patients with CHF, without significant effects on cardiac index.
LV transmural pressure and oesophageal pressure did not change significantly in
healthy subjects in response to CPAP. From these observations, the authors concluded
that, in patients with CHF, the inspiratory muscles generate greater force per breath,
76
NIV FOR CPO
and the systolic oesophageal pressure contributes more to LV transmural pressure, than
in healthy subjects. By increasing PIT in patients with CHF, CPAP unloaded inspiratory
muscles and reduced left ventricular afterload without compromising cardiac output.
Similar observations were made by MEHTA et al. [39]. The short-term effect of CPAP at
10 cmH2O on RV and LV volumes, determined by radionucleide angiography, in 22
patients with CHF was assessed and no significant reduction in left ventricular volumes
was found, except in subset of patients with very large volumes. The authors concluded
that any improvements of LV function as a result of NIV are, therefore, more likely to
be due to the reduction of afterload by CPAP rather than preload.
The haemodynamic response to CPAP treatment seems to be quite variable. Other
studies have shown little or no change in cardiac output in response to CPAP [40–43]
despite high filling pressures. BARATZ et al. [40] examined the effect of nasal CPAP in 13
patients with acutely decompensated CHF, all of whom had PPCW .12 mmHg.
However, only seven out of the 13 patients showed a significant increase in cardiac
output in response to CPAP. The authors noted that nonresponders had a high resting
heart rate, lower ejection fraction and were more likely to have ischaemic cardio-
myopathy. LISTON et al. [41] applied CPAP at 5 cmH2O to patients with CHF and high
filling pressures and observed a fall in cardiac output and increase in systemic vascular
resitance. CPAP with a pressure of 10 cmH2O induced significantly greater reductions in
right and left ventricular volumes in patients with CHF caused by dilated cardio-
myopathy than in those caused by ischaemic cardiomyopathy [39]. The authors
postulated that the myocardial fibrosis and scarring associated with ischaemic
cardiomyopathy could alter the compliance and, therefore, make the ventricles more
resistant to the effects of NIV. Indeed, patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy
often have higher left ventricular volumes and a more compliant ventricle than patients
with ischaemic cardiomyopathy and possibly have more acute haemodynamic benefit to
gain from NIV than patients with a less-compliant ventricle with smaller left ventricular
volumes [44]. Nevertheless, several studies have demonstrated both acute and chronic
haemodynamic benefits in patients with CHF caused by ischaemic cardiomyopathy [38,
45, 46].
The acute effects of CPAP on cardiac function appear to be significantly influenced
by the underlying cardiac rhythm. KIELY et al. [47] compared the haemodynamic
response to CPAP, in patients with CHF, in sinus rhythm (SR) and atrial fibrillation
(AF). A significant difference was demonstrated in the response to CPAP, with a fall in
cardiac index in the AF group and trend towards an increase in the SR group. It was
postulated that patients with AF may be more sensitive to decreases in preload
generated by CPAP.
Studies on the haemodynamic effects of bilevel ventilation on cardiac function are
limited. ACOSTA et al. [48] first assessed the haemodynamic effects of bilevel ventilation
at a level of 5 cmH2O in 14 patients with stable CHF. The main findings included a
significant increase in cardiac output, ejection fraction and end-diastolic volume, and a
decrease in systemic vascular resistance. Using higher pressures, PHILIP-JOET et al. [37]
demonstrated that bilevel ventilation had similar haemodynamic effects compared with
CPAP in patients with CHF. However, bilevel ventilation appeared to be superior to
CPAP in improving oxygenation and ventilation.
The current evidence suggests that bilevel ventilation acutely increases cardiac output
in selected patients with CHF and elevated left ventricular filling pressures but reduces
cardiac output in those whose filling pressures are normal. The net effect of NIV in
patients with CHF is likely to be the result of a balance between the preload-reducing
effect of NIV and the afterload-reducing effect of NIV; however, the response is variable
(table 2).
77
A. GRAY ET AL.
Table 2. – Determinants of response of positive pressure
The effect of positive pressure depends on:

the aetiology of heart failure
baseline cardiac volumes
degree of diastolic dysfunction
compliance of the ventricle
the presence of right ventricular failure
rhythm
preload dependence
Effect of NIV on respiratory muscles and lung mechanics

The respiratory muscles in patients with CHF are abnormal; patients with CHF suffer
from inspiratory muscles weakness [49–51]. Suggested explanations include reduction in
respiratory muscle blood flow or generalised muscular atrophy and weakness related to
cardiac cachexia [52]. Furthermore, the inspiratory muscles are exposed to an excessive
load and have to generate a greater force per breath compared with healthy subjects [53].
NAUGHTON et al. [38] found that patients with optimally treated CHF had three- to
four-fold greater inspiratory pleural pressure swings than healthy control subjects,
probably due to reduced lung compliance caused by pulmonary congestion.
Several studies have shown that NIV has beneficial effects on respiratory muscles in
patients with AHF and CHF. Application of 10 cmH2O of CPAP to these patients,
while awake, during regular breathing led to a 40% reduction in the amplitude of pleural
pressure swings. This reflected unloading of inspiratory muscles, which was probably
due to increased lung compliance secondary to extrathoracic redistribution of lung
water [38, 42], and reported a significant reduction in the work of breathing, the
pressure–time index of the respiratory muscles and the negative swings in PIT with
CPAP at 10 cmH2O in patients with CPO.
There are several mechanisms by which CPAP and PEEP improve respiratory
parameters in patients with heart failure. CPAP has been shown to increase functional
residual capacity and open collapsed or underventilated alveoli, thus decreasing right to
left intrapulmonary shunt and improving oxygenation. Although CPAP and PEEP do
not actively assist ventilation, the increase in functional residual capacity may also
improve lung compliance and decrease the work of breathing by moving the patient on
to a more compliant part of the pressure–volume curve [54–56]. Bilevel ventilation offers
theoretical advantages over CPAP, by actively assisting ventilation while providing
PEEP at the same time. This would be expected to be more efficient in reducing the work
of breathing in these patients.
In summary, NIV can unload respiratory muscles, decrease the work of breathing and
improve lung mechanics in these patients. It is likely that the individual responses to
NIV vary considerably and depend upon several factors, including level of positive
airway pressure provided, changes in the lung, airways, chest wall, and inspiratory and
expiratory respiratory muscles.
NIV in acute CPO: the evidence

There has been a steady stream of published randomised trials investigating the
effectiveness of NIV in the management of acute CPO over the last 20 yrs [57–72]. None
has been powered to detect mortality benefit as the primary outcome and most have
used a variety of surrogate end-points, such as physiological parameters, intubation or
78
NIV FOR CPO
predefined treatment failure. Moreover, these trials have investigated the comparative
effectiveness of: CPAP and standard oxygen therapy [59–63, 72]; NIV and standard
oxygen therapy [57, 65]; NIV and CPAP [64, 69–71]; or either intervention (CPAP/NIV)
compared with standard oxygen therapy alone [58, 66–68]. Almost all these trials, now
numbering 25, have shown improvement in physiology or a reduction in endotracheal
intubation rate or other surrogate markers of treatment failure in the NIV arm. One
study by MEHTA et al. [69] was terminated prematurely due to an excess number of
patients with acute myocardial infarction (MI) in the NIV arm. Other studies,
specifically designed to address this issue, have not confirmed any relationship between
NIV and MI rate [70]. Despite the lack of definitive mortality benefit NIV is increasingly
used in clinical practice [73] and advocated by many specialty organisations [7, 74, 75].
In an attempt to determine whether a true mortality benefit exists, a number of authors
have recently reviewed, assimilated and published systematic reviews with meta-
analyses. The following section reviews the key meta-analyses and recent primary trials.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses

There have been seven systematic reviews published since 2005 [63, 76–81]. MASIP
et al. [81] identified 15 eligible randomised controlled trials comparing NIV with
standard oxygen or with another type of NIV i.e. CPAP compared with NIV (table 3).
Data from studies were extracted into a standardised data collection form by two
independent reviewers and checked by a third. Methodological quality was assessed
using a recognised scoring system [83]. The primary outcomes for the systematic review
were in-hospital mortality and treatment failure as all included trials reported these
outcomes. Treatment failure was inconsistently categorised and the authors defined this
arbitrarily as the ‘‘need to intubate’’. Data on MI rate during hospital admission were
collected and analysed. All other parameters, such as physiology, length of stay and
critical care admission were not consistently reported across trials. There were six trials
comparing only CPAP with standard oxygen therapy, two comparing only NIV with
standard oxygen therapy, three trials with three trial arms (two interventions, CPAP or
NIV) and three studies comparing CPAP with NIV. The majority of trials were single
centre, based in intensive care units, emergency departments or both in 10 different
countries and included small numbers of patients (n526–130). The majority used full-
face masks and CPAP (2.5–16 cmH2O) and NIV levels (8–20 and 3–5 cmH2O for
inspiratory and expiratory, respectively) varied. There was considerable variation in the
complexity of ventilator design. Only one study used mortality as a primary end-point.
Methodological quality of the included trials was, in general, adequate. There were data
on 727 patients for the comparison of NIV (CPAP or NIV) with standard oxygen.
Patients receiving NIV had a significant reduction of in-hospital mortality (p,0.01; risk
ratio 0.55; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.40–0.78) and endotracheal intubation
(p,0.01; risk ratio 0.48; 95% CI 0.32–0.57). Results remained significant if CPAP was
analysed independently for both in-hospital mortality and need for intubation. NIV was
shown to reduce mortality but not to a statistically significant level (p50.07), which is
likely to reflect the numbers of patients included in these trials (n5315), but remained
significant for intubation (p50.02). There was no difference in outcome between CPAP
and NIV; however, these comparisons only included a total of 219 patients. There was
no difference in MI rates between arms. Tests for heterogeneity and publication bias
were insignificant. MASIP et al. [82] concluded that this meta-analysis demonstrated
improved survival in patients receiving NIV and should now be considered first-line
therapy in patients presenting with acute CPO.
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A. GRAY ET AL.
Table 3. – Randomised studies, analysing noninvasive ventilation
First author Location n# Mask type CPAP IPAP/ Primary Other considerations
[ref.] cmH2O EPAP outcomes
cmH2O
CPAP versus standard oxygen therapy
RASANEN [59] 1 ICU in 40 Full face 10 Clinical outcomes
Finland
BERSTEN [60] 1 ICU in 40 (39) Full face 10 Intubation
Australia
LIN [61] 1 ICU in 100 Full face 2.5–12.5 Intubation, in- Swan–Ganz
Taiwan hospital mortality catheterisation
TAKEDA [84] 1 ICU in 30 (29) Full face or 4–10 Laboratory Measurement of
Japan nasal parameters plasma endothelin 1
KELLY [62] 1 ED and 58 Full face 7.5 Clinical Measurement of
ICU in UK outcomes, plasma neurchormonal
laboratory concentrations
parameters
L’HER [63] 4 EDs in 89 Full face 7.5 48-h mortality Elderly patients (age
France .75 yrs)
NPSV versus standard oxygen therapy
MASIP [85] 1 ICU in 40 (37) Full face 20/5, mean Intubation, IPAP was adjusted to
Spain resolution time tidal volume
LEVITT [64] 1 ED in USA 38 Full face or 8/3, initial Intubation Prematurely interrupted
nasal when [69] was
published
NAVA [65] 5 EDs in 130 Full face 14.5/6.1, Intubation Post hoc analysis in
Italy mean hypercapnic patients
Trials with three study groups
PARK [66] 1 ED in 26 Full face and 5–12.5 a/3, initial Intubation Full-face mask for CPAP
Brazil nasal and nasal for NPSV
CRANE [67] 2 EDs in UK 60 Full face 10 15/5 fixed Success in ED Pre-hospital nitrates
(2 h), in-hospital therapy evaluated
mortality
PARK [68] 1 ED in 83 (80) Full face 10 initial up 15/10 Intubation
Brazil to 16 initial
CPAP versus NPSV
MEHTA [69] 1 ED in USA 27 Full face and 10 15/5 fixed Intubation, Prematurely stopped for
nasal physiological higher rate of AM in
improvement NPSV group
BELLONE [70] 1 ED in Italy 36 Full face 10 15/5 initial AM Study restricted to
patients with
hypercapnia
BELLONE [71] 1 ED in Italy 46 Full face 10 15/5 initial Resolution Primary end-point was
time AM rate, only
nonischaemic APO
Data included in meta-analysis of MASIP et al. [81] and reproduced with permission from the publisher. CPAP:
continuous positive airway pressure; IPAP: inspiratory positive airway pressure; EPAP: expiratory positive
airway pressure; ICU: intensive care unit; ED: emergency department; NPSV: bilevel noninvasive pressure
support ventilation; AM: acute myocardial infarction; APO: acute pulmonary oedema. #: data are presented as n
(n finally included after withdrawal).
In another meta-analysis, PETER et al. [82] identified 23 eligible studies from 14

countries over an 18-yr period. Data assimilation of these trials, including the eight not
included in the review by MASIP et al. [81], resulted in similar findings. Once again, the
design of the systematic review was of a high standard. The primary outcomes chosen
were, again, in-hospital mortality and the need for intubation and mechanical ventilation.
Secondary outcomes included treatment failure, length of hospital stay, length of time
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NIV FOR CPO
NIV was applied and MI rate. Figures 1, 2 and 3 detail the principal data synthesis for the
review’s primary comparisons. There was a significant reduction in mortality from those
patients treated with CPAP (relative risk 0.59, 95% CI 0.28–0.90, number needed to treat
was five; p50.015). There was a trend towards improved survival with NIV. Both CPAP
(relative risk 0.44, 95% CI 0.29–0.66, number needed to treat was six; p50.0003) and NIV
(relative risk 0.50, 95% CI 0.27–0.90, number needed to treat was seven; p50.02) showed
benefit when intubation was an outcome. There was no difference in any outcome when
CPAP and NIV were compared. There was a trend towards an increase in MI rate with
NIV but this was largely due to the weighting of the one study by MEHTA et al. [69]. PETER
et al. [82] suggest that both NIV modalities are effective; although, due to the relatively
small proportions of pulmonary oedema patients included in these trials their results are
difficult to generalise. In addition, the authors felt that further work was required to define
the relationship between PEEP and myocardial ischaemia better, as well as further trials in
hypercapnic patients with acute CPO.
Recent primary trials

Two recent trials have been published or presented at international conferences since
the results of the multiple systematic reviews. These may result in the reappraisal of the
role of NIV in ACPO.
The 3CPO trial

The 3CPO trial [91], has recently completed recruitment across 26 emergency
departments in the UK. This trial is larger than the combined experience of all previous
First author [ref.]
Rasanen [59]
Bersten [60]
Lin [61]
Takeda [84]
Takeda [72]
Delclaux [86]
Park [66]
Kelly [62]
Park [60]
L'Her [63]
Crane [67]
Overall
0.005 0.050 0.250 1 2 20 50

RR
Favours CPAP Favours standard
therapy
Fig. 1. – Pooled data of in-hospital mortality, comparing continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) with standard
therapy. Data are presented as relative risk (RR; &), whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI) and weight % is
denoted by relative size. From top, RR (95% CI; weight %) were 0.50 (0.14–1.73; 10.4), 0.53 (0.11–2.55; 6.7), 0.67
(0.20–2.22; 10.9), 0.33 (0.04–2.85; 3.8), 0.14 (0.02–0.98; 4.7), 0.91 (0.39–2.14; 19.2), 3.30 (0.15–72.08; 1.9), 0.33 (0.07–
1.45; 7.5), 0.16 (0.02–1.24; 4.1), 0.92 (0.48–1.76; 28.5) and 0.08 (0.00–1.28; 2.2), respectively. Overall RR (95% CI) was
0.59 (0.38–0.90). Reproduced from [82], with permission from the publisher.
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A. GRAY ET AL.
First author [ref.]
Masip [85]
Park [66]
Levitt [64]
Ferrer [87]
Nava [65]
Crane [67]
Park [68]
Overall
0.005 0.050 0.250 1 2 20 50

RR
Favours bilevel Favours standard
ventilation therapy
Fig. 2. – Pooled data of in-hospital mortality comparing bilevel ventilation with standard therapy. Data are
presented as relative risk (RR; &), whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI) and weight % is denoted by
relative size. From top, RR (95% CI; weight %) were 0.19 (0.01–3.71; 3.4), 1.38 (0.03–62.25; 2.1), 0.81 (0.19–3.51;
14.0), 0.50 (0.05–4.94; 5.8), 0.67 (0.25–1.77; 31.9), 0.83 (0.30–2.29; 29.5) and 0.32 (0.07–1.45; 13.3), respectively.
Overall RR (95% CI) was 0.63 (0.37–1.10). Reproduced from [82], with permission from the publisher.
First author [ref.]
Mehta [69]
Park [66]
Martin-Bermudez [88]
Bollaert [89]
Cross [90]
Bellone [70]
Crane [67]
Park [68]
Bellone [71]
Overall
0.005 0.050 0.250 1 2 25 100

RR
Favours bilevel Favours CPAP
ventilation
Fig. 3. – Pooled data of in-hospital mortality comparing bilevel ventilation with contiuous positive airway pressure
(CPAP). Data are presented as relative risk (RR; &), whiskers represent 95% confidence intervals (CI) and weight %
is denoted by relative size. From top, RR (95% CI; weight %) were 0.46 (0.05–4.53; 7.9), 0.42 (0.02–8.91; 4.4), 0.38
(0.08–1.85; 16.4), 1.12 (0.33–3.79; 27.5), 0.62 (0.16–2.39; 22.4), 0.18 (0.01–3.63; 4.6), 11.00 (0.65–186.62; 5.1), 2.00
(0.19–20.77; 7.5) and 0.33 (0.01–7.68; 4.2), respectively. Overall RR (95% CI) was 0.75 (0.40–1.43). Reproduced from
[82], with permission from the publisher.
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NIV FOR CPO
published trials. In this multicentre open prospective randomised controlled trial

patients were randomised to one of three treatment arms: standard oxygen therapy
delivered by variable delivery oxygen mask with reservoir bag, CPAP (5–15 cmH2O) or
NIV (inspiratory pressure 8–20 cmH2O, expiratory pressure 4–10 cmH2O). The primary
end-point for comparison between NIV and standard oxygen was 7-day mortality. The
primary end-point for the comparison between CPAP and NIV was 7-day mortality or
intubation. Patients were included if they were tachypnoeic (respiratory rate
.20 breaths?min-1) and acidotic (pH,7.35) at presentation. All other therapy was at
the discretion of the treating clinician and there was no predefined treatment failure. In
total, 1,069 patients (age 78¡10 yrs; 43% male) were recruited to standard oxygen
therapy (n5367), CPAP (10¡4 cmH2O; n5346) or NIV (inspiratory 14¡5, expiratory
7¡2 cmH2O; n5356). The mean¡SD duration of CPAP therapy was 2.2¡1.5 h and
NIV 2.0¡1.3 h. There was no difference between 7-day mortality for standard oxygen
therapy (9.8%) and NIV (9.5%; p50.87). The combined end-point of 7-day death or
intubation rate was similar irrespective of NIV modality (11.7 versus 11.1%, CPAP
versus NIV respectively; p50.81). In comparison with standard oxygen therapy, NIV
was associated with greater reductions (treatment difference, 95% CI) in breathlessness
(visual analogue score 0.7, 0.2–1.3; p50.008), cardiac frequency (3 beats?min-1, 1–
6 beats?min-1; p50.004), acidosis (pH 0.03, pH 0.02–0.04; p,0.001) and hypercapnia
(0.7 kPa, 0.4–0.9 kPa; p,0.001) at 1 h. There were no treatment-related adverse events
and there were no differences in other secondary outcomes, such as MI rate, intubation,
length of hospital stay or critical care admission rate.
In another trial [58], 120 patients were enrolled in three French emergency
departments to either CPAP or NIV. Patients had either a clinical or radiological
diagnosis of pulmonary oedema and two of the following three criteria: respiratory rate
.30 breaths?min-1; oxygen saturations ,90% with standard oxygen delivered
i5 L?min-1 by a variable delivery mask with reservoir; and/or use of accessory
musculature. CPAP and NIV were delivered via a Boussignac system, which is a simple
portable device. CPAP was increased to 10 cmH2O, NIV to a tidal volume of 8–
10 mL?kg-1 and expiratory pressure support was set at 5 cmH2O. A combined primary
end-point of death, MI or intubation in the first 24 h of hospital admission was used.
Secondary outcomes included physiology, arterial gas analysis, length of hospital stay,
in hospital mortality and work of breathing measured by the Patrick scale. Data from
109 patients were available for analysis. During the intervention, mean CPAP levels
were 7.7 cmH2O and for NIV 12/4.9 cmH2O. There was no difference between
interventions for any outcome. Respiratory distress and physiology improved in both
arms. Only 3% of patients required intubation and one person died within the first 24 h.
Exploratory analysis of patients with and without hypercapnia did not change the rate
of improvement or the difference between interventions; y50% were hypercapnic at
presentation. It is of interest that 68 potentially eligible patients had noninvasive support
applied in the prehospital setting and 11 were intubated.
Interpretation of the evidence

There are clear differences between the findings of recent meta-analyses reporting
previous primary trials and the results of the 3CPO trial. All of the primary trials,
previous pooled data [92, 93] and the recent systematic reviews concluded that NIV
(CPAP or noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV)) delivers clinical benefit
compared with standard oxygen therapy. No data to date support the additional benefit
if NIPPV over CPAP, despite the mechanistic advantages [43]. This is despite
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A. GRAY ET AL.
unequivocal correlation in early improvements in symptoms and surrogate measures of

disease severity. Additionally, regardless of the theoretical advantages of NIPPV over
CPAP, no trial to date has reported additional benefit with NIPPV. There are potential
reasons why a true benefit may not have been detected [60]. Finally, despite continuing
concerns [69, 82, 94] regarding the potential for an increase in MI rates in patients
treated with NIPPV, the 3CPO trial has confirmed the safety of the intervention.
NIV (CPAP or NIPPV) compared to oxygen therapy alone

The 3CPO trial has shown no difference in short- or long-term mortality rates
between standard oxygen therapy and NIV treatments in patients presenting to
emergency departments with severe acute CPO. This was despite early improvements in
symptoms and surrogate measures of disease severity. Specifically, there was no
demonstrable difference in any primary or secondary outcome for the comparison
between NIV and standard oxygen therapy, other than breathlessness measured by a
visual analogue scale, physiology at 1 h (pulse rate) and arterial gas exchange
parameters at 1 h (pH and arterial carbon dioxide tension).
These results are contrary to findings of the recent meta-analyses, despite similar
improvements in physiological and gas-exchange variables. These meta-analyses and
systematic reviews of immediate treatment with NIV in patients with acute CPO have
reported up to a 47% reduction in mortality [82]. The 3CPO trial was adequately
powered to assess this question and recruited more patients than the total combined
experience of these analyses and reviews.
There are a number of potential reasons why the 3CPO trial findings do not support
the results of the previous small randomised controlled trials and the conclusions drawn
from multiple recent meta-analyses.
Patient populations
The population of patients recruited to the 3CPO trial may be different to those
recruited to they25 small randomised controlled trial previously reported. In particular,
there may be differences in age, severity of illness, comorbidities or underlying
mechanisms of heart failure. This is unlikely for the following reasons. Based on
previous studies, strict inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied in the 3CPO trial,
enabling the 3CPO researchers to target the group of patients most likely to benefit from
NIV i.e. those with respiratory distress and acidosis. Indeed, the recent trial by NAVA et
al. [65] showed a reduction only in intubation rates in a hypercapnic subgroup. The
baseline characteristics and event rates in the NIV arms were comparable to previous
studies and demonstrated that the recruited patients had severe disease. There was no
evidence of patient selection bias with identical 7-day mortality in nonrecruited patients
(9.2%). This was further supported by the excellent recruitment rates of eligible patients
when compared with those previously reported. There was also no obvious interaction
between treatment intervention and disease severity, suggesting that those with milder
disease did not obscure potential benefits in the sickest patients.
The 3CPO trial mortality was higher than registry data (6.7%, EURO HF survey [14];
4%, ADHERE registry [3]) and participants were older and predominantly female.
These discrepancies in mortality and patient characteristics are likely to relate to
differing study populations. AHF registries include all patients with decompensated
heart failure rather than only those with severe acute pulmonary oedema. Indeed, in the
84
NIV FOR CPO
EURO HF registry, only 16% of patients had a qualifying diagnosis of acute pulmonary
oedema. Patient age, male-to-female ratio and comorbidities were also similar to
previous primary trials with mean age of 75–80 yrs, a female preponderance and highly
comparable comorbidities such as hypertension, ischaemic heart disease, diabetes, CHF
and COPD.
It is likely that a significant number of patients, given the physiological, age and sex
characteristics of the recruited patients, had relatively preserved systolic function, so
called, diastolic heart failure [9, 10, 95] presenting with hypertension [2, 16], which might
be more amenable to rapid pharmacological vasodilatation. As echocardiography was
not routinely performed as part of the 3CPO trial protocol, it remains unclear, however,
whether the rate of MI is consistent with previous trials. Indeed, even using the more
traditional World Health Organization (WHO) criteria for MI definition, the index rates
for MI are considerably higher than the recent large trial undertaken by MORITZ et al.
[58]; despite this, in-hospital mortality is identical between the two trials.
Influence of co-treatments
Although not mandated, the 3CPO trial recommended a set of co-treatments for
recruited patients. This specifically included buccal and intravenous nitrates; y90% of
patients received this intervention. It is possible that the cardiovascular beneficial effects
of NIV in acute CPO has been masked by another treatment working (e.g. nitrates) by the
same mechanism i.e. a reduction in preload and afterload [96–98]. Indeed, CRANE [97]
identified pre-hospital nitrate as being the only factor associated with improved mortality
in a UK observational study of patients with acute CPO. Co-treatments in previous small
trials have often been incompletely characterised and documented. It is therefore unclear
whether there is consistency in these treatments, across trials.
Inconsistency in the delivery of NIV

The 3CPO trial may have failed to reveal a difference in mortality between NIV and
standard oxygen therapy because the intervention was ineffectively delivered. Over 80%
of sites had previous experience of NIV prior to the trial beginning. There was a
comprehensive training programme for all centres in order to ensure operator
competence and consistency throughout the trial. PLANT et al. [99] have previous
reported the safe application of NIV with ward-based staff after similar levels of training
and less pre-trial experience and exposure to the intervention. A readily applied portable
ventilator that allowed both modalities of ventilation to be delivered, as well as a
tolerance for leaks around the facemask of up to 50 L?min-1, was used in the 3CPO trial.
Whilst unable to measure the inspired oxygen concentration, the circuit delivered an
oxygen concentration up to 60%. This ventilator system was not as sophisticated as
some systems used in previous trials but more than others, including that used in the
recent trial by MORITZ et al. [58]. Mean pressures for both CPAP (10 cmH2O) and
NIPPV (inspiratory 14, expiratory 7 cmH2O) are highly comparable with previous
studies [81, 82]. Mean times of delivery of the intervention were a little over 2 h,
suggesting that the patients were physiologically and symptomatically significantly
better within this short time frame and again are similar to recent data from MORITZ et
al. [58]. There was cross-over between interventions in all three arms of the 3CPO trial
and these were analysed on an intention-to-treat basis. There were differing reasons with
respiratory distress and hypoxia being more likely in the control arm and lack of patient
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A. GRAY ET AL.
tolerance in the two intervention arms. After these patients were removed from primary
outcome analysis, there remained no significant difference between groups, although
mortality rates were lower.
Differing thresholds for endotracheal intubation and critical care admission

Previous trials have indicated that the physiological improvement seen with NIV is
translated into a reduction in tracheal intubation rates [81, 82]. Pooled data from the
meta-analysis by PETER et al. [82] suggest that six patients need to be treated with CPAP
and seven with NIPPV in order to avoid one patient being intubated and mechanically
ventilated. In contrast, the 3CPO trial found no benefit in reducing intubation rates by
NIV and this may reflect the relatively low intubation rates. Reasons for this are unclear
but may reflect the differing patient populations, concomitant therapies and thresholds
for intubation and mechanical ventilation across different countries, clinical environ-
ments and time periods. Intubation rates in the standard therapy arms varied from 35–
65% in initial trials [59, 60] to 5–7% for recent trials in emergency department settings
[62, 67], despite similar severity of illness, in-hospital mortality and length of hospital
stay. Intubation rate in the intervention arms have also fallen considerably over time
with some initial trials reporting intubation rate of up to 35%, whereas recent reports
have consistently suggested rates of y5%. Indeed, a recent large trial [58] reported a 3%
intubation rate; almost identical to that in the 3CPO trial. Given that the present and
previous trials were, by necessity, ‘‘open’’, there is real concern of treatment bias with a
differing threshold for intervention according to treatment allocation; for example,
patients on standard oxygen maybe more likely to undergo intubation than those
already gaining the apparent benefit of NIV. Additionally, clinicians may persevere with
patients slow to improve with NIV if they believe in its efficacy. It is important to note
that intubation did not correlate with mortality in the 3CPO trial.
Interpretation of previous data

Recent meta-analyses and systemic reviews have been composed of numerous
randomised clinical trials. However, individual trials were composed of small treatment
group sizes that varied between nine and 65 patients with recruitment rates of only 10–
30% (c.f. 62% randomised in the 3CPO trial). In the meta-analyses, the small total
number of outcome events was well below the recommended threshold of 200 [100] and
this limits the generalisability of their findings. There is real concern of reporting,
publication and recruitment bias in individual published studies that will be
compounded by pooled analysis. The discrepancy between the 3CPO trial results in
the setting of a large multicentre randomised controlled trial, previous pooled data are
not unique and the limitations of meta-analysis are well reported [101].
MI risk
MEHTA et al. [69] prematurely terminated their trial comparing CPAP with NIPPV
because of the concerns of an increase in MI rate in the NIPPV arm. A subsequent study
by BELLONE et al. [70] did not replicate this finding and demonstrated no effect of
NIPPV on MI rate. The systematic review by PETER et al. [82] reported a weak
relationship between the delivery of NIPPV and an increase in MI rate. This finding was
86
NIV FOR CPO
largely the result of the weighting of the study by MEHTA et al. [69] in the pooled data.
The 3CPO trial showed that there is no relationship between MI rate and the application
of either CPAP or NIPPV.
Conclusions
NIV is widely used in North America, Europe and Australasia for patients with severe
acute CPO. There are clear mechanistic reasons why these interventions work in acute
pulmonary oedema. Indeed multiple small trials revealed that physiological parameters
improve quickly with the use of NIV and this reduced endotracheal intubation and
potentially in-hospital mortality. These findings have not been supported by the findings
of a recent large multicentre clinical effectiveness trial, the 3CPO trial, which failed to
show any clear benefit of NIV for patients with severe acute CPO in UK emergency
departments other than early improvement in some physiological characteristics and
patient symptoms.
Despite theoretical advantages for NIPPV over CPAP, no trial data support
additional benefit of this modality. The 3CPO trial has unequivocally demonstrated the
safety of both NIPPV and CPAP and clearly shows there is no increased risk of MI with
NIPPV.
Continuous positive airway pressure should, therefore, be the noninvasive ventilation
modality of choice. Continuous positive airway pressure equipment is, in general, less
complex and cheaper and, therefore, has advantages over noninvasive positive pressure
ventilation. In addition, a number of simple systems allow the delivery of 100% oxygen.
Clearly if a department already has equipment in use or is using noninvasive positive
pressure ventilation for other clinical conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease then this will influence the decision as to the ventilation mode and equipment
type used for the management of patients with pulmonary oedema. Finally, in the
majority of patients, medical therapy should be instigated as the primary treatment of
severe acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema and noninvasive ventilation reserved for
those patients who have significant respiratory distress and failure or those not
improving with standard medical therapy.
Summary
This chapter reviews the use of positive pressure ventilation (continuous positive
airway pressure and bilevel) for patients with acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema.
The incidence at presentation to hospital, its pathophysiology and the physiological
basis for the use of positive pressure ventilation is first discussed. Recent meta-
analyses are presented, followed by the results of two recent clinical trials, the results
of which conflict with the meta-analyses. Possible reasons for this discrepancy are
explored.
Keywords: Bilevel ventilation, cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, continuous positive

airway pressure, left ventricular failure, noninvasive ventilation.
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A. GRAY ET AL.
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93
CHAPTER 7

failure and immunosuppression
G. Hilbert
Correspondence: G. Hilbert, Département de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Pellegrin, F 33076 Bordeaux,

France. Fax: 33 556796122; E-mail: [email protected]
Pulmonary complications are an important cause of illness in immunocompromised

patients and contribute, to a large extent, to the mortality associated with various types of
immunosuppression [1, 2]. Pulmonary infiltrates commonly appear following chemother-
apy, solid-organ transplant and haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. With the
increasing use of these treatment modalities and the growing potency of immunosup-
pressive regimens, physicians will more-frequently be asked to evaluate and to care for
these individuals. This more-specifically involves the physicians working in intensive care
units (ICUs) when the respiratory failure occurs among these patients. Strategies for
management include both a specific approach, in terms of diagnosis tools and treatment
regimens used, and a symptomatic approach, in terms essentially of treatment of acute
respiratory failure (ARF). Classically, these recipients require frequently intubation and
mechanical ventilatory assistance. Too often, this intervention has been followed by
further, ultimately fatal complications, including sepsis. Although invasive mechanical
ventilation is highly effective and reliable in supporting alveolar ventilation [3, 4],
endotracheal intubation is associated with numerous risks of complications [5].
Furthermore, in immunocompromised patients, mechanical ventilation is associated with
a significant risk of death [6–10]. The outcome predictors that consistently predict poor
outcome of haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation recipients admitted to the ICU were
the need for mechanical ventilation and the presence of multiple organ system failure.
ARF requiring mechanical ventilation increased the odds of death in the ICU by 55.6
times [11].
Thus, avoiding intubation should be an important objective in the management of
hypoxaemic acute ARF in immunosuppressed patients.
Rationale for noninvasive ventilation

Above all, a key driving force behind the increasing use of noninvasive ventilation
(NIV) has been the desire to avoid the complications of invasive ventilation. Patients
may have been intubated before their transfer to ICU, or soon after their admission. In
other patients, invasive ventilation can be performed after a failure of NIV. In
immunocompromised patients, ARF has most often the features of acute lung injury
(ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) mainly from pneumonia.
Therefore, the ventilatory management of respiratory failure in these patients has to
face one of the most-severe lung diseases. Although invasive mechanical ventilation is
highly effective and reliable in supporting alveolar ventilation, endotracheal intubation
is associated with numerous risks of complications. Complications of endotracheal
intubation include upper airway injuries, tracheal stenosis, tracheomalacia, sinusitis and
ISSN 1025-448x.
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NIV AND IMMUNOSUPPRESSION
ventilator-associated pneumonia [5]. Furthermore, in immunocompromised patients,

mechanical ventilation is associated with a significant risk of death [6–11]. Over the last
years, overall survival rates of immunocompromised patients admitted to the ICU are
improving, with, in part, the benefits of NIV in selected patients. This has led the best
experts to defend the concept of ‘‘do everything that can be done’’. Even so, the negative
impact of intubation and mechanical ventilation has been confirmed in several recent
studies. In a recent study, in patients with haematological malignancy, the overall
mortality in the ICU was 44%, only 12% in patients without mechanical ventilation but
74% among those under mechanical ventilation (p,0.001); multivariate analysis
revealed mechanical ventilation and Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS)II as
independent prognostic factors of both ICU mortality and long-term survival [10]. In
their literature review, SOUBANI et al. [11] clearly showed that the lower the percentage
of patients receiving mechanical ventilation, the higher the survival rate.
On one hand, ARF was often seen by oncologists as a terminal stage of illness, this
view being based on these studies indicating a very low survival rate, despite a heavy
investment. On the other hand, a large proportion of these patients with ARF, was
refused by physicians of ICUs, well aware that intubation with mechanical ventilation
was a strong predictor of mortality in that population.
In the early 1990s, hospital survival for patients with HIV-related Pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia and ARF, was very low (y20%). In a more-recent study on 155 HIV patients
intubated and mechanically ventilated for ARF, hospital mortality was 62% and still
80% in patients who had previously received prophylaxis for P. carinii [12]. Thus,
avoiding intubation must remain a major intent in managing hypoxaemic ARF in
immunocompromised patients. NIV uses a tight-fitting face mask as an alternative
interface between the patient and the ventilator in order to avoid these complications. In
contrast to invasive ventilation, NIV leaves the upper airway intact, preserves airway
defense mechanisms and allows patients to eat, drink, verbalise and expectorate
secretions. The development of improved masks and ventilator technology have made
this mode of ventilation acceptable. Several controlled studies have clearly demonstrated
the benefits of NIV in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) and, as stated in the conclusions of the recent international consensus
conference considering the role of NIV in ARF, patients hospitalised for exacerbations
of COPD with rapid clinical deterioration should be considered for NIV to prevent
further deterioration in gas exchange, respiratory workload and the need for
endotracheal intubation [13]. Starting from the good results obtained in patients with
acute exacerbations of COPD, NIV is now being used to support those with hypoxaemic
ARF, including those with ALI or ARDS. Nevertheless, in contrast to COPD patients
with acute exacerbation, who constitute a relatively homogeneous group of patients,
those with hypoxaemic ARF constitute a much more heterogeneous group. Overall, in
patients with hypoxaemic ARF, experience is less extensive than in COPD patients. The
consensus conference concluded that larger, controlled studies were required to
determine the potential benefit of adding NIV to standard medical treatment in the
avoidance of endotracheal intubation in hypoxaemic ARF [13].
Mechanisms of improvement with NIV in immunocompromised

patients with ARF
In patients with hypoxaemic ARF, intrapulmonary shunt and ventilation-perfusion
imbalances may cause life-threatening hypoxaemia. Moreover, high work of breathing
from increased alveolar dead space and reduced respiratory system compliance may
95
G. HILBERT
cause ventilatory failure with hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis. When employed
during episodes of hypoxaemic ARF, the goal of NIV is to ensure an adequate arterial
oxygen tension (Pa,O2) until the underlying problem can be reversed.
Numerous case series and reports have shown that continuous positive airway pressure
(CPAP) [14–20] and NIV [21] improve oxygenation, reduce respiratory rate and lessen
dyspnoea in hypoxaemic ARF. KESTEN et al. [17] applied 10 cmH2O of nasal CPAP in 9
subjects with P. carinii pneumonia and AIDS, all of whom had presented with bilateral
pulmonary infiltrates and hypoxaemia. Nasal CPAP, for 20 mins, without supplemental
oxygen increased mean Pa,O2 from 56 to 68 mmHg and decreased the calculated alveolar–
arterial oxygen gradient from 48 to 34 mmHg. CONFALONIERI et al. [21] have compared
NIV with invasive mechanical ventilation in AIDS patients with P. carinii pneumonia.
Changes in arterial blood gas and respiratory rate were comparable in the two groups of
patients during the first 72 h of the study.
Several prospective controlled studies, comparing CPAP or NIV with standard medical
treatment, have shown that the use of these methods of ventilation in hypoxaemic ARF
was associated with prompt improvement in pulmonary gas exchange as determined by
arterial blood gases obtained within the first few hours [22–25]. ANTONELLI et al. [22]
conducted a prospective, randomised trial of NIV compared with endotracheal intubation
with conventional mechanical ventilation in 64 patients with hypoxaemic ARF who
required mechanical ventilation. A total of 7 (22%) of the 32 patients randomised to NIV
had ARDS of varied aetiology. The patients in the two groups had a similar initial change
in Pa,O2/inspiratory oxygen fraction (FI,O2): within the first hour of ventilation, 20 (62%)
patients in the NIV group and 15 (47%) patients in the conventional ventilation group had
an improvement in Pa,O2/FI,O2. Their Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratios increased significantly from
116¡24 to 230¡76 mmHg with NIV and from 124¡25 to 211¡68 mmHg with
conventional ventilation. In a study comparing NIV with standard treatment using
supplemental oxygen administration in recipients of solid organ transplantation with
hypoxaemic ARF, 7 (22%) of 32 patients randomised to NIV had ARDS of varied
aetiology [23]. Within the first hour of treatment, 14 (70%) patients in the NIV group and
only 5 (25%) patients in the standard treatment group improved their Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio. In
another randomised controlled trial, the physiological effects of CPAP versus standard
oxygen therapy were compared in 123 patients with hypoxaemic ARF and Pa,O2/FI,O2
ƒ300 due to bilateral pulmonary oedema, 102 of them with ALI [24]. After 1 h of
treatment, median Pa,O2/FI,O2 was greater with CPAP (203 versus 151; p50.02). In a
prospective, randomised trial of NIV, compared with standard medical treatment with
supplemental oxygen in immunosuppressed patients with hypoxaemic ARF, initial
improvement in Pa,O2/FI,O2 was observed in 46% of the NIV group and in 15% of the
standard group (p50.02) [25]. Even if NIV was used intermittently, in a sequential mode,
the protocol of NIV used in that study achieved significantly higher rates of improvement
in gas exchange abnormalities than in patients with standard treatment. Reducing work of
breathing during noninvasive ventilation sessions may also allow respiratory muscles to be
more efficient during nonassisted breaths.
NIV can improve the pathophysiology of hypoxaemic respiratory failure.
Mechanisms of improvement can include the beneficial effects of positive end-expiratory
pressure (PEEP) on distribution of extravascular lung water, on alveolar recruitment of
under ventilated alveoli by increasing lung volume at end expiration and in early
treatment of atelectasis. In addition, improvements in ventilation/perfusion ratios or
even shunt undoubtedly occur in patients with ARDS, in whom the application of
expiratory pressure should have an effect similar to that of PEEP in invasively ventilated
patients. By lowering left ventricular transmural pressure, CPAP may reduce afterload
and increase cardiac output, making it an attractive modality for therapy of acute
pulmonary oedema. Even if CPAP alone is able to improve lung mechanics in patients
96
with ARF and decrease work of breathing compared with unsupported ventilation [26],
the addition of pressure support (PS) has a positive effect in reducing work of breathing
and maintaining a tidal volume compatible with adequate alveolar ventilation.
Clinical studies
The main studies on NIV in immunocompromised patients with hypoxaemic ARF are
reported in table 1.
Nonrandomised studies
CPAP has been used successfully for years to correct severe hypoxaemia in
immunocompromised patients with hypoxaemic ARF [17, 18, 20, 29]. GREGG et al. [18]
studied the efficacy of CPAP in 10 AIDS patients with pneumonia and avoided intubation
in seven of them. BEDOS et al. [29] reported data for 110 consecutive patients with ARF
secondary to AIDS-related P. carinii pneumonia and who were admitted to an ICU within
24 h after their hospital admission. CPAP was used initially in 66 (60%) patients and failed
in 22 (32%) patients who received mechanical ventilation; 20 of those 22 patients died.
These data suggest that CPAP with a face mask could be a safe and effective means of
providing ventilatory support to patients with severe P. carinii pneumonia and probably
avoids intubation and its high mortality rate in a subgroup of less-acutely ill patients.
Among the 64 neutropenic patients with febrile acute hypoxaemic normocapnic
respiratory failure treated by CPAP, in addition to standard therapy, in the study by
HILBERT et al. [20], CPAP was efficient in only 25% of cases. The enrolled patients were
critically ill, with a Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio of 128¡32, and with a high SAPS II and more than
two organ dysfunctions, explaining, in part, the poor results obtained. Nevertheless, all
the responders and only four nonresponders survived their ICU stay. More recently,
CONFALONIERI et al. [21] have compared NIV with invasive mechanical ventilation in
AIDS patients with P. carinii pneumonia-related ARF, needing mechanical ventilation. A
Table 1. – Studies examining the effectiveness of NIV in immunocompromised patients with hypoxaemic acute
respiratory failure
First author [ref] Patients n Details Mask ventilatory Intubation rate %

mode
TOGNET [27] 18 Haematological plus neutropenia Nasal PS- PEEP 67
CONTI [28] 16 Haematological intubation criteria Nasal PS-PEEP 31
BEDOS [29] 66 Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia Facial CPAP 32
HILBERT [20] 64 Haematological, neutropenia Facial CPAP 75
AZOULAY [30] 48 Cancer plus haematological PS-PEEP 56
CONFALONIERI [21] 24 Pneumocystis carinii, pneumonia Facial PS-PEEP 33
case–control study
ROCCO [31] 38 Immunosuppressed patients, case– Helmet versus 42
control study facial PS-PEEP
#
ANTONELLI [23] 40 Solid organ transplantation, Pa,O2/ Facial PS-PEEP 20/70"
FI,O2 ƒ200
HILBERT [25]# 52 Immunosuppressed patients, Pa,O2/ Facial PS-PEEP 46/77"
FI,O2 ƒ200
PS: Pressure Support; PEEP: positive end-expiratory pressure; CPAP: continuous positive airway pressure;
Pa,O2: arterial oxygen tension; FI,O2: inspiratory oxygen fraction. #: prospective, randomised, controlled study;
"
: noninvasive ventilation/standard medical treatment related to the aetiology of hypoxaemic acute respiratory
failure.
97
G. HILBERT
total of 24 patients treated with NIV by a facial mask were matched with 24 patients
treated with invasive ventilation by endotracheal intubation. Use of NIV avoided
intubation in 67% of patients. Even if the existence of criteria of ARDS was not reported,
all the patients were at a very advanced stage of ARF, since they presented criteria of
intubation. The NIV-treated group had a lower mortality in the ICU, the hospital and
within 2 months of study entry. Differences in mortality between the two groups
disappeared after 6 months. The findings of that study provided further support for
applying NIV in AIDS patients with severe P. carinii pneumonia-related ARF as a first-
line therapeutic choice; however, randomised controlled trials are required to confirm
these results.
TOGNET et al. [27] have reported their experience of NIV in 18 haematological patients
with ARF which occurred before, during or just after therapeutic aplasia. NIV, with a
PS mode and preferably a nasal mask, was performed intermittently: 12 patients were
ultimately intubated and died; seven needed intubation within 3 h following admission
(because of the inability of NIV to provide adequate ventilation in six patients); and six
patients were not intubated and were discharged. CONTI et al. [28] have evaluated
treatment with NIV by nasal mask as an alternative to endotracheal intubation and
conventional mechanical ventilation in 16 patients with haematological malignancies
complicated by ARF and having intubation criteria (at inclusion, Pa,O2/FI,O2 of 87¡22).
NIV was delivered via nasal mask using a BiPAP ventilator: five patients died in the ICU
following complications independent of the respiratory failure and 11 were discharged
from the ICU in stable condition after a mean stay of 4.3¡2.4 days and were
subsequently discharged from the hospital. Thus, NIV proved to be feasible and
appropriate for the treatment of respiratory failure in haematological patients who were
at high risk of intubation-related complications. AZOULAY et al. [30] retrospectively
studied a cohort of patients with solid or haematological cancer admitted to the ICU for
ARF. The first group of 132 patients was admitted in the period 1990–1995 while the
second group, composed of 105 patients, was admitted in 1996–1998. The types of
cancer were equally distributed among the two groups. The survival rate in the period
1996–1998 was significantly higher than in the previous period. In a matched-pair
analysis of cancer patients requiring mechanical ventilation support, the mortality
among NIV patients was significantly lower than in conventionally ventilated patients
(43.7 versus 70.8%; p50.008) [30]. Univariate analyses of the patients’ characteristics,
co-morbidity and type of malignancy did not show that any significant association with
30-day mortality. However, in the multivariate analysis, two variables were found to
predict ICU outcome: higher SAPS II at admission was associated with an increased
mortality rate whereas the use of NIV during the 1996–1998 period was associated with
a marked improvement in survival. Another study compared NIV with invasive
intubation and ventilation for this patient group [32]. In that retrospective study, 27
patients, who received NIV, were matched for SAPS II with 52 patients who required
immediate intubation on a 1:2 basis. In contrast to several earlier reports, the authors
could not demonstrate the presence of a survival benefit for the use of NIV. Indeed,
treatment with NIV successfully averted the need for intubation in eight (31%) patients,
five (62.5%) of whom survived their hospital stay; this last rate was similar to this
recorded in patients who required immediate intubation. Nevertheless, these results
must be taken cautiously because hypoxaemic ARF was dramatically more severe in the
NIV group than in the invasive ventilation group (median Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio 71 versus
141, respectively; p,0.001).
More recently, a case-control study on a total of 34 patients was performed to evaluate
the effectiveness of early administration of CPAP through a helmet, in haematological
malignancy patients with ARF [33]. Each patient was treated by CPAP outside an ICU,
directly in the haematological ward. The authors described a success rate as high as
98
possible in patients ventilated with the helmet, while eight NIV failures were registered in
the group ventilated with a face mask because of an intolerance of this interface.
Prospective randomised controlled studies

ARF in patients undergoing solid organ transplantation
Organ transplantation has become a therapy for an increasing population of patients
with end-stage organ failure. Although preventing rejection remains the principle focus
in improving overall survival statistics, pulmonary complications following transplanta-
tion are responsible for most morbidity and contribute substantially to the mortality
associated with various organ transplantation procedures.
ANTONELLI et al. [23] studied solid organ transplant recipients with hypoxaemic ARF
and compared NIV delivered through a face mask with standard treatment using oxygen
supplementation to avoid endotracheal intubation and decrease duration of ICU stay.
NIV resulted in lower intubation rates (20 versus 70%; p50.002), less fatal complications
(20 versus 50%; p50.05) and reduced ICU stay and mortality (20 versus 50%; p50.05).
However, hospital mortality did not differ between NIV and standard therapy groups.
In a subgroup analysis, patients with ARDS randomised to NIV had an intubation rate
of 38 versus 86% in the standard treatment group (p50.08).
Immunosuppressed patients with pulmonary infiltrates, fever and ARF

HILBERT et al. [25] hypothesised that the intermittent use of NIV at an early stage of
hypoxaemic ARF would reduce the need for endotracheal intubation and the incidence
of complications. In a prospective, randomised, controlled study, the efficacy of
noninvasive ventilation delivered intermittently through a mask was compared with that
of standard medical treatment with supplemental oxygen and no ventilatory support in
patients with immunosuppression from various causes in whom hypoxaemic ARF had
been precipitated by pulmonary infiltrates and fever [25].
The immunosuppression could have been caused by neutropenia, after chemotherapy
or bone marrow transplantation in patients with haematological cancers, drug-induced
immunosuppression, in organ-transplant recipients or as a result of corticosteroid or
cytotoxic therapy for a nonmalignant disease, or AIDS.
The patients were selected and exclusion criteria were: a requirement for emergent
intubation for cardiopulmonary resuscitation, respiratory arrest or a rapid deterioration
in neurological status with a Glasgow Coma Scale score ƒ8; a haemodynamic instability
or electrocardiogram instability; COPD; a cardiac origin of the respiratory failure, which
was established by physical signs, chest radiograph and echocardiogram; an arterial
carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) .55 mmHg, with acidosis (pH ,7.35); failure of greater
than two new organs; uncorrected bleeding diathesis; and tracheotomy, a facial deformity
or recent oral, esophageal or gastric surgery. Patients were randomly assigned to receive
either standard treatment (26 patients) or standard treatment plus NIV through a face
mask (26 patients). It is important to underline that randomisation was made at an early
stage of the respiratory failure, long before the patients were headed for intubation.
NIV was delivered through a face mask, in a discontinuous mode, with a protocol
close to that previously described in COPD patients, i.e., periods of NIV lasted
i45 mins and alternated every 3 h with periods of spontaneous breathing [34, 35].
Between periods of ventilation, patients breathed oxygen spontaneously while arterial
oxygen saturation (Sa,O2) was continuously monitored. NIV was automatically resumed
99
G. HILBERT
when Sa,O2 was ,85% or when dyspnoea worsened, as evidenced by a respiratory rate of
.30 breaths?min-1.
During the first 24 h, NIV was administered for a mean of 9¡3 h. Subsequently, the
mean duration of NIV was 7¡3 h?day-1. The mean duration of NIV was 4¡2 days.
The rates of initial and sustained improvement in Pa,O2/FI,O2 and other outcomes in
both groups are reported in table 2. In the NIV group, compared with standard therapy,
fewer patients required endotracheal intubation (12 versus 20; p50.03) and there were
fewer complications (13 versus 21; p50.02). Overall, with NIV, there were improvements
in mortality in the ICU (10 versus 18; p50.03) and in total in-hospital mortality (13
versus 21; p50.02).
Comments on the randomised controlled studies

Neutropenia in patients with haematological malignancies was the most frequent type
of immunosuppression in patients included in the study [25]. If NIV avoided intubation
in only 47% of neutropenic patients, this rate was significantly higher than in the
standard treatment group (7%; p50.02). Very high rates of mortality are recorded in
patients with haematological malignancies admitted to an ICU, more particularly if they
are neutropenic and if intubation and mechanical ventilation are necessary [2, 4–9, 36].
The risk of complications of invasive mechanical ventilation is related to the duration of
ventilatory support [36, 37]. Recent prospective trials have shown the advantage of NIV
in significantly reducing the incidence density of nosocomial pneumonia, compared with
conventional intubation and positive pressure ventilation. It is important to note that
ventilator-associated pneumonia was associated with in-ICU death in 100% of cases in
both randomised controlled studies dealing with immunocompromised patients [23, 25].
In the study by ANTONELLI et al. [23], the eight ARDS patients randomised to NIV
had an intubation rate of 37.5% and a mortality rate of 37%. Few studies have reported
on the application of NIV in ARDS. In another study by the same group, seven out of
32 patients randomised to NIV had ARDS. A total of four out of the seven patients with
ARDS avoided intubation and survived, while three patients required intubation and
died. Only one trial exclusively enrolled patients with ALI/ARDS; ROCKER et al. [38], in
Table 2. – Outcome variables in the study by HILBERT et al. [25]
Noninvasive ventilation Standard treatment p-value

group# group#
Patients requiring intubation 12 (46) 20 (77) 0.03
Intubation per sub-population
Hematologic malignancy and neutropenia 8/15 (53) 14/15 (93) 0.02
Drug-induced immunodepression 3/9 (33) 5/9 (56) 0.32
AIDS 1/2 (50) 1/2 (50)
ICU deaths 10 (38) 18 (69) 0.03
ICU deaths per sub-population
AIDS 0/2 (0) 1/2 (50)
Length of stay in ICU days 7¡3 10¡4 0.06
Hospital deaths 13 (50) 21 (81) 0.02
Hospital deaths per sub-population
AIDS 1/2 (50) 1/2 (50)
Data are presented as n (%), n/N total or mean¡SD. ICU: intensive care unit. #: n526.
100
an uncontrolled study, reported the outcome of 12 episodes of ALI/ARDS in 10 patients

treated with NIV. Overall success rate for NIV trials was 50%. In detail, avoidance of
intubation was achieved on six (66 %) out of nine occasions when NIV was used as the
initial mode of assisted ventilation; it failed after three episodes of planned (1) or self (2)
extubation. These encouraging results showed that NIV should be considered as a
treatment option for patients in stable condition in the early phase of ALI/ARDS. The
studies published to date should provide the rationale for prospective randomised
studies.
Both trials showed that early application of NIV was well tolerated and helped avert
the need for endotracheal intubation and improved the outcomes in selected
immunocompromised patients with hypoxaemic ARF [23, 25]. The authors used
intermittent NIV, since the onset of management [25] or after the first 24 h of treatment
[23], at a less advanced stage of hypoxaemic ARF than in other studies that assessed the
value of NIV in patients, who met the criteria for intubation [22, 28]. On the basis of the
present author’s previous experience, NIV is used in a sequential mode [20, 34, 35]. This
mode is a discontinuous mode, with some specificity, i.e., the predetermination of the
duration of the ventilation sessions and of the time between the NIV sessions. One of the
potential advantages of the sequential approach are an harmonious distribution of NIV
sessions, a better acceptance and tolerance for the patients and a better management by
nursing staff. The protocol of sequential ventilation is appreciated by staff and has
contributed to the standardisation of techniques of NIV in the ICU. It has not been
necessary to modify the organisation of the present author’s unit since the introduction
of these new techniques.
Both randomised controlled studies dealing with immunocompromised patients have
several limitations [23, 25]. It is impossible to eliminate bias when a study cannot be
blinded, and the studies included only selected patients with immunosuppression who
were treated in a single ICU. Furthermore, all the patients in the study by HILBERT et al.
[25] were transferred to the ICU directly from medical wards. Some oncology units are
set up as mini–ICUs and only patients, whose condition is unstable are transferred to a
typical ICU. Further studies are needed in order to refine the process of selecting
patients for treatment with NIV.
NIV as a means of assisting ventilation during fibreoptic

bronchoscopy
It is important to establish the specific causes of an immunocompromised patient’s
pulmonary disease, so that specific therapy can be instituted. Furthermore, a positive
diagnosis and a well adapted treatment could be the main determinants in the improved
outcome of immunosuppressed patients managed with NIV [25]. Consequently,
fibreoptic bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage are major tools in diagnosing
diffuse infiltrates that often occur in association with fever and new onset of respiratory
symptoms in immunosuppressed patients [25, 39, 40].
Nevertheless, although there is no absolute contraindication to this procedure, severe
hypoxaemia is an accepted contraindication to fiberoptic bronchoscopy in nonintubated
patients. The American Thoracic Society recommends avoiding bronchoalveolar lavage
in patients who are breathing spontaneously with hypercapnia and/or hypoxaemia that
cannot be corrected to a Pa,O2 of i75 mmHg with supplemental oxygen.
In a study of eight immunosuppressed patients with suspected pneumonia and Pa,O2/
FI,O2 of ƒ100, ANTONELLI et al. [41] assessed the feasibility and safety of fibreoptic
bronchoscopy with NIV. They found that NIV during bronchoscopy was well-tolerated,
101
G. HILBERT
significantly improved the Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio, and successfully avoided the need for
endotracheal intubation. Another recent study, including 46 patients, suggested that the
application of another noninvasive interface, i.e., the laryngeal mask airway, also appears
to be a safe and effective alternative to intubation for accomplishing bronchoscopy with
bronchoalveolar lavage in immunosuppressed patients with suspected pneumonia and
severe hypoxaemia (Pa,O2/FI,O2 ƒ125) [42]. In a recent prospective randomised trial on 26
patients, NIV was shown superior to conventional oxygen supplementation in preventing
gas exchange deterioration, and with better haemodynamic tolerance, during fiberoptic
bronchoscopy in patients with less severe forms of hypoxaemia (Pa,O2/FI,O2 ,200) [43]. In
that study, PS was 15–17 cmH2O, PEEP was set at 5 cmH2O and FI,O2 at 0.9; the session
of NIV was begun 10 min before the fibreoptic bronchoscopy and continued for at least
30 min after the procedure. The present author currently has the same approach.
Equipment and techniques: particulars in immunocompromised

patients
The time suitable to appreciate improvement in the patient or, conversely, failure of
NIV treatment, may depend on many factors. The lack of ARF resolving at 1–2 h
makes it possible to individualise the patients for whom the efforts to try improving
adaptation and outcome must be most important. Thus, consider if it could be possible
to ameliorate several factors that can improve adaptation of the patient on NIV and the
outcome of the technique. This reasoning is helpful within the first few hours of NIV,
when the patient needs to adapt, and also later, when prolonged ventilation is required.
Many factors may be improved. Some of them are well known and similar to those
considered when PS with PEEP is used in intubated patients; several others are more
specific to NIV.
Interface
NIV can be administered to immunocompromised patients with different types of
interface. The patient interface most commonly employed is a full-face or nasal mask
secured firmly, but not tightly, with a headstrap [13]. The full-face mask delivers higher
ventilation pressures with fewer leaks, requires less patient cooperation and permits
mouth breathing. However, it is less comfortable, increases the dead space, impedes
communication and limits oral intake. The nasal mask needs patient nasal passages and
requires mouth closure to minimise air leaks. The leaks through the mouth decrease
alveolar ventilation and may decrease the efficacy of NIV in reducing the work of
breathing. Furthermore, high flows of gas passing through the nose in case of mouth
leaks can markedly increase nasal resistance and thus further reduce the efficacy of nasal
NIV [44].
Patients may develop complications related to the use of NIV such as skin necrosis,
gastric distention, nosocomial pneumonia or evidence of barotrauma (pneumothorax,
pneumomediastinum, pneumoperitoneum or pulmonary interstitial emphysema). Data
from the literature and observations from the present author’s practice, suggest a highest
incidence of facial-skin breakdown and/or intolerance of the interface in the subgroup of
patients with hypoxaemic ARF and haematological malignancies. The incidence of
pressure necrosis of the skin over the nasal bridge reached 31% in an uncontrolled study
[28]. Three patients were excluded from the study by HILBERT et al. [20], because they
refused to keep the facial mask during the first CPAP session. The reason was acute
stress in one case and major painful mucositis in two cases. A bad tolerance of CPAP
102
was reported in five other patients enrolled in this study and who were intubated. Mask
intolerance because of pain, discomfort or claustrophobia may require discontinuation
of NIV and endotracheal intubation.
Various modifications are available to minimise this complication, such as use of
forehead spacers or the addition of a thin plastic flap that permits air sealing with less
mask pressure on the nose. Straps that hold the mask in place are also important for
patient comfort and many types of strap assemblies are available. Most manufacturers
provide straps that are designed for use with a particular mask. More points of
attachment add to stability and strap systems with Velcro fasteners are useful.
There is no evidence to support the use of particular patient interface devices in
patients with hypoxaemic ARF [13]. Nevertheless, clinical experience suggests that full-
face masks improve efficacy by reducing leaks and are more appropriate for use in the
setting of severe hypoxaemic ARF. As shown in table 1, a facial mask was used
preferentially in the studies examining the efficacy of NIV in immunocompromised
patients with hypoxaemic ARF.
The fact that most NIV failures are due to technical problems, justifies the recent
studies which evaluated new interface devices. Attempting to improve tolerability of
patients, ANTONELLI et al. [45] adopted a transparent helmet made from latex-free
polyvinyl chloride, which allowed patients to see, read and speak, as an interface during
NIV. They conducted a prospective trial, with a matched control group, in order to
investigate the efficacy of NIV using the helmet to treat patients with hypoxaemic ARF.
Six (18%) patients in the helmet group and 9 (13%) patients in the facial mask group had
ARDS. A total of eight (24%) patients in the helmet group and 21 (32%) patients in the
facial mask group failed NIV and were intubated. No patients failed NIV because of
intolerance of the technique in the helmet group compared with eight (38%) patients in
the mask group (p50.047). Complications related to the technique (skin necrosis, gastric
distension and eye irritation) were fewer in number in the helmet group compared with
the standard mask group (no patients versus 14 (21%) patients, respectively; p50.002).
The helmet allowed the continuous application of NIV for a longer period of time
(p50.05). The authors concluded that NIV by helmet successfully treated hypoxaemic
ARF with better tolerance and fewer complications than facial mask NIV. The helmet is
very popular in Italy and excellent results have been reported with the administration of
CPAP through a helmet in haematological malignancy patients with ARF [33]. A better
tolerance of the helmet, compared with a conventional interface, was also found in a
case-control study [31]. However, this interface can be responsible for an increased work
of breathing and dyspnoea [46], a potential risk of CO2 rebreathing, to be carefully
weighed against the major benefits achieved respecting the integrity of the face. In
practice, in many units, including the present author’s, the helmet is used in the second
or even third line, as an alternative to face mask in case of intolerance responsible for
skin lesions, with a risk of failure of the method.
Ventilatory modes
One of the main differences between management of COPD patients and of patients
with hypoxaemic ARF is the place of CPAP in the therapeutic armamentarium of
physicians treating patients with hypoxaemic ARF. Pressures commonly used to deliver
CPAP to patients with hypoxaemic ARF range from 5 to 15 cmH2O. Such pressures can
be applied using a wide variety of devices including CPAP valves connected to a
compressed gas source, small portable units used for home therapy of obstructive sleep
apnoea and ventilators designed for use in the ICU. Depending on the critical care
ventilator selected, CPAP may be administered using ‘‘demand’’, ‘‘flow-by’’ or
103
G. HILBERT
‘‘continuous flow’’ techniques, with imposed work differing slightly between them.
CPAP is widely used in the belief that it may reduce the need for intubation and
mechanical ventilation in patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory insufficiency.
Nevertheless, to the present author’s knowledge, although several studies have shown
the ability of the method to improve hypoxaemia, only one randomised study has
demonstrated that the use of CPAP reduces the need for endotracheal intubation in
patients with severe hypercapnic cardiogenic pulmonary oedema [47]. A recent study
showed that, compared with standard oxygen therapy, CPAP neither reduced the need
for intubation nor improved outcomes in patients with hypoxaemic ARF [24].
Alternatively, positive results have been reported in randomised controlled studies
where PS and PEEP was used [23, 25]. During PS ventilation, the ventilator is triggered
by the patient and delivers a set pressure for each breath and cycles to expiration either
when it senses a fall in inspiratory flow rate below a threshold value, or at a preset time.
Noninvasive PS ventilation offers the potential of excellent patient–ventilator
synchrony, reduced diaphragmatic work and improved patient comfort.
The choice of NIV with PS and PEEP, rather than CPAP, a technique previously
systematically used in hypoxaemic ARF in the present author’s ICU [20], has
undoubtedly contributed to the good results recently reported in immunosuppressed
patients [25]. In the present author’s practice, after the mask had been secured, the level
of PS is progressively increased and adjusted for each patient to obtain an expired tidal
volume of 7–10 mL?kg of body weight-1 and a respiratory rate of fewer than
25 breaths?min-1. PEEP is repeatedly increased by 2 cmH2O, up to a level of
10 cmH2O, until the FI,O2 requirement is 70% or less. The FI,O2 is adjusted to maintain
Sa,O2 above 90%. Ventilator settings are adjusted on the basis of continuous monitoring
of Sa,O2, clinical data and measurements of arterial blood gases. Studies comparing the
impact on clinical outcome of CPAP and PS plus PEEP, in patients with hypoxaemic
ARF, should be useful. For the moment, and looking forward to the results of further
studies, PS ventilation plus PEEP could be the ventilatory mode recommended for
treatment with NIV of hypoxaemic ARF.
Many factors must be considered when PS plus PEEP is used. Some of them are well
known (e.g., inspiratory trigger sensitivity, inspiratory flow) and close to those
considered when this ventilatory mode is used in intubated patients. Several others
are more specific to NIV: e.g., the negative impact of leaks on work of breathing with a
risk of patient–ventilator asynchrony [48]. Gas leaks around the mask or from the
mouth limit the efficacy of the device make monitoring of tidal volume difficult and may
prevent adequate ventilatory assistance in patients who require high inspiratory airway
pressures and represent an important cause of failure. Leaks may also indicate low
compliance or ventilation close to total lung capacity. Thus, particular attention should
be paid to the leaks during application of NIV in patients with hypoxic ARF. In a study
on six patients with ALI due to AIDS-related opportunistic pneumonia, a time-cycled
expiratory trigger provided a better patient–machine interaction than a flow-cycled
expiratory trigger, in the presence of air leaks during NIV [48]. Another possibility is to
modify the threshold of flow cut-off.
The present author believes that the first hours of delivering NIV, with careful
attention to mask fit, patient comfort and patient–ventilator synchrony, represent a
critical opportunity to improve outcome.
Predictive factors of NIV outcome

In the randomised study by HILBERT et al. [25], the effect on outcomes of the presence
and the absence of a final diagnosis of the cause of pneumonitis with respiratory failure
104
was studied. In the NIV group, the patients with a final diagnosis had significant lower
rates for intubation (p50.03), death in the ICU (p50.04) or in the hospital (p50.006).
So, a positive diagnosis and a well-adapted treatment could be the main determinants in
the improved outcome of immunosuppressed patients managed with NIV.
In a prospective study, variables predictive of NIV failure were investigated in 354
patients with hypoxaemic ARF, 37 of them with immunosuppression [49]. Multivariate
analysis identified age .40 yrs (odds ratio (OR) 1.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.92–
3.23), SAPS II i35 (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.07–3.06), the presence of ARDS or community-
acquired pneumonia (OR 3.75, 95% CI 2.25–6.24) and a Pa,O2/FI,O2 ƒ146 after 1 h of
NIV (OR 2.51, 95% CI 1.45–4.35) as factors independently associated with failure of
NIV.
Nevertheless, in practice, it can be difficult to predict an individual outcome and
decide promptly to withdraw the noninvasive ventilatory support, keeping in mind the
poor prognosis of intubation in numerous patients [50]. Alternatively, it is crucial to do
all that can be done to attempt to optimise the technical aspects which are crucial for a
successful application of NIV.
Even though learning techniques of NIV is described as simple in some studies, it is
essential and education must be continuous; this allows better indications of the
techniques and optimises the technical aspects and monitoring, to guarantee that
intubation is not delayed when the method fails. Indeed, the use of NIV with a delay in
reintubation can lead to excess mortality and the moment of reintubation should not be
delayed if it becomes necessary. Undoubtedly, ARF in immunocompromised patients is
one of the indications of NIV that requires experience and a good control of the
technique; this justifies, in this indication, practising NIV in the ICU.
Conclusions
Starting from the good results obtained in patients with acute exacerbations of
COPD, NIV is now being used to support those with hypoxaemic ARF, certain of them
with immunosuppression.
A reduction in the incidence of nosocomial infection is a consistent and important
advantage of NIV compared with invasive ventilation and is probably one of the most
important advantages of avoiding endotracheal intubation using NIV. ARF in
immunocompromised patients is a recognised indication of NIV and, according to recent
international recommendations (of level I), NIV should be used whenever possible in this
indication to reduce the risk of nosocomial pneumonia [37]. Above all, NIV makes it
possible to reduce the mortality of the patients of oncohaematology with ARF.
Given the risks of serious complications and death associated with intubation, the
relative safety of appropriately applied NIV should change the approach to ventilation
in immunocompromised patients with respiratory failure; patients in whom respiratory
distress develops should be treated conventionally with oxygen and other indicated
therapies and should be monitored closely; if moderate-to-severe respiratory distress
develops with tachypnoea and hypoxaemia, NIV should be initiated unless there are
contraindications [50]. The early involvement of ICUs in immunocompromised patients
care, and the better definitions of patients who require ICU admission will probably
play a major role in the future.
The experiences gradually acquired by the different units, the regular training of the
personnel, further technological advances and future research, will position noninvasive
ventilation more accurately in the therapeutic armamentarium of physicians dealing
105
G. HILBERT
with immunocompromised patients with acute respiratory failure and are likely to
improve the conditions for performing noninvasive ventilation in the future.
Summary
Mechanical ventilation is an independent prognostic factor of mortality in
immunocompromised patients; thus, to avoid intubation must remain a major
objective in this pathology. After several studies showing the feasibility, two
prospective randomised and controlled studies demonstrated that noninvasive
ventilation (NIV) made it possible to improve the outcome in selected immunocom-
promised patients admitted in intensive care unit.
Acute respiratory failure (ARF) in immunocompromised patients is a recognised
indication of NIV and, according to recent international recommendations (of level I),
should be used whenever possible in this indication to reduce the risk of nosocomial
pneumonia. Above all, NIV makes it possible to reduce the mortality of the patients
of onco-haematology with ARF. The prognosis is still improved when a diagnosis of
pneumonitis can be retained and the bronchoscopy can be carried out directly under
NIV among the more hypoxaemic patients.
Undoubtedly, ARF in immunocompromised patients belongs to the indications of
NIV which require experiment and a good control of the technique justifying, in this
indication, the practice of NIV in intensive care units.
Keywords: Critical care, immunocompromised, intermittent positive pressure

ventilation, noninvasive ventilation, respiratory failure, ventilation.
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109
CHAPTER 8

failure in children
O. Nørregaard
Danish Respiratory Centre West, Arhus University Hospital, Arhus, Denmark.
Correspondence: O. Norregaard, Danish Respiratory Centre West, Arhus University Hospital,

Norrebrogade 44, Arhus, 8000, Denmark. Fax: 45 89492900; E-mail: [email protected]
Respiratory failure is a major cause of morbidity and mortality around the world [1].
In certain conditions, such as neuromuscular diseases, it is the most frequent cause of
death; and not just in the poorer parts of the world. Previously, respiratory failure would
either not have been treated, or would have been treated with intubation in the acute
setting or tracheostomy for chronic conditions.
During the last couple of decades, noninvasive ventilation (NIV) techniques have
increasingly been added to the armamentarium for the treatment of acute respiratory
failure (ARF) as well as for long-term respiratory insufficiency. The drawbacks of
invasive ventilation and the increasingly obvious advantages of NIV both account for
this development.
Both intubation and tracheostomy are associated with a number of adverse effects [2]
and, in the paediatric population, complication rates as high as 40% have been reported
[3], including accidental extubation, atelectasis, tissue damage, postintubation stridor,
bronchopulmonal dysplasia, bronchial tube blockage [4], nosocomial infections and
difficulties with sedation [5].
NIV applied to adults in the acute setting has seen favourable outcomes, including
reduced intubation rates, decreased complication rates, increased survival and decreased
stay at the intensive care unit and at the hospital [6].
With respect to the use of NIV in children in ARF, the 10-yr old consensus report is
still almost true in stating that ‘‘At present, nasal mask ventilation in young children
must be considered an investigational technique for research and/or use only by
experienced centres. Further to our knowledge … there are no generally accepted
guidelines’’ [7].
NIV for ARF in the paediatric population has been used only to a very small extent.
Increasingly, however, during the last few years, the use has been expanding and data
supporting the technique in children are emerging. Experience has typically been
restricted to case series and has mainly dealt with long-term use of NIV [8]. The recent
development in NIV for paediatric ARF does, however, give hope for a new and
supplementary mode of treatment in infants and children with acute respiratory distress.
Physiology and symptoms

Although children and adults share a number of basic respiratory characteristics, the
paediatric pulmonary function is in many ways more vulnerable and prone to
incompensation. The neonate is characterised by a relatively stiff lung and a very
ISSN 1025-448x.
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NIV AND ARF IN CHILDREN
compliant chest wall. In order to maintain a functional residual capacity (FRC) of 40%
of total lung capacity instead of the unmodified only 15%, the neonate introduces a
number of compensating mechanisms, including laryngeal breaking [9], maintenance of
the post-inspiratory tone in the muscles of the chest wall [10] and a respiratory frequency
fast enough to allow only incomplete deflation. The very compliant chest wall impedes
the neonate’s ability to generate adequate tidal volumes [11], increases the work of
breathing (WOB) [12] by constantly wasting force on chest wall deformation instead of
generating alveolar ventilation [13] as an effective pump would, contributes to fatigue
[14] and accentuates growth retardation [15]. The mechanics of the respiratory system
are further challenged by high flow resistance of the nasal airway, in particular in infants
where it contributes almost half of the airway resistance [16]. The small airways of
young children are very sensitive to any further narrowing (e.g., caused by secretions,
oedema, adenoids or even a minor displacement of the mask used for NIV) that, based
on the Bernoulli principle, will generate a vicious cycle of increased narrowing and
subsequent increased WOB. In addition, a small zone of apposition of the diaphragm
[13], horizontal ribs and in the young immature muscles [17] with a lower fraction of
fatigue-resistant fibres, all limit the endurance of the respiratory system.
In the preterm baby, disturbed alveolarisation [18] and the absence of pores of Kohn,
Lambert and Martin, do not allow collateral air flow to happen at the bronchoalveolar
level thus impeding aeration and favouring the creation of atelectasis [19]. Expiratory
flows are obstructed due not only to the small dimensions of the airways but also to the
altered compliance of the airways and the low FRC generating airway closure during
tidal breathing. Furthermore, submucosal glands occupy a larger proportion of the
airway wall in babies and children without respiratory disease than in adults. This
relative gland hypertrophy could, theoretically, when proportionally increased in
bronchial disease, contribute markedly to mucus hypersecretion and airflow obstruction
[20]. The mucins in respiratory tract secretions from children without respiratory disease
share similar macromolecular properties to the mucins in sputum from patients with
chronic bronchitis [21], except they are more acidic [22] possibly indicating that
secretions in children are more viscous than adult respiratory secretions.
An integral part of the paediatric respiratory scenario is that the metabolic rate is
twice that of the adult leading to a ratio of alveolar ventilation:FRC of 5:1 in the infant
and 1.5:1 in the adult [23] obviously increasing the risk of hypoxaemia; any parenchymal
pulmonary disease will increase this further. If the ensuing risk of acidosis and the
associated deleterious effect on muscle function, and, in the neonate, particularly the
preterm, the risk of foetal circulation, are additionally taken into consideration, the risk
of incompensation becomes obvious.
The hypoxaemic ventilatory response is attenuated in the infant [24]; apnoeas are
more frequent than in the adult and linked to rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, which is
more abundant the younger the child is. Muscle tone is particularly low during REM
sleep, generating a further decrease in FRC and in the power of the respiratory pump
while the flow resistance of the airways and WOB increase. Any generated increase in
respiratory frequency will increase the dead space:tidal volume ratio.
If, at any time, these mechanisms will generate a load that exceeds the total
competence of the respiratory system, the system will incompensate and to a varying
degree produce symptoms. In the acute setting, symptoms can vary from mild-to-
moderate respiratory distress to a comatose child in respiratory arrest, as outlined in
table 1.
Conditions associated with increased risk of ARF are numerous and include
immaturity of the respiratory pacemaker and the pulmonary tissue, impaired ability to
cough, incompetent ability to swallow, retained secretions, scoliosis, neuromuscular
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O. NØRREGAARD
Table 1. – Clinical characteristics of a child with acute respiratory failure
Increased respiratory frequency or bradypnea

Wheezing
Expiratory grunting
Decreased or absent breath sounds
Flaring of nostrils
Paradox breathing
Intercostal retractions
Use of accessory muscles
Fatigue
Sweating
Dehydration
Dyspnoea
Bradycardia or tachycardia
Anxiety
Agitation
Headache
Confusion
Coma
disease and bronchial hyper-reactivity/asthma. Infection is often a common final

pathway in many conditions leading to ARF.
Commonly, respiratory failure is classified as either type I or II, although this is not
an exhaustive terminology. Characteristics of respiratory failure type I and II are
presented in table 2. In addition to symptoms, a number of physiological criteria for
respiratory insufficiency have been defined, as presented in table 3.
Other indicators of the respiratory state of an individual have included rapid shallow
breathing index, maximal inspiratory pressure, maximal sniffing pressure, pulse transit
time [25] and breathing intolerance index (i.e. (tI/ttot)6(VT/VC), where tI is the
inspiratory time; ttot, the total time for one breath; VT, the tidal volume; and VC, the
vital capacity [26]).
Treatment
The overall goal of NIV in ARF is to restore the balance between the load on the
respiratory system and that system’s competence by unloading the failing respiratory
pump, in particular typically during sleep or sedation. More specifically, central
objectives are to decrease WOB, to increase oxygenation and ventilation, and to rest and
Table 2. – Characteristics of respiratory failure type I and II
Type I Type II
Hypoxaemia (low Pa,O2) Normal-to-low Pa,O2
Normal-to-low Pa,CO2 Hypercapnia (high Pa,CO2)
V9/Q9 mismatch
Clinical examples of type I and II respiratory failure
Atelectasis Neuromuscular disease
Status asthmaticus Obesity
Pneumonia Scoliosis
Cystic fibrosis Other restrictive pulmonary disease
Impaired respiratory drive
Pa,O2: arterial oxygen tension; Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension; V9/Q9: ventilation/perfusion ratio.
112
Table 3. – Values for pulmonary function and arterial bood gasses associated with respiratory insufficiency
Pa,CO2 .6.0 kPa,

Sa,O2 ,97% on room air
VC ,15 mL?kg-1 body weight (if the child can co-operate)
PCEF ,180 L?min-1 (if the child can co-operate)
Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension; Sa,O2: arterial oxygen saturation; VC: vital capacity; PCEF: peak cough
expiratory flow.
comfort the child. In adults, NIV has been shown to reduce transdiaphragmatic
pressure, the pressure–time index and consequently WOB, and to increase VT [27–29].
It is very important to remember that NIV should always be preceded and
accompanied by relevant therapy aiming at reversing the process that generated ARF,
i.e. surfactant in preterms, antibiotics for infections, broncholytic agents in asthma,
vasoactive drugs in left ventricular failure etc.
While supplemental oxygen may serve as an adjunct in hypoxaemic respiratory
failure, it is critical to understand that failure of the respiratory pump, as is typically but
not exclusively seen in respiratory failure type II, is not corrected by oxygen alone and
may, in some cases, be aggravated by it.
Monitoring
It is of pivotal importance to monitor implemented treatment. Just as timing of
initiating treatment is important, so is the recognition of the proper time to terminate
failing NIV treatment and convert to endotracheal ventilation. Some of the studies with
poor outcome from NIV in adults with ARF have pointed to delay in the recognition of
unsuccessful NIV as the reason for failure [30].
Monitoring ongoing NIV is in principle based on the same parameters that defined
ARF, and will typically include arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2), carbon dioxide levels,
either as trancutanous tensions or by means of end-tidal capnography [31]. However,
although capnography is informative in several ways, it is not reliable in an open
noninvasive respiratory assist system. Arterial blood gases, respiratory frequency and
child–ventilator synchrony, in addition to clinical parameters such as pulse, sweating,
peripheral perfusion and mental state, constitute additional relevant parameters to
monitor. Recorded continuous monitoring including transcutaneous gas-exchange
parameters, thoraco-abdominal bands and mask pressure (fig. 1) will offer a valuable
tool in determining the state and dynamics of the child in response to changes in
pathology and to various interventions and, in particular, visualise child–ventilator
synchrony or asynchrony (fig. 2). Visualisation of the pressure tracings during the
expiratory phase will add to the understanding of whether mask-related rebreathing may
be part of the explanation if hypercapnia is present. The combined picture of pressure
tracings, thoraco-abdominal movements, oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide tension
will also help to localise leaks (fig. 3). In the paediatric intensive care unit, additional
monitoring could include continuous recording of airway pressure and flow in order to
characterise pulmonary mechanics, continuous invasive blood pressure (arterial and
central venous), venous oxygen saturation (Sv,O2), central temperature and lactate. Full
polysomnography (including electroencephalogram (EEG), electro-oculogram (EOG)
and electromyogram (EMG)) will typically be performed in less-acute settings.
Educated staff, familiar with the sometimes complex equipment and professional in
handling children, a prerequisite for success in these often delicate matters.
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O. NØRREGAARD
Fig. 1. – Transparent nasal mask with green line (arrow) for continuous pressure tracing. Note the visible and
unobstructed nostrils and head gear that allows for sweating.
ECG
2.5mV
100
Sa,O2
90
Thorax
Abdomen
20
BiPAP
0
8
Ptc, CO2
4
F
Position B
L
R
Fig. 2. – Monitoring of a noninvasively ventilated child with continuous tracings of mask pressure and thoraco-
abdominal movements. Note the child–ventilator dyssynchrony and thoraco-abdominal paradox (----), and child–
ventilator synchrony and reduced thoraco-abdominal paradox pattern (?????). Sa,O2: arterial oxygen saturation; BiPAP:
bilevel positive airway pressure; Ptc,CO2: transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension; F: front; B: back; L: left; R: right.
114
ECG
2.5 mV
100
Sa,O2 %
90
Thorax
Abdomen
20
BiPAP
0
5
Ptc,CO2
kPa
3
Fig. 3. – Decrease in mask pressure associated with reduced movements of thorax and abdomen preceding oxygen
desaturations. The pattern is compatible with leaks. Sa,O2: arterial oxygen saturation; BiPAP: bilevel positive airway
pressure; Ptc,CO2: transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension.
Modalities
NIV often refers to positive pressure-targeted ventilation, but it should also include
positive volume-targeted ventilation, negative pressure ventilation and, in a wider sense,
it seems justified to include continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), supplementary
oxygen and some of the technologies used for clearing of secretions.
Achieving minute ventilation from NIV, when applied as positive pressure ventilation,
depends on the mechanical characteristics of the respiratory system, such as compliance,
resistance, auto-positive end-expiratory pressure (auto-PEEP), ventilatory frequency,
leakage and ventilator–patient interaction. The inspiratory and expiratory trigger
function, usually sensed as either pressure or flow changes in the system, is of
fundamental importance. Flow-triggering has in some investigations been found to
superior to pressure-triggering [32]; an insensitive trigger will increase the WOB, while a
too-sensitive trigger may introduce auto-triggering, possibly leading to patient–
ventilator dyssynchrony and unintentional hyperventilation. Trigger adjustment will
depend upon ventilator brand and model. In children and infants with a weak or
reduced pulmonary function, inspiratory flows generated by the patient may be too
small to activate the trigger, in particular in the case of an interposed humidifier,
resulting in controlled ventilation, regardless, to some extent, of the setting [33]. Some
products include the possibility to set a timeframe for inspiration in order to optimise
pressure delivery and to counteract distorted inspiratory–expiratory ratios. The
expiratory trigger (adjustable or not) will, in some models, work purely as a function
of time or as a function of a predefined decline in inspiratory flow before changing to
expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP). In the latter case, leaks will lead the
machine to prolong the inspiratory phase well beyond the point where the user has
ceased to inspire, thus contributing to child–ventilator asynchrony, increased WOB with
the risk of reappearance of respiratory failure, discomfort, possible gastric distension
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O. NØRREGAARD
and, in the worst case, aspiration to the lungs. Newer models increasingly try to combine
the pressure-targeted mode with an assurance of a desired minute ventilation [34], and
recently some brands have introduced the servo-principle into portable machines.
Oxygen, if needed, is typically bled into the single hose system or directly into the
mask. Due to the high flow rates in these pressure-targeted respiratory assist devices, it is
usually not possible to achieve an inspired oxygen fraction (FI,O2) .0.5 even with flow
rates of 5–10 L?min-1.
The bilevel pressures can be delivered in spontaneous (patient-driven) mode, in a
spontaneous/timed mode or in a purely timed mode.
These ventilators/respiratory assist devices are widely used. Patient comfort seems to
be an important feature in favour of the pressure-targeted machines, as there is no
convincing evidence that these machines work better than volume-targeted or vice versa,
apart from the pressure-targeted machines better ability to cope with leaks. Among the
pressure-targeted machines’ characteristics and quality does vary considerably [35].
Servo-ventilators increasingly being used in intensive care units have been working in
the pressure-targeted mode for NIV in acute paediatric cases. These ventilators are
generally more advanced than the portable machines, including more-elaborate
monitoring of pressure, flow, volume, compliance and other parameters in order to
assess patient–ventilator interaction; they use a double hose system for optimal carbon
dioxide-elimination and the newer models are increasingly capable of dealing with leaks.
Some of the newer models are able to support the infant’s spontaneous inspiration,
breath by breath, respecting as well the initiation as the termination of the breath and
consequently optimising patient–ventilator synchrony [36]. The problem of leaks is still
not totally eliminated. A more detailed review of the technicalities and specifications of
various paediatric intensive care ventilators is beyond the scope of the present chapter,
as is a comprehensive algorithm for setting the ventilators.
There are data, [37] though, which suggest that easily measurable clinical parameters,
such as respiratory frequency and comfort rating, are comparable with more-
sophisticated and invasive techniques, as a guide in setting the ventilator for paediatric
ventilation.
Volume-targeted ventilators deliver a set flow to the user’s airways for a preset time
interval or in response to an inspiratory effort, terminating when a preset volume has
been delivered. Leaks have been a problem with this technique and, unless the machine
is able to deliver a VT up to twice that, which is needed for an intubated patient, reduced
VT and patient discomfort may occur [38]. Limited maximal inspiratory flow to
sufficiently support spontaneous respiratory efforts is also a disadvantage. The use of
these ventilators for NIV in paediatric ARF seems to be decreasing (while it seems that
there is still some use in the long-term setting).
Negative pressure ventilators repeatedly apply a negative pressure to the trunk or part
of it by means of a tank, a suit or a shell to imitate the physiological negative inspiratory
pressure swings. Theoretically this should be advantageous in children with right heart
failure, which indeed has been shown in the post-operative setting. The machines are
cumbersome, though, they interfere with patient care and are associated with skin injury
and obstructive apnoeas (that can be counteracted by positive airway pressure) [39, 40].
The use of these devices is, at present, limited.
Mechanical insufflation–exufflation applies, by means of a mechanical pump (Cough-
Assist1) via a nasal mask, mouth piece or full face mask (or a tracheostomy), pressures
in the range of 10–40 cmH2O cycling between positive and negative pressures [41], that
can each be set at a desired value. The machine can operate in an automatic or manual
mode. The latter facilitates patient–machine co-operation. The rationale is to expand the
lungs, loosen secretions, increase compliance and perform a noninvasive suctioning
manoeuvre to eliminate secretions.
116
Interfaces
The interface plays a crucial role in NIV with respect to comfort, success or failure of
NIV and to adverse effects, not least in the paediatric population. Development of
paediatric interfaces is still far from complete and much work needs to be performed
before a wide range of well-performing products for all age groups are readily available.
Optimisation includes issues, such as how easy it is to mount the mask on the child,
quality of the head gear, safety aspects, material transparency and hygienic aspects.
Available interfaces at present include nasal masks (fig. 1), nasal plugs (fig. 4) or
cannulas, oral interfaces, full face masks (covering mouth and nose or as a hybrid
between an oral interface and nasal prongs) and helmets. Some of these products come
either as standard products or can be custom made [42, 43]; for younger children and
infants especially, one often has to rely on custom-made interfaces because of the
paucity of industrial products in that field.
When applying a mask to a child with ARF, there are at least three major
considerations: 1) maximal comfort for the child; 2) verification that the mask works,
(i.e., it is in place and allows free delivery of pressure or volume during inspiration and
expiration); and 3) the mask should not have adverse effects, such as major leaks, in
particular not in the orbital region, carbon dioxide rebreathing, gastrointestinal
inflation, skin abrasions or necrosis. Additionally, a fourth issue of dead space and the
role the interface plays in the child’s ability to trigger the ventilator and/or the risk of re-
breathing should also be kept in mind.
Leaks are a major issue in NIV (fig. 3) [44]; they carry the risk of reduced alveolar
ventilation, child–ventilator dyssynchrony, increased nasal resistance, irritation to the
eyes, disturbed sleep and comfort and, ultimately, rejection of the treatment.
Additionally, leaks may tempt the clinician to tighten the head gear too much, resulting
in pressure marks or even breakdown of the skin at various prominences like the nasal
bridge. In the dilemma between leaks and tight straps, the clinician should usually
accept some leakage if no other option is available.
Nasal masks are often chosen in children, even after the child is no longer an
obligatory nose breather. Particular paediatric facial anatomy, the risk of aspiration,
Fig. 4. – Binasal canula with green line (arrow) for continuous pressure recording during noninvasive ventilation.
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O. NØRREGAARD
problems with co-operation and proper fitting of full face masks in a chubby toddler
may be part of the explanation as well as the added dead space of full face masks. The
latter issue is complex. Recent data from a bench study [45] indicated the importance of
the flow-sensitive dynamic dead space (contrary to static dead space which seems much-
less important), stressing the importance of continuous flow during the whole expiratory
phase and of optimal positioning of the exhalation ports diametrically opposite the
inspiratory port, typically over the nasal bridge, as it probably facilitates laminar flow in
that position. The position of the exhalation port as well as the mask design also seems
to affect carbon dioxide rebreathing [46], at least in adult models, where the mask with
the smallest volume and with the exhalation port placed within the mask demonstrated
less rebreathing than alternative designs.
To what extent these findings are applicable in real life is still not known, although
there are recent data documenting the use of helmet ventilation in hypercapnic
neuromuscular paediatric patients [47], in hypoxaemic infants [48] and preterm babies
[49].
Masks should preferably be made of transparent material that allows easy inspection
of the nostrils to ensure that they are not partly or totally occluded by secretions or from
dislocation of the mask. The risk is particular high in the very small, as even minor
displacements of the mask may interfere with unobstructed delivery of flow or pressure.
This very simple but very important point should have a very high priority among
attendants. It also emphasises the importance of proper head-gear that will keep the
interface in place. This is a challenge in infants with a rounded and smooth scull moving
the head around during sleep or awake; even more so because a too tight fixation of the
cap may produce impressions on the soft cranial bony structures and add to the
compression of the maxillar bone. This is a serious adverse effect [50, 51] in long-term
NIV in children (fig. 5). To what extent it is a problem related to ARF remains to be
documented; however, in many cases, ARF will occur in children who already are using
long-term NIV and who may already have acquired facial flattening.
The mask material should be soft and follow the facial contours. Owing to the
dynamics of these contours as a result of growth, weight changes and pressure from the
interface, mask fitting is an ongoing process. In case of acute on chronic failure, the
mask used at home may turn out to be outdated and not optimal in the acute setting. As
a rule of thumb, one should often choose a smaller rather than a larger mask for proper
fitting. In case of oral leaks, a full face mask or an added chin strap may be an
alternative. In neonates, a pacifier (‘‘dummy’’) may serve the same purpose very well. If
facial masks are not attractive nasal pillows or cannulas may be useful as an alternative,
or as a means to alternate between different interfaces during a treatment to minimise
and spread adverse effects. If a custom made mask is used for the first time in a child, it
is recommendable to check the pressure drop across the inner cushion if that is part of
the mask design, as the resistance through the apertures may vary from one individual
mask to another.
Appropriate headgear should be a concern and, in small children, custom made
versions are often preferable. The material should be soft, allow for sweating (or keep
the head warm, whichever is relevant) and have a surface that is not too smooth, in
order to stabilise interface position.
If skin injuries are present or if facial contours pose a challenge to acceptable mask fit
and leak limitation, the helmet may prove effective, even in paediatric [52] patients. The
helmet also eliminates the problems with difficult fixation of masks in the child and may
become attractive in the neonate [49].
The helmet, in contrast to most systems using a mask or prongs, works by means of
separate inspiratory and expiratory tubes like intensive care ventilators (fig. 6).
Rebreathing can be regulated by the volume of the helmet and the fresh gas flow.
118
Retrograde position of maxillar teeth
Fig. 5. – Lateral radiograph of the skull demonstrating compression of the maxillar bone and retrograde position of
maxillar teeth as a result of noninvasive ventilation of a child. Note relative protrusion of mandibular teeth. This may
obstruct the normal antegrade development of the maxillar bone.
The fraction of inspired oxygen, the temperature, the humidity and the inspiratory and
expiratory pressures can likewise be adjusted to the requirements of the user. The use of
a helmet neither precludes judicious sedation nor the use of a nasogastric tube. The
helmet must be made of transparent material, must contain a safety valve to prevent
asphyxia and a port for handling and examination of the patient. Drawbacks of the
helmet include the risk of a high level of noise, some difficulty in handling the patient,
rebreathing and a tight fit without causing skin lesions.
Nasal prongs have primarily been used for infants and preterm infants [53] and have
in general been well tolerated.
Humidification
Dryness is a common complaint from users of NIV [54]. Without humidification, the
relative humidity in the NIV circuit is substantially lower (16.3–26.5%) than the ambient
relative humidity (27.6–31.5%) [55]. The unidirectional flow prevents the recovery by the
nasal mucosa of one third of the water delivered through the airflow leading to an
increase of nasal resistance. If that provokes an increase in oral breathing and associated
leaks, an increase of up to six-fold in nasal resistance has been observed [56].
Considering that the area of any tube is reduced by the radius of the fourth power, any
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Fig. 6. – Helmet for noninvasive positive pressure ventilation of infants with acute respiratory failure. Reproduced
from [48] with permission from the publisher.
retention of secretions or crusts will potentially start a vicious circle based on the
Bernoulli equation and generate an increase of WOB in addition to increased risk of
decreased pulmonary compliance and atelectasis [57]. Patients at particular risk include
those with asthma, cystic fibroses, cilia dysfunction and other with copious secretions.
This should aggressively be avoided and humidification is one of the means, which, in
addition may have a bronchodilatory effect on, at least, normal airways [58]. Heated
humidifiers are much-more effective than passover versions and often more comfortable
too. Compared with the use of heat and moisture exchanger (HME) inserts, heated
humidifiers in adults are associated with significantly less WOB and indices of patient
effort and an increased efficiency of NIV [59]. Heated humidification increases the
relative and absolute humidity to acceptable levels during NIV [55]. Heated
humidification during nasal NIV in normal adults also attenuates the adverse effects
of mouth leaks on effective VT and nasal resistance and improves overall comfort [60].
To what extent these oberservations can be applied to the paediatric population has still
not been determined but, intuitively, they would probably be even more important in the
younger children. The addition of a humidifier, however, would probably add to the
resistance of the system and adversely interfere with triggering. There hardly seems to be
a place for HME in infants and younger children. A meta-analysis of the risk of
endotracheal tube occlusion with a HME versus a heated humidifier (HH) favoured the
HH by a relative risk factor of 3.84. [61].
Sedation and pain management

No recommendations for sedation and pain management are currently available;
however, it seems that these agents are presently used more liberally, maybe as a result
of increasing professionalism, better back-up facilities and increasing awareness of the
problem in paediatric intensive care units compared with a decade ago. Midazolam in
the range of 0.15 mg?kg-1 has been used in some studies [48], opiates and chloral hydrate
[62] or oral clonidine [63] in others.
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Setting
Units taking care of children with ARF should be able to handle this potentially life
threatening condition in a professional manner or have very close and free access to a
department able to do that, which in practice will be an intensive care unit or preferably
a paediatric intensive care unit. The staff should be trained and sufficient in number [64],
intubation facilities and extensive monitoring equipment readily available. The
condition of the child should define the setting. When different units are involved a
predefined algorithm for referrel between units is recommendable.
Although the child may be sedated (to some degree) or, because of the respiratory
failure (and possibly concomitant disease), not totally aware of the situation, it should
be the ambition to create an environment that is adjusted to specifically comfort and
fulfil also the psychological and emotional needs of a child. Educated staff and well
structured work routines and the use of protocols have proven favourable [33].
Selection criteria
Clinical characteristics of respiratory insufficiency and failure and associated blood
gasses have been outlined in tables 1 and 3.
As there are no generally accepted criteria specifically for initiating NIV in a neonate
or an older child with ARF, many clinicians will often use a combination of these and
other characteristics, the clinical setting and personal experience. Recent data from a
prospective study may provide some additional guidance with respect to the course of
NIV-treatment and CPAP-treatment [62] in predominantly young children with acute
hypoxaemic (type I) or hypercapnic (type II) respiratory failure. An FI,O2 .80% after
1 h of NIV, predicted failure to respond to the treatment, with a sensitivity of 56% and
an specificity of 83%. In spite of significant improvement in blood gasses, cardiac
frequency and respiratory frequency in both groups (i.e. responders and nonresponders)
these parameters could not significantly predict the course, although the responders
tended to have a lower respiratory frequency than the nonresponders.
Contraindications
Contraindications are not defined and some would argue that the proper term for
contraindications should be conditions where the true effect of NIV has not yet been
tested. Generally, if NIV is not accepted or is not able to oxygenate and ventilate the
patient in a satisfactory manner, alternative modes should be applied, i.e. usually
intubation or tracheostomy. Copious secretions or bulbar malfunction may preclude the
application of NIV [65]. Children with severe facial malformations, facial burns or
trauma may be difficult to apply a mask or an oral interface to, but with the advent of
the helmet another alternative has been added to the armamentarium beside negative
pressure ventilation. Difficulties with co-operation, in the acute setting can to some
extent, be overcome with judicious sedation. The need for ventilatory assistance around
the clock does not, in the acute setting, preclude NIV, to some extent contrary to long-
term ventilation. Obviously, a dramatically sick child with multi-organ failure, unstable
circulation and/or impending respiratory failure would not be a candidate for NIV; at
least not at present.
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Outcome
Published reports on the results of NIV applied to infants and children with ARF are
not very abundant, not very systematic and not very old. The goal is to summarise what
is known about the topic related to specific pathologies to the limited extent this is
possible from the available data.
Mixed populations
One of the largest and earliest studies from an ICU comprised retrospective data from
28 children, of whom none suffered from neuromuscular disease, with a median age of
8 yrs treated via a nasal mask with BiPAP1-settings of inspiratory/expiratory positive
airway pressure (IPAP/EPAP)512/6 cm H2O supplied with oxygen as needed for 72 h
as treatment for acute hypoxaemic failure (type 1), most frequently originating from
pneumonia. Pa,CO2 decreased from 6.0 to 5.2 kPa (p, 0.01), respiratory frequency from
45 to 33 breaths?min-1 and Pa,O2/FI,O2 increased from 141 to 280. Adverse effects were
minor and included skin abrasions of the bridge of the nose [66].
Almost 10 years ago, PADMAN et al. [67] published a prospective study, which
included 34 critically ill children (mean age 11 yrs) from a paediatric ICU with a range
of underlying medical conditions such as pneumonia (13 individuals), stridor, reactive
airway disease, asthma, post-operative hypoventilation with atelectasis, acute chest
syndrome and sleep-aggravated breathing disorder (10 individuals). They were
ventilated with bilevel devices, using IPAP/EPAP settings of 7–12/3–5 cmH2O for a
median duration of 6 days using nasal masks and humidifiers. After 72 h of ventilatory
support, Pa,CO2 was reduced from 8.4 to 6.1 kPa (p,0.05), bicarbonate concentrations
from 30 to 24 mM (p,0.01) and respiratory frequency from 39 to 25 breaths?min-1
(p,0.04). Three (8.8%) required intubation. Adverse effects were limited to skin
breakdown over the nasal bridge in four patients.
A recent study [62] from a paediatric ICU investigated the treatment of 42 children
with a median age of 2.5 yrs (range 0.01–18 yrs) with acute hypoxaemic and
hypercapnic respiratory failure caused by pneumonia (n514), viral infections (n5 4),
postoperative repair of congenital heart disease (n511), Hyaline membrane disease
(n53) and miscellaneous conditions (n510). NIV was applied fory20 h via nasal or full
face masks using a bilevel technique in assisted spontaneous breathing in 50% of the
group and CPAP in the other 50%. Settings were unclear. Some were sedated with
opiates, midazolam or chloral hydrate and analgesics as needed. A total of 24 responded
to the therapy and 18 had to be intubated. Both groups improved significantly with
respect to respiratory frequency, pH and Pa,CO2 after 8 h, but none of these parameters
was descriminative. The only predictive parameter was FI,O2 after 1 h of NIV (0.48 in
responders and 0.80 in nonresponders). The authors speculate that complication rate
and co-operation with the ventilator may have been decisive factors for success or
failure.
A contemporary, smaller Spanish study [68] of 23 children with a mean age of
37 months suffering from acute hypoxaemic failure (n514), acute hypercapnic failure
(n54) or post-extubation failure (n56) demonstrated a reduction in respiratory
frequency from 45 to 34 breaths?min-1 and a pulse reduction from 148 to 122 after NIV
treatment using mostly full face masks and a mixture of ICU ventilators and ‘‘specific
noninvasive ventilators’’. Five were intubated, three of whom were aged ,6 months.
A group of 15 children aged between 1 month and 5 yrs suffering from hypoxaemic
ARF with Pa,O2/FI,O2 ,300 for a variety of reasons (mostly post-extubation after major
surgery) were in a feasibility study (uncontrolled) exposed to CPAP treatment via a
122
helmet. CPAP level ranged between 5 and 10 cmH2O, inspiratory gas flows were
30 L?min-1 and measurements were performed after 2 h of CPAP use. Insignificant
improvements in oxygenation and carbon dioxide removal were noted in most of the
children; however, two had to be intubated. There were no skin lesions, conjunctivitis,
epistaxis or gastric distension reported [48].
Children with neuromuscular diseases

One study [69] from the late 1990s, applied a combined treatment of NIV and
expiratory support (manual and assisted coughing) in the paediatric ICU prospectively
to 10 children aged 12–20 yrs suffering primarily from neuromuscular disease (primarily
Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy), all without ventilator-free time. Six were originally
intubated. Most of the children used BiPAP1 with IPAP/EPAP settings of 24/3 cmH2O.
Outcome data were limited but it was reported that the four patients who originally used
NIV continued treatment successfully and that the others were all extubated, mostly to a
mouthpiece or a nasal mask. Patient co-operation was reported to be critical for
treatment success.
A recent Italian study [47] in 10 children with an age range from 3 months to 12 yrs
suffering from various neuromuscular diseases with ARF, used a mixture of face masks
and helmets in combination with a very-sensitive flow-triggered ICU ventilator with a
preset inspiratory time in order to minimise leaks. Sedation and pain relief were
administered as needed. Treatment was successful in eight patients. Hypercapnic failure
patients (Pa,CO2 range of 48–94 mmHg) normalised their carbon dioxide values during
6-8 h of treatment, and Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio increased from a median value of 75 to 240. No
intubations and no severe complications occurred. The authors conclude that even ‘‘…
life-threatening respiratory distress and very young age should not preclude NPPV
[noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation] application in the PICU [paediatric ICU]
setting.’’
Another study included 11 children of very-young age (6–26 months) with severe
skeletal and bulbar weakness suffering from spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) type one
[33]. Before extubation, they received inspiratory/expiratory pressures of 25–40 cmH2O.
Following extubation, they were managed according to a well defined protocol with
IPAP/EPAP settings of .14/3 cmH2O, that proved to be superior to nonprotocol
treatment. Following the acute scenario, two required continuous NIV, six only
nocturnal NIV, two were tracheostomised and one was lost at follow-up.
Children with airway diseases

Considering that asthma is the most common cause for hospital admission in
childhood [70], any improvement from NIV in this area would be of major interest. A
recent American study [71] confirmed for the first time, in a prospective manner, data
from a previous nonprospective study [72] and a case series [73] reporting benefits from
NIV in the acute setting. A total of 20 children with a median age of 48 months (range
2 months to 14 yrs) entered a cross-over study of bilevel support for 2 hours with an
IPAP/EPAP setting of 10/5 cmH2O via a nasal or full face mask combined with
broncholytic inhalations, humidification, oxygen and standard therapy. NIV was
associated with a decrease in respiratory frequency from 49¡14 to 32¡6 breaths?min-1
(p,0.0001) and a decrease in total Clinical Asthma Score (CAS) from 5.4¡1.2 to
2.1¡1.0 p,0.0001). After discontinuation of NIV, an increase in respiratory frequency
and CAS reappeared. NIV was not associated with significant changes in Sa,O2 nor in
transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension. The findings are compatible with an unloading
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effect of NIV (although maybe incompletely, as cardiac frequency did not change), and
emphasises the importance of choosing valid and relevant parameters for monitoring.
The study did not report how fast clinical changes could be observer (within the 2-h time
frame) nor does it comment on the issue of back-up rate and patient–ventilator
synchrony. Three patients did not tolerate NIV, two of whom were aged ,1 yr.
These findings were, to some extent, confirmed in a larger retrospective study
including 83 children, with a median age of 8 yrs, in status asthmaticus refractory to
conventional pharmacological treatment and designated for admission to the paediatric
ICU [74]. A total of 73 tolerated nasal BiPAP1 and concurrent continuous inhaled b-2
agonists for an average of 5.8 h. There was an ‘‘immediate’’ improvement with 77% of
patients showing a 24% decrease in respiratory frequency (none experienced an increase)
and 88% an improved oxygenation. Only two patients required intubation. A total of
22% were admitted directly to ward service, and none of these was subsequently
transferred to the paediatric ICU. Intolerance to the mask was established within
10 min, and more often in the younger chidren. No adverse effects were observed. The
study did not report data on BiPAP1-settings or on patient–ventilator synchrony.
Children with malignant diseases

Two minor case series [52, 75] have reported successful treatment of respiratory
distress associated with malignant haematologic disease.
Infants
Administration of oxygen [76], CPAP and nasal intermittent positive pressure
ventilation (IPPV; i.e. NIV) in preterm infants could be categorised as being somewhere
in a grey zone between treatment of acute and/or chronic respiratory failure, thus
justifying a comment as perceived in an acute perspective.
The use of oxygen administration via a nasal cannula, in preterm infants, shares some
of the problems associated with CPAP use in older children. Studies have documented
that flows of 2 L?min-1 using a 0.3 cm nasal cannula produced a mean pressure of
9.8 cmH2O in infants of 30 weeks gestation studied at aged 28 days [77]. This, and other
studies, has drawn the attention to oxygen administration as a form of respiratory
support. Along with the benefits of this treatment one should be aware of the inherent
risks of lung overexpansion and desiccated nostrils as a result of a nonheated and
nonhumidified flow.
A Cochrane review [78] comparing nasal IPPV and nasal CPAP for the treatment of
apnoea of prematurity concluded that nasal IPPV was a potentially beneficial treatment
for apnoea in premature babies and, based on two small studies, that delivery via nasal
prongs may be more effective than CPAP alone. The need for further research is
underlined.
The Cochrane review by DE PAOLI et al. [79] concluded that short binasal prong
devices were more effective than single prongs in reducing the likelihood of the short-
term adverse outcomes of re-intubation and respiratory failure after extubating preterm
infants to nasal CPAP, and also in treating preterm infants for respiratory distress
syndrome as evidenced by reduction in oxygen requirements and respiratory frequency.
Recently a clinical study [80] compared the effect of nasal BiPAP with nasal CPAP on
gas exchange in preterm babies. A total of 20 babies with a weight of 445–1,810 g (12
weighed ,1,100 g) were subjected to four sessions, each lasting 1 h in a cross-over
scenario between CPAP of 4–6 cmH2O and bilevel ventilation with IPAP/EPAP settings
124
of 8–10/4–6, a back up rate of 30 and an inspiratory:expiratory ratio of 1:3, both

treatments delivered via a short binasal prong. During nasal BiPAP1 sessions, a
significant increase in oxygen saturation and transcutaneous oxygen tension were seen
along with a significant decrease in transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension and
respiratory frequency.
Later AGHAI et al. [81] compared, in a cross-over design in 15 infants with a body
weight of 1,367¡325 g treatment with nasal CPAP of 5 cmH2O with three levels of bi-
level ventilatory support (10, 12 and 14 cmH2O) in assist-control mode via largest
possible nasal prongs. Data were collected over a maximum period of 30 s after 5 min of
stabilisation. Inspiratory and resistive WOB decreased with high bi-level ventilation.
This trend was supported in a very-recent study, of 15 preterm babies of 972¡215 g,
which compared NCPAP of 5.3 cmH2O, delivered via binasal prongs, with bilevel
pressure support ventilation of 7.9 cmH2O above CPAP for 2 h after 15 min of
stabilisation [82]. Maximal inspiratory time was limited to 0.45 s, and trigger sensitivity
was adjusted in each child to achieve minimal response delay without auto-triggering.
Peak and minute inspiratory efforts were significantly reduced as were indices of chest
wall asynchrony (reduction in phase shift angle) during bilevel ventilation pointing to an
effective unloading of the patient’s respiratory pump; however, no difference was found
with respect to VT, minute ventilation, carbon dioxide tension or hypoxaemic episodes.
The extent of patient–ventilator synchrony was not specifically commented upon by the
authors.
A comparable reduction of resistive WOB, respiratory frequency and phase angle
(respiratory asynchrony) was noted during the use of variable-flow CPAP compared
with bubble nasal CPAP of 4 to 8 cmH2O delivered via binasal prongs to supine preterm
infants of 1,042 g suffering from mild respiratory distress [53]. Data were collected over
30 s epochs. Both systems resulted in a decreased inspiratory WOB.
Whether the unloading of the neonate has any long-term consequences is unknown. It
is interesting to speculate, though, whether it would result in a better neurologic
outcome than, for instance, the long-term results of high-frequency oscillatory
ventilation where an excess of children with abnormal neurodevelopmental status was
the result [83].
Nasal prongs have been the standard interface for neonatal CPAP. With the advent of
helmets for ventilatory support, this option has been investigated in a neonatal ICU
where the outcome in 20 very low birth weight infants (815 g) exposed for 90 min to
conventional CPAP and 90 min to CPAP delivered via a helmet was compared [49].
Neonatal Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) scores were significantly lower when infants were on
the helmet than when they were on nasal CPAP (0.26 and 0.63, respectively) whereas no
difference was found in the other parameters monitored, such as Sa,O2, transcutaneous
catbon dioxide tension, respiratory frequency, cardiac frequency, level of CPAP and
temperature.
Children with other conditions

Dengue haemorrhagic fever can develop into dengue shock syndrome (DSS), a septic
condition involving alveolar oedema, increased vascular permeability with development
to ARDS and associated high mortality. A Vietnamese study [84] documented, in 37
children with DSS pleural effusions (92%) and interstitial pulmonary oedema (33%), and
aged 1–11 yrs, that the addition of 6 cm of CPAP to conventional therapy significantly
reduced respiratory frequency and significantly improved responsiveness to treatment
(13/19 versus 4/18, respectively; p,0.01).
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NIV has, in case studies, been applied to children with various other acute conditions
like burns [85], traumatic tetraplegia [86] and peri-operatively in relation to scoliosis
surgery in neuromuscular patients [87], with favourable results.

Negative pressure ventilation (NPV) for children with ARF has been administered for
several decades but is still not widely used and not much has been published in recent
years. Older studies demonstrated that NPV was associated with a lower incidence of
pneumothoraces and bronchopulmonary dysplasia than IPPV [88]. In the post-operative
setting after correction of tetralogy of Fallot, NPV has been accompanied by an increase
in pulmonary blood flow of 65% [89]. A more-recent controlled study over a period of
4 yrs in 244 neonates suffering from respiratory distress syndrome compared negative
pressure support of -4– -6 cmH2O with standard therapy including CPAP of 4 cmH2O
and demonstrated that the need for intubation was slightly less in the group receiving
negative pressure support compared with the control group (86 versus 91%, respectively)
[90]. Partly fuelled by public concerns about mortality and neonatal morbidity as a
result of that treatment, a follow-up assessment study of part of the ventilated
population was performed recently [91]. The results from 65 complete pairs from the
original study were available and showed no significant difference in full IQ between the
two groups. However, performance IQ was better in the group treated with NPV and
scores on language production and visuospatial skills were significantly higher in that
group compared to the group that had received standard treatment. The authors argued
that future trials should be designed with long-term outcomes in mind; a point of view
that deserves very high priority and which can only be strongly supported.
Another NPV study, using a chest cuirass, proved successful in a case series of
critically ill infants aged 4–16 months exposed to -18– -30 cmH2O in conjunction with
30 cmH2O [92].
A recent study in two different paediatric ICUs comprising 52 infants with a mean age
of 34 weeks, suffering from bronchiolitis-related apnoea, compared the results from
treatment with noninvasive NPV ranging from -4– -25 cmH2O when applied as
intermittent NPV with those from the treatment with PPV either via prongs or a tube
[93]. Pressures during PPV were not presented. The use of NPV was associated with a
significantly reduced rate of intubation compared with the non-NPV regimen (26 versus
86%, respectively), a significantly shorter paediatric ICU stay (2 versus 7 days,
respectively) and a reduced use of sedation (52 versus 86%, respectively). Some of the
limitations of that study included its retrospective nature, the clinical practice in two
paediatric ICUs, the comparability of the two populations and the use of CPAP at the
NPV-paediatric ICU. One can thus only agree with the authors’ proposal for a
randomised, prospective controlled trial.
A recent Cochrane review by SHAH et al. [94] on hypoxaemic respiratory failure in
children concluded, based on the only study included [95], that continuous negative
extrathoracic pressure applied to 33 infants suffering from bronchiolitis reduced oxygen
requirements to ,30% within 1 h.
Position
Ventilation of children and neonates in the prone position has been associated with
improvement in oxygenation [96], whereas improvement with respect to other
126
parameters such as ventilator-free days has been difficult to demonstrate [97]. These
studies were performed on intubated patients. It has not been possible to identify studies
combining NIV and prone position. Although it may pose an increased workload and
complexity of manoeuvres, there are good physiological arguments for an attempt.
Secretion clearance
If data regarding NIV for children ARF are scarce, the data for noninvasive secretion
clearance in that group are even more so. MISKE et al. [98] concluded from a
retrospective study in the nonacute setting that inexsufflation in children with a median
age of 11.3 yrs was safe, reasonable well tolerated, but that the effectiveness with respect
to reducing lower respiratory tract infections could not be determined. BACH [99]
showed that the use of inexsufflator in a group of children suffering from SMA type 1
with ARF was followed by a considerable reduction of incidents of re-intubation.
Additionally, the use of the inexsufflator as an adjunct in male children with Duchenne’s
muscular dystrophy on long-term NIV, in order to prevent respiratory tract infections
was followed by fewer hospitalisations compared with the group who did not follow the
specified protocol.
Other studies have confirmed benefits of the inspiratory/expiratory technique applied
to children as it has generated greater increases in peak cough flow than other standard
cough augmentation techniques [100].
Summary
After some years with increasing use of long-term noninvasive ventilation (NIV) of
children with chronic diseases, NIV has, within the very last few years, been emerging
as an option for treating children and infants with acute respiratory failure. The
prevalent modality is positive pressure ventilation and continuous positive airway
pressure, although negative pressure ventilation has been practised. The techniques
appear feasible, safe and effective to varying degrees. Data are still very scarce and
much research is needed to identify indications, contraindications, best techniques,
best modalities, best interfaces and best scenarios. Investigations with long-term
follow-up are strongly needed.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, children, continuous positive airway pressure,

infants, noninvasive ventilation.
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132
CHAPTER 9
NIV: use during the pre-hospital

management of patients with acute
respiratory failure
F. Thys*, S. Spencer*, F. Verschuren*, N. Delvau*, J. Roeseler#, F. Templier"
*Emergency Dept. and #Physical Therapy, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Université Catholique de
Louvain, Brussels, Belgium and "SAMU 92, SMUR Garches, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, Hôpitaux de
Paris, Paris, France.
Correspondence: F. Thys, Service des Urgences, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Université Catholique de
Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 10, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium. Fax: 32 27641620; E-mail: frederic.thys@
uclouvain.be
Introduction
Over the past 20 or so years, the relevance of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) modes,
for the management of acute respiratory failure (ARF) in intensive care, has been
demonstrated in reducing both intubation rate and mortality. Selected indications for
NIV are now widely accepted. Considering acute pulmonary oedema, associated or not
with hypercapnia, NIV reduces the intubation rate, probably mortality too, with a
similar benefit when using continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or bilevel
positive airway pressure (BiPAP) [1]. The use of BiPAP decreases mortality associated
with ARF in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, while CPAP has
failed to show any benefits in this group of patients. For all other causes of ARF,
indications as to the use of NIV are still controversial or under trial.
Several clinical trials have shown the feasibility and the efficacy of NIV in the early
management of patients with ARF in the emergency department [2–7]. Furthermore, a
series of clinical trials performed in an emergency room setting showed a positive impact
of NIV on clinical improvement and gas exchange and also a reduction of endotracheal
intubations [2, 4, 8, 9]. Two randomised controlled trials specifically assessed the efficacy
of NIV in preventing endotracheal intubation [10, 11]. Those two trials had inclusion
criteria for a variety of ARF causes. One study showed a 15% rate of intubation [10],
while the second showed a high rate of treatment failure in the BiPAP group with 44% of
intubation and a higher in-hospital mortality [11]. This shows the danger of an
indiscriminate use of NIV. Actually, the analysis of the latter study demonstrates that
the lack of relevant inclusion criteria, the choice of an inappropriate ventilator/patient
interface and delayed intubation in cases of BiPAP treatment failure are always
detrimental for the patient [12]. However, in the current context, for properly selected
patients, NIV is successfully used on a daily basis in many emergency departments,
allowing a significant reduction of endotracheal intubation rate, length of in-hospital
stay, and mortality.
Alternatively, to the best of the present authors’ knowledge, there is no evidence today
to support the use of NIV in the treatment of ARF caused by an acute cardiogenic
hypercapnic pulmonary oedema or secondary to an exacerbation of COPD in the
context of pre-hospital care. Empirically, the possibility of treating a patient with ARF
ISSN 1025-448x.
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promptly, with an effective approach, should further increase the benefits of NIV and,
thus, further improve patients’ outcome. In the pre-hospital setting, endotracheal
intubation (ETI) is often difficult and associated with a high morbidity and mortality;
even if this analysis must be related to the operator’s experience [13–15]. Avoiding ETI
in the pre-hospital life support could have a significant, relevant and very positive
clinical impact. However, the use of NIV in pre-hospital life support requires various
constraints to be solved with regard to the specific environment, the equipment and the
operators’ training. It is, therefore, paramount to know whether it is useful to offer NIV
management in this setting.
In this chapter, a summary of the currently available studies is given and expanded
with the present authors’ own expertise in addressing this question. It must be
mentioned that, at the time of writing, searching the international database MEDLINE,
2,613 references to NIV were found, among which, only 117 are related to its use in
emergency medicine and only 12 concern pre-hospital care.
Pre-hospital use of CPAP and acute cardiogenic

pulmonary oedema
Several relevant randomised control trials were conducted within emergency
departments and looked at the management of acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
[9, 16–21]. There is currently strong evidence to support the use of CPAP for this
indication, showing that its use decreases the rate of intubation and improves survival
rates, even in the elderly population. There is no satisfactory evidence to encourage the
use of BiPAP for this indication, even when confronted with an acute cardiogenic
hypercapnic pulmonary oedema.
The few published trials performed in the pre-hospital setting for the use of CPAP in
the management of acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema often offer only low-level
evidence. Five uncontrolled nonrandomised observational trials, including a total of
y715 patients suffering from acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema were published.
Despite the low level of evidence, all the results tend towards similar conclusions when
using CPAP in pre-hospital care [22–25] and sometimes by paramedics [22, 23, 26]:
clinical improvement and gas-exchange improvement. Measured in four trials,
intubation rates varied between 0 and 8.9% in pre-hospital settings and between 10
and 37% in the first few hours [22, 23, 25]; these values were close to in-hospital trials
rates (0–33%), with the same disparity [1]. The highest rate of endotracheal intubation
was found in one of the two trials, in which paramedics used NIV. Only one of these
trials mentioned that CPAP was on site immediately and continuously, including during
handling and transfer on the stretcher [25]. When detailed, drugs given in association
with NIV did not include a high dose of nitrates, even though nitrates are included in the
current recommended treatment [27]. No adverse effects due to CPAP were reported.
One of these trials, which was prospective monocentric and nonrandomised, compared
the CPAP group with a control group. Knowing the bias and the limits of this
methodology, a significant benefit of NIV management with regard to the intubation
rate is still observed; 8.9% (CPAP group) versus 23.2% (control group) and also in terms
of respiratory rate, cardiac frequency and dyspnoea score [26]. Following a first
unpublished pilot study [28], a recently published randomised trial including 124
patients compared two different approaches: 15 mins of CPAP followed by standard
drug therapy for the subsequent 15 mins (group A) versus 15 mins of standard drug
therapy followed by 15 mins of association with CPAP (group B) [29]. A reduction of
the intubation rate, a lower frequency of resort to inotropes and a decrease of mortality
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NIV IN PRE-HOSPITAL SETTING
were significantly (pƒ0.005) in favour of group A. The applied inspiratory oxygen

fraction (FI,O2) was not specified. In the pilot study, it was limited to 35%, such that
FI,O2 was unlikely to be adequate for group B patients. CPAP was systematically
interrupted at 30 min, irrespective of the clinical course of the patient, without
explanation from authors, and clinical deterioration was observed in both groups,
although worse for group B patients. The medication used was not detailed. That study,
with a proper methodology, is the first pre-hospital randomised trial and it carries an
essential message about the importance of early management of acute cardiogenic
pulmonary oedema with CPAP, in pre-hospital care, to reduce both endotracheal
intubation rate and secondary morbidity. This message is even more relevant when
addressing patients’ management by Emergency Medical Services-type systems,
considering the high failure rate of intubation by paramedics. Surprisingly, in that
trial, lower in-hospital mortality in the early CPAP group was observed, without
explanation, despite a comparable clinical status on admission.
In conclusion, all these data, associated with the results of in-hospital trials, support
the use of CPAP for patients suffering from acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, with
a major benefit, whether in the hospital or pre-hospital setting.
Pre-hospital use of BIPAP and COPD exacerbation

Based on the available literature, it is correct to recommend the early use of BiPAP for
management of patients with COPD exacerbation in the emergency room; under certain
conditions, this could be extended to hypercapnic ARFs [10, 11, 30–33]. Current
evidence suggests that the early use of BiPAP improves clinical parameters and reduces
recourse to invasive ventilation, morbidity and length of in-hospital stay. However,
identifying patients who have the best-expected benefit is vital. Patients with an arterial
pH ,7.30 seemed to be the ones who benefit most from this approach [34].
The first two studies published on the pre-hospital use of BiPAP are not very
convincing (due to a very low level of evidence). In the first one, North-American
paramedics applied BiPAP for acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, once in the
ambulance and for 15 mins only [35]. The principal benefits were the ease for the rescue
team and the absence of intervention time increase. The second study talked about the
use of a noninvasive mode of ventilation on seven patients with acute respiratory failure
by a French pre-hospital team [36]. Gas-exchange parameters appeared to improve, but
arterial pH and carbon dioxide remained unchanged. One patient was intubated before
admission due to a rapid deterioration despite NIV. The ventilator was a second-
generation pneumatic type, without expiratory spirometry, not delivering a proper
spontaneous ventilation mode with inspiratory support (controlled cycles with a set
pressure), the pressure elevation gradient was set and low, with a minimum Fi,O2 of
y60%. A German randomised prospective monocentric trial investigating patients with
ARF caused by acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema recruited 23 patients and
compared standard treatment with standard treatment plus BiPAP with oxygen
saturation on admission as the primary end-point. The BiPAP group showed a sharper
improvement in their pre-hospital arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse
oximetry (Sp,O2). This trial is more a feasibility assessment of this approach as it does
not compare BiPAP with the recommended pre-hospital management (i.e. CPAP).
Regarding that study, the present authors regret the poor choice of primary end-point
and a drug therapy (i.e. low dose of sublingual nitrates), which does reflect current
recommendations [37]. A recent French monocentric prospective observational study
recruited three groups of patients (acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema, COPD
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exacerbation and other causes of ARF) initially sorted on treatment history and clinical
criteria. In 138 patients, the intubation rate (pre- and in-hospital) was 26%, significantly
higher for the ‘‘other ARF’’ group [38]. That observational and nonrandomised trial
confirmed the feasibility of pre-hospital BiPAP use with a failure rate similar to rates
measured during in-hospital studies. Therefore, it is highly likely that early BiPAP use is
beneficial. The main reason for NIV failure is when the cause of ARF is neither COPD
exacerbation nor acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema; another reason is when there is
an audible air leakage. None of these trials properly assessed the benefit–risk ratio for
BiPAP use in the challenging pre-hospital setting. Considering the weakness of these
studies, it seems too early to recommend BiPAP for routine pre-hospital use, even if this
technique holds promise when applied to selected patients by experienced operators.
Specific constraints of pre-hospital NIV use

As a reminder, in the emergency room, the time required by the medical team to start
BiPAP ventilation is not always compatible with the ever-increasing number of patients
to treat simultaneously. In each emergency room, the annual number of patients eligible
for BiPAP is not always high enough to warrant initial and continuous training for the
medical staff. Resorting to a downstream hospital ward, which is able to admit a patient
on NIV from the emergency room, varies widely, which in turn creates a high variability
of the offer–demand ratio.
The pre-hospital setting is a very challenging environment; however, the medical team
is dedicated to a single patient. This has a very positive impact on NIV set-up. In the
present authors’ experience, the handling and transfer of a patient during pre-hospital
management is an important cause of air leakage and mal-positioning of the patient–
ventilator interface. This is less of a problem with free-flow CPAP. The stretcher-
handling phase puts the patient at risk, it causes added stress and fatigue and it is a
suboptimal situation should rapid-sequence induction intubation be required.
Equipment: selection criteria

CPAP equipment
A CPAP device should not increase the breathing work and must allow maintenance of a
positive inspiratory pressure [39]. The maximum FI,O2 delivered needs to be high. In 2001,
the French Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Association (SFAR) recommended that
any pre-hospital intervention vehicle should, as standard on-board equipment, have a
device allowing spontaneous ventilation with a continuous positive expiratory pressure to be
performed, without giving any other details as to specifications [40]. Recent recommenda-
tions following the Scientific Sessions of the French pre-hospital intervention teams
(SAMU) advise the use of a no-valve free-flow system [41]. Whether regarding flow
generators using the Venturi effect (WhisperflowTM; Philips Respironics, Murrysville, PA,
USA) or at the Boussignac CPAP deviceTM (Vygon, Ecouen, France), they have the
required performances and specifications for pre-hospital use [42–45]. Pressure modulation
with flow generators requires multiple valves; by contrast, the Boussignac CPAP deviceTM
offers easy modulation and monitoring. Flow generators use a lot of oxygen, often
compelling operators to lower the FI,O2. In some studies, because of high generator burn,
FI,O2 was limited to 35%. FI,O2 delivered by the Boussignac CPAP deviceTM is, in
comparison, much higher and oxygen consumption is lower [46]. The poor FI,O2 modulation
136
with this device is not an issue when treating cases of acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema.
To resort to a multiple-valve generator, even a sophisticated one, does seem justified. The
more complex operational application is not rewarded by any benefits in terms of
performance. Some devices even increase breathing work (i.e. through ineffective
inspiratory trigger, hard-to-switch valves, failure to maintain inspiratory pressure).
BiPAP equipment
The device used must have the same performances as an intensive-care ventilator.
Essential specifications are: appropriate ventilation mode, perfect inspiratory and
expiratory triggers, fast pressurization capability with an adjustable gradient, wide range
of FI,O2, air-leakage balance and expiratory spirometry. For pre-hospital applications,
the ventilator has to be a portable light-weight device with long-duration operational
autonomy (with regard to power and medical gases). Home turbine-type or NIV-
dedicated ventilators are an alternative. They usually meet pre-hospital requirements,
especially modern devices [47, 48], even if this is still under discussion [49]. Second-
generation pneumatic ventilators are not efficient enough to deliver satisfactory NIV.
The new, versatile ventilators designed for ventilation in emergency medicine (Élisée
250TM, Saime, Savigny le Temple, France; Oxylog 3000TM, Dräger Medical, Lübeck,
Germany; Newport HT50TM, Newport Medical Instruments, Newport Beach, CA,
USA) are developing the pre-hospital market. Turbine technology seems more
appropriate. The usability of these ventilators by emergency physicians must be taken
into account and, in this respect, they are not all equivalent [50].
Operator’s training
Some studies demonstrate the difficulty, in the pre-hospital setting, of making an
appropriate aetiologic diagnosis when confronted with a patient with ARF. This is an
even bigger challenge for paramedics [51] and an essential step in identifying NIV
indications and, as a consequence, avoiding inappropriate use of this technique.
NIV training is generally insufficient among members of pre-hospital intervention
teams; this has been shown for BiPAP use [41]. There is a strong demand for teaching,
especially hands-on training. In the present authors’ experience, the learning curve is
much faster for CPAP than for BiPAP. In CPAP clinical trials, the duration of the
prerequisite training varied from 2 h to a day whereas, in BiPAP training, basic
physiology reminders applied to mechanical ventilation are required. For the theoretical
aspects and practical exercises, a minimum of 10 h is necessary. The operational
implementation of BiPAP use, by an initially inexperienced team, requires significant
coaching and a continuous training scheme.
The present authors believe that training is the main limiting factor for the application
of this technique, preventing the routine use of NIV in pre-hospital care.
Inventory of the ‘‘real world’’

In 2002, in Belgium, NIV was used in 49% of emergency departments. When it was
not used, declared reasons included lack of adequate equipment (71%), lack of training
(32.7%), and lack of time for the medical or nursing staff (22.8%), despite the fact that in
these units, only 3.8% of doctors had doubts about the efficacy of NIV. When this mode
of ventilation was used, supervision of patients under NIV during the first hour was
137
F. THYS ET AL.
assumed by a doctor–nurse tandem (54.5%), by a nurse only (19.6%) or by a doctor only

(8.6%). NIV was continued for .4 h in a third of the cases. Devices used were either
intensive-care ventilators (21.7%) or home mechanical ventilators (54.5%) or both types
(23.9%) [52]. CPAP use in pre-hospital care remains marginal. The same applies to
BiPAP which, when used, reflects the in-hospital experience of the team.
In 2001, in France, 40% of pre-hospital intervention vehicles had a CPAP device on-
board; two thirds of these were inappropriate and failed to meet pre-hospital
requirements. One in five intervention teams stated that they were able to provide
NIV, two thirds with a second-generation pneumatic ventilator, known to be inadequate
for this purpose, and one third with an intensive-care ventilator, not designed for
portability [53]. In 2006, a rise in the proportion of vehicles carrying an NIV device was
noted, but not always with the efficiency required for BiPAP use. Among the 69 teams
interviewed, 79% declared having at least one on-board CPAP device (85% using a
Boussignac CPAP systemTM and 64% using the CPAP mode on a pneumatic ventilator)
and 56% of them said they had a ventilator able to provide BiPAP (66% with a second-
generation pneumatic ventilator). Half of them could provide both CPAP and BiPAP
and 15% had no NIV device. For those using NIV in the pre-hospital setting,
operational implementation varied widely, indications were not always appropriate and
the NIV systems used were not always adequate and validated.
Potential recommendations
In- and pre-hospital trials for the application of CPAP in the treatment of acute
cardiogenic pulmonary oedema show a major expected benefit for the patient.
Additionally, its usability by emergency physicians is very good, even in the pre-
hospital environment. Therefore, the present authors recommend that all doctors should
be trained in the use of CPAP in the pre-hospital setting, with free-flow devices and
following clear clinical guidelines like those recently recommended [41]: Immediate
CPAP application when confronted with a moderate to severe acute cardiogenic
pulmonary oedema (dyspnoea with accessory muscles activity and/or respiratory rate
.35 cycles?min-1 and/or an Sp,O2 ,90% when applying a reservoir mask with high-flow
oxygen, the standard drug therapy must be started simultaneously); and delayed CPAP
application when confronted with an initially mild acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
not improving under standard drug therapy.
COPD exacerbation seems to be an interesting indication for the use of NIV in the
pre-hospital setting. However, the benefit–risk ratio for BiPAP use in this context is still
unknown. Further clinical trials are necessary before any recommendations could be
made with regard to routine pre-hospital application, not to mention the difficulty of
making a correct diagnosis prior to the identification of an appropriate NIV indication.
In the meantime, it seems reasonable to implement BiPAP with highly-trained teams
using proper equipment. When on-board gas exchange analysers are not available, the
present authors recommend obtaining an arterial blood sample before BiPAP use, in
order to measure the pH on admission to the emergency room, validating the indication
and allowing for biological follow-up.
Prior to the implementation of NIV in the pre-hospital setting or to its
implementation in the emergency room, the following prerequisites are essential:
trained staff with an experience of CPAP or BiPAP use; available equipment and staff at
all time; and quick access to intubation if necessary and adequate monitoring. Local
guidelines must be designed to avoid inappropriate use of NIV and for the early
identification of NIV failure avoiding detrimental intubation delays [12, 54].
138
It is paramount, in the pre-hospital setting, to identify quickly patients who will not
improve under NIV. It as been shown that early assessment (after 30–60 mins) following
NIV application, makes it possible, based on simple criteria, to identify potential failures
of the technique. Thus, a patient under NIV, with a respiratory rate .20 cycles?min-1 or
with a pH ƒ7.35, has a high risk of requiring endotracheal intubation. A Glasgow coma
scale score ,13 after 1 h of NIV must also be considered as a sign of inappropriate NIV
indication or NIV failure [32, 55]. It is even more important to take all these elements
into account when talking of NIV in the pre-hospital setting; they must be integrated in
the context of handling and transport of an unstable patient with ARF.
Conclusions
An early start of efficient management is vital when treating ARF. NIV has its role in
this context for specific indications. Theoretically, its operational implementation in the
pre-hospital setting should bring additional benefits with regard to the outcome for
ARF patients.
Pre-hospital CPAP use is highly relevant in the management of patients with acute
cardiogenic pulmonary oedema. Availability of efficient and portable devices, as well as
short training time to use them properly, justifies the use of CPAP in the pre-hospital
setting. Conversely, it is too early to recommend routine BiPAP use, even if this
technique, mastered and for appropriate indications, is promising. Early identification
of NIV failure is performed through simple criteria. Development of strict clinical
guidelines should be emphasised in order to provide NIV to a larger patient population
when indicated.
Training and experience of operators are the current limiting factors of this approach.
Technical ventilation equipment constraints are reduced with the arrival of new
ventilators, which are ergonomic, efficient and with a better operational autonomy.
It is important and challenging to design multicentric randomised trials to assess if it
useful or pointless to perform noninvasive ventilation in the pre-hospital setting. In the
present authors’ experience, pre-hospital noninvasive ventilation use becomes more
beneficial as the distance between the patient’s location and the hospital is greater.
Summary
An early start of efficient management is vital when treating acute respiratory failure.
Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has its role in this context, for specific indications.
Currently, NIV has not yet been established in pre-hospital emergency medicine.
Training and experience of operators are the current limiting factors of this approach.
Technical ventilation equipment constraints are reduced with the arrival of new
ventilators, as they are more ergonomic and efficient and have a better operational
autonomy. Recognising the pathophysiology of acute respiratory insufficiency,
treatment with NIV seems superior in comparison to treatment with oxygen and
medication only for specific indications. The advantages of NIV may lead to reduced
morbidity and mortality, as long as attention is paid to possible contraindications.
In the present chapter, the authors propose a summary of the currently available
studies and confront it with their expertise, helping to clear up this question.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, continuous positive airway pressure, noninvasive

ventilation, out-of-hospital emergency management, pre-hospital setting.
139
F. THYS ET AL.
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CHAPTER 10
NIV for weaning from mechanical ventilation

and post-extubation ARF
C. Girault
Medical Intensive Care Unit, Rouen University Hospital Charles Nicolle and GRHV Research Group,
UPRES-EA 3830 IFRMP.23, Institute for Biomedical Research, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France.
Correspondence: C. Girault, Service de Réanimation Médicale, Hôpital Charles Nicolle, Centre Hospitalier
Universitaire-Hôpitaux de Rouen, 1 rue de Germont, 76031 Rouen, France. Fax: 33 232888314;
Introduction
Due to its clinical efficacy in the initial management of acute respiratory failure
(ARF) [1], noninvasive ventilation (NIV) has been widely used in intensive care units
(ICUs) during the past 15 yrs, particularly in France [2]. At the same time, indications of
NIV have been extended to the period following intubation, first for difficult weaning/
extubation from endotracheal mechanical ventilation (ETMV) and, secondly, for the
management of post-extubation acute respiratory failure (ARF) [3, 4]. In this last
indication, termed ‘‘post-extubation NIV’’, two situations should be clearly distin-
guished, according to the type of patients involved (medical or surgical) as well as the
NIV strategy considered: either to prevent the occurrence of a post-extubation ARF in
patients at risk of extubation failure (‘‘preventative strategy’’) or to treat a post-
extubation ARF and avoid re-intubation when this complication occurs (‘‘curative
strategy’’; fig. 1).
In the present chapter, only medical conditions are addressed and surgical or post-
operative patients are excluded. NIV is considered as the application of pressure support
ventilation (PSV) with positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), bilevel positive airway
pressure (BiPAP) or continous positive airway pressure (CPAP).
Physiopathological rationale for applying NIV for weaning and

post-extubation ARF
Although weaning and extubation periods have to be clearly distinguished
chronologically [5], their respective failure, however, can be due to closely related
mechanisms (table 1). Among the main physiopathological determinants of weaning or
extubation failure, the imbalance between the capacity to generate sufficient strength
and efficient gas exchange and the ventilatory workload imposed on respiratory muscles
is considered as the main mechanism of weaning failure [6]. In addition to respiratory
muscle performance, weaning/extubation failure can be related to an inadequate
cardiovascular response during the transition from ETMV to spontaneous breathing
(SB), mainly due to left ventricular dysfunction [7]. Prediction of weaning/extubation
outcome can also be difficult, despite numerous available predictive criteria [8].
Furthermore, although the SB trial tolerance is considered as one of the optimal criteria
ISSN 1025-448x.
143
C. GIRAULT
NIV and ventilatory support following intubation
Weaning/extubation from ETMV Post-extubation ARF
Technique of early weaning/extubation Preventative strategy: to prevent post-extubation ARF

(decreasing intubation duration) in at risk patients of extubation failure
(preventing reintubation)
Difficult conventional weaning
(decreasing intubation duration, Curative strategy: to treat post-extubation ARF
avoiding tracheostomy) (avoiding reintubation)
Fig. 1. – Role and objectives of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) for weaning/extubation and post-extubation acute
respiratory failure (ARF). ETMV: endotracheal mechanical ventilation.
to assess the weaning or ‘‘deventilation’’ capability or even extubation, inspiratory effort

can be significantly increased following extubation leading to failure [9]. Finally, as
predictive factors of extubation failure are less well established and valuable at bedside,
than those of weaning, per se (table 1), it appears useful to identify populations at risk of
reintubation [5, 9, 10].
NIV application for weaning and during the post-extubation ARF period includes the
following main objectives: to counteract the different physiopathological factors of
weaning/extubation failure; to aid physicians with difficulties in predicting results of the
weaning/extubation process; and, finally, to treat or prevent the occurrence of a post-
extubation ARF, which is sometimes not foreseeable. In this way, NIV can meet the
physiological objectives of any types of mechanical ventilation (decrease in the work of
Table 1. – Main physiopathological determinants of weaning or extubation failure
Weaning
Pulmonary gas exchange impairment
Imbalance between imposed respiratory workload and muscles capacity
Increased ventilation
Increased elastic or resistive load
Dynamic hyperinflation, PEEPi
Central respiratory drive impairment (sedation)
Diaphragmatic dysfunction (critical illness neuro-myopathies)
Inadequate cardio-circulatory response by LV dysfunction
Sudden changes in LV pre- and afterload conditions
Myocardial ischaemia
Psychological factors (delirium, anxiety, depression)
Metabolic or nutritional factors, anaemia
Extubation
LV dysfunction
Obstruction, increased upper airways resistance (oedema, inflammation, etc.)
Bronchial hypersecretion, swallowing disorders
Diaphragmatic paralysis, dysfunction (critical illness neuro-myopathies)
Hypoxemia, atelectasis
Consciousness disorders, encephalopathy
Psychological factors (delirium, anxiety, depression)
Metabolic, nutritional factors, anaemia
PEEPi: intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure; LV: left ventricular.
144
NIV FOR WEANING AND POST-EXTUBATION ARF
breathing, improvement in the breathing pattern, gas exchange and dyspnoea) not only
in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [11] but also in non-
COPD patients with a good haemodynamic tolerance [12]. It has also been
demonstrated that noninvasive PSV was better tolerated but as effective as invasive
PSV in reducing the work of breathing, improving breathing pattern and gas exchanges,
compared with a T-piece SB trial in ventilator-dependant COPD patients [13]. Finally, it
should be kept in mind that NIV is as efficient and beneficial when it is applied to
hypercapnic ARF [14], a situation which frequently occurs in cases of weaning or
extubation failure [5, 10].
Clinical rationale for applying NIV for weaning and

post-extubation ARF
Weaning from ETMV should be considered as a true challenge for ICU clinicians. In
practice, they have to find the optimal compromise between the risks of an overly
prolonged ETMV (particularly nosocomial pneumonia) and those of a too-early
weaning and extubation process [5, 10]. Therefore, any strategy with the aim of reducing
morbidity and mortality of prolonged ETMV or reintubation appears relevant and
should be developed in order to improve prognosis of patients.
Although the majority of patients can be rapidly and easily withdrawn from ETMV,
up to 25% of them will require a gradual weaning procedure and 4% of them will be
considered as ‘‘unweanable’’ with conventional techniques [15, 16]. These weaning
difficulties, related to the underlying status, may reach up to 40% of cases in COPD
patients [17]. Although closely related to application modalities of weaning techniques
[15, 16], the time devoted to difficult weaning, may, in fact, reach up to 41% of the total
ETMV duration and more than half of ICU stay in patients with COPD, cardiac failure
or neurological problems [18]. In addition, in order to reduce the ETMV duration, any
weaning strategy should ideally be implemented in specific protocols, locally adapted by
ICU teams, including sedation and its withdrawal [5, 19].
Predicting weaning/extubation outcome, however, may be difficult, particularly in
weaker patients. Re-intubation would, thusly, be necessary in 5–25% of cases within 48–
72 h of a scheduled extubation despite the success in a SB trial [10, 20]. Re-intubation
may also be necessary in 37% of cases reported in 3–16% of intubated patients [21].
Nevertheless, this should be reduced to the minimum number acceptable. Although re-
intubation may reflect the severity of the underlying status, it is considered, in fact, as an
independent risk factor of nosocomial pneumonia, which increases lengths of stay as
well as intra-hospital mortality that may reach up to 30–40% in re-intubated patients
[10, 20]. Moreover, the increased mortality could be more related to the re-intubation
delay than to the cause of re-intubation itself [10]. Finally, the following conditions are
now well recognised as risk factors of extubation failure: chronic respiratory failure
(CRF), congestive heart failure, neuromuscular diseases, sedation and/or prolonged
ETMV, elderly patients, denutrition or other co-morbidities [5, 10]. Therefore, it
appears conceptually of interest to apply NIV following intubation in order to reduce
the risks of prolonged ETMV and those of potential re-intubation in cases of post-
extubation ARF. The efficacy and clinical benefit of NIV in the initial management of
ARF, mainly hypercapnic [4, 14], as well as the decrease of nosocomial infections and
antibiotics consumption in ICU with NIV are, finally, strong arguments for proposing
this type of NIV strategy [22].
145
Table 2. – Main results of prospective randomised studies evaluating noninvasive ventilation (NIV) for weaning and post-extubation acute respiratory failure (ARF) in a
medical population
First author Patients Intubation Total duration Weaning Post- Re-intubation Complications# ICU In-hospital ICU In-hospital
[ref.] n duration of MV days success extubation n n stay days stay days mortality mortality
days % ARF n % %
Weaning/extubation"
54/13 8/28
NAVA [26] 25/25 10¡7/16¡12** 0/7* 15¡5/24¡13**
(day 21)** (day 60)**
4.5¡2/ 27¡14/ 0/22.5
GIRAULT [27] 17/16 11.5¡5/3.5¡11,*** 76.5/75 4/4 6/9 12¡7/14¡7 0/22.5
7.7¡4** 27¡13 (day 90)
9.5¡8/ 85/40 28¡14/ 25/55
FERRER [28] 21/22 11.4¡8/20¡13** 3/6 5/16** 14¡9/25¡12** 10/41*
20¡13** (day 21)** 41¡21*** (day 90)*
Preventative strategy for post-extubation ARF+
146
JIANG [29] 47/46 13/7
C. GIRAULT
6.1¡7/7.4¡6 23¡16/
NAVA [30] 48/49 4/12* 9¡5/11¡15 6/18** 12/18
25¡21
30¡23/
FERRER [31] 79/83 6¡4/7¡5 13/27* 9/18 11¡8/13¡11 3/14* 16/23
29¡18
Curative strategy for post-extubation ARF+
32¡25/
KEENAN [32] 39/42 3.8¡4/5¡4 28/29 16/17 15¡1/19¡25 15/24 31/31
30¡28
e e
ESTEBAN [33] 114/107 7/8 55/51 18/18 25/14*
#
Data are presented as value (as stated in the table) for NIV/control. MV: mechanical ventilation (intubation and/or NIV); ICU: intensive care unit. : including nosocomial
pneumonia; ": control group was invasive conventional weaning; +: control group was oxygen therapy; 1: devoted to the weaning period; e: median. *: pƒ0.05; **: pƒ0.01;
***: pƒ0.001.
Clinical results
NIV and weaning/extubation from ETMV
Noncontrolled clinical studies, conducted in difficult-to-wean CRF patients with
conventional techniques, have suggested the feasability and interest of NIV in facilitating
weaning and extubation, even decannulation, from prolonged ETMV [23–25]. The role of
NIV as a weaning and extubation technique from ETMV has been specifically evaluated
only very recently (table 2).
The first prospective randomised study compared extubation immediately relayed
with NIV to conventional weaning in 50 ventilated COPD patients for hypercapnic
ARF, after the first 48 h of ETMV and a first SB trial failure [26]. The results clearly
demonstrated the benefit of NIV in reducing total duration of mechanical ventilation,
length of ICU stay, occurrence of nosocomial pneumonia, increased weaning success on
day 21 and decreased mortality on day 60 (table 2). The second randomised controlled
trial was conducted using a similar methodology in 33 CRF patients from various
aetiologies [27]. Results confirmed, in part, those of the Italian study, i.e. weaning with
NIV allowed an earlier extubation, an average of 3 days, with no increase in the risk of
weaning failure and no burden of short and medium-term mortality, compared with
invasive conventionnal weaning (table 2). As reported in a previous study [26], the two
weaning techniques similarly improved gas exchange compared with an SB trial. In
contrast, if NIV allowed a reduction in the daily duration of ventilatory support with a
trend towards a decrease in the rate of complications, NIV did not decrease the total
duration of ventilatory support devoted to weaning nor the lengths of stay in the second
trial [27]. Discrepancies in results could be explain by a smaller population in the second
study, the respective modalities of NIV applied more or less continuously, as well as the
type and severity of the underlying CRF in both studies [26, 27]. Nevertheless, the
French study suggested that NIV may, in fact, allow extubation earlier but not
necessarily to ‘‘de-ventilate’’ CRF patients more rapidly, according to their severity [27].
The third study evaluated the role of NIV in comparison with conventional weaning in
43 persistent SB trial-failure patients during three consecutive days [28]. The impressive
results of that study, which was stopped based on interim analysis data, are summarised
in table 2. Weaning with NIV also reduced the need for tracheostomy (5 versus 59%;
p,0.001). In multivariate analysis, conventional weaning was found to be an
independent risk factor of ICU (odds ratio (OR) 6.6, 95% confidence intervals (CI)
1.1–38.8; p50.035) and 3-month (OR 3.5; 95% CI 1.2–9.6; p50.018) mortality. Age
.70 yrs (OR 5.1; 95% CI 1.7–15; p50.003) and hypercapnia (arterial carbon dioxide
tension (Pa,CO2) .45 mmHg) during the SB trial (OR 5.8; 95% CI 1.8–18.7; p50.003)
were also found as independent risk factors for the 3-month mortality.
Based on these three randomised trials [26–28], early extubation relayed with NIV
appears, therefore, to be a reliable, safe and beneficial weaning technique in difficult-to-
wean CRF patients, mainly those with COPD. In addition, the study by FERRER et al.
[28] strongly suggested that NIV may be more beneficial as weaning difficulties are
important and hypercapnia occurs during the SB attempts. All these results should be
confirmed with those of the VENISE trial [34], a French multicentre study which
randomised .200 CRF patients between three weaning strategies, including NIV.
Furthermore, the role of NIV for early weaning/extubation from ETMV has been
strongly suggested by a recent meta-analysis [35] and this indication can now be
considered in COPD patients [4, 5].
Also in the weaning process from ETMV, the benefit of NIV recently reported for
decannulation of tracheostomised COPD patients should be prospectively validated [36].
147
C. GIRAULT
Except for COPD patients, few clinical data are currently available for weaning/
extubation from ETMV with NIV. In a prospective noncontrolled study, NIV allowed
early successful extubation in only 13 (56%) out of 22 patients with post-traumatic ARF,
who did not meet standard weaning criteria [37]. NIV has also been found to be as
effective to early extubate 13 (87%) out of 15 non-COPD patients, mainly surgical, based
on criteria that did not usually permit weaning, which suggested that extubation would
have failed without NIV [12]. Finally, two cases of successful weaning with NIV have been
reported in patients ventilated for acute respiratory distress syndrome after failure of
conventional techniques [38].
NIV and post-extubation ARF

Preventative strategy. Prior to the occurrence of post-extubation ARF, NIV should be
considered earlier following extubation, particularly in patients at risk for extubation
failure, i.e. for re-intubation (table 3). A randomised study showed that untimely
application of NIV, following immediate extubation, could be hazardous in nonselected
patients, with a trend towards an increase in the re-intubation rate compared with oxygen
therapy alone [29]. Nevertheless, the study methodology was debatable with a high rate of
self-extubation (40%). Two prospective randomised studies have recently compared the
use of ‘‘preventative NIV’’ with standard treatment using nasal oxygen in patients having
passed a successful SB trial but being considered at risk for extubation failure (table 2) [30,
31]. The study by NAVA et al. [30] showed that NIV significantly decreased the need for re-
intubation compared with oxygen therapy alone. Overall, in uni- and multivariate
analysis, not re-intubating was shown to significantly improve survival (p,0.001),
allowing patients who benefit from NIV, therefore, to indirectly reduce their ICU
mortality (p50.01). FERRER et al. [31] recently confirmed these positive results. That study
demonstrated that ‘‘preventative NIV’’ allowed to avoid the occurrence of post-
extubation ARF with no negative impact on re-intubation rate, despite a longer delay
in the ARF occurrence for the NIV group (41¡19 versus 25¡21 h; p50.022). This benefit
of NIV was associated with a decrease in ICU mortality (3 versus 14%; p50.015). A
planned stratification also demonstrated that benefit on 3-month survival (p50.006) was
only observed in hypercapnic patients during the SB trial (Pa,CO2 .45 mmHg).
‘‘Preventative NIV’’ has also been applied recently in a case–control study conducted
in obese patients (BMI i35 kg?m-2) [39]. Main results showed that NIV significantly
decreased the absolute risk of post-extubation ARF by 16%, as well as the ICU
(p,0.001) and in-hospital (p50.007) length of stay, compared with an historic control
group. Moreover, a benefit of in-hospital mortality (p50.02) was observed only in the
sub-group of hypercapnic patients.
Table 3. – Risk factors for extubation failure to apply post-extubation preventative noninvasive ventilation in
medical patients
Age .65 yrs

APACHE II score .12 (on the day of extubation)
Congestive heart failure
More than one co-morbidity (other than congestive heart failure)
More than one consecutive SB trial failure
Post-extubation Pa,CO2 .45 mmHg
Ineffective cough
Post-extubation stridor (without the need for immediate re-intubation)
Obesity (BMI i35 kg?m-2)
APACHE: Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation; SB: spontaneous breathing; Pa,CO2: arterial carbon
dioxide tension; BMI: body mass index. Data taken from [30, 31, 39].
148
Finally, these three studies demonstrated that ‘‘preventative NIV’’, applied early
following extubation in medical patients considered at risk of re-intubation (table 3),
allows prevention of the occurrence of post-extubation ARF, decreases the re-intubation
risk and may improve, therefore, the morbidity and mortality of patients. Although not
addressed in the present chapter, similar encouraging results have been recently
demonstrated in thoraco-abdominal [40] and pulmonary [41] post-operative patients.
Curative strategy. The feasibility and benefit of NIV have been suggested by MEDURI
et al. [42] in this indication for .15 yrs, in seven out of 18 COPD patients, who
developed an ARF following self-extubation. Later, a case–control study showed that
‘‘curative NIV’’ allowed avoidance of reintubation, decreased mechanical ventilation
duration as well as ICU length of stay in 30 COPD patients exhibiting hypercapnic
ARF, within 72 h post-extubation, compared with an historic control group [43].
Although standard treatment could have been considered sufficient, it has been further
suggested that NIV could be more cost-effective than nasal oxygen therapy, by avoiding
re-intubation in 52 (72%) out of 72 post-traumatic patients with severe hypoxaemia
within 24 h post-extubation [44].
With the exception of a surgical context [45–48], only two prospective randomised
studies have been conducted to date in medical patients (table 2) [32, 33]. The first, a
single centre trial, reported no benefit of ‘‘curative NIV’’ on the re-intubation incidence
compared with standard treatment [32]. Nevertheless, no deleterious effects of NIV were
reported on patient outcome. The second, a multicentre study involving 221 patients
(20% post-operative ARF) and later stopped based on intermediate analysis data,
showed that NIV did not avoid re-intubation but rather significantly increased ICU
mortality in this group [33]. This result could be explain by a longer re-intubation delay
in the NIV group (12 versus 2.5 h; p50.02) and the difference of mortality observed in
this group when re-intubation was needed (38 versus 22%; p50.06). Surprisingly, the
success rate of NIV (with no re-intubation) used as rescue therapy in the control group
(75%) was found to be higher than that observed for the NIV group (52%).
These negative results [32, 33] are somewhat surprising as they are discordant with
those reported in clinical practice [49, 50]. The interpretation must take into account,
however, that both studies were conducted in heterogeneous populations, suffering
mainly from hypoxaemic ARF, including only 10–12% of COPD patients respectively,
and sometimes performed by only a few experienced centres with NIV [32, 33].
Nevertheless, promising results could be still considered with ‘‘curative NIV’’ in a more-
selected population, such as COPD patients [43]. In this population, some useful
answers could be given by results of a French multicentre study [34]. For instance,
current results should prompt clinicians to be cautious in using ‘‘curative NIV’’
routinely in the management of post-extubation ARF in medical ICU patients, in order
to not delay re-intubation. Lastly, to the present author’s knowledge and except for
observational series [42, 49, 50], no prospective data are available regarding the specific
role of ‘‘curative NIV’’ following self-extubation.
Role and limits of NIV application for weaning and

post-extubation ARF
The benefit of NIV as a weaning/extubation technique from ETMV can only be
considered if ‘‘de-ventilation’’ is not possible (ventilatory dependence after one or more
SB trial failures) although the maintenance of endotracheal prothesis appears no longer
necessary. In cases of post-extubation ARF, this benefit may be theoretically
149
C. GIRAULT
understood if ‘‘re-ventilation’’ is necessary but re-intubation is not immediately

required. Also, prevention of post-extubation ARF with NIV should not be systematic
and assume previously to identify patients at risk of extubation failure (table 3)
For the management of weaning/extubation with NIV, available data involve selected
populations, mainly COPD patients [26–28]. Therefore, the use of NIV in this
indication, as an alternative to conventional weaning techniques, may now be
considered [4, 5]. For the management of post-extubation ARF with NIV (‘‘post-
extubation NIV’’) current available data should be interpreted according to the
population involved (medical or surgical) as well as the type of strategy considered
(preventative or curative NIV). In contrast to post-operative patients [40, 41, 45–48],
only preventative NIV can be currently recommended in medical ICU patients, due to
the significant risk of delaying re-intubation when ARF occurs in post-extubation in this
population [33]. In addition, medical patients with hypercapnia during an SB trial could
be more susceptible to benefit from NIV for weaning/extubation or to prevent post-
extubation ARF [28, 31, 39]. Therefore, this hypercapnia could be considered as a
simple objective and a useful criterion for clinicians in considering NIV in these
situations.
Finally, whatever the indication, the main predictive factors of NIV failure should
always be evaluated and identified [1, 4]. In all cases, NIV for weaning and post-
extubation ARF requires good control of the technique, in order to not delay the re-
intubation time and to be able to re-intubate patients at all times. Under these
conditions, therefore, weaning and post-extubation NIV can only be applied in ICUs
with a skilled care team competent with the technique.
Conclusion
Since the last international consensus conference [1], the management of weaning/
extubation and post-extubation ARF with NIV may now be considered in ICU patients
[4, 5]. Current data clearly demonstrate a clinical benefit of NIV as a weaning/
extubation technique in cases of initial or persistent difficult weaning, mainly in COPD
patients. For post-extubation ARF management, the benefit of NIV has only been
demonstrated, to date, when it has been applied according to a preventative strategy in
selected at risk patients, contrasting with the potential deleterious effect of a curative
strategy in medical patients. However, further studies are warranted in more-selected
populations for this indication. Hypercapnia during or following an SB trial appears to
be a useful criterion for applying NIV for weaning and preventing post-extubation
ARF. Currently, due to different clinical results, clinicians should clearly distinguish
these three types of chronological NIV applications following intubation for ARF [3].
As for other indications, it should kept in mind that NIV, applied to weaning/extubation
from ETMV or post-extubation ARF, needs rigorous analysis of the risks and benefits
for patients, in order to not unnecessarily delay the re-intubation time. Furthermore,
acquired experience with the technique remains as one of the key factors for the success
of NIV in these clinical situations.
Summary
The clinical efficacy of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in the initial management of
acute respiratory failure (ARF) led to it being recently proposed as a noninvasive
ventilatory strategy following intubation. In this condition, three different indications
150
should be distinguished with potentially different results: NIV application for difficult
weaning/extubation from endotracheal mechanical ventilation (ETMV) to reduce the
duration of intubation (weaning/extubation strategy); NIV application for post-
extubation ARF ("post-extubation NIV"), either to prevent ARF occurrence in
patients at risk ("preventative strategy") or to avoid reintubation when this
complication occurs ("curative strategy"). Current data show a clinical benefit of
NIV, in terms of medical patients’ morbi-mortality, for the preventive as well as the
weaning/extubation strategies, mainly in cases of underlying chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease. In contrast, the more controversial results observed with NIV for
treating post-extubation ARF should lead the clinician to be cautious in this
indication. In all cases, NIV applied for weaning from ETMV and post-extubation
ARF can only be considered with an experienced team and should not unnecessarily
delay the re-intubation time.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, endotracheal mechanical ventilation, extubation,

noninvasive ventilation, weaning.
Acknowledgements. The author thanks Richard Medeiros, Rouen University Hospital Medical
Editor, for his expert advice in editing the manuscript.
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153
CHAPTER 11
NIV for acute respiratory failure: modes of

ventilation and ventilators
F. Vargas*, A. Thille#,", A. Lyazidi #,", L. Brochard #,",+
*Medical Intensive Care Unit, Pellegrin-Tripode Teaching Hospital, Bordeaux, #Medical Intensive Care Unit,
AP-HP, Albert Chenevier Henri Mondor Teaching Hospital, "Inserm U 841, and +Université Paris 12, Créteil,
France.
Correspondence: L. Brochard, Réanimation Médicale, Centre Hospitalier Albert Chenevier Henri Mondor, 51
Av. du Maréchal de Lattre de Tassigny, 94010 Créteil Cedex, France. Fax: 33 142079943;
Introduction
In acute respiratory failure (ARF), mechanical ventilation is used to achieve
acceptable levels of arterial blood oxygenation with an adequate inspiratory oxygen
concentration, to reduce the work and oxygen cost of breathing by unloading the
respiratory muscles and, eventually to reduce dyspnoea. In patients with ARF, the
rationale for using noninvasive ventilation (NIV) is not different from that for using
invasive mechanical ventilation. NIV includes various techniques but the modality most
frequently used is noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. Positive airway pressure
may be obtained by controlling inspiratory flow and volume (volume-controlled
ventilation) or directly, by delivering a positive pressure (pressure-controlled ventila-
tion). The latter can be obtained in different ways: first, by delivering inspiratory
positive airway pressure; secondly, by delivering inspiratory and expiratory positive
airway pressures at different levels to deliver a bilevel positive airway pressure
ventilation; and finally, by delivering inspiratory and expiratory positive airway pressure
at a comparable level to realise a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). The
present chapter will focus on the modes of ventilation frequently used during NIV.
Success of NIV is strongly associated with good tolerance which can be related to
patient, interface, ventilator and ventilator setting. Others modes of ventilation,
developed in order to improve the patient–ventilator interaction, will be briefly
described. Positive pressure ventilators have evolved over the past several decades, with
increasing capabilities to enhance ventilator responsiveness to patient breathing
demands and improved alarm and monitoring systems. NIV can be performed using
both intensive care unit (ICU) ventilators and those specifically dedicated for NIV.
Their merits and limitations are discussed in the last paragraph.
CPAP
Description
CPAP is a technique of artificial ventilatory support widely used in the ICU [1],
particularly in neonates and infants in whom it was first applied. CPAP represents the
ISSN 1025-448x.
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NIV IN ARF
application of a constant level of positive pressure at the airway opening during

spontaneous breathing [2]. Therefore, CPAP is a technique of ventilatory artificial
support for patients with ARF who are able to sustain spontaneous breathing activity.
However, no breath is really ‘‘actively’’ assisted and CPAP is often not considered as a
mode of ventilatory support because it does not result in active ventilator support. From
the patient’s work of breathing (WOB) and oxygenation standpoints, it does provide a
ventilatory assistance, however, which can achieve the goals of ventilation, as described
above. CPAP results in a higher mean intrathoracic pressure than unassisted
spontaneous breathing but a lower pressure than positive pressure mechanical
ventilation and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). Mean airway pressure
increases, with possible beneficial effects on atelectasis and improvement in oxygena-
tion; lung compliance can increase, reducing WOB and the presence of intrinsic PEEP
(PEEPi) can be counterbalanced with a partial reduction of the inspiratory effort. An
advantage of CPAP over modes of mechanical ventilatory assistance is that CPAP does
not require patient–ventilator synchronisation.
Physiological effects
Oxygenation and WOB. CPAP raises intrathoracic pressure, usually decreases
arteriovenous shunting, improves oxygenation and dyspnoea [3, 4], and lessens WOB in
patients with cardiogenic pulmonary oedema [5]. In patients with ARF without chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), CPAP increases functional residual capacity and
displaces ventilation up from the lower flat portion of the respiratory system volume–
pressure curve into a more-linear portion. Through this mechanism, CPAP improves
oxygenation and reduces WOB. KATZ and MARKS [3] found that CPAP alone reduced the
transpulmonary WOB in intubated patients, indicating an improvement in respiratory
mechanics. However, L’HER et al. [6] could not find any significant effect of CPAP on
respiratory effort in patients with acute lung injury, in contrast with marked reduction
under pressure-support ventilation (PSV). This differs from the results of studies in
cardiogenic pulmonary oedema and some other conditions [7–10]. Physiological and
clinical studies in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary oedema suggested that PSV was
comparable with or slightly superior to CPAP alone, in terms of the decrease in
respiratory effort [11, 12]. DELCLAUX et al. [13] evaluated whether CPAP, compared with
conventional medical treatment and oxygen alone, produced physiological benefits and
reduced the need for endotracheal intubation in nonhypercapnic patients with acute lung
injury. Despite a favourable early physiologic response to CPAP in terms of comfort and
oxygenation, no benefits in terms of outcome variables were found. This failure of
noninvasive CPAP to provide clinical benefits may be ascribable to the absence of an
effect on respiratory effort, as demonstrated.
Tidal volume. In conditions where it tended to increase lung volume, above normal
functional residual capacity, CPAP has been shown to increase expiratory muscle
recruitment, an effect that may contribute to reduce tidal volume, by worsening
mechanical conditions [10, 14]. Indeed, tonic expiratory muscle recruitment may tend to
limit tidal excursion and tidal volume by decreasing chest wall and respiratory system
compliance.
Haemodynamic effects. Positive pressure ventilation increases intrathoracic pressure

and pressure in the right atrium. Venous return to the right heart is, therefore, reduced.
This reduction of preload becomes especially important in patients with respiratory
insufficiency, associated with deep and heavy breathing, resulting in large negative
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F. VARGAS ET AL.
intrathoracic pressure swings and an elevated venous return. Positive pressure

ventilation counterbalances this effect with a reduction of right heart preload.
Increase of intrathoracic pressure decreases left ventricular transmural pressure and
transmural pressure of the thoracic aorta. These effects result in a relevant reduction of
the left ventricular afterload. This combined reduction of pre-load and afterload may
result in different effects on cardiac output. Patients with advanced cardiac insufficiency
do not show decreases of cardiac output under positive pressure ventilation. In contrast
to the normal heart, the cardiac output of the failing heart is predominantly dependent
on afterload changes. Studies using CPAP in patients with stable chronic heart failure
have shown that the greatest increase in cardiac output is found in those patients with
higher filling pressures [15]. CPAP may improve cardiac function through a decrease in
the amplitude of negative pleural swings [5]. CHADDA et al. [12] found no evidence that
CPAP and noninvasive PSV (NPSV) resulted in similar cardiac or haemodynamic
effects, producing similar reductions in right and left ventricular pre-load, mediated by
similar effects on intrathoracic pressure.
Coronary perfusion. On one hand, an increase in intrathoracic pressure has been

shown to be associated with reduced coronary perfusion in animals; on the other hand,
myocardial oxygen consumption might be reduced by the lowered pre-load and
afterload of the heart and by reduction of the oxygen cost of breathing, knowing that
more than 30% of oxygen consumption can come from the respiratory muscles during
respiratory failure. No myocardial ischaemia should be expected under positive pressure
ventilation, especially when a spontaneous breathing activity is maintained. The
ventilatory pump is unloaded during ventilation, and the high blood flow can be
redistributed to the heart, kidneys and brain, improving the clinical situation of the
patient. An initial clinical trial found more ischaemic heart episodes from using PSV
than using CPAP but it was difficult in that small study to differentiate pure
randomisation imbalance from true physiological effect [11]. Several interpretations
were proposed, including a faster decrease in arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2)
with PSV. These effects were not confirmed in further studies but raised caution in the
use of ventilatory support in patients with ischaemic diseases [12, 16].
PEEPi. In patients with ARF, due to exacerbation of airflow obstruction, CPAP

counterbalances PEEPi, thus reducing the inspiratory threshold load significantly [8].
Until the level of set CPAP is lower than PEEPi, there is no significant change in the end-
expiratory lung volume (EELV) as a consequence of expiratory flow limitation. When
CPAP approaches the value of PEEPi or even greater, EELV increases and pulmonary
hyperinflation worsens with deleterious consequence on the pressure generating capacity
of the respiratory muscles. It was recently shown that, in stable patients with COPD who
have measurable PEEPi, the application of CPAP has minimal effects on the inspiratory
threshold load until CPAP levels greatly exceed PEEPi [17]. At these pressures, a reduction
in the indices of respiratory muscle effort is obtained at the expense of substantial
increases in lung volume, as well as expiratory muscle recruitment.
Main indications
Cardiogenic pulmonary oedema. Noninvasive respiratory assistance, in particular
CPAP, has a strong pathophysiological rationale in patients with acute cardiogenic
oedema. Three recent meta-analyses [18–20] showed that CPAP is effective in reducing
the intubation rate in acute cardiac pulmonary oedema. CPAP and NPSV seem to result
in very similar effects, both on physiological end-points and for clinical outcome, and
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NIV IN ARF
CPAP can be recommended as a first-line treatment. However, patients with left

ventricular insufficiency and cardiogenic pulmonary oedema often suffer from a
weakness or insufficiency of the ventilatory pump. This can be identified by a growing
Pa,CO2. These patients with hypercapnia are at increased risk of being intubated [21]. If
CPAP is not powerful enough in this situation or if the application of CPAP does not
reach beneficial effect, then noninvasive positive pressure ventilation should be
considered [22].
The post-operative period. In the postoperative period, loss in lung volume, diaphragm
dysfunction and oxygenation impairment, secondary to occurrence of atelectasis, may
be the main pathophysiological pathways of respiratory complications. CPAP may be a
useful adjunct in this setting. A recent randomised study showed that application of
CPAP in the early postoperative period (arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2)/inspiratory
oxygen fraction (FI,O2) ,300) in patients undergoing high-risk abdominal surgery was
successful to prevent reintubation and complications compared with standard
application of a Venturi mask [23]. Several other studies have shown beneficial effects
on the main physiological variables when PEEP was applied in the early postoperative
period after high-risk abdominal surgery [24].
Settings and interfaces

Relatively low continuous positive pressures (5–10 cmH2O) seem to be enough to
achieve the described effects. The level can be adjusted based upon the clinical response
and tolerance. Oxygen can be adjusted to reach a better peripheral oxygenation (arterial
oxygen saturation (Sa,O2) .90%). To be effective (i.e., to effectively reduce inspiratory
and expiratory efforts), however, CPAP must work with airway pressure remaining
constant at the PEEP level selected during the whole respiratory cycle [25]. Airway
inspiratory fluctuations are mainly due to an insufficient gas delivery related to the
individual need of flow during inspiration, because of inadequate CPAP systems or
valves [25, 26].
Face masks are the most commonly used interfaces for CPAP. Alternatively, the
helmet has been used to apply pressure at the airway opening without touching the face
and it has been reported to be tolerated by patients with acute respiratory failure. Face
masks and helmets, however, are two fundamentally different devices with respect to
CO2 elimination. A recent study performed by TACCONE et al. [27] demonstrated that
the helmet can predispose to CO2 rebreathing, depending on the flow settings, and
should not be used to deliver CPAP with a ventilator. Helmet CPAP seems acceptable in
terms of CO2 rebreathing with a continuous high-flow system [27].
NPSV
Introduction
Pressure support is the most frequently used ventilatory mode during NIV [28].
Success of NIV is strongly associated with good clinical tolerance [28, 29] which can be
related to patient, interface, ventilator and/or ventilator settings. A specific problem
during NIV is the presence of leaks around the mask, which lead to discomfort and
patient–ventilator asynchrony; therefore, further worsening the clinical situation. Two
asynchronies can be directly caused by leaks during NIV: prolonged inspiration due to
inspiratory leaks [30] and autotriggering due to expiratory leaks. An optimal adjustment
157
F. VARGAS ET AL.
of ventilatory settings may improve WOB, comfort and patient–ventilator synchrony,

promoting the success of NIV.
Patient–ventilator asynchrony during NIV

Patient–ventilator asynchrony is defined as a mismatch between the patient’s neural
inspiratory time and the ventilator insufflation time. Whereas the detection of subtle
asynchrony may require investigations such as oesophageal pressure measurement or
diaphragmatic electromyography, several patterns of major asynchrony can be
recognised by a trained clinician simply by examining flow and airway-pressure tracings
(Figs 1–3) [31]. Major patient–ventilator asynchrony is common in clinical practice but
the real incidence during a NIV session is poorly known. A recent multicentre study
evaluated the incidence of patient–ventilator asynchrony during a 30-min session of NIV
and was reported as an abstract [32]. A total of 60 patients were evaluated, recording
diaphragmatic electromyographic activity in order to accurately measure the patients’
inspiratory time. Frequent asynchrony counting for .10% of the respiratory efforts was
present in 26 (43%) patients. Prolonged insufflation, due to delayed cycling, was the
most frequent asynchrony, present in 25% of the patients. Ineffective triggering,
autotriggering, double triggering and short cycle, due to premature cycling, were present
in several of the patients. Not only the magnitude of leaks, but also the level of pressure
support which could further increase inspiratory leaks, was significantly associated with
frequent asynchrony [32].
Prolonged inspiration. When large leaks occur during inspiration, the ventilator
continues to insufflate because the delivered flow remains above the cycling criterion (also
referred to as expiratory trigger value), so that cycling off does not occur. In this situation,
the patient attempts to expire and can fight against the ventilator because the expiratory
valve remains closed, generating ineffective efforts during persistent insufflation (fig. 1).
The magnitude of delayed cycling and the number of ineffective breaths are directly
associated to the magnitude of leaks [32]. This problem is much more prevalent when
using an ICU ventilator with no NIV mode but may occur also with NIV dedicated
ventilators. Several adjustments can eliminate prolonged inspiration by reducing either
the leaks or the ventilator insufflation time. First, mask position should be adjusted to
minimise leaks around the mask. Secondly, limiting the total inspiratory pressure should
be considered, reducing the pressure support and/or PEEP level. Persistent leaks indicate a
need for limiting the ventilator insufflation time by increasing the expiratory trigger and/
or reducing the maximal inspiratory time. Increasing the expiratory trigger i50% allows
the ventilator to cycle off adequately [33]. CALDERINI et al. [30] reported that adjusting the
maximal inspiratory time to 0.8–1.2 s also improved patient–ventilator synchrony,
reducing the work of breathing and improving comfort. Most of the new-generation ICU
ventilators and many NIV dedicated ventilators allow adjustment of the expiratory trigger
or maximal inspiratory time.
Autotriggering. Expiratory leaks can generate a pressure drop below the external PEEP
level or a drop in expired bias flow, simulating the patient’s effort and triggering a
ventilator breath. Autotriggering may promote a short cycle or a flow distortion since
the patient does not generate effort and fight the ventilator (fig. 2). This source of
autotriggering can be eliminated by increasing the bias flow and lowering the inspiratory
trigger sensitivity [34], so that a stronger inspiratory effort is required to trigger the
ventilator. Careful adjustment of the settings should avoid ineffective triggering, which,
however, is sometimes difficult to detect.
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NIV IN ARF
a) 20
15
Airway pressure
cmH2O 10
0
b) 1.6
1.2
Flow L·min-1
0.8
0.4 #
0.0
-0.4
c) 0.2
¶ ¶
Diaphragmatic EMG
0.1
activity µV
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
0 4 8 12 16
Time s
Fig. 1. – Ineffective efforts during persistent insufflation. a) Airway pressure, b) flow and c) the diaphragmatic
electromyography are shown. When large leaks occur during inspiration, the ventilator continues to insufflate because
the delivered flow remains above the value of the expiratory trigger (#), so that cycling off does not occur. In this
situation, the patient attempts to expire (") and could fight the ventilator because the expiratory valve remains closed,
generating ineffective efforts. &: leaks.
Dose of ventilatory support.

Excessive ventilatory support. Ineffective triggering is a frequent asynchrony observed
during invasive mechanical ventilation [35], as well as during NIV [32]. These ineffective
breaths are mainly promoted by excessive ventilatory support, i.e. high pressure support
levels. However, the mechanism generating ineffective triggering in NIV and in
intubated patients is different. During invasive ventilation, this asynchrony is promoted
by large tidal volumes, long insufflation time and reduced expiratory time, generating
dynamic hyperinflation at the time of attempted triggering. During NIV, ineffective
breaths mainly occur during prolonged insufflations due to inspiratory leaks [30, 32, 36].
In both cases, ineffective triggering is a marker of inadequately high pressure support
level and an excessive dose of ventilation.
Insufficient ventilatory support. During PSV, if the pressure support level is too low or
the cycling-off criterion is reached too early, the ventilator stops insufflation and opens
the expiratory valve while the patient’s inspiratory effort continues [37]. This produces
an initial drop in airway pressure and flow distortion, followed by an increase related to
patient inspiration, resulting in a characteristic contour (fig. 3). This asynchrony is
159
F. VARGAS ET AL.
a) 20
15
Airway pressure
cmH2O
10
0
b) 1.2
¶
0.8
Flow L·min-1
0.4 #
0.0 +
-0.4
c) 6
Oesophageal pressure
3 §
cmH2O
-3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time s
Fig. 2. – Auto-triggering. a) Airway pressure, b) flow and c) oesophageal pressure are shown. Expiratory leaks (#)
can generate a pressure drop to less than the external positive end-expiratory pressure level, simulating a patient’s
effort and triggering a ventilator breath. Auto-triggering may promote a flow distortion (") since the patient does not
generate effort and fight the ventilator. +: start of ventilator insufflation; 1: start of patient’s effort.
observed, especially in patients recovering from acute lung injury with a high ventilatory
demand and a restrictive respiratory mechanics [31, 37]. If the patient’s effort continues
far beyond the end of the ventilator inspiratory time, a second ventilator insufflation can
be triggered. In this case, double triggering is detected as two consecutive ventilator
cycles separated by a very short or absent expiratory period.
Optimisation of ventilatory settings during NPSV

Adjusting the inspiratory trigger. The triggering phase contributes ,10% of the
patient’s total effort to breathe [38]. Flow triggering has been shown to slightly reduce
the effort needed to trigger the ventilator compared with pressure triggering [38].
Moreover, a less sensitive trigger could be associated with a higher incidence of
ineffective triggering events [35]. These data indicate that a sensitive flow trigger should
be used, to take full advantage of patient’s efforts without inducing autotriggering.
Autotriggering is a frequent asynchrony during NIV and a flow triggering set around
3 L?min-1 (when possible settings range 0.5–10 L?min-1, for instance) could represent an
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NIV IN ARF
a) 15
Airway pressure
10
cmH2O
5
0
b) 1.6
1.2
Flow L·min-1
0.8
0.4
#
0.0 # #
0.4
c) 9
Oesophageal pressure
6
3
cmH2O
0 ¶
-3
-6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig. 3. – Insufficient ventilatory support. a) Airway pressure, b) flow and c) oesophageal pressure are shown. During
pressure support ventilation, if the pressure support level is too low or cycling-off criterion is reached too early, the
ventilator stops insufflation and opens the expiratory valve while patient’s inspiratory effort continues. This produces
an initial drop in airway pressure and flow distortion, followed by an increase related to patient inspiration, resulting
in a characteristic contour (#). ": end of patient’s effort.
optimal adjustment, being sensitive enough and avoiding auto-triggering. Some

ventilators self-adjust trigger sensitivity as a function of leaks.
Adjusting the pressure support level. The main objective is to individually titrate
pressure support level in order to obtain an expiratory tidal volume at least of
6 mL?kg-1. A first approach starts with a higher pressure support level (y20 cmH2O)
and reduces it step by step if the patient is intolerant. The goal of this strategy is a rapid
alleviation of respiratory distress but it may also promote discomfort due to excessive
assistance and leaks. A second approach starts with a low pressure support level
(y8 cmH2O) and raises it gradually to the target tidal volume and adequate ventilatory
assistance. This strategy may improve comfort and maximise patient tolerance by
avoiding leaks at initiation of NIV. Then, analysis of flow and airway pressure tracings
of the ventilator allows detection of signs of under-assistance (fig. 3) as well as signs of
over-assistance and leaks (fig. 1).
Adjusting the pressurisation rate. Although pressurisation velocity depends on

ventilator performance, the pressure rise time is adjustable on the new-generation ICU
ventilators and on many NIV dedicated ventilators. A low pressurisation rate can lead
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F. VARGAS ET AL.
to excessive patient inspiratory effort whereas a very fast pressure rise may result in
overshoot termination, promoting leaks and generating patient discomfort [39]. The
ideal rise time should be titrated as the fastest pressurisation rate that is not associated
with overshoot. A longer rise time is sometimes necessary to avoid premature cycle
termination, related to high pressure overshoot.
Adjusting PEEP. External PEEP has been shown to decrease ineffective triggering in
patients with auto-PEEP [40] by reducing the work of breathing needed to trigger the
ventilator [41–43]. The levels of dynamic PEEPi measured during NIV in patients with
ARF are often relatively low (ƒ3 cmH2O) in hypoxaemic patients [44], as well as in
hypercapnic patients [45]. Consequently, an initial adjustment of PEEP around
3 cmH2O should be sufficient to facilitate triggering of the ventilator and will
participate in avoiding leaks by limiting maximal inspiratory pressure. However, a
higher level of PEEP may be necessary in order to avoid obstructive apnoea during sleep
or to improve oxygenation in case of severe hypoxaemia [44].
Adjusting the insufflation time. During PSV, the insufflation time depends partly on
the patient’s inspiratory effort but often tends to be longer than the patient’s neural
inspiratory time, leading to delayed cycling and prolonged insufflations [46]. After an
initial high peak inspiratory flow (which depends on the magnitude of the patient’s
effort, the level of set pressure and the respiratory system resistance), the flow decreases
according to the time constant of the respiratory system, down to a cycling off value,
allowing expiration. In case of leaks, flow could remain greater than this cycling off
criterion (also referred to as expiratory trigger) lengthening insufflation time. Although
frequently set at 25% of peak inspiratory flow on many ICU ventilators, this value is
now often adjustable (5–70%) resulting in changes in ventilator insufflation time.
TASSAUX et al. [33] evaluated the impact of a reduced insufflation time on asynchrony
and WOB in patients with COPD during invasive ventilation. Increasing this expiratory
trigger improved patient–ventilator synchrony, decreasing ineffective efforts without
changing diaphragmatic energy expenditure and alveolar ventilation. During NIV, the
usual expiratory trigger of 25% could be increased up to 50% in case of leaks, generating
prolonged insufflation, especially in patients with obstructive lung disease [30].
Other modes of NIV

Volume targeted ventilation
During volume targeted ventilation, the ventilator delivers a set flow, inspiratory time
and tidal volume at each breath, and inflation pressure may vary. Compared with PSV,
volume targeted ventilators are rarely used in ARF due to some important
disadvantages and have rarely been applied [47]. High peak mask pressures during
volume targeted modes may cause more discomfort in terms of leaks, risk of gastric
distension, pressure sores and skin necrosis. NIV can be performed using assist-control
ventilation (ACV) where the patient can drive the respiratory rate: the ventilator delivers
a positive pressure breath at a preset tidal volume in response to the patient’s inspiratory
effort or at a preset rate if no effort occurs within the preselected time period. ACV may
deliver volumes less that are less reliable in case of leaks. Controlled modes may be
preferred in patients with apnoea and hypopnoeas or unstable ventilatory drive
(pressure or volume targeted modes), and volume targeted ventilation will be preferred
in cases of unstable respiratory mechanics, overloaded respiratory muscles and failure of
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NIV IN ARF
pressure targeted modes to augment spontaneous breathing before endotracheal

intubation. Comparisons between different modes in NIV have rarely been performed.
Studies comparing PSV with ACV modes in patients with ARF found no differences
with respect to short-term physiological end-points [48–51]. ACV mode resulted in a
higher respiratory muscle rest but PSV was more comfortable and showed better leak
compensation [51].
Proportional assist ventilation

Proportional assist ventilation (PAV) is a mode of synchronised partial ventilatory
support in which the ventilator pressure output is proportional to instantaneous patient
effort [52]. This is a partial ventilatory assistance based in matching the ventilatory
support with neural output of the respiratory centre. The patient should receive more
mechanical assistance when the demand is higher and less support when the demand is
lower, thus achieving a better patient–ventilator interaction. The ventilator amplifies the
patient’s inspiratory effort based on the analysis of flow and volume which are
transformed into a certain amount of pressure based on the equation of motion of the
respiratory system. The intensity of this amplification, therefore, depends on the
respiratory system elastance (through volume assist) and resistance (through flow
assist), which is required to be known. Noninvasive estimation of these measurements
have been used mainly for NIV. Elastance is estimated by progressive increase of the
volume assist until over assistance occurs with excessive volume and pressure. The
resistance assist is determined by looking for the optimal comfort with different peak
flows [53, 54]. NIV was considered to be an application in which PAV should provide
better comfort and synchrony and it has been shown to be effective in achieving the goal
of NPSV in studies of patients with ARF [52, 55]. However, no significant systematic
superiority over NIV in the PSV mode was found when the two modes of assistances
were compared [56–58]. Elastance, resistance and PEEPi are difficult to measure in
patients with partial support ventilation and noninvasive methods are not extensively
validated for NIV [59, 60]. Another disadvantage is that ventilator leak compensations
can produce large positive pressure favouring instability.
Neural trigger and cycling off during PSV

NPSV provides safe and effective assistance to patients with ARF due to various
causes [29, 61]. However the patient’s tolerance to the technique is a critical factor in
determining success of avoiding endotracheal intubation. One of the key factors
determining tolerance to NPSV is optimal synchrony between the patient’s spontaneous
breathing activity and the ventilator’s settings, known as the patient–ventilator
interaction [30, 62]. As described, optimal patient–ventilator synchrony can prove very
difficult to achieve due to the presence of leaks and depending on the type of interface
which can interfere with various aspects of ventilator function [36, 63]. Patient–
ventilator synchrony during NPSV can be compromised when using conventional
pneumatic triggering, with the ventilator-delivered inspiratory support starting long
after the patient’s inspiratory effort. The switch from inspiration to expiration (cycling-
off) should, ideally, coincide with the end of the patient’s inspiratory effort. However
large asynchronies can be observed during NPSV at the end of inspiration, with the
ventilator cycling off either too early or too late relative to the end of the patient’s
inspiratory effort [33, 46, 64]. A possible solution is to replace the pneumatic triggering
with neural triggering and cycling off using the diaphragm electrical activity. The
electrical activity of the inspiratory muscles can be used as an index of the inspiratory
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F. VARGAS ET AL.
neural drive [65]. Detection and quantification of the electrical activity of the crural
diaphragm (EAdi) by means of an oesophageal array of bipolar electrodes has been
validated in humans [66, 67]. Crural EAdi has been shown to accurately express global
diaphragm activation [46, 67–69]. The array of bipolar electrodes can be mounted on a
feeding tube, which is routinely introduced in critically ill patients. Cycling on and off
are determined directly by the EAdi. MOERER et al. [70] have realised a physiologic
study, in seven healthy volunteers. The aim of that study was to compare synchrony
between inspiratory effort and ventilator assist during neurally or pneumatically
triggered and cycled-off NPSV delivered with the helmet interface. Triggering and
cycling off delays, wasted efforts and breathing comfort were determined during
restricted breathing efforts with various combinations of pressure support levels and
respiratory rates. During pneumatic triggering and cycling off, patient–ventilator
synchrony was progressively more impaired with increasing respiratory rate and levels
of pressure. During neural triggering and cycling off, effect of increasing respiratory rate
and levels of pressure support on patient–ventilator synchrony was minimal. Breathing
comfort was higher during neural triggering than during pneumatic triggering. The
authors concluded that in healthy volunteers, trigger effort and breathing comfort with
a helmet interface is considerably less impaired during with neural triggering and cycling
off, compared with conventional pneumatic triggering and cycling off. Because the
ventilator is triggered directly by EAdi, the synchrony between neural and mechanical
inspiratory time is guaranteed at both the onset and the end of inspiration. From a
clinical standpoint, patients needing NPSV often have no gastric probe. Whether adding
an oesophageal catheter for mask ventilation will be acceptable in patients with ARF,
needs to be confirmed in critically ill patients needing NPSV.
Noninvasive neurally adjusted ventilatory assist

The mode referred to as neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) uses the
electrical activity of the diaphragm to control not only the timing but also the amount of
pressure delivered. The ventilator is triggered, limited and cycled-off directly by EAdi.
The EAdi is measured by a multiple array oesophageal electrode. For accurate
measurement, the active region of the diaphragm is determined by cross correlating the
signals obtained along the electrode array [71]. The processed signal is then transferred
to the ventilator unit to regulate the ventilator the ventilatory support, which is therefore
instantaneously applied in relation to EAdi [72]. In other words the EAdi is multiplied by
a number in order to determine the support level (NAVA gain). During NAVA, the
positive airway pressure reflects the EAdi and this relationship is not altered by
variations in tidal volume and end expiratory lung volume [71]. The patient–ventilator
synchrony is guaranteed at both the onset and the end of inspiration. The cycling-off is
commonly set at 80% of peak inspiratory activity (EAdi). The amount of support
provided corresponds instantaneously to the ventilatory demand, irrespective of
variations in muscle length or contractility. NAVA can almost abolish transdiaphrag-
matic pressure swings while maintaining synchrony between inspiratory neural effort
and ventilatory assist [73]. The use of neural control of mechanical ventilation has the
capability of enhancing the synchrony between mechanical ventilation and respiratory
muscle activity, improving patient comfort. Another advantage is that NAVA should
not be affected by leaks. Recently, BECK et al. [74] have evaluated, in rabbits, whether
NAVA can deliver assist in synchrony and proportionally to EAdi with a leaky
noninvasive interface. The main result is that NAVA can be effective in delivering NIV,
even when the interface is excessively leaky, and can unload the respiratory muscles
while maintaining synchrony with the subject’s demand [74]. However, only studies on
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NIV IN ARF
animals and healthy subjects have been carried out. It remains to be determined whether
NAVA can maintain adequate levels of support and adequate patient–ventilator
interaction in different kinds of respiratory failure, especially with NIV.
Ventilators
How to generate CPAP?
Many systems can be used commonly to deliver CPAP: one of the most frequently
used consists in a high flow generator producing an air/oxygen mixture by Venturi
effect, with an additional source of O2 and a mechanical expiratory valve. An
inspiratory reservoir and a CPAP water valve can also be used, or a standard
mechanical ICU ventilator in CPAP mode. The Boussignac CPAP device is a small
cylindrical plastic adaptor that fits onto a modified face mask. The system uses the
incoming flow of oxygen to generate a turbulent virtual pressure valve in the open
expiratory side of the mask. The gas is accelerated and enters circumferentially into the
open-ended cylinder generating air entrainment and positive pressure. The rate of flow
will determine the amount of pressure achieved. A flow of 15 L?min-1 allows producing
a pressure between 5 to 6 cmH2O and a flow of 25 L?min-1 a pressure greater than 10
cmH2O. This simple and cheap device can be safely and effectively used in emergency
wards [75, 76]. Regarding the use of new generation of ICU ventilators, low levels of
imposed workload are now required for CPAP but substantial differences in terms of
performance have been demonstrated on bench study [77].
Which ventilator for NPSV: ICU or specific NIV ventilators?

NPSV can be delivered using both ICU ventilators and ventilators specifically
dedicated to NIV. In a recent survey from North America [78], these specific NIV
ventilators were the most frequently used ventilators accounting for two-thirds of cases
whereas CPAP generator represented y30% and ICU ventilators ,5%. By contrast, a
recent French survey in ICUs found that an ICU ventilator was used in y80% of the
cases whereas NIV and home ventilators represented ,20% of the cases [28].
Table 1 presents the characteristics of the main ICU ventilators, including NIV
dedicated ventilators, with regard to their specific features for delivering NIV. The main
advantage of the NIV ventilator is its ability to work in presence of leaks. Indeed, it has
been found that the trigger function of NIV ventilators was more effective than ICU
ventilators in the presence of leaks [79]. However, it is important to underline the fact
that major differences may exist in terms of performances between NIV ventilators [80,
81]. Although some NIV ventilators exhibit trigger function and pressurisation capacity
close to ICU ventilators in bench studies without leaks [81–83], performances of these
devices remain sometimes lower than new generation of ICU ventilators [84, 85].
The main advantages of an intensive care unit ventilator are often a better monitoring
capability and its ability to continue invasive mechanical ventilation and full ventilatory
support in the case of endotracheal intubation. A new generation of intensive care unit
ventilators exhibit high performances on bench testing [85] but can become less efficient in
presence of leaks [79, 86]. Recently, many manufacturers have developed a ‘‘mode’’
specifically designed for noninvasive ventilation. This mode is supposed to detect leaks
and automatically adjust both the inspiratory trigger, to avoid auto-triggering, and the
expiratory cycling criterion or ventilator insufflation time, to avoid prolonged inspiration
[86]. These new capabilities may improve patient–ventilator synchrony and noninvasive
165
Table 1. – Characteristics of the main intensive care unit ventilators regarding their noninvasive ventilator capabilities
Ventilator Manufacturer Gas source Available Range inspiratory trigger Range Range
NIV mode expiratory trigger % inspiratory
times s
Esprit Vision Respironics (Murrysville, PA, USA) Turbine Automatic/manual -20– -0.1 cmH2O, 0.5–20 L?min-1 Automatic, 10–45 0.1–9.9
Turbine Automatic Automatic Automatic 0.5–3
PB 840 Tyco (Carlsbad, CA, USA) Pressurised Manual 0.2–20 L?min-1 1–80 0.4–3
Elisée 350 Resmed (North Ryde, Australia) Turbine Automatic/manual Automatic, -1– -5 cmH2O Automatic, 10–90 1–3
-1
Avea Vela Viasys Healthcare (Conshohocken, PA, USA) Compressor Manual 0.1–20 L?min 5–45 0.2–5
Turbine Manual 1–8 L?min-1 5–40 0.3–
166
Extend Taema (Antony, France) Pressurised Manual 1–20 L?min-1, 0.1–5 cmH2O 1–70 0.3–3.5
Servo i Maquet (Solna, Sweden) Pressurised Manual 0–100%, -20–0 cmH2O 1–40
F. VARGAS ET AL.
Savina Evita 4 Dräger (Lübeck, Germany) Turbine Automatic 1–15 L?min-1 Automatic 0.2–10
Pressurised Automatic 0.3–15 L?min-1 Automatic 0.1–10
Engstrom General Electric (Fairfield, CO, USA) Pressurised Manual 1–9 L?min-1, -1– -10 cmH2O 5–50 0.25–15
Galiléo Hamilton (Rhäzuns, Switzerland) Pressurised Manual 0.5–10 mbar, 0.5–15 L?min-1 10–40 0.1–3
-1
E500 Newport medical instruments (Costa Mesa, Pressurised Automatic/manual 0–5 cmH2O, 0.6–2 L?min Automatic, 5–55 0.1–5
CA, USA)
% are relative to the inspiratory peak flow.
NIV IN ARF
ventilation tolerance but results are still heterogeneous [86]. Technical differences
demonstrated among ventilators on lung model studies have been shown to have clinical
consequences in terms of the patient’s effort [38, 86, 87]. It is, therefore, likely that these
new noninvasive ventilation modes will allow a higher efficacy of noninvasive ventilation
with these ventilators but clinical studies remain to be performed.
Summary
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is a technique of artificial ventilatory
support widely used in the intensive care unit (ICU). CPAP raises intrathoracic
pressure, decreases arteriovenous shunting and improves oxygenation and dyspnoea.
An advantage of CPAP over modes of mechanical ventilatory assistance is that CPAP
does not require patient–ventilator synchronisation. However, pressure support is the
most frequently used ventilatory mode during noninvasive ventilation (NIV). A
specific problem during noninvasive pressure support ventilation (NPSV) is the
presence of leaks around the mask, which lead to discomfort and patient–ventilator
asynchrony. An optimal adjustment of ventilatory settings may improve comfort,
work of breathing and patient–ventilator interaction, promoting the success of NIV.
Other modes of ventilation, developed in order to improve the patient–ventilator
interaction can be used during NIV. The proportional assist ventilation is a partial
ventilatory assistance based in matching the ventilatory support with neural output of
the respiratory centre. No significant systematic superiority over NPSV was found
when the two modes of assistance were compared. The neurally adjusted ventilatory
assist (NAVA) mode uses the electrical activity of the diaphragm (EAdi). The
ventilator is triggered, limited and cycled off directly by EAdi. Neural triggering and
cycling off guarantee an optimal patient–ventilator interaction at both the onset and
the end of inspiration. The NAVA mode can unload the respiratory muscles;
however, only studies on animals and healthy subjects have been carried out. NPSV
can be delivered using both ICU ventilators and ventilators specifically dedicated to
NIV. Recently, many manufacturers have developed a ‘‘mode’’ specifically designed
for NIV. This mode detects leaks and automatically adjusts both the inspiratory and
expiratory trigger. These new capabilities may improve patient–ventilator synchrony
and NIV tolerance but results are still heterogenous.
Keywords: Continuous positive airway pressure, mechanical ventilation, noninvasive

ventilation, pressure support, ventilators.
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CHAPTER 12
NIV in the acute setting: technical aspects,

initiation, monitoring and choice of interface
S.M. Maggiore, G. Mercurio, C. Volpe
Dept of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Policlinico A. Gemelli,
Rome, Italy.
Correspondence: S.M. Maggiore, Dept of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Università Cattolica del
Sacro Cuore, Policlinico A. Gemelli, Largo Agostino Gemelli, 8, 00168 Rome, Italy. Fax: 39 063013450;
Introduction
Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) is the delivery of mechanical ventilation without the
need for an invasive artificial airway [1] and is a safe and effective means to improve gas
exchange and reduce the work of breathing in patients with acute respiratory failure
(ARF) of various origin [2, 3]. In patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) and hypercapnic respiratory failure, the application of NIV
to standard therapy decreases the need for endotracheal intubation, and reduces
mortality [2, 4–6]. Similarly, NIV is effective in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary
oedema, particularly in those with hypercapnia [7–9]. In patients with acute de novo
respiratory failure, randomised controlled studies have shown that NIV reduces
mortality in selected patients, such as those with immunosuppression [10] or with
postoperative complications [11, 12]. However, the success rate of NIV in hypoxaemic
ARF is strictly dependent on the ARF aetiology [5, 13], and the application of NIV in
these patients is still controversial [14]. Advantages of NIV application include the
reduction of the complications associated with endotracheal intubation [15], the
improvement of patient comfort and the preservation of airway defence mechanisms,
speech and swallowing [16]. NIV, however, is not successful in all patients; due to
peculiarities of this ventilatory modality, such as the possibility of leaks and the need for
patient compliance, technical aspects are of the utmost importance to improve its
efficacy [17].
In order to optimise the success rate, NIV should be used as soon as incipient signs of
respiratory failure develop and some technical aspects should be thoroughly taken into
account. The correct choice of ventilator type should rely on the patient’s conditions and
the global performance of the machine. The use of intensive care unit (ICU) ventilators
is generally preferable in the acute setting, since they are more powerful and have more
adjustable features compared with home ventilators. Additionally, circuits with dual
tubes reduce the risk of CO2-rebreathing in patients with ARF. An important part of
recent technical development for NIV application has concerned the interfaces. Nasal
masks may be used in cooperative patients, to increase comfort and reduce
complications but facial masks are generally preferable for dyspnoeic patients.
Recently, an alternative interface, the helmet, has been proposed to decrease
complications and improve tolerance. Recent data have also contributed to elucidate
the role of gas humidification during NIV. The success rate during NIV will depend on
ISSN 1025-448x.
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S.M. MAGGIORE ET AL.
the ability of the treatment to increase alveolar ventilation and reduce the work of
breathing. Consequently, monitoring is crucial to assess the quality of assistance, an
adequate patient–ventilator interaction and the amount of leaks.
The present chapter discusses the technical aspects of NIV application in the acute
setting, with a particular focus on specific equipment and monitoring.
Initiation of NIV treatment: patient selection and preparation

Practical experience with NIV may not achieve success rates as high as those reported
in the literature. Differences in patient selection and level of expertise of some
practitioners with the application of NIV may account for discrepancies among
published studies on NIV.
NIV has been used successfully in patients with hypercapnic respiratory failure due to
COPD or restrictive lung diseases, in patients with acute cardiogenic pulmonary
oedema, in immunocompromised patients and as a means of weaning from invasive
mechanical ventilation in patients with COPD. NIV has also been successfully applied in
selected patients with hypoxaemic respiratory failure due to pneumonia, asthma
exacerbations and acute lung injury, although the evidence supporting the use of NIV in
these conditions is weak [14]. Alert and cooperative patients are appropriate candidates
to NIV treatment, although COPD hypercapnic patients with narcosis may represent an
exception [18, 19].
In order to improve success rates in awake and cooperative patients, it is essential to
reassure the patient and explain the technique in detail. It is also beneficial to gently hold
the device on the patient’s face before tightening it, in order to improve patient comfort.
Finally, it is recommended that physicians do not tighten the device excessively or
weakly, since an excessive pressure can cause skin breakdown and reduce patient
tolerance, while a weak sealing may facilitate air leakage and patient–ventilator
asynchronies.
NIV should be avoided in patients with cardiac or respiratory arrest, facial surgery or
trauma, upper-airway obstruction, severe hypotension or life-threatening arrhythmia, and
in those who require protection of the airways and who are at high risk of aspiration
(coma, impaired swallowing, etc.) or have inability to clear secretions, while patients who
have severe hypoxaemia (arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2)/inspiratory oxygen fraction
(FI,O2) of ƒ100), morbid obesity (.200% of ideal body weight) or with unstable angina or
acute myocardial infarction, should be closely managed by experienced staff [20]. Criteria
for NIV discontinuation and endotracheal intubation are shown in table 1 and must be
taken into account in order to avoid dangerous delays of intubation.
Table 1. – Common criteria for discontinuation of noninvasive ventilation and endotracheal intubation
Respiratory arrest
Respiratory pauses with loss of consciousness or gasping
Psychomotor agitation making nursing care impossible and requiring sedation
Failure to improve oxygenation (i.e. Pa,O2 ƒ65 mmHg with an FI,O2 ƒ0.6)
Inability to decrease Pa,CO2 and improve academia (i.e. pH ,7.25 and below the value at baseline)
Inability to correct dyspnoea, with tachypnoea and activation of accessory respiratory muscles
Development of conditions requiring protection of the airways (coma or seizure disorders)
Inability to manage copious tracheal secretions
Haemodynamic instability (i.e. systolic arterial tension ,70 mmHg despite fluid resuscitation)
Heart rate or electrocardiographic instability
Inability to tolerate the mask or helmet
Pa,O2: arterial oxygen tension; FI,O2: inspiratory oxygen fraction; Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension.
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TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF NIV IN THE ACUTE SETTING
Mechanical ventilators, ventilatory modes and settings

NIV can be performed with either modern ICU ventilators or chronic long-term home
ventilators [21]. The choice of ventilator type to deliver NIV should depend on both the
patient’s conditions and the technical characteristics of the machine, such as: 1)
availability of different modes of ventilation; 2) quality of monitoring (detection of
asynchronies and quantification of air leaks); 3) mechanisms of compensation for leaks;
and 4) performance. These aspects have recently gained a greater interest in the
literature, as they have a clinical impact in terms of work of breathing [22] and represent
the key factors to improve patient–ventilator interaction during NIV, as well as
tolerability of the technique. Despite being large in size and expensive, the modern ICU
ventilators are more powerful and have more adjustable features (trigger type and
sensitivity, slope of pressurisation, and cycling criteria), compared with home
ventilators. The latter are portable, easier to use and less costly but often lack power,
fine tuning of settings and monitoring capabilities.
When NIV is applied to treat a patient with a mild COPD exacerbation, the use of
home ventilators may be appropriate, particularly if the patient is already using home
NIV ventilator and is adapted to the machine. By contrast, patients with severe
hypoxaemia and/or hypercarbia have a high risk of intubation and should be treated
with more sophisticated machines and monitored in dedicated units. Data from bench
and clinical studies have shown that home ventilators are generally less homogenous
than ICU ventilators, with regards to the global performance [23]. The ICU ventilators
have good monitoring capabilities and may adapt better to patients with ARF who have
a high risk of NIV failure. A survey by DEMOULE et al. [24], conducted to evaluate the
application of NIV in ICUs, showed that an ICU ventilator is used in 79% of cases, a
ventilator dedicated to NIV in 12% and a home device in 5%.
In theory, NIV can be delivered with similar modalities used to deliver invasive
ventilation through an endotracheal tube or a tracheotomy cannula. In practice, assisted
ventilation is the primary mode of ventilation applied during NIV, while controlled
modes are rarely used [14]. Among assisted modes of ventilation, pressure support
ventilation (PSV) with positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) is certainly the most
widely used mode during NIV [24]. PSV is usually delivered with swings of pressure
above baseline ranging 8–20 cmH2O. The setting depends on the patient’s tolerance and
the efficacy of the preset support level in terms of the delivered tidal volume and
respiratory rate.
With regards to the application of PEEP during NIV, it is specifically used to improve
oxygenation and increase lung volume in patients with hypoxaemic respiratory failure
and to counteract intrinsic PEEP or to maintain airway patency in patients with COPD
and sleep apnoea, respectively. In COPD patients, the level of PEEP should be titrated
according to the actual intrinsic PEEP of the patient. Since this value cannot be reliably
measured during NIV, the use of low PEEP levels (ƒ5 cmH2O) is recommended for two
main reasons: 1) intrinsic PEEP rarely exceeds this value in COPD patients, and 2) the
higher is the level of PEEP, the greater is the likelihood of leaks, autocycling and
asynchronies [25]. In hypoxaemic patients, the use of higher PEEP levels may be justified
in the attempt to improve gas exchange. In a prospective, crossover, physiological study
performed in 10 patients with acute lung injury, L’HER et al. [26] assessed the short-term
effects of NIV with two combinations of PSV and PEEP (10–10 and 15–5 cmH2O,
respectively), and with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP; 10 cmH2O). Those
authors found that tidal volume increased with PSV and not with CPAP, while
neuromuscular drive and inspiratory muscle effort were significantly lower with the two
PSV levels than with CPAP. The application of PEEP (10 cmH2O), alone or in
175
combination with PSV, improved oxygenation, but dyspnoea relief was significantly
better with high level of PSV (15–5 cmH2O). Thus, in patients with hypoxaemic
respiratory failure, the application of PEEP or CPAP ameliorates gas exchange;
however, PSV is needed in order to reduce inspiratory muscle effort and dyspnoea.
One specific problem with PSV during NIV concerns the cycle into expiration in case of
leaks. Indeed, in PSV mode, the ventilator recognises the end of inspiration when the
decelerating flow has fallen to a preset value. When air leaks occur, the flow threshold
required to cycle into expiration cannot be achieved by the ventilator, and the inspiration
is prolonged, thus causing patient–ventilator asynchronies and poor tolerance of the
technique by the patient. Several strategies can be adopted to solve such a problem [27].
First, a small reduction in peak pressure (by reducing PSV or PEEP level) may be
attempted in order to reduce leaks and eliminate asynchronies. Alternatively, the flow
threshold can be set above the leak flow rate, by using expiratory flow sensitivity settings
.30–40% of the peak-flow rate. Alternatively, a pressure controlled ventilation mode with
a fixed inspiratory time (ƒ1 s) can be used [28].
Details on these aspects can be found in a dedicated chapter of this European
Respiratory Monograph (ERM).
Selection of the interface

Apart from the choice of ventilator type, the use of an optimal interface is a crucial
issue when NIV treatment is started [17]. Over the last few years, the development of
new interfaces has contributed to improving the tolerance and the efficacy of the
technique and has favoured the application of NIV in patients with ARF of various
origins. A large array of interfaces is now available to deliver NIV (table 2).
The masks
Nasal and facial masks are the most commonly used interfaces during NIV and
consist of two parts: a soft inflatable cushion that is directly in contact with the patient’s
face and a mask holder with two to five attachment points to secure the elastic head-
straps. Increasing the number of the attachment points increases the adherence and
stability of the mask and allows for a more uniform distribution of pressure on the skin
surface. The adequate insufflation of the cushion is essential to improve patient comfort
and reduce air leaks during NIV. Indeed, an excessive mask fit pressure causes skin
damage at the site of mask contact, while a weak mask sealing may facilitate air leakage.
In a bench study, it has been shown that air leaks increase when the difference between
the pressure inside the cushion and the airway pressure is ,2 cmH2O [29]. Thus, it seems
reasonable to keep the mask fit pressure 2–5 cmH2O above airway pressure.
The nasal mask is usually well tolerated because it causes less claustrophobia and
discomfort. It allows eating, drinking and expectorating and is commonly used for
chronic long-term home ventilation [21, 30]. As an alternative to nasal masks, nasal
pillows can be used to reduce the risk of pressure sores. The facial mask is preferable in
acute respiratory failure because dyspnoeic patients are often mouth-breathers and
mouth opening during nasal mask ventilation may cause air leakage and decrease the
efficacy of NIV [21, 31]. In these patients, facial mask greatly improves alveolar
ventilation and may prevent the increase in nasal resistances observed with the nasal
mask in case of mouth leaks [32]. Different mask sizes are now commercially available
and facilitate adaptation to individual facial contour. Total face masks are also available
and give the theoretical advantages of reducing the risk of leakage and improving
176
Table 2. – Main characteristics of commercially available interfaces for noninvasive ventilation
Interface Disposable (D) Use in the Advantages Disadvantages

or re-usable (R) intensive care
unit (ICU) or
at home
Nasal (simple) R Home and/or ICU Comfort Mouth leaks,
Respironics (Comfort classic) nasal discomfort
ResMed (Ultra mirage II nasal) for long-term
Fisher-Paykel (Flexy fit nasal) use
SomnoTech (Somno Plus)
Invacare (Twilight II)
Nasal (moulded) D Home only Comfort Mouth leaks,
Respironics (Profile lite) cost
Sleepnet (IQ nasal)
Circadiance (Sleepweaver)
PMI ProBasics (Zzz-mask)
DeVilbiss (Flexset)
Nasal pillows R Home and/or ICU Comfort Mouth leaks,
ResMed (Mirage swift) cost
RespCare (Bravo nasal)
AEIOMed (Headrest nasal)
Respironics (Comfort lite nasal
interface)
CPAPPro (Nasal pillow interface)
Fisher-Paykel (Opus 360)
Puritan Bennett (Breeze Sleepgear)
Nasal Prong systems D Home Comfort Mouth leaks
Innomed (Nasal Aire II)
Tiara (SNAPP-X)
Mouthpiece D Home and/or ICU For mouth Poor tolerance,
Fisher-Paykel (Oracle) breathing only, leaks
ResMed (Liberty) avoid nasal
Hybrid (Universal interface) wound
Facial with inflatable cushion (simple) D ICU Basic
Tyco (KOO)
Facial with chin rest R Home and/or ICU Avoid nasal wound Leaks
Hans Rudolph (7600 series V2)
Facial with internal flap and forehead R or D Home and/or ICU Tolerance Cost
support
ResMed (Ultra mirage)
Respironics (Comfort full 2)
Fisher-Paykel (Flexifit HC 432)
Tiara (Full Advantage)
Total face R ICU only Tolerance, no Dead space
Inspiraid (Fernez-Bacou/Draeger pressure over (low),
Medical, Lübeck, Germany) nasal bridge claustrophobia
Respironics (Total Face, Performax)
Helmet D ICU only Tolerance, long-term Dead space,
Rusch (4 vent) use, no pressure asynchronies,
StarMed (CaStar) over the face claustrophobia,
Harol (PN 500) auxiliary
support,
disconnection
patient tolerance [33, 34]. Few studies [33, 35–38] have compared nasal and facial masks
in terms of physiological effects, efficacy and patient comfort (table 3).
In 26 stable hypercapnic patients, NAVALESI et al. [35] evaluated the effect of three
types of masks (nasal, facial and nasal plugs) and two ventilatory modes (PSV or assist-
control volume ventilation) in terms of gas exchange, breathing pattern and tolerance to
177
ventilation. The application of NIV significantly improved gas exchange and minute
ventilation, regardless of the ventilatory mode, the underlying pathology or the type of
mask. Overall, the nasal mask was better tolerated than the other two interfaces, but
Pa,CO2 was significantly lower with the face mask or nasal plugs, than with the nasal
mask. Minute ventilation was significantly higher with the face mask than with the nasal
mask, and mouth air-leaks were likely the cause of the loss of tidal volume with nasal
mask. Interestingly, the type of interface affected the NIV outcome more than the
ventilatory mode. In another physiological study [36], conducted on 14 patients with
stable COPD, to assess the efficacy of and tolerance for nasal and full-face masks during
NIV, the authors found that NIV improved arterial blood gases and indices of
respiratory effort regardless of the type of mask used; patient tolerance was also similar
between interfaces. One randomised controlled trial [37] assessed patient tolerance and
clinical outcome of facial versus nasal mask ventilation in 70 patients with ARF. Mask
intolerance was significantly higher in the nasal than the facial mask group (34 versus
11%; p,0.05). Mouth leaks were the most common cause of intolerance during nasal
ventilation. Conversely, intolerance of facial mask was due mainly to claustrophobia.
Despite these differences, the overall success rate of NIV treatment was similar among
the two groups.
In terms of comfort and patient tolerance, differences among models of a given
interface can be as important as differences among interfaces. This has been recently
shown by GREGORETTI et al. [38], who demonstrated improved comfort ratings and
reduced skin breakdown among patients with hypercapnic and hypoxaemic ARF using
a prototype full face mask. According to the authors, because this prototype mask had
six points of attachment and a larger and thinner inflatable air cushion than
commercially available masks, it can achieve an adequate air seal using less strap
tension and may distribute pressure over a larger surface area on the face, reducing skin
pressure at any one point such as the nasal bridge; additionally, the mask had an adapter
for a nasogastric tube that eliminated the problems of air leak.
The dead-space volume of masks is a potentially important factor that should be
taken into account. Indeed, physiological dead space is increased with any type of mask
but the application of PEEP can favour carbon dioxide lavage during the respiratory
cycle. Using a spontaneous breathing model, SAATCI et al. [39] have recently assessed
static and dynamic dead space with 19 face masks, five turbine ventilators and three
ventilatory modes. The authors found that total dynamic dead space was increased
above physiological dead space from 32 to 42% of tidal volume by the use of face masks.
The use of NIV modes with continuous pressure throughout the expiratory phase, such
as bilevel and CPAP, reduced total dynamic dead space to approach physiological dead
space, even with the total face masks. Pressure assist and pressure support ventilation
decreased total dynamic dead space to a lesser degree, from 42 to 39% of tidal volume.
Face masks with expiratory ports over the nasal bridge resulted in beneficial flow
characteristics within the face mask and nasal cavity, with an increase in carbon dioxide
lavage and a decrease in dynamic dead space to less than physiological dead space (from
42 to 28.5% of tidal volume). In another bench study, SCHETTINO et al. [40] reported that
exhalation port location and mask design can affect carbon dioxide rebreathing; in
particular, carbon dioxide rebreathing was less with the smallest mask volume and when
the exhalation port was located within the mask rather than in the ventilator circuit.
Mouthpiece
This interface has not been evaluated to date in patients with ARF. The need for
patient cooperation and the risk of a decreased NIV efficacy, due to nasal leaks,
178
Table 3. – Main characteristics of clinical trials comparing facial and nasal masks during noninvasive ventilation (NIV)
First author [ref.] Study design Patient population NIV mode Interfaces Endpoints Results
CRINER [33] Single centre, prospective, Stable hypercapnic PSV plus PEEP TF, F, N Breathing pattern, Tolerance: TF.N.F
observational (n59; 30% COPD) tolerance, blood gas Leaks: TF,F5N
analysis VT: TF.F.N
fR: TF5F5N
Pa,CO2: TF,F5N
NAVALESI [35] Two centres, physiological, Stable hypercapnic PSV and VAC, without F, N, NP Blood gas analysis, q Pa,O2: F5NP5N
randomised, cross-over (n526; 50% COPD) PEEP (30 min) tolerance, breathing Q Pa,CO2: F5NP.N
pattern (compared Tolerance: N.FiN
with SB) q VT: F.N;
Q fR: F5NP5N
GREGORETTI [38] Multicentre (eight centres), Heterogeneous ARF PSV plus PEEP Fp, Fc Complications, tolerance, Complications: Fp,Fc
prospective, randomised (n546; 45% hypoxaemic; blood gas analysis Tolerance: Fp.Fc
55% hypercapnic) q Pa,O2: Fp.Fc
Q Pa,CO2: FpiFc
179
ANTON [36] Single centre, physiological, Stable hypercapnic PSV plus PEEP F, N Blood gas analysis, q Pa,O2: F5N
randomised (n514; 100% COPD) (15 min) respiratory effort, Q Pa,CO2: F5N
tolerance (compared Tolerance: F5N
with SB) Q effort: F5N
Q fR: F.N
KWOK [37] Single centre, prospective, Heterogeneous ARF CPAP (y41%) or PSV F, N Tolerance, intubation, Tolerance: F.N
randomised (n570; 46% ACPO; 33% plus PEEP (y50%) hospital LOS, mortality, Intubation: F5N
COPD; 17% hypoxaemic) dyspnoea, blood gas Hospital LOS: F5N
analysis Mortality: F5N
Q dyspnoea: F5N
Q Pa,CO2: F5N
Q fR: F5N
Statistically significant differences are presented as , and ., trends towards significance are presented as ƒ and i and no significant difference is presented as 5.
COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; PSV: pressuresupport ventilation; PEEP: positive end-expiratory pressure; TF: total face mask; F: facial mask; N: nasal
mask; VT: tidal volume; fR: respiratory rate; Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension; VAC: volume assist-controlled; NP: nasal plugs;q: increase; Pa,O2: arterial oxygen
tension;Q: decrease; ARF: acute respiratory failure; Fp: facial mask (prototype); Fc: facial mask (conventional); SB: spontaneous breathing; ACPO: acute cardiogenic
pulmonary oedema; CPAP: continuous positive airway pressure; LOS: length of stay.
probably explain this lack of data. Alternatively, positive results have been reported in
patients with chronic respiratory failure due to post-traumatic tetraplegia [41] or
neuromuscular diseases [42].
The helmet
NIV treatment can fail as a consequence of complications directly or indirectly linked
to the mask, such as air leaks, skin lesions, discomfort and intolerance [21, 43].
In attempt to improve tolerability, the helmet has been proposed as a new interface to
administer NIV [44]. The helmet contains the head and the neck of the patient and is
secured by two armpit braces at a pair of hooks on the plastic ring that joins the helmet
to a soft collar; the collar adheres to the neck and ensures a sealed connection, once the
helmet is inflated. The helmet is provided with an anti-asphyxia mechanism and two
inner inflatable cushions to increase comfort and reduce the internal volume. Unlike the
face mask, the helmet is not in touch with the patient’s face and so it does not cause any
skin breakdown and it improves the patient’s comfort allowing longer periods of NIV
delivery. The helmet can also be used in particular conditions, such as in edentulous
patients and in patients with facial trauma. The ventilator delivers pressure to the
patient through the helmet inlet. Patients receive only part of the large volume delivered
by the ventilator after inspiratory trigger activation; the rest of the volume is compressed
around the head, pressurising the helmet. It is, therefore, impossible to measure patient
tidal volume and flow with conventional ventilator monitoring. During expiration, the
patient exhales into the helmet, which is connected to the ventilator expiratory line
through the helmet outlet.
Few studies on the bench or in healthy subjects have evaluated the physiological
effects of NIV delivered through the helmet and have compared the performances of this
interface with those of facial mask [45–48]. Two main problems have been discovered
when NIV is administered through a helmet: 1) carbon dioxide rebreathing and 2) poor
patient–ventilator interaction. These problems have been related to the large inner
volume of the helmet and to its high compliance. Both are expected to cause a
substantial dissipation of the inspiratory pressure delivered by the ventilator to expand
the compliant helmet (in particular the soft collar). It has been demonstrated that the use
of the helmet to deliver CPAP with a ventilator may predispose to carbon dioxide
rebreathing, unless a continuous high-flow system is used [48]. Using this system, large
and small helmets were demonstrated to be as efficient as a face mask in delivering
CPAP [45]. In comparison with a standard face mask, RACCA et al. [47] showed that the
use of helmet to deliver NIV with PSV increased inspiratory muscle effort and patient–
ventilator asynchrony, worsened carbon dioxide clearance and increased dyspnoea when
a resistive load was imposed in healthy subjects. Autocycled breaths accounted for 12
and 25% of the total minute ventilation and for 10 and 23% of the total inspiratory
muscle effort during mask and helmet PSV, respectively. Only one physiological study
has compared the efficacy of the helmet and the conventional facial mask in delivering
NIV in COPD patients [49]. In that study, NIV significantly improved gas exchange and
inspiratory effort with both interfaces. However, the helmet was less efficient than the
mask in reducing inspiratory effort and it worsened the patient–ventilator interaction, as
suggested by the longer delays to trigger on and cycle off the mechanical assistance, and
by the higher number of ineffective efforts. Patient comfort was no different with the
two interfaces.
To date, only one randomised and controlled clinical trial [50] has evaluated the
effectiveness of CPAP delivered by helmet as compared with standard treatment in
preventing the need for intubation and mechanical ventilation in hypoxaemic patients
180
after elective major abdominal surgery. Patients were randomly assigned to receive oxygen
(n5104) or oxygen plus CPAP with the helmet (n5105). Patients who received oxygen
plus CPAP had a lower intubation rate (1 versus 10%; p50.005) and a lower incidence of
pneumonia (2 versus 10%; p50.02), infection (3 versus 10%; p50.03) and sepsis (2 versus
9%; p50.03) than patients treated with oxygen alone. The duration of ICU stay was
shorter in the group treated with CPAP than the control group (1.4 versus 2.6 days;
p50.09). Interestingly, the helmet allowed a prolonged application of NIV (19¡22 h).
Other authors have suggested that the helmet is a valid alternative to the conventional
face mask during CPAP, even in patients with severe respiratory acidosis and
hypercapnia [51]. In those patients, the helmet provided long-duration CPAP, without
any adverse events or clinical intolerance.
Only a few prospective and uncontrolled studies have assessed the clinical efficacy of
noninvasive PSV delivered by helmet [44, 52, 53]. In a prospective, matched case–control
study, ANTONELLI et al. [44] evaluated the efficacy of noninvasive PSV administered
through an helmet as first-line intervention to treat patients with hypoxaemic ARF, in
comparison with NIV and standard facial mask. Although the intubation rate was similar
(24 versus 32% with helmet and facial mask, respectively; p50.3), patients in the helmet
group had a better tolerance of the technique (p50.047). Complications related to the
technique (skin necrosis, gastric distension and eye irritation) were fewer in the helmet
group compared with the facial mask group (0 versus 21%; p50.002). Moreover, the
helmet allowed the continuous application of NIV for a longer period of time (36¡29
versus 26¡13 h; p50.05). Similar results have been reported in immunosuppressed
patients with hypoxaemic respiratory failure [52]. In another study, ANTONELLI et al. [53]
showed that NIV by helmet was a feasible treatment for COPD patients with acute
exacerbation but was not as efficient as the facial mask in improving carbon dioxide
elimination. According to the authors, two possible factors could explain the reduced
efficacy of the helmet in reducing hypercapnia: 1) carbon dioxide rebreathing and 2) less
reduction of inspiratory effort, likely due to the lower quality of inspiratory assistance.
Interfaces: conclusions
The choice of interface is crucial to improve efficacy and patient tolerance during
NIV. The facial mask is usually more effective and is tolerated as well as the nasal mask
in acute setting; thus, it should be considered as the first choice interface in this setting.
However, nasal mask may be used in cooperative patients to increase comfort and
reduce complications. The helmet is an effective and better tolerated interface to deliver
CPAP in selected patients with hypoxaemic ARF (post-operative ARF, cardiogenic
pulmonary oedema and pneumonia, especially in immunosuppressed patients). Three
factors should be taken into account when considering the helmet to deliver noninvasive
PSV: 1) selection of patients and aetiology of ARF (hypoxaemic or hypercapnic), 2)
quality of patient–ventilator interaction (which is better with the masks) and 3) patient
tolerance (which is probably better with the helmet). While hypercapnic ARF is not a
good indication for helmet PSV, this interface may be an option in patients with
hypoxaemic ARF, especially when NIV is applied for prolonged periods of time and
patient tolerance is a concern. Because of the risks of asynchronies and rebreathing and
the lack of tidal volume monitoring, the use of the helmet during PSV should be
restricted in the ICU and in experienced centres.
The ideal interface should be comfortable, stable, easy and quick to apply,
inexpensive, and either disposable or re-usable; it should accommodate as many face
sizes and shapes as possible while minimising air leaks, claustrophobic reactions and
skin trauma. Due to the fact that it is difficult to conceive that a single interface would
181
combine all these attributes, the most rational approach is to have a variety of interfaces,
with different types and sizes, to satisfy individual patient needs (table 2). A strategy
incorporating the sequential utilisation of different interfaces may prove useful to
improve patient tolerance and the efficacy of NIV.
Airway humidification
Failure of NIV has been reported in 20–50% of patients [54] and attributed to
inadequate carbon dioxide removal [55] and poor tolerance of the technique [43]. Gas
humidification may be important to improve patient tolerance. Compared with invasive
mechanical ventilation, upper airways, the main structure responsible for inspired gas
heating and humidification, are not by-passed during NIV. This probably explains why,
on the one hand, gas conditioning has been considered not necessary during NIV and, on
the other hand, the lack of data until recent years. The importance of gas humidification
during noninvasive CPAP has been shown, however, by several studies in patients with
sleep apnoea syndrome [32, 56–58]. RICHARDS et al. [32] reported that nasal resistance
may increase up to 300% during nasal CPAP without humidification and in case of mouth
leaks. This phenomenon could be prevented by using a heated humidifier (HH). Other
studies performed during home ventilation with nasal CPAP have shown that the use of
an HH resulted in a decrease in nasal and upper airways symptoms (i.e. dryness,
obstruction, sneezing and nasal drainage), while increasing the compliance with CPAP
treatment [57, 58]. These data suggest that humidification of inspired gases may affect
patient tolerance to NIV, particularly in case of prolonged applications. Indeed, when
NIV is delivered by ICU ventilators, upper airways receive dry inspiratory gases. The
upper airways may be unable to humidify these gases adequately, particularly in mouth
breathers and when high inspiratory flows are used. Consequently, the lack of
humidification may cause patient distress, as emphasised by the recent consensus
conference on NIV [31], and life-threatening inspissated secretions [59].
Two humidifying devices are commonly used with ICU ventilators: HHs and heat and
moisture exchangers (HMEs). The latter are generally preferred for their simplicity and
low cost but add a significant dead space to the circuit and a marginal resistance to flow.
These problems cannot be easily compensated during NIV and are dangerous in patients
with ARF, who are likely more sensitive to dead space effects. In a physiological study
performed in healthy subjects, LELLOUCHE et al. [60] measured hygrometry and comfort
during NIV delivered with different humidification strategies: HH, HME or no
humidification. For each strategy, a turbine and an ICU ventilator were used with
different FI,O2 setting, with and without leaks. Without humidification, delivered
humidity was very low when an ICU ventilator was used but equivalent to the ambient
air hygrometry with a turbine ventilator at minimal FI,O2. HME and HH had
comparable performances, but HME’s effectiveness was considerably reduced by leaks.
These data suggest that: 1) when using dry gases, as with an ICU ventilator,
humidification is needed; 2) without leaks, HH and HME provide gas with comparably
high water content; and 3) with leaks, a common situation when NIV is performed in
acute setting, HH is the only system assuring an adequate humidification. The same
authors have performed a randomised cross-over study to investigate the impact of HH
and HME on arterial blood gases and patient effort in patients with moderate-to-severe
hypercapnic ARF under NIV treatment [61]. Each device was studied without and with
a PEEP of 5 cmH2O. Despite similar Pa,CO2 levels (60¡16 versus 57¡16 mmHg),
minute ventilation was significantly higher with HME than with HH (15.8¡3.7 versus
12.8¡3.6 L?min-1, without PEEP). HME was associated with a greater increase in work
182
of breathing and indices of patient effort, with and without PEEP. Compared to
baseline (unassisted breathing), NIV with HME failed to decrease the work of
breathing, which even tended to increase (p50.06) without PEEP. These data,
corroborated by others [62], confirm that, in patients with hypercapnic ARF, the use
of an HME lessens the efficacy of NIV in reducing patient effort compared with an HH.
Only one randomised controlled trial has investigated the effects of the two
humidifying devices on clinical outcome during NIV in the acute setting [63]. In that
study, 247 patients with hypercapnic or hypoxaemic ARF were included in 15 centres
and randomised to receive NIV with an HME (n5128) or with an HH (n5119). The
intubation rate was similar between the two groups (30.6 versus 37.6% with HME and
HH, respectively; p50.31), with no differences in the subgroup analyses. Duration of
NIV, length of stay in ICU and in the hospital, and mortality in ICU and in the hospital
were also similar between groups. In spite of strong physiological data favouring HH
during NIV, no differences in clinical outcome were found in this study. The
physiological effects observed in short term studies may be counterbalanced by other
important factors in the clinical settings or may play a role only in marginal cases.
In conclusion, data available on the issue of humidification during NIV in the acute
setting suggest that: 1) gas conditioning during NIV is important to improve patient
tolerance; 2) humidification of inspired gases can be performed indifferently with one of
the two available devices (HH or HME); and 3) in specific cases (less tolerant or more
severe patients with hypercapnic ARF), HH may offer an advantage to improve the
efficacy of NIV.
Monitoring
Monitoring is essential to verify the efficacy of NIV, which results from the ability of
ventilatory assistance to increase alveolar ventilation and to decrease the patient effort
to breathe, while assuring adequate patient comfort. In turn, this depends on a good
patient–ventilator interaction and the amount of leaks. Monitoring during NIV is
performed by a periodical evaluation of the patient’s clinical status and arterial blood
gases, and analysing the curves upon ventilatory screen.
Clinical evaluation and physiological response

Bedside patient evaluation helps physicians to assess the physiological response to
treatment and it is crucial, especially during the initial period of NIV. Clinical
monitoring is important to assess patient comfort, intensity of patient’s efforts (as
evaluated by palpation of sternocleidomastoid muscle to assess the use of accessory
respiratory muscles, by the observation of paradoxical abdominal motion or by
palpation of transversus abdominis muscle to assess active expiration), and efficacy of
ventilatory assistance. Adequate clinical evaluation requires the monitoring of
neurological status (especially in patients with hypercapnic ARF) and haemodynamic
parameters (heart rate and blood pressure), as well. Improvements within 1 or 2 h of
NIV treatment include a decrease in respiratory and cardiac frequencies and a reduction
either in the use of accessory respiratory muscles or in paradoxical abdominal motion.
Improvement in gas exchange, as determined by percutaneous oximetry and blood gas
analysis, is crucial during NIV treatment in acute setting. A lack of improvement in gas
exchange within 1 or 2 h of treatment is suggestive of treatment failure and must be
taken into account in order to avoid dangerous delays in intubation [13, 55]. Several
183
studies have reported that the degree of acidosis/acidaemia (pH and Pa,CO2 at admission
and after 1 h of NIV) is the best predictor for NIV outcome in patients with hypercapnic
ARF [43, 55, 64, 65]. By contrast, the inability to improve oxygenation after 1 h of NIV
was associated with treatment failure in patients with hypoxaemic ARF [13, 66].
Arterial blood gas analysis must be performed every day and in case of modifications
of clinical status or after changes of ventilatory settings. Arterial blood gases should be
performed both during NIV (to assess the efficacy of treatment) and without NIV (to
evaluate patient respiratory status and the possibility of weaning from NIV). Blood gas
analysis is particularly important when NIV is delivered through the helmet because of
the impossibility to monitor inspired and expired tidal volumes with this interface.
Continuous noninvasive monitoring of oxygen saturation is an essential monitoring
during NIV, particularly in hypoxaemic patients, while Pa,CO2 evaluation is more
important in hypercapnic patients. Although noninvasive carbon dioxide monitoring
might be useful for trending purpose during NIV, abnormalities of lung parenchyma, air
leaks and dilution, due to bias flow, with some ventilators make end-tidal carbon
dioxide monitoring inaccurate. As such, this monitoring has poor indications in the
acute setting.
Detection of air leaks and patient–ventilator asynchronies

Patient tolerance is a major determinant of the success of the technique and can be
impaired by patient–ventilator asynchronies, defined as a mismatch between the patient
and the ventilator inspiratory and expiratory times (details on this issue can be found in
a dedicated chapter of this ERM). Asynchronies occur frequently during NIV,
facilitated by the presence of leaks [67]. Detection of leaks is at best performed by
analysing the curves at ventilatory screen. Although allowing the identification of major
leaks around the mask, clinical detection (‘‘hand detection’’) has a low sensitivity and it
does not allow quantification of the amount of air leakage. The difference between
inspired and expired tidal volumes, as well as the shape of the flow waveform (area
included in the inspiratory flow curve, above zero, greater than the area included in the
expiratory flow curve, below zero) and the identification of leak-associated phenomena
(e.g. ventilator autocycling and prolonged inspirations) allow for an early and accurate
detection of leaks [27]. Monitoring of expired tidal volume is particularly important to
assure an adequate alveolar ventilation (.6 mL?kg-1). Monitoring of respiratory rate (as
measured by the ventilator and by the direct observation of the patient) can also be
helpful to detect asynchronies, such as ventilator autotriggering (ventilator’s respiratory
rate greater than the patient’s respiratory rate) and ineffective patient efforts
(ventilator’s respiratory rate less than the patient’s respiratory rate).
184
Summary
Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) reduces the work of breathing, improves gas exchange
and may improve clinical outcome in patients with acute respiratory failure (ARF) of
various origin. Failure of NIV occurs, however, in y20–30% of patients with
hypercapnic ARF and in an even higher percentage of patients with hypoxaemic
ARF. NIV failure may be due to clinical or technical factors such as the ventilatory
mode and settings. Poor adaptation to the interface may also be responsible for some
cases of NIV failure. It is therefore important to take into account these technical
aspects in order to increase the efficacy of NIV.
Both home and intensive care unit ventilators have been used to delivered NIV but the
latter are preferred in the most severe critically ill patients. Three main types of
interfaces are currently available in acute situation: facial, nasal and the helmet. The
facial mask is generally considered the first choice in terms of efficacy. The helmet is
an acceptable alternative to deliver continuous positive airway pressure in selected
patients with hypoxaemic ARF. The most rational approach is, however, to adapt the
type and the size of the interface on an individual basis. Humidification of inspired
gas, often considered of minor relevance, is important to improve patient’s comfort.
In spite of a theoretical superiority of heated humidifiers over heat and moisture
exchangers, particularly in patients with hypercapnic ARF, no study has yet
confirmed it to date. Finally, adequate patient selection, preparation and monitoring
are crucial in making NIV successful.
Keywords: Heat and moisture exchanger, heated humidifier, helmet, mask,

noninvasive ventilation, ventilators.
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188
CHAPTER 13
Where to perform NIV
S.D.W. Miller, M. Latham, M.W. Elliott
Dept of Respiratory Medicine, St James’s University Hospital, Leeds, UK.
Correspondence: M.W. Elliott, Dept of Respiratory Medicine, St James’s University Hospital, Beckett Street,
Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK. Fax: 44 113 206 6042; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) has been shown to be an effective
treatment for ventilatory failure, particularly resulting from acute exacerbations of
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) but also resulting from hypoxaemic
respiratory failure, community acquired pneumonia, cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
and following solid organ transplants in randomised controlled trials (RCTs). There
have also been RCTs of NPPV in weaning and for patients with post-extubation
respiratory failure. Most strikingly, NPPV reduces the need for intubation and invasive
mechanical ventilation (IMV), which, in the larger studies, translates into improved
survival [1, 2], reduced complication rates, and length of both intensive care unit (ICU)
and hospital stay [1]. Infectious complications, particularly pneumonia are markedly
reduced [1, 3–5]. The use of NPPV opens up new opportunities in the management of
patients with ventilatory failure, particularly with regard to location and the timing of
intervention. Paralysis and sedation are not required with NPPV and ventilation can be
performed outside the ICU. Given the considerable pressure on ICU beds in some
countries, the high costs associated with ICU care and that for some patients, admission
to ICU is a distressing experience [6], this is an attractive option.
Definitions
In any discussion about the location of an NPPV service, it is important to note that
the model of hospital care differs from country to country and that ICUs, high
dependency units (HDUs) and general wards will have different levels of staffing,
facilities for monitoring, etc. Care must, therefore, be taken in the extrapolation of
results obtained in one study environment to other hospitals and countries. The King’s
Fund panel [7] define intensive care as: ‘‘A service for patients with potentially
recoverable diseases who can benefit from more detailed observation and treatment than
is generally available in the standard wards and departments’’. This broad definition
does not unfortunately assist in the problem of comparisons of individual ICUs between
studies. The definition of HDU is even less clear, with some HDUs allowing invasive
monitoring while in others only noninvasive monitoring is performed. A multicentre
study [2] of NPPV in general respiratory wards illustrates the large variation in nurse to
patient ratios in different centres; the mean nurse to patient ratio was 1:11 with a range
of 1:2.6–1:13.
ISSN 1025-448x.
189
S.D.W. MILLER ET AL.
For the purpose of the present chapter, the following definitions are used. ICU:
implies continuous monitoring of vital signs, facilities for IMV via oral or nasal
endotracheal tube with high levels of nurse staffing throughout a 24-h period in a
specified clinical area. Patients generally require support for more than one failing organ
system. HDU: implies continuous monitoring of vital signs with a nurse to patient ratio
intermediate between that of the ICU and the general ward in a specified clinical area.
These are able to care for tracheostomised patients receiving ventilation but otherwise
do not look after invasively ventilated patients. Patients generally have single organ
failure. General ward: these take unselected emergency admission and, although most
will have a particular speciality interest, it is likely that, because of the unpredictability
of demand, patients with a variety of conditions and degrees of severity will be cared for
in the same clinical area. Nurse staffing levels will vary but the intensity of nursing input
available on HDUs and ICUs will not be possible.
Where to perform NPPV

Most of the RCTs have been in patients with COPD which will, therefore, be the main
focus for the discussion about location of an acute NPPV service. The ICU is the usual
setting for NPPV although there have been prospective randomised controlled studies of
NPPV outside the ICU [2, 8–11].
BOTT et al. [8] randomised 60 patients with COPD to either conventional treatment or
NPPV. NPPV initiation, by research staff, took an average of 90 min (range 15–
240 min) and led to a more rapid correction of pH and arterial carbon dioxide tension
(Pa,CO2). A total of nine out of 30 subjects in the conventional treatment group died
compared three out of 30 in the NPPV group. In an intention to treat analysis, these
figures were not statistically significant but when those unable to tolerate NPPV were
excluded, a significant survival benefit was seen (nine out of 30 versus one out of 26;
p50.014). Translating the data from this study into routine practice, on general wards,
is difficult given that staff supplementary to the normal ward complement set up NPPV.
The high mortality rate (30%) in the control group was surprising considering that the
mean pH was only 7.34. Additionally, the low intubation rate, while probably reflecting
UK practice, has been criticised.
BARBE et al. [9] initiated NPPV in the emergency department in patients presenting
with an acute exacerbation of COPD and continued it on a general ward. In order to
ease some of the problems of workload and compliance, NPPV was administered for
3 h, twice a day. In this small study (n524) there were no intubations or deaths in either
group and arterial blood gas tensions improved equally in both the NPPV group and in
the controls. However, the mean pH at entry in each group was 7.33 and at this level of
acidosis, significant mortality is not expected; in other words it was unlikely that such a
small study would show an improved outcome when recovery would be expected
anyway [12].
WOOD et al. [10] randomised 27 patients with acute respiratory distress, due to a
variety of different conditions, to conventional treatment or NPPV in the emergency
department. Intubation rates were similar (seven out of 16 versus five out of 11) but
there was a nonsignificant trend towards increased mortality in those given NPPV (four
out of 16 versus zero out of 11; p50.123). The authors attributed the excess mortality to
delay in intubation as conventional patients requiring IMV were intubated after a mean
of 4.8 h compared with 26 h in those on NPPV (p50.055). It is difficult to draw many
conclusions from this study given its small size, the fact that the numbers of patients in
each group was different, the patients were not matched for aetiology of respiratory
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WHERE TO PERFORM NIV
failure and that the level of ventilatory support was very modest (inspiratory positive
airway pressure of 8 cmH2O).
ANGUS et al. [11] compared NPPV and Doxapram in patients with COPD and type II
respiratory failure in a small (n517; nine in the NPPV group and eight in Doxapram
group) randomised trial on a general ward. NPPV resulted in a significant improvement
in both arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2) and Pa,CO2 at 4 h. Contrastingly, no fall in Pa,CO2
occurred in those patients treated with Doxapram and an initial improvement in Pa,O2
was not sustained at 4 h. At both 1 and 4 h, pH was significantly better in the NPPV
group compared with the Doxapram group. All the patients in the NPPV group were
discharged home, although one required Doxapram in addition to NPPV during their
acute illness. A total of three out of eight patients in the Doxapram group died and a
further two received NPPV. This small study suggests that NPPV is more effective than
Doxapram in the treatment of respiratory failure associated with COPD. However, no
comparisons were made of nursing work load, patient tolerance or complication rates
between the two groups.
In a multicentre RCT of NPPV in acute exacerbations of COPD (n5236) on general
respiratory wards in 13 centres [2] NPPV was applied, by the usual ward staff, using a
bilevel device in spontaneous mode according to a simple protocol. ‘‘Treatment failure’’,
a surrogate for the need for intubation, defined by a priori criteria was reduced from 27
to 15% by NPPV (p,0.05) and in-hospital mortality was also reduced from 20 to 10%
(p,0.05). Subgroup analysis suggested that the outcome in patients with pH ,7.30 after
initial treatment was inferior to that in the studies performed in the ICU. There was no
difference in length of stay between the groups median (length of stay median 10 days;
range standard group 2–119 days, NPPV group 4–137 days; p50.269). Due to a
reduction in ICU utilisation, NPPV was highly cost effective, resulting in a saving of
GBP 4,114 for each death avoided [13]. This study suggests that, with adequate staff
training, NPPV can be applied with benefit outside the ICU by the usual ward staff and
that the early introduction of NPPV on a general ward results in a better outcome with
cost savings than providing no ventilatory support for acidotic patients outside the ICU.
It must, however, be put into an international perspective. In North America and in
many European countries, NPPV would not be considered an appropriate treatment for
the ward environment. The fact that early intervention has been confirmed as having an
advantage, potentially increases the number of patients with an exacerbation of COPD
who should receive ventilatory support. In the UK and other countries, in which ICU
beds are in short supply, if COPD patients are to receive NPPV, it will usually be in the
ward location, where nurses provide global care and can adopt some of the roles of the
respiratory therapist. These features of the UK setting may reduce the general
application of the mortality data to countries with good ICU provision. The study
certainly does not suggest that NPPV should be performed on a general ward in
preference to an ICU or a higher dependency setting.
There have been no direct comparisons between outcomes from NPPV in the ICU
and on a general ward and it is unlikely that there ever will be such a trial. It should be
appreciated that, while there is some overlap, the skills needed for noninvasive
ventilation are different to those required for IMV and the outcome from NPPV is likely
to be better on a general ward where the staff have a lot of experience of NPPV, than on
an ICU with high nurse, therapist and doctor to patient ratios and a high level of
monitoring but little experience of NPPV. The patient’s perspective is also important;
many find their experience of ICU to be unpleasant [6] and the less-intensive atmosphere
of a noninvasive unit may be less distressing, although there is no evidence to support
this assertion. The best location for a NPPV service will depend critically upon local
factors, particularly the skill levels of doctors, nurses and therapists in looking after
patients receiving NPPV. Patient throughput is an important factor which impacts upon
191
the development and retention of the particular skills needed for NPPV. A study from
the UK suggested that for the average general hospital, serving a population of 250,000
and with a standardised mortality rate for COPD of 100, six patients per month, with an
acute exacerbation of COPD, will require NPPV, assuming that ventilation is initiated in
patients with a pH ,7.35 after initial treatment [14]. This number excludes patients with
other conditions requiring NPPV and those who require it later in their hospital stay,
e.g. for weaning etc. With relatively small numbers of patients per month, NPPV is best
performed in a single location, in order to facilitate staff training and to maximise
throughput and skill retention.
Implications for staffing

Noninvasive ventilation has been reported to be a time-consuming procedure [15] but,
as with any new technique, there is a learning curve and the same group have
subsequently published more encouraging results [16]. A number of studies on the ICU
have shown that, in the initial stages, a significant amount of time is required to
establish the patient on NPPV [17, 18]. It is possible, therefore, that NPPV may have a
much-greater impact on nursing workload outside the ICU, where nurses have
responsibility for a larger number of patients. In the study of BOTT et al. [8] there was no
difference in nursing workload, assessed by asking the senior nurse to rate, on a visual
analogue scale, the amount of care needed in the conventional and NPPV groups.
However, this is an insensitive way of measuring nursing needs and, in addition, some of
the potential extra work associated with NPPV was performed by supernumerary
research staff. In the study of PLANT et al. [2] NPPV resulted in a modest increase in
nursing workload, assessed using an end-of-bed log in the first 8 h of the admission,
equating to 26 min, but no difference was identified thereafter. There are, however, no
data regarding the effect NPPV has on either the care other patients on the ward
received or whether the outcome would have been better if the nurses had spent more
time with the patients receiving NPPV. In other words, although that study showed that
NPPV was feasible in the general ward environment, it does not mean that it was the
optimal situation. Furthermore, even if good results can be obtained it may be at the
expense of the care of other patients. Most of the centres that participated in the study
had little or no previous experience of NPPV and, therefore, required training in mask
fitting and application of NPPV. The mean¡SD amount of formal training given in the
first 3 months of opening a ward by the research doctor and nurse was 7.6¡3.6 h;
thereafter, each centre received 0.9¡0.82 h?month-1 in order to maintain the skills. It
should be appreciated that there was no need to make subtle adjustments to ventilator
settings which was all done according to protocol. Much more training would be needed
if more sophisticated ventilators are used. However, it underlines the fact that NPPV, in
whatever location, is a question not only of purchasing the necessary equipment but also
of staff training. Although a considerable amount of input is likely when a unit first
starts to provide a NPPV service, thereafter, as long as a critical mass of nurses and
therapists remain, new staff will gain the necessary skills from their colleagues.
Predicting the outcome with NPPV

A proportion of patients will fail with NPPV, requiring intubation and IMV; it is
important that personnel and the facility for intubation are rapidly available if needed, if
the trend to increased mortality with NPPV, as reported by WOOD et al. [10] is to be
192
avoided. The likelihood of success or failure with NPPV is a key factor in deciding the
most appropriate location. It could be argued that, for patients with a high likelihood of
failing, NPPV should be initiated on the ICU and, once stabilised, the patient could be
transferred to the ward normally providing NPPV. It is, therefore, helpful to be aware of
when NPPV is likely to fail since this may affect the decision as to the most appropriate
location for NPPV in a particular patient. A number of studies have looked at predictors
of outcome for NPPV in acute exacerbations of COPD [1, 8, 19, 20–25]. The major
limiting factor is that prediction models are only as good as the data entered; data that
are not collected, cannot be entered into the model. Furthermore, the chosen outcome
may influence the results. For instance if ‘‘failure of blood gas tensions to improve
within a certain time’’ is taken as an indication for intubation then this will, by default,
become a failure criterion even if, perhaps with persistence and adjustment of ventilator
settings, success with NPPV could have been achieved.
Data available at the time NPPV is initiated and after a short period can predict the
likelihood of success or failure with a reasonable degree of precision (table 1). Patients
with high Acute Physiological and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II scores,
pneumonia, who are underweight or have a greater level of neurological deterioration
are more likely to fail on NPPV [19]. A reduction in respiratory rate with NPPV has
been shown in a number of studies, with larger falls generally being associated with a
successful outcome [1, 19, 20], although this is not always seen [26]. The change in
arterial blood gas tensions, particularly pH, after a short period of NPPV, predicts a
successful outcome [1, 8, 19, 20, 26, 27]. An improvement in arterial blood pH and/or
Pa,CO2 at 30 mins [22], 1 h [27] or after a longer period [28, 29] predicts successful
NPPV. After 4 h of therapy, improvement in acidosis and/or a fall in respiratory rate is
associated with success [28, 29]. Although NPPV results in lower rates of nosocomial
infections compared with IMV, colonisation with nonfermenting gram-negative bacilli,
mainly Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is strongly associated with NPPV failure in
exacerbations of COPD [30]. The tolerance of NPPV also predicts subsequent outcome.
Patients with an inability to minimise the amount of mask leak or an inability to co-
ordinate with NPPV are less likely to improve with NPPV [19, 23, 24], and there should
be a low threshold for IMV. In addition, NPPV is more likely to fail if there is reduced
compliance with ventilation [19]. NPPV is less likely to be successful if there are
associated complications or if the patients pre-morbid condition is poor [31, 32]. Late
failure after initially successful NPPV is a bad prognostic factor, with over half the
patients dying, even with IMV [31].
Although there have been a number of studies to ascertain predictors of outcome for
patients with COPD requiring NPPV [19, 22, 24, 28, 29, 33, 34], these studies have a
number of limitations. Most have recruited small numbers of patients from a small
number of centres, have been retrospective and important variables that have been
shown to be predictive in other studies may not have been included. Furthermore, the
outcome variable is usually survival to hospital discharge. There are few data about
longer term outcome, post discharge health status or the longer term outcome of
patients who fail an initial trial of NPPV and either receive no further treatment or
receive IMV. The clinician needs to make two decisions; first, the likelihood of success of
a particular technique in the short term (most patients who fail with NPPV do so in the
first 12–24 h [1]) and secondly, the effect of an intervention upon longer term outcome.
It is possible that ready recourse to IMV results in better short-term results but worse
long-term survival than NPPV and there is some evidence to support this theory [35].
There is, therefore, a need for a prospective study of predictors of outcome for patients
receiving NPPV in a wide variety of different centres. It is important that the predictors
be those that are readily available at the time when decisions need to be made. At the
time of writing, the European Predictors of Outcome from Ventilation (EPOV) study,
193
Table 1. – Predictors of failure and success in noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV)
Predictors of failure
Patient Factors
Pneumonia
Excessive secretions
Colonisation with nonfermenting gram-negative bacilli (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa)
Low BMI
Poor premorbid condition
High APACHE II scores
Low level of consciousness
Low pH prior to starting NPPV
Late failure after initially successful NPPV
Technical factors
Inability to minimise leak
Inability to co-ordinate with NPPV
Reduced compliance with ventilation
Predictors of success
Large reduction in respiratory rate
Improvement in pH and/or carbon dioxide tension at 30 min, 1 h or after a longer period
Improvement in acidosis and/or a fall in respiratory rate after 4 h of therapy
BMI: body mass index; APACHE: Acute Physiological and Chronic Health Evaluation.
based in Leeds, UK, is recruiting patients to determine more robust predictors of

outcome. These factors, in addition to others summarised in table 2, will have a bearing
upon the chosen location for NPPV, although it must be stressed again that local factors
more than any other will be the key determinants.
Should NPPV be started in the emergency room?

Again the type of treatment that is undertaken in the emergency room and the length
of time that patients typically stay there vary from country to country. In some
countries, patients remain in the emergency room for a very short period whereas in
others they may remain there for a day or more. The two studies in which NPPV was
initiated in the emergency room [9, 10] both failed to show any advantage to NPPV over
conventional therapy. There are a number of possible explanations for this, which
include the fact that patients are usually admitted to ICU when other therapies have
failed, whereas most of those presenting to the emergency room have not received any
treatment. In addition, a proportion is going to improve after initiation of standard
medical therapy. In a 1-yr period prevalence study [14] of patients with acute
exacerbations of COPD, of 954 patients admitted through the emergency rooms in
Leeds, 25% were acidotic on arrival in the department and of those, 25% had completely
corrected their pH by the time of arrival onto the ward. There was a weak relationship
between the Pa,O2 on arrival at hospital and the presence of acidosis, suggesting that, in
Table 2. – Factors to be considered in determining where noninvasive positive pressure ventilation should be
carried out
Location of staff with training and expertise in noninvasive ventilation

Adequate staff available throughout a 24-h period (will depend upon nursing needs of other patients; for instance, one
nurse responsible for two very ill patients may have less time than one nurse responsible for four less-severely ill
patients)
Rapid access to endotracheal intubation and invasive mechanical ventilation
Severity of respiratory failure and likelihood of success
Facilities for monitoring
194
at least some patients, respiratory acidosis had been precipitated by high-flow oxygen
therapy administered in the ambulance on the way to the hospital. It is important to
note that the Yorkshire Noninvasive Ventilation (YONIV) study [2], the only study to
show an unequivocal benefit from NPPV outside the ICU, only recruited patients who
remained acidotic and tachypnoeic on arrival to the ward.
A cohort of patients for whom intubation is not considered appropriate because their
previous medical history is well known, present to the emergency room in extremis and
require immediate ventilatory support. In that situation, it would be reasonable to start
noninvasive ventilation in the emergency room to stabilise the patient for transfer to the
ward, on which NPPV is normally performed. In other patients, the clinical findings
suggest that intubation would not be appropriate but the medical notes or a family
member are not available to corroborate this. NPPV may be useful in this situation to
create time in which to obtain further information or to allow the patient to recover to
the point at which they can give a history. However, if there is no improvement, the
patient should be intubated and transferred to the ICU.
In summary, most patients presenting to the emergency room with an acute
exacerbation of COPD do not need NPPV but particular attention should be paid to
controlled oxygen therapy. NPPV may be needed in occasional patients who are in
extremis and for whom intubation is not considered appropriate. If it is normal policy
for patients to receive the first 24 h of treatment in the emergency department, then
NPPV should be started there in those who remain acidotic and tachypnoeic, a short
time after standard medication has been administered and oxygen therapy optimised.
Conditions other than COPD

There are no RCTs of NPPV outside the ICU in hypoxaemic respiratory failure or
weaning and it is, therefore, in patients with exacerbations of COPD only that there is an
evidence base for its use outside of the ICU. The study of ANTONELLI et al. [4], in which
conventional mechanical ventilation and NPPV were compared in patients with acute
hypoxic respiratory failure, showed NPPV to be as effective as conventional ventilation in
improving gas exchange. Patients receiving NPPV had significantly lower rates of serious
complications and those successfully treated with NPPV had shorter ICU stays. Post hoc
subgroup analysis of patients with simplified acute physiological scores (SAPS) of ,16
and those of i16, showed that patients in the latter group had similar outcomes
irrespective of the type of ventilation. However, NPPV was superior to conventional
mechanical ventilation in patients with SAPS ,16. CONFALONIERI et al. [37] evaluated the
early application of NPPV in patients with acute respiratory failure due to severe
community-acquired pneumonia, on three intermediate respiratory ICUs. A total of 28
patients were randomly assigned to standard treatment and 28 to NPPV. NPPV resulted
in a significant reduction in intubation. Six (21%) patients in the NPPV group and 17
(61%) in the standard treatment group met the pre-selected criteria for intubation
(p50.007). A total of 20 patients were intubated: six in the NPPV group and 14 in the
standard treatment group (p50.03). The three remaining patients in the standard
treatment group, who met the pre-selected criteria for intubation but were not intubated,
were all successfully treated with NPPV. Patients randomised to NPPV had significantly
shorter ICU stays (1.8¡07 versus 6¡2 days; p50.04) and required similar nursing care
intensity to those in the standard treatment group. The two groups did not significantly
differ in terms of duration of hospital stay, complications, hospital and 2-month
mortality. Post hoc analysis of the subgroup of patients without COPD showed that a high
APACHE II score was significantly associated with intubation requirement (p50.004),
195
and hospital (p50.04) and 2-month mortality (p50.03) but was not an independent
predictor of outcome.
As with acute exacerbations of COPD, it would, therefore, appear that it is possible to
manage patients with milder disease successfully with NPPV. Further data are needed
but it would be reasonable for patients with milder disease to have a trial of NPPV in an
experienced noninvasive unit outside the ICU. Rapid access to intubation and
mechanical ventilation must, however, be available.
There have been a large number of studies of the use of NPPV, including CPAP, in
patients with cardiogenic pulmonary oedema. If NPPV is to be used, it must be initiated
early because of the natural history of the condition and, in practice, this will mean
initiation at the point of entry to hospital. Indeed, out of hospital NPPV for cardiogenic
pulmonary oedema has been described, although in one RCT was not shown to be of
benefit [36].
Starting NPPV on a general ward

Nursing and technical staff should be adequately prepared and the necessary
equipment must be available before NPPV is first tried (table 3).
Staff should use the equipment on each other in a nonclinical setting and practise the
theoretical knowledge and skills prior to use on real patients. Two or three enthusiastic
staff members are a real boon as they will often enthuse the rest of the team. Nurses with
previous experience of ICU or NPPV are particularly useful, since they will be confident
with ventilators. If such individuals are not available within the existing complement,
recruitment of such an individual should be considered. An experienced practitioner
should be available 24 h a day in order to help solve problems until staff are able to
solve them themselves. As experience is gained, further types of ventilator, new masks,
etc. can be added, widening the range of patients who can be successfully ventilated
noninvasively.
Table 3. – Staff training requirements and recommended equipment
Staff training requirements

Understanding rationale for assisted ventilation
Mask and headgear fitting techniques
Ventilator circuit assembly
Theory of operation and adjusting ventilation to achieve desired outcome
Cleaning and general maintenance
Problem solving, the ability to recognise serious situations and act accordingly
Above all medical, nursing and technical staff need to be convinced that the technique works
Recommended equipment
A simple ventilator; pressure cycled machines are usually simple, compensate for moderate leaks and are generally
better tolerated by patients
A supply of circuits already made up
A range of sizes (at least three) of masks, both nasal, full face and head gear; a minimum of two of each should
always be available
Connectors to allow customisation of ventilator circuits e.g. for entrainment of oxygen
Facility for cleaning masks, circuits and headgear to an acceptable standard or a budget to allow single patient use of
these items
196
Conclusion
Staff training and experience are more important than location, and adequate
numbers of staff, skilled in NPPV, must be available 24 h a day. Due to the demands of
looking after acutely ill patients and to aid training and skill retention, NPPV is usually
best carried out in a single location with one nurse responsible for no more than three to
four patients in total. Whether this is called an ICU, an HDU or is part of a general
ward is largely irrelevant. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal threshold
for initiating NPPV, particularly in conditions other than COPD, to assess the
feasibility, safety and effectiveness in lower intensity settings and to determine the cost-
effectiveness, in both the short and long terms.
Summary
This chapter reviews the evidence base for the use of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in
a variety of locations. Ultimately individual circumstances, different between different
countries and indeed within an individual country, will determine the best location for
an NIV service. Staff training and expertise, however, are key. The need to have a
mechanism for monitoring progress and a clear plan, from the outset, of what to do in
case of deterioration is stressed. Although the main focus is upon patients with
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, other conditions are touched on.
Keywords: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, high dependency unit, intensive

care unit, general ward, noninvasive ventilation.
References
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10. Wood KA, Lewis L, Von Harz B, Kollef MH. The use of Noninvasive positive pressure
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13. Plant PK, Owen J, Elliott MW. A cost effectiveness analysis of non-invasive ventilation (NIV) in
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16. Chevrolet JC, Jolliet P. : Workload on non-invasive ventilation in Acute respiratory failure.
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Ventilation Via Face Mask - First line intervention in patients with acute hypercapnic and
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25. Anton A, Guell R, Gomez J, et al. Predicting the result of noninvasive ventilation in severe acute
exacerbations of patients with chronic airflow limitation. Chest 2000; 117: 828–833.
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27. Meduri GU, Fox RC, Abou-Shala N, Leeper KV, Wunderink RG, Noninvasive mechanical
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29. Confalonieri M, Garuti G, Cattaruzza MS, et al. A chart of failure risk for noninvasive
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199

Part II
Chronic respiratory failure

and NIV

CHAPTER 14
NIV and obstructive lung diseases
J-F. Muir, C. Molano, A. Cuvelier
Pneumology and Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France.
Correspondence: J-F. Muir, Service de Pneumologie et Unité de Soins Intensifs Respiratoires (Hôpital de
Bois-Guillaume), CHU de Rouen 76031 Rouen, France. Fax: 33 232889000; E-mail: Jean-
[email protected]
Introduction
The standard treatment of severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with
chronic hypoxia and cor pulmonale is long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT), as shown in
two previous randomised controlled trials [1–2], to improve survival when used for
i15 h?day-1. In the British Medical Research Council multicentre trial [2], it also
appeared that, in spite of the good compliance of the group under LTOT, the most
hypercapnic and polycythaemic patients at inclusion were the earliest to die, during the
first 500 days of LTOT, confirming, as in other studies [3–7], that the pejorative
significance of an elevated level of arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) before onset
of LTOT. If the incidence of an elevated Pa,CO2 under LTOT, which, itself, also worsens
Pa,CO2 in many patients, remains debated [8–13] then its negative significance on
prognosis, when a progressively worsening level of Pa,CO2 appears during the course of
COPD in spite of a maximal medical treatment combined with LTOT, is well established
[11,14]. Then, the place of an external respiratory assistance, in order to compensate for
night-time hypoventilation and thus correct hypercapnia [14], warranted further
evaluation, considering the good results of noninvasive mechanical ventilation (NIV)
in hypercapnic patients with chronic respiratory failure (CRF) secondary to restrictive
pulmonary diseases [15] and in COPD patients with acute hypercapnic respiratory
failure (AHRF) [16–21].
Long-term home mechanical ventilation (LTHMV) is generally considered in patients
with COPD and CRF when LTOT fails, with progressive worsening of general and
respiratory status, associated with frequent episodes of acute respiratory failure (ARF)
leading the patients to intensive care unit [22]. Home mechanical ventilation represents
the discharge to home from acute (or chronic) care hospital of ventilator-assisted
patients who require long-term use of their ventilator (at least 3 h?day-1) intermittently
or continuously, either with a tracheostomy, mouthpiece, facial or nasal mask, or an
external device [23, 24]. However, LTHMV in severe COPD patients is still controversial
since only limited prospective data have been published to date in this population. This
chapter will highlight the present data from the literature concerning noninvasive
positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) in acute and chronic care management of COPD
patients and will suggest an algorithm for selecting the subpopulation of patients who
will beneficiate from NPPV on a long-term basis.
ISSN 1025-448x.
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J-F. MUIR ET AL.
History
LTHMV with intermittent positive pressure ventilation was introduced in clinical
practice after the iron lung era during the 1950s. LTHMV development was favored by a
rapid progress in ventilator technology and a net survival improvement of patients
treated by tracheotomy-mediated ventilation, later reported by ROBERT et al. [25] in a
retrospective study including various aetiologies of CRF. After the poliomyelitis
epidemics, LTHMV was further indicated in patients with chronic respiratory
insufficiency secondary to many restrictive disorders like muscular dystrophies and
tuberculosis sequelae but also to obstructive diseases such as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD). At the beginning of the 1960s, SADOUL et al. [26],
documented satisfactory arterial blood gases controls by using volumetric ventilators
and facial masks in COPD patients with ARF. However, that technique was abandoned
because of the large extent of ventilation with tracheostomy at that period and because
convenient masks were not available.
The relative interest of intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) through
mouthpiece or tracheotomy versus LTOT for COPD patients was discussed as soon as
the early 1970s [27]. At the end of the 1970s, the multicentric study of the British
Medical Research Council (BMRC) [2] confirmed the first results from the Denver
group [28] and showed a significant improvement of survival among COPD patients
receiving LTOT versus a control group without LTOT. The simultaneous publication of
the American Nocturnal Oxygen Therapy Trial (NOTT) study also demonstrated
benefits in the group receiving continuous LTOT versus a control group in which only
nocturnal oxygen therapy had been given [1]. Oxygen therapy seemed to put an end to
the cumbersome and constraining long-term mechanical ventilation techniques for
which indications had never been clearly documented in COPD patients. However,
within the present decade, general advances in respiratory care and rehabilitation, better
home-care services and a new generation of compact, portable ventilators have
prompted renewed interest in long-term mechanical ventilation [29]. Improvement of
interfaces, such as nasal masks [30, 31] or external prostheses of the 1980s, gave a new
interest in noninvasive mechanical ventilation. Thus, many thousands of patients,
mainly with a restrictive ventilatory defect, are currently treated by LTHMV all over the
world [32]. However, NPPV is not new, if we consider the important results obtained in
polio patients in the 1950s with perithoracic ventilation.
In the late 1980s, the publications from MEDURI et al. [16] about facial mask
ventilation in COPD patients with ARF were confirmed in a controlled fashion
successively by BROCHARD et al. [19], KRAMER et al. [17] and BOTT et al. [18]. Such data
favoured numerous publications proving benefits of this technique not only in the acute
care setting but also in the long-term, similarly reported in neuromuscular patients by
BACH and ALBA [33] and by RIDEAU [34] for patients with muscular dystrophy. As a
result, NPPV was reconsidered for patients with severe hypoxic and hypercapnic COPD
whose condition was unstable and who had poor responsiveness to LTOT [35].
NPPV may be delivered through various ventilatory methods, which are generally divided
in two concepts, internal methods using intermittent positive pressure ventilation, and
external methods with mainly negative pressure ventilation using perithoracic prostheses.

The use of negative intermittent pressure ventilation has been reconsidered in COPD
patients at the beginning of the 1980s [36] due to the existence of new devices which were
204
NIV AND OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASES
better performing than the classic iron lung. These devices, such as cuirass, external
shells and jackets (poncho or wrap), are applied to the thorax and/or the abdomen.
Several trials have been conducted to determine whether respiratory muscles can be
rested by negative pressure ventilation and if this is beneficial on a long-term basis.
Preliminary results showed that there was a real effect on the dyspnoea level, on the
capture of diaphragmatic activity and on the respiratory muscle strength [37]. In terms
of dyspnoea levels, negative intermittent pressure ventilation seems better tolerated by
‘‘type B’’ COPD patients (i.e. hypercapnic) than by ‘‘type A’’ (i.e. eucapnic)
emphysematous patients. However, randomised trials failed to prove efficiency of this
treatment and compliance was poor [38, 39]. A controlled, randomised study [40]
showed no beneficial effects on arterial blood gases, walking tests, level of dyspnoea and
quality of life in 184 COPD patients treated over 12 weeks with effective negative
intermittent pressure ventilation by poncho, compared with a sham ventilation with
poncho. Compliance was poor within the 63 patients not using the poncho or it was
stopped before the end of the study. These poor results and a low compliance with such
a cumbersome technique explain that negative pressure ventilation was supplanted by
the rapidly growing nasal ventilation.
Positive pressure ventilation

NPPV may be applied to the nose via a mask or pillows as initially proposed by
RIDEAU [34] for LTHMV in patients with muscular dystrophy and to the mouth via a
mask or a mouthpiece [41]. Many patients are nowadays ventilated with facial masks
including the nasal and the buccal methods. Survival rates for home positive pressure
ventilation are lower for patients with chronic airflow obstruction, with a 10-yr survival
of y10% [42–44], decreased hospitalisation and some improvement in right heart failure
and arterial gases, than for those with restrictive chest wall or neuromuscular disease.
Mouth positive pressure ventilation

Intermittent oral positive pressure is generally referred to ‘‘intermittent positive
pressure breathing’’ (IPPB) when used for short time periods with pressure-cycled
ventilators and to ‘‘mouth intermittent positive pressure ventilation’’ (MIPPV) when
used for a longer period of time with a volume-cycled ventilator [41]. MIPPV was very
popular in Europe during the 1970s but was rapidly found to be nonbeneficial for
patients because of its constraints and the impossibility to provide long-term periods of
mechanical ventilation [42–44]. Consequently, compliance and efficiency of the
technique were poor. It is more than likely that a number of patients treated by
MIPPV during the 1970s for moderate hypercapnia would have been offered simple
LTOT in the 1980s. It differed from the IPPB programs studied in the USA during the
same period because IPPB does not provide a real respiratory assistance [45, 46]. A
prospective study [47] has shown no benefit from IPPB compared with simple
nebulisations in a group of less-severe COPD patients.
From home mechanical ventilation with tracheostomy to nasal NPPV

The major potential benefit from mechanical ventilation by tracheostomy is the
potential of longer periods of efficient mechanical ventilation sessions, especially during
the night. Evaluation of long-term results of home mechanical ventilation with
tracheostomy (HMVT) in COPD patients is impaired because of a lack of controlled
205
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
studies. Different studies [42, 44] have reported the prognosis of COPD with HMVT,
which appeared less favorable compared with patients with restrictive chest wall or
neuromuscular disorders. In the series by ROBERT et al. [25], the 5-yr survival was 30%
and the 10-yr survival was 8%, with stabilisation after the tenth year for a population of
112 COPD patients using HMVT (fig. 1). However, these results must be considered as
an attempt at improving patient comfort by reducing the frequency of hospitalisations
for ARF [29, 48, 49].
This led the present authors to conduct a similar multicentric retrospective study in a
larger population of 259 COPD patients treated by HMVT with the help of ANTADIR
(Association Nationale pour le Traitement a Domicile des Insuffisants Respiratoires) [50].
Survival curves (fig. 2) were drawn between that of the study by ROBERT et al. [25] and
the previous reports of LTOT alone in the BMRC [2] and NOTT [1] trials. The latter
reported recruited patients with less-severe COPD: 42% with 5-yr survival and 22% with
8-yr survival. However, survival in the ANTADIR study was better than the survival of
treated patients from the BMRC trial until the fourth year of follow-up, where survival
curves become identical. In spite of the difficulty to extrapolate from one study to
another, comparison of the survival curves from the ANTADIR group to those of the
BMRC study seems to favour a more-interventional approach for these patients
including a trial of mechanical ventilation. Indeed, the BMRC study showed that early
deaths were recruited in the most hypercapnic and the most polyglobulic patients; i.e.
those with the most severe chronic respiratory failure. Logically, mechanical ventilation
should have been beneficial to those patients since LTOT appeared to provide no benefit
during the first 500 days after initiation.
Nasal positive pressure ventilation

Since the early 1980s, nasal NPPV has been extensively studied in patients with
restrictive chronic respiratory insufficiency as well as in those with acute [19, 32, 51, 52–55]
100
90
Survival possibility %
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time yrs
Fig. 1. – Survival of patients treated at home by long-term mechanical ventilation with tracheostomy according to
the aetiology of the chronic respiratory failure. — - —: post-polio syndrome; ..........: myopathies; - - - - - -:
kyphoscoliosis; – – –: damaging sequelae of tuberculosis; — - - —: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; ——:
bronchiectasis. Reproduced from [25] with permission from the publisher.
206
100
Survival probability % 80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time yrs
Fig. 2. – Actuarial survival curve of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients treated by home
mechanical ventilation with tracheotomy as compared with long-term oxygen therapy. In this figure are presented the
results implying tracheotomised patients from the studies of ROBERT et al. [25] (- - - - - (n550)) and of MUIR et al. [50],
(—— (n5259)). Survival curves are compared with patients treated by oxygen therapy alone from the American
Nocturnal Oxygen Therapy Trial (NOTT) [8] (12 h group: — — (n5101)); 24 h group: .......... (n5101)) and the
British Medical Research Council (BMRC) [2] (15 h group: — (n542); control group: — - — - (n545)) studies.
Study/NOTT O2 12 h group, p,0.05 and study/BMRC control group p,0.05.
and chronic conditions [56, 57]. After 1–2 months of nasal IPPV at night, transcutaneous
Pa,CO2 and Sa,O2 improved.
Important results were obtained in COPD patients with ARF [16, 19, 51–55] whereby
nasal NPPV may avoid endotrachal intubation in more than 50% of patients when used
as the initial treatment [19]. It was then attractive to perform NPPV on a long-term basis
in COPD patients with CRF but this subject remains controversial [52]. In the first
uncontrolled studies with COPD patients treated with NPPV for three to nine months, a
significant improvement occurred in the diurnal arterial blood gases with an
improvement of sleep quality [31, 53], the best results being obtained in the more
hypercapnic patients [56, 57] with nevertheless a less satisfactory compliance than in
restrictive patients.
However, there is currently only minimal data to assess usefulness of NPPV in COPD
patients on a long-term basis [55–57]. In 12 patients, ELLIOTT et al. [21] reported an
interesting compliance to the nasal ventilation with an improvement of arterial blood
gases at the 12th month (fig. 3), with an improvement of sleep quality and of quality of
life. In a collective of 276 patients under NPPV (among which, 50 COPD were included),
LÉGER et al. [58] reported an improvement of Pa,O2 and Pa,CO2 after 1 and 2 yrs. After
1 yr, the authors showed a marked reduction of the numbers of days in hospital for
ARF, the probability to pursue NPPV was 55% at the 36th month of treatment (fig. 4).
A retrospective study in 33 COPD patients followed during 5 yrs [59] showed that the
probability of continuing ventilation was lower (y43%); however, this study concerned
patients at the end stage of their disease (fig. 5). In 14 patients with hypercapnic COPD
followed during 6 months, PERRIN et al. [60] showed that daytime arterial blood gases
were improved with NPPV and that the total St George Respiratory Questionnaire score
and the impact components of it, were improved (fig. 6).
Some controlled studies are available but remain controversial: STRUMPF et al. [61],
using NPPV in a randomised crossover study within 23 patients with COPD, failed to
207
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
a) 10 b)
9
Pa,CO2 kPa
8
7
6
5
4
c) 10 d)
9
Pa,CO2 kPa
8
7
6
5
4
0 6 12 0 6 12
Time months Time months
Fig. 3. – Arterial blood gas tensions a and b) arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2) and c and d) arterial carbon dioxide
tension (Pa,CO2) during spontaneous breathing and after 6 months and 1 yr in patients submitted to noninvasive
mechanical ventilation (NIMV): seven patients still using NIMV at home and one who discontinued ventilation after
9 months. Three patients who discontinued home mechanical ventilation before 6 months. Reproduced from [21] with
permission from the publisher.
note a clear improvement with mechanical ventilation. No modifications were assessed

concerning dyspnoea, pulmonary function tests, respiratory muscle strength, arterial
blood gases, exercise tests and sleep parameters. The only benefits were noticed on the
neuropsychological function. However, only seven patients completed the study; such a
poor compliance was linked to the nasal mask interface. Moreover, the authors used bi-
level positive pressure ventilation with BiPAP1 [61, 62] and the patients, in spite of a
frank obstructive defect, had only a moderate alteration of arterial blood gases, some of
them being even normocapnic at stable state. In a randomised crossover study,
MEECHAM-JONES et al. [63] compared the benefit of NPPV plus oxygen therapy versus
LTOT alone in 18 patients followed during two successive periods of 3 months with
each treatment. Significant improvements in daytime arterial blood gases were assessed
with a mean Pa,O2 increase and a mean Pa,CO2 reduction under NPPV (fig. 7) associated
with an improvement of nocturnal Pa,CO2 and sleep parameters. That study also showed
that the improvement of daytime arterial blood gases was correlated with the change in
overnight Pa,CO2. Compliance was satisfactory: 14 out of the 18 patients completing the
study. This was attributed to the fact that the included patients were in-patients with
better education of NPPV and also more-severe patients with more-severe hypercapnia.
Because quality of life scores (symptom, impact, and total quality of life scores) were
also improved, the authors suggested that such a benefit could be associated with the
improvement of arterial blood gases and to the improvement of sleep quality. LIN [64]
prospectively compared the benefits of 2-week treatment periods by LTOT alone, NPPV
alone and NPPV in COPD patients. No difference was found for pulmonary function
208
100 n
l
l
90 n l
n nl l
Survival probability %
80 n n l
n l
n n
l
s
l l
70 n
s
60 s n
s s s
50 n l
40
n
30
0 6 12 18 24 30 36
Time months
Fig. 4. – Probability to continue noninvasive mechanical ventilation in various aetiologies of chronic respiratory
failure. $: kyphoscolliosis; h: tuberculosis; #: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; m: bronchiectasis;
&: duchenne. Reproduced from [58] with permission from the publisher.
tests, arterial blood gases, index of respiratory muscle strength or ventilatory drive.
Sleep quality was worse under NPPV. This negative study was flawed by the low level of
IPAP used (8–15 mmHg), which did not allow to control nocturnal hypoventilation,
and also by the duration of each treatment period, which was too short to achieve a
satisfactory adaptation to treatment. In the same direction, GAY et al. [65] studied 35
severe hypercapnic COPD patients randomised for a 3-month period of either NPPV
with BiPAP1 at 10 cmH2O IPAP or sham NPPV with IPAP at 0 cmH2O. Only four of
the seven patients from the NPPV group completed the study compared with all 6
patients from the sham NPPV group. Only one patient had a substantial reduction of
Pa,CO2 under NPPV. Indeed, no significant change and no difference were observed
100
Continuing NIMV %
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time yrs
Fig. 5. – Probability of continuing noninvasive mechanical ventilation (NIMV) in UK according to different
diagnostic groups. — —: poliomyelitis; — - - —: tuberculosis; .......: neuromuscular; - - -: kyphoscoliosis; ——: chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease; — - —: bronchiectasis. Reproduced from [59] with permission from the publisher.
209
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
80
*
70
*
60
SGRQ score % 50
40
30
20
10
0
Activity Impacts Symptoms Total
Fig. 6. – Evolution of the St George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) scores after 6 months of nasal intermittent
positive pressure ventilation. &: SGRQ before NPPV. h: SGRQ after 6 months of NPPV. *: p,0.05. From PERRIN
et al. [60].
between both arms of the study considering Pa,CO2 decrease, modification of lung
function, nocturnal O2 saturation and sleep efficiency. Again, this study included only a
small group of patients for rather short periods of NPPV.
In a more-recent paper, CASANOVA et al. [66] studied 52 patients with severe COPD
receiving, in a randomised order, either NPPV plus standard care or standard care alone
(93% with LTOT) for 1 yr. Survival was identical at 1 yr (78%) as well as the number of
acute exacerbations. The number of hospital admissions fell significantly at 3 months in
the NPPV group (5 versus 15%) but remained unchanged after the third month (fig. 8).
The only benefits observed in the NPPV arms were a reduction of dyspnoea and an
improvement of one of the neuropsychological tests (psychomotor coordination) at
6 months. Again, it was concluded that there was a trend towards a marginal benefit of
NPPV in severe COPD patients but on a limited population and during a too short
period of follow-up of 1 yr.
The trial conducted by CLINI et al. [67] included 122 patients during 2 yrs, using
pressure support ventilators in the NIV arm, and showed a similar rate of mortality
between the two groups: 18% with NIV and 17% with LTOT. The design of the study
aimed to assess the effect of the treatment on severity of hypercapnia, use of healthcare
resources and health related quality of life (HRQL). This trial showed no reduction of
hospital admission in the two arms in the study; however, in the NIV group, there were a
trend towards a reduction of hospital admission when comparing the follow-up with the
follow-back period, as there was a trend towards increment in the LTOT group. Using
the MRF-28, use of NPPV and oxygen was associated with an improvement of HRQL
versus oxygen alone (fig. 9).
In another study, TUGGEY et al. [68] showed that domiciliary NIV, applied in a highly
selected population of COPD patients with recurrent admissions for acidotic
exacerbations requiring acute NIV, was effective at reducing admissions and minimising
costs from the perspective of the acute hospital. Then NIV could be associated in
selected patients with a reduction of the severity of AHRF episodes and perhaps also
with a stabilization role on the course of the disease at least during the first year of
application of NIV; this initial trend for improvement is not clear, but could be linked to
the acute effect of NIV in responders as the final prognosis is recaptured by the
spontaneous evolution of the disease.
210
a) 75
Pa,O2 mmHg 60
45
30
b) 75
60
Pa,CO2 mmHg
45
30
Run-in Oxygen Oxygen
plus NPSV
Fig. 7. – Individual (----) and mean (–––) values of a) daytime arterial oxygen (Pa,O2) and b) carbon dioxide (Pa,CO2)
tensions at run-in, after 3 months of oxygen alone and 3 months of oxygen and nasal pressure support (NPSV) in 14
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Reproduced from [63] with permission from the publisher.
a) 80 b)
70
60
Patients affected %
50
40
30
20
10
0
Acute Admissions Endotracheal Acute Admissions Endotracheal
exacerbations intubations exacerbations intubations
Fig. 8. – Long-term morbidity (acute exacerbations, admissions to the hospital and endotracheal intubation) in
patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease after oxygen treatment alone and oxygen plus noninvasive
positive pressure ventilation (NPPV). There were no significant differences in any outcome at either a) 3 or b)
12 months. h: controls; &: NPPV. Reproduced from [66] with permission from the publisher.
211
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
a) 15 b)
SGRQ score change
10
0 l l
n
l
s n
-5 l
s
u
u
-10
-15
c) 15 d)
SGRQ score change
10
5
u #
s
l
0 l l l
n l
u
-5 l
n
s
-10
-15
M0 M24 M0 M24
Fig. 9. – Change from baseline in total and dimension scores of St George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ). a and
b) ¤: symptoms; &: activity; m: impact; $: total and Maugeri Foundation Respiratory Failure Questionnaire (MRF-
28). c and d) #: cognitive behaviour; ¤: activity; &: disability; : others; $: total. M0 : discharge; M24: 24 months after
discharge. Group comparision for changes from baseline in total SGRQ score was not significant (p50.554). #: p50.041,
treatment effect 7.100, 95% confidence interval 0.13–4.07. Reproduced from [67] with permission from the publisher.
Even if such studies are difficult to manage, there is clearly a need for prospective
studies comparing LTOT and NPPV in the most severe obstructive pulmonary diseases, in
a large amount of patients and on a real long-term basis of several years. Many patients
with COPD are currently using NPPV at home, as showed in a recent European survey
[69]. Two randomised prospective studies have been completed in Europe [70] and in
Australia to assess the real role of NPPV in severe hypercapnic patients either under
mechanical ventilation with volume preset machines or with pressure preset respirators.
Evaluation of NPPV in diffuse bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis (CF) brings
arguments to the contention that patients with severe airway obstruction and
hypercapnia may respond favorably to NPPV. In bronchiectasis patients, BENHAMOU
et al. [70, 71] showed a Pa,CO2 decrease and less frequent hospitalizations during the year
after NPPV initiation (compared with the previous year). Other series have reported
stabilisation of severe hypercapnic patients with CF under NPPV while they awaited
lung transplantation [72–74].
Rationale for chronic mechanical ventilation in COPD

CRF secondary to COPD is a complex situation associating a parenchymal
impairment with reduced efficiency of its gas exchange function. Hypoxia is a marker
of ventilation/perfusion abnormalities and hypercapnia is a marker of chronic pump
212
failure and alveolar hypoventilation. As low-flow oxygen therapy is commonly able to

compensate hypoxia in COPD patients, external mechanical ventilation will compensate
for hypoventilation. Thus, improvement of arterial blood gases is one of the main
objectives that determines ventilator adjustments.
Several hypotheses have been suggested to explain the beneficial effects of long-term
mechanical ventilation in patients with COPD and CRF. NPPV is preferentially
indicated during sleep periods, in order to achieve longer duration of ventilation; this is
probably necessary to compensate nocturnal hypoventilation and episodes of arterial
oxygen desaturation which occur predominantly during rapid eye movement sleep when
breathing room air [75]. Indeed, the main beneficial effect of NPPV implies a correction
of nocturnal hypoventilation and Pa,CO2 reduction is the hallmark of improvement in
alveolar ventilation under all types of mechanical ventilation. Such an improvement
could persist after interruption of the ventilation period because of a temporary
improvement in CO2 sensitivity of the respiratory centers, that is often blunted in COPD
patients [76]. However, the same results might be obtained when using NPPV 8 h during
the daytime [77].
The improvement of nocturnal Pa,O2 could also lead to an improvement of the diurnal
Pa,O2 [45, 78]; an effect that can be related to the correction of the alveolar-arterial
gradient under NPPV and to the increase in spontaneous breathing pattern following
mechanical ventilation. This is the consequence of an improved compliance of the chest
wall and the lungs [79], an improved respiratory muscle function, an increased
respiratory drive [76] and a decreasing oxygen consumption secondary to a decrease in
work of breathing or an increase in efficiency of the respiratory muscle function or
perhaps a reduction of chronic respiratory muscle fatigue [80–82]. The relief of
chronic respiratory muscle fatigue remains controversial as well as the concept
of chronic respiratory muscle fatigue. Indeed, it is difficult to assess whether the
modifications of respiratory muscle strength are a cause or a consequence of the arterial
blood gases improvement under NPPV [40, 83–85]. Respiratory muscle fatigue is
probably not an important contributing factor when evaluating patients during periods
of clinical stability. Thus, patients with severe CO2 retention, particularly those with
nocturnal oxygen desaturation, appear to be the best candidates to get a favorable
response to nocturnal NPPV.
Alternatively, hypercapnia in COPD patients is not always synonymous with
predominant hypoventilation, and may be linked to an increase in physiological dead
space secondary to a ventilation/perfusion mismatch in relation with bronchospasm
and/or parenchymal destruction, secondary to extension of emphysema. It is always
debated as to whether hypercapnia per se defines an adaptative mechanism in severe
COPD (permissive hypercapnia, i.e. sensible to NIV), when the respiratory centres are
tuned towards a higher Pa,CO2, in order to lessen the respiratory work as advocated by
DUBOIS et al. [12] and COOPER and colleagues [7, 13], and later shown by AIDA et al. [11],
or is a marker of the terminal phase of the disease (progressive hypercapnia, i.e. no more
sensible to NIV) with an acceleration of the rise of Pa,CO2 in the 3 yrs before death [7], or
is a mixture of the two mechanisms. An illustration of this hypothesis is represented by
the positive results obtained by NIV in severe hypercapnic patients with COPD
published by ELLIOTT et al. [21] in a highly selected population of COPD patients
described as intolerant to LTOT, with worsening of hypercapnia and incomplete
correction of hypoxia under nocturnal oxygen therapy, which could be ranged in the
responders patients with predominant hypoventilation. Thus, long-term nocturnal
mechanical ventilation, which acts via a correction of Pa,CO2 should be most effective
only with the first clinical group, i.e. COPD with adaptative ventilatory pump failure,
but could only be palliative in the second group with terminal parenchymal disease.
213
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
Selection of COPD patients to NPPV

In the last ACCP Consensus Conference on NPPV in chronic respiratory failure [74], it
was proposed to indicate NPPV in COPD patients presenting with the characteristics
detailed in table 1. However, these recommendations do not apply perfectly to patients
with COPD [86]. Symptoms of chronic nocturnal hypoventilation are difficult to screen in
patients with a poor quality of sleep, frequent morning headaches and chronic fatigue
linked to their poor general and respiratory condition. Although the Consensus considered
the presence of hypercapnia as mandatory, the presence of chronic hypercapnia by itself is
not an indication of NPPV if stable and well tolerated. The presence of nocturnal oxygen
desaturation is common in such patients and not always corrected by nocturnal oxygen
therapy, as previously showed by DOUGLAS et al. [75]. Conversely, the notion of frequent
episodes of decompensation leading to repeated hospitalisations is a good criterion, if the
associated LTOT and medical management are optimal.
To indicate NPPV in a patient with COPD and CRF, the present authors prefer to
consider the presence of a progressive deterioration of respiratory status based on
clinical and biological criteria. Thus, in spite of the controversial results previously
reported, they suggest to consider NPPV for patients with severe hypoxic and
hypercapnic COPD in the two following practical situations.
COPD patients who present with blue and bloated type associated with chronic
hypoxia and hypercapnia and develop an unstable respiratory condition. This may be
appreciated on a clinical basis with chronic dependent oedemas and deterioration of
respiratory and clinical status in spite of a well-prescribed and well-followed medical
treatment, associating physiotherapy and LTOT. Instability may be confirmed by a
progressive worsening of arterial blood gas tensions, leading to frequent cardiorespira-
tory decompensations with ominous ARF episodes [35, 86]. NPPV is a preventive
Table 1. – Clinical indicators for institution of nasal positive pressure ventilation in patients with COPD
Disease documentation
Establish and document an appropriate diagnosis History
Physical examination
Results of diagnostic tests
The most common obstructive lung diseases would Chronic Bronchitis
include
Emphysema
Bronchiectasis
Cystic fibrosis
Assure optimal management of COPD Bronchodilators
Oxygen therapy when indicated
Optimal management of other underlying disorders Multichannel sleep study to exclude associated OSAS if
clinically indicated
Indications for usage
Symptoms Fatigue
Dyspnoea
Morning headache, etc.
Physiological criteria (one of the following) Pa,CO2 i55 mmHg
Pa,CO2 between 50 and 54 mmHg with nocturnal desatura-
tion (Sa,O2 by pulse oximetry ƒ88% for 5 continuous min
while receiving oxygen therapy i2 L?min-1)
Pa,CO2 between 50 and 54 mmHg with hospitilisation related
to recurrent episodes of hypercapnic respiratory failure
(i2 in a 12-month period)
OSAS: obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome; Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension; Sa,O2: arterial oxygen
saturation. Adapted from [74].
214
treatment of future dangerous episodes of ARF. Associated obesity is a further

argument of indicating NPPV even in the presence of an overlap syndrome associating
COPD and obstructive sleep apnoea; in such a case, the setting of expiratory positive
airway pressure (EPAP) will be adapted during polysomnographic recordings which are
mandatory when obesity is present [87].
NPPV should also be considered after an ARF episode, successfully treated by
noninvasive ventilation [88, 89] but with the impossibility to wean the patient from the
ventilator [90] or even patients receiving NPPV to be successfully weaned from
endotracheal mechanical ventilation [41]. In such acute conditions, NPPV will be
maintained beyond the ARF episode and re-evaluated on a long-term basis a few weeks
or months later. Consequently, tracheotomy-mediated ventilation has nowadays
restricted indications, such as failure of NPPV, often after a further episode of ARF
and weaning failure from endotracheal ventilation.
Thus, NPPV could be proposed as a preventative treatment in severe COPD
patients with unstable respiratory condition associated with fluctuating hypercapnia
before, during and after an ARF episode, avoiding the need for a tracheotomy. An
algorithm can be suggested to designate indications for HMVT (table 1), long-
term oxygen therapy and IPPV by the nasal route in patients with severe COPD
(fig. 10) [41].
Ventilators and interfaces

Ventilators for use in NPPV, devoted to patients with COPD are generally used for
long periods of time, and generally overnight. Therefore, ventilators should be simple,
reliable and easy to use, which is allowed by regular technological improvements. As
COPD patients needing NPPV are generally partially dependent upon their machine,
the presence of a battery-operated ventilator is only mandatory if patients need to
ventilate more than 12 h?day-1. Ventilators must also be light and portable. Both high-
and low-pressure alarms are required to indicate airflow obstruction, disconnection or
failure of the ventilator and must be set according to a leaky ventilation. At the
present time, available studies are in favor of clinical equivalence of volume-preset and
pressure-preset ventilation modes [91–94]. Besides, availability of volume assured
pressure support respirators makes this difference in most of the situations academic.
However, the actual trend is to use pressure-support ventilators on a first-line basis,
especially with pressure-support mode, which is easier to adjust and to synchronise
with the patient. Secondly, in case of failure, poor tolerance or inefficiency of pressure-
support ventilation, pressure controlled or, more often, flow-preset ventilators may be
proposed, as patients may appear to be responder or not to either volumetric or
barometric ventilation [95]. By the end of the 1990s, release of dual portable
ventilators providing either pressure-support ventilation or volume-preset ventilation
opened the way for new potent turbine pressure-support ventilators able to deliver real
volume ventilation with the average volume assured pressure-support ventilation mode
which represents a flexible way for managing the most difficult patients [96]. The
concept of prophylactic intermittent NPPV (i.e. given only one or two nights per
week) might be developed in patients with poor adherence to a regular ventilation
period during the night.
When pressure support ventilation is used [19, 61, 62, 86, 94] the level of inspiratory
aid is progressively raised from 10 to 20 cmH2O with a low level of EPAP around
5 cmH20 in order to optimise CO2 removal and control of auto-positive end-expiratory
pressure (PEEP), according to the patient tolerance. Levels of IPAP, which are too low,
215
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
COPD and CRF
Chronic Status? Acute

-
LTOT
Evaluation
+ Acute on Acute
chronic emergency
+
NPPV
Endotracheal
Active then - ventilation
continued
Discuss
Tracheostomy Weaning
and HMVT NIPPV - trial
trial
+ +
No Stabilisation?
-
Yes
Discuss long-term
NIPPV or LTOT
Fig. 10. – Algorithm for indicating long term oxygen therapy (LTOT) and nasal positive pressure ventilation in
patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and chronic respiratory failure (CRF). HMVT: home
mechanical ventilation via tracheotomy; -: failure; +: success. Reproduced from [41] with permission from the
publisher.
could be associated with long-term failure of NPPV, as showed by WINDISCH et al. [97].
A back-up frequency is usually set at 12 breaths?min-1 and the inspiratory duration as
short as possible. The fraction of inspired oxygen (FI,O2) is adjusted to correct nocturnal
hypoxaemia and controlled by night oximetry. The comfort of the patient remains
crucial and conditions the long-term compliance. VITTACCA et al. [98] confirmed that
ventilatory settings established according to patient tolerance, patient comfort and
arterial blood gases controls were as satisfactory as ventilatory settings established more
rigorously upon more conventional criteria, mechanics and respiratory muscle function
assessments.
When pressure-support ventilation fails, trials of pressure assist-controlled ventilation
and/or flow-preset ventilation may be used. With volume-preset ventilation, settings are
similar to those of mechanical ventilation in COPD with ARF (tidal volume 10–
15 mL?kg-1 with nasal mask ventilation; inspiratory/expiratory ratio of 1/3 or less, back
up frequency respiratory rate 12 breaths?min-1; inspiratory trigger set for optimal
confort of the patient; FI,O2 as needed). Oxygen supplementation of the respirator can be
achieved conventionally by cylinders, liquid oxygen or a concentrator.
Nasal or facial masks commonly in use are similar to the devices used to treat sleep
apnoea syndrome. Nasal pillows are sometimes preferred for local skin tolerance and/or
particular anatomical configuration. Alternate use between different masks or nasal
cannules may be proposed as needed to improve comfort of the patient.
216
NPPV initiation and follow-up in COPD patients

Initiating NPPV is a very important phase conditioning the future compliance to the
treatment. As COPD patients are generally the most difficult patients to adapt to NPPV,
the best way is to initiate the ventilatory trial during an in hospital stay of 1 week, in
order to familiarise the patient and their family to a treatment which is a part of his
rehabilitation programme. Apart from the ventilatory treatment itself, the patient must
learn how to use nasal or facial connections which are crucial to the compliance.
Nocturnal assessment with clinical scores, monitoring of Sa,O2 and transcutaneous
Ptc,CO2 are useful, as well as serial arterial blood gases controls. The suspicion of an
overlap syndrome always implies a nocturnal ventilatory polygraphic recording. The
development in the most recent respirators of potent softwares allows useful monitoring
of the respiratory pattern of the patient treated by mechanical ventilation at home;
respiratory assistance must correct the incidence of asynchrony between patient and
machine as much as possible [99]. Long-term follow-up implies regular visits at the
hospital every 3–6 months. Close technical supervision is achieved by home respiratory
care organisations of various compositions and structures according to the different
countries and social organisations.
NPPV and rehabilitation

Despite medication and respiratory assistance, many patients with severe COPD
suffer from dyspnoea resulting in limitation of physical capacity and even in their
activities of daily living. Thus, methods to improve the ability of patients with severe
COPD to function in the home and work environment with reduced symptoms (the
goals of rehabilitation) have become accepted forms of therapy [100]. That approach,
called ‘‘pulmonary rehabilitation’’ has been defined as ‘‘an art of medical practice
wherein an individually tailored, multidisciplinary programme is formulated which,
through accurate diagnosis, therapy, emotional support and education, stabilises or
reverses both the physio- and psychopathology of pulmonary diseases and attempts to
return the patient to the highest possible functional capacity allowed by their pulmonary
handicap and overall life situation’’ [101]. Adjunction of NPPV to exercise rehabilitation
is under evaluation [54, 102–107]. Thus, the key elements which will return the patient
back to home with their ventilator are education about their disease and the
management of their own therapy (i.e. NPPV), including physical therapy, exercise
conditioning (adapted to those severely disabled patients), breathing retraining,
psychosocial counseling and vocational training.
Conclusion
In conclusion, long-term noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease should be considered as a preventative treatment in
severe patients with unstable respiratory condition associated with fluctuating
hypercapnia before, during and after an acute respiratory failure episode. Instability
may be appreciated on a clinical basis and confirmed by a progressive worsening of
arterial blood gas tensions, leading to frequent cardiorespiratory decompensations with
ominous acute respiratory failure episodes. In this setting, the association of NPPV with
pulmonary rehabilitation programmes is promising.
217
J-F. MUIR ET AL.
Summary
The key role of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) is well documented
in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients with acute respiratory
failure (ARF) since it may avoid endotracheal intubation in .50% of cases when used
as the initial treatment. However, there is currently only minimal data to assess
usefulness of NPPV in COPD patients on a long-term basis. Even if such studies are
difficult to manage, there is clearly a need for prospective studies comparing long-
term oxygen therapy and NPPV in the most severe COPD in a large amount of
patients and on a real long-term basis of several years. Two randomised, prospective
studies are being completed in Europe and the first preliminary results show that
NPPV is associated with a reduction of hospitalisation for CRF decompensation.
The main beneficial effect of long-term mechanical ventilation in COPD patients with
chronic respiratory failure implies a correction of nocturnal hypoventilation that
could persist beyond the ventilation period because of a temporary improvement in
CO2 sensitivity that is often blunted in these patients.
The literature suggests considering NPPV for severe COPD patients who present with
chronic hypoxia and hypercapnia and develop an unstable respiratory condition.
Instability may be appreciated on a clinical basis and confirmed by a progressive
worsening of arterial blood gas tensions, leading to frequent cardiorespiratory
decompensations with ominous ARF episodes. NPPV should also be considered after
an ARF episode successfully treated by noninvasive ventilation but with the
impossibility to wean the patient from the ventilator.
Thus, NPPV could be proposed as a preventative treatment in severe COPD patients
with unstable respiratory condition associated with fluctuating hypercapnia before,
during and after an ARF episode, avoiding the need for a tracheotomy. Adjunction of
NPPV to exercise rehabilitation is under evaluation.
Keywords: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, noninvasive ventilation,

respiratory failure, short- and long-term outcome.
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CHAPTER 15
NIV and neuromuscular disease
A.K. Simonds
Correspondence: A.K. Simonds, Academic Unit of Sleep & Breathing, Royal Brompton Hospital, London
SW3 6NP, UK. Fax: 44 2073518911; E-mail: [email protected]
General considerations
Neuromuscular patients comprise a heterogeneous group, at different stages of the
natural history of the disorders and include many uncommon diseases, so it is not
surprising that there have been few systematic or randomised studies of noninvasive
ventilation (NIV) in neuromuscular disease. In the present chapter, general consider-
ations will be discussed and outcomes presented in relatively stable conditions such as
previous poliomyelitis and spinal cord injury, and the progressive disorders Duchenne
muscular dystrophy (DMD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; motor neurone
disease (MND)) as these exemplify key principles of therapy.
In addition specific problems in the neuromuscular group may include: ineffective
cough and secretion clearance; bulbar weakness and swallowing dysfunction; general-
ised limb weakness creating difficulty placing and removing interfaces, and operating
ventilators; and accompanying cardiomyopathy in some conditions, e.g. DMD,
glycogen storage disorders and Emery Dreifuss muscular dystrophy.
Overview of neuromuscular disorders

The probability of respiratory failure in neuromuscular conditions is shown in table 1,
although cases always need to be judged on an individual basis. It should be noted that
co-pathology (e.g. mild asthma, obesity or left ventricular dysfunction) can significantly
add to respiratory muscle load so all pertinent medical factors should be taken into
account.
Assessment for respiratory function

The purpose of monitoring patients is to detect symptoms and deterioration in lung
function. In broad terms individuals with progressive conditions and those with a vital
capacity (VC) ,60% should be followed with measurements of spirometry and cough
peak flow. RAGETTE et al. [1] showed that in a group with heterogeneous muscle
conditions, sleep disordered breathing predominantly in rapid eye movement sleep was
first seen when VC fell below 60% predicted. With a VC ,40% predicted continuous
hypoventilation was seen, and once VC was ,25%, predicted daytime ventilatory failure
was likely.
ISSN 1025-448x.
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NIV AND NMD
Table 1. – Likelihood of developing respiratory insufficiency in inherited and acquired neuromuscular disease
Inevitable Duchenne MD,

type I SMA
Frequent Limb girdle MD 2C,2D,2F,2I
Nemaline myopathy
Acid maltase deficiency
Int SMA
X-linked myotubular myopathy
Multicore myopathy
Congenital myasthenia
Congenital myotonic dystrophy
High spinal cord injury
Occasional Emery Dreifuss MD, Becker MD, Bethlem myopathy,
Minicore myopathy
Rare Facioscapulohumeral MD, Mitochondrial myopathy,
Central core disease, Limb girdle MD 1, 2A,B,G,H
MD: muscular dystrophy; SMA: spinal muscular atrophy.
Symptoms of nocturnal hypoventilation should always be sought. These include poor

sleep quality, sudden wakenings with a panic sensation, morning headaches, daytime
sluggishness and concentration problems [2]. Sleep studies should be carried out yearly
and probably at 6-month intervals once early hypoventilation is noted. A general
monitoring plan incorporating consensus conference recommendations [3] and
algorithm of treatment interventions are shown in table 2 and figure 1, respectively.
Initiation of NIV
Most authorities now advise that NIV is started once symptomatic nocturnal
hypoventilation has been identified before the development of diurnal hypercapnia [4].
This allows sensible planning and may prevent episodes of uncontrolled ventilatory
decompensation. Outpatient or inpatient initiation may be equally safe and provides
patients and families with a choice.
Evolution of NIV in neuromuscular and other restrictive

disorders
Following its introduction in the early 1980s, when it was pioneered in DMD by
RIDEAU et al. [5], NIV entered mainstream clinical practice in 1986–1987. In a large
French multicentre series [6] the 3-yr probability of continuing domiciliary NIV was 75–
80% for patients with post-polio respiratory muscle weakness, scoliosis and old tubercu-
lous restrictive disease. Equivalent results were seen in a single-centre UK cohort [7],
Table 2. – Consensus recommendations for respiratory care in neuromuscular disease
Measure VC, peak cough flow, Sa,O2 yearly

Patients with VC , 1 L or rapid decline should be assessed more frequently e.g. every 3–6 months
Arterial blood gases should be analysed if symptoms or signs of nocturnal hypoventilation, daytime Sa,O2 ,93%
A sleep study should be performed annually if VC ,60% predicted or if there are symptoms of nocturnal hypoventilation
(or wheel chair use)
VC: vital capacity; Sa,O2: arterial oxygen saturation.
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A.K. SIMONDS
Clinical algorithm Intervention

Clinical assessment Physical examination,
pulmonary function,
cough peak flow,
Inspiratory, expiratory, bulbar muscle weakness respiratory muscle strength
REM-related sleep- Ineffective cough Chest radiology, sleep study.

disordered breathing Cough peak flow Swallow function
FVC <60% pred <270 L·min-1 Intervention: cough assistance
Swallowing dysfunction
NREM and REM sleep- Noninvasive ventilation,

disordered breathing Chest infections combination with cough assist,
FVC <40% pred PEG/PEJ, T-IPPV
Daytime ventilatory failure

FVC <20% pred
Fig. 1. – Clinical algorithm including timing of interventions. REM: rapid eye movement; FVC: forced vital
capacity; % pred: % predicted; NREM: non-REM; PEG/PEJ: percutaneous enteral gastrostomy/percutaneous
jejunostomy; T-IPPV: tracheostomy intermittent positive pressure ventilation.
which showed a 5-yr actuarial probability of continuing domiciliary NIV of 100% in

post-polio patients, 94% (95% confidence interval (CI) 83–100%) in patients with post
tuberculous lung disease, 79% (95% CI 66–92%) for scoliotic patients and 81% (95% CI
61–100%) in those with neuromuscular disorders excluding poliomyelitis. This
compared with 5-yr figures of 43% in COPD patients and ,20% in bronchiectasis. In
that study, the probability of continuing NIV equated almost completely with survival,
as the main reason for discontinuing NIV was death. Almost a third of DMD patients in
the French study transferred to tracheostomy (T-) intermittent positive pressure
ventilation (IPPV) long term.
Effects of NIV on physiological outcomes, morbidity and quality

of life
Improvements in symptoms and daytime arterial blood gas tensions are consistently
seen in NIV users [6, 7]. Sleep architecture and nocturnal blood gas tensions in children
and adults with restrictive disorders also show improvement [8]. While changes in
spirometry and respiratory muscles strength are equivocal (see the following section),
SCHONHOFER et al. [9] have shown a substantial gain in endurance in three different tests
in NIV users with restrictive disorders compared with controls. Endurance time
increased by 278¡269% during inspiratory threshold loading, by 176¡159% during
cycle ergometry and by 32¡22% during a shuttle-walk test.
LEGER et al. [6] report significant reductions in inpatient days for at least 2 yrs after
the initiation of NIV in patients with muscular dystrophy, scoliosis and post-
tuberculous lung disease, implying that worthwhile economic savings can be made.
A UK NIV subgroup who received the SF36 health status questionnaire gave
comparable results to other groups with chronic disorders such as diabetes mellitus and
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NIV AND NMD
ischaemic heart disease [7]. Although physical function was reduced in contrast to age-
matched population norms, mental health and energy/vitality were similar. Sleep quality
is a significant contributor to quality of life scores and, contrary to popular belief,
patients using nocturnal NIV rated their sleep quality as average (67%) or very good
(27%), with only 5% describing sleep quality as poor.
Mechanisms of action of NIV in restrictive disorders

Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the physiological effects of long
term ventilatory support, particularly the fact that nocturnal application of treatment is
translated into improvements in daytime blood gas tensions. These are: relief of chromic
respiratory muscle fatigue; improvement in central respiratory drive; improvement in
chest wall/lung mechanics; improvement in sleep efficiency and quality; and alteration in
cardiopulmonary/renal haemodynamics.
It may be that the relative importance of these mechanisms differs in restrictive
neuromuscular disease and chest wall disorders and, of course, the explanations are not
mutually exclusive. It has often been assumed that respiratory muscle fatigue is an
important factor in the development of ventilatory failure. However, the presence of
fatigue is difficult to confirm in practice. In addition, although some uncontrolled
studies have demonstrated small improvements in respiratory muscle strength after NIV
[6, 10, 11], others have not [12, 13]; it may be that these increases in respiratory muscle
strength are due to an improvement in general wellbeing and/or a learning effect. Indeed
it should always be remembered that any stabilisation in respiratory muscle strength in a
progressive condition may represent improvement but is difficult to confirm without
controlled studies.
HILL et al. [14] examined the efficacy of NIV by withdrawing it from restrictive
patients who had acclimatised to the technique for at least 2 months. All had
demonstrated improvements in symptoms and arterial blood gas tensions following
initiation. A week after withdrawal patients experienced an increase in breathlessness,
morning headaches and somnolence in the absence of any change in daytime blood gas
tensions, pulmonary function or respiratory muscle strength. Moreover, nocturnal
monitoring without NIV showed greater desaturation, a larger rise in arterial carbon
dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) and an increase in tachypnoea and tachycardia compared with
results when receiving noninvasive IPPV (NIPPV), suggesting that one of the prime
mechanisms of action is via control of nocturnal hypoventilation.
The impact of withdrawal of NIV after successful implementation have also been
analysed by PIPER et al. [12]. In 14 neuromuscular and scoliotic patients treated with
nocturnal NIV for at least 6 months, mean¡SD arterial blood gas tensions measured
while breathing spontaneously during the day improved for arterial oxygen tension
(Pa,O2) from 7.5¡1.2 to 10.2¡1.3 kPa, and for Pa,CO2 from 8.2¡1.6 to 6.4¡0.7 kPa
and maximum inspiratory mouth pressures rose from 41 to 65 mmHg (p,0.003).
During full polysomnography without ventilatory support breathing during sleep was
improved compared with a pre-NIV study, but was still abnormal. The REM sleep-
related fall in arterial oxygen saturation and rise in transcutanous carbon dioxide
tension were 20% and 1.5 kPa, respectively, compared with values of 41% and 2.8 kPa in
the baseline study before NIV. There was no difference in effects between patients with
primary neuromuscular disease and those with idiopathic scoliosis and, in both patient
groups, there was no correlation between the increase in respiratory muscle strength and
improvement in nocturnal gas exchange. As a consequence the authors argue that the
improvement in nocturnal gas exchange following NIV is due to a reduction in hypoxic
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A.K. SIMONDS
and hypercapnic induced arousals with resulting beneficial effects on sleep quality. Sleep
fragmentation and deprivation caused by arousal are known to have a negative effect on
ventilatory drive and, therefore, it is postulated that central drive is increased by the
enhanced sleep quality.
To add weight to this theory, ANNANE et al. [13] have shown that the decrease in
Pa,CO2 that occurs after initiation of NIV in patients with neuromuscular disease and
scoliosis is correlated with an increase in the slope of the ventilatory response to carbon
dioxide (r5 -0.68; p50.008). This study also showed no improvement in respiratory
muscle strength or lung mechanics. An additional mechanism contributing to increased
chemosensititvity to carbon dioxide may be the washout of carbon dioxide stores
following correction of overnight hypercapnia.
However, SCHONHOFER et al. [15] have challenged the belief that correction of
nocturnal hypoventilation is of key importance in a study using ventilatory support
solely during the day in patients who remained awake. There was no significant
difference in improvement in arterial blood gas tensions in patients using daytime and
night-time ventilator support, although obviously support during sleep is more
convenient for patients.
More recently, the interaction between NIV use and change in chemosensitivity to
carbon dioxide has been re-explored [16], this time using a combination of invasive and
noninvasive measures of respiratory function, in order to obviate volitional effects, and
difficulties using mouth pressure meters. A direct comparison with the results obtained
by ANNANE et al. [13] is not possible as measurements were made at baseline, after
5 days and 3 months of NIV. However, the overall outcome was similar in that in a
group with restrictive disorders (12 subjects with stable neuromuscular disease and eight
with scoliosis) as mean¡SD, hypercapnic ventilatory response increased significantly
from 2.8¡2.3 to 3.6¡2.4 L?min-1?kPa-1 at 5 days and further to 4.3¡3.3 L?min-1?kPa-1
after 3-months nocturnal NIV (p50.044). There was an interesting ‘‘dose response’’ in
that those using NIV for .4 h?night-1 showed a significant improvement in hyercapnic
ventilatory response and Pa,CO2 at 3 months, compared with those in whom average use
was ,4 h?night-1 where chemosensitivity and arterial blood gas tensions fell back to
baseline levels at 3 months after initial improvement at 5 days. Invasive measurements
of respiratory muscle strength and lung/chest wall compliance obtained using
oesophageal and gastric balloon pressure catheters showed no significant improvement.
Sleep stage distribution was not assessed in that study, so it is not clear whether it played
a part, as sleep deprivation has previously been shown to depress chemosenstivity to
carbon dioxide.
Overall, however, these results suggest that in stable neuromuscular (and scoliosis)
patients, one of the key mechanisms by which NIV affects improvement is by an increase
in ventilatory drive.
T-IPPV in restrictive disorders

It is instructive to compare results from NIV and T-IPPV. Outcome information on
T-IPPV in restrictive disorders is mainly available from a French multicentre series
dating from several decades ago. ROBERT et al. [17] have shown 5-yr survival rates of
95% in post-polio patients and 70% in those with tuberculosis sequelae. In a 20-yr
experience of T-IPPV in the home from 1962–1983, SPLAINGARD et al. [18] report on 40
adults and children with neuromuscular disease, including spinal cord injury or central
hypoventilation syndromes. The 3-yr survival was 63% for spinal cord injury patients
and 74% for other neuromucular diagnoses combined i.e. figures not dissimilar from
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NIV AND NMD
NIV results. However, as discussed elsewhere, patients prefer noninvasive modes where
these are feasible [19], and certainly the practicalities of implementing NIV are simpler
than those of T-IPPV. The possibility of weaning onto NIV should always be considered
in any patient using T-IPPV in the long term. Currently the main indications for T-IPPV
in neuromuscular disease are: extreme ventilator dependency; upper airway problems
e.g. tracheomalacia; marked bulbar weakness with swallowing and cough difficulties;
inability to use mask; failure to thrive on NIV, inadequate ventilation; and neonatal
ventilatory problems.
Quality of life in NIV versus T-IPPV users

Direct comparisons of quality of life between NIV and T-IPPV users are
problematical as there have been no randomised trials and are unlikely to be any.
Furthermore, those who are treated with T-IPPV are likely to have more advanced
disease, greater ventilatory dependency and/or bulbar disease. Most comparisons are
historical or have been done in ALS. BACH [19] has shown where patients and caregivers
have swapped between T-IPPV and NIV (and therefore have experience with both
techniques), NIV is preferred in nearly all respects. Clearly, NIV is simpler, less intensive
in terms of care package, carer training and risk management. Aspects such as voice
control, need to use suction, etc. also influence choice where both options are feasible. It
has been suggested [20] even 24-h NIV reduces pulmonary morbidity compared with T-
IPPV but here, individual choice is important. Although the burden of evidence
indicates that NIV has significant quality of life advantages over T-IPPV where feasible,
MARKSTROM et al. [21] found divergent results in a survey of home ventilator dependent
patients in Sweden. In these individuals with post-polio respiratory failure, other
neuromuscular disease or scoliosis, Sickness Impact Profile (SIP) and Heath Index
scores were higher in T-IPPV recipients than NIV users. Interestingly, daytime fatigue
level was higher and sleep quality rated worse in NIV patients, suggesting overnight
control of ventilation might have been better in T-IPPV patients. The authors speculate
that the fact that the follow-up care plan for T-IPPV users was more intensive and
supportive than for NIV users (who were seen once a year) may have played a part. T-
IPPV patients also received a highly personalised service with customised tracheostomy
tubes which is likely to have reduced tube- and stoma-related complications. In
addition, most T-IPPV recipients would probably receive NIV if treatment was initiated
according to current guidelines.
DMD
As an X-linked recessive disorder, DMD is the most common muscular dystrophy
in childhood with an incidence of around 1:3500 live male births. The gene and gene
product (dystrophin) have been identified, paving the way to gene-therapy trials. A
lack of dystrophin leads to the most severe forms of DMD. About 20% of cases are
diagnosed before the age of 2 yrs, others are identified as ‘‘motor milestones’’ are
missed. Previously, most boys lost ambulation by the age of 10–12 yrs, although,
since the widespread use of steroid therapy in childhood, wheelchair dependence may
now occur several years later. This change may also reduce the severity and impact
of scoliosis which tends to become more marked as the child becomes wheelchair
bound. Loss of lung volume tends to occur in mid teens with the onset of ventilatory
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A.K. SIMONDS
failure in late teens or early 20s. Once daytime hypercapnia is present, death within
1–2 yrs is virtually inevitable unless ventilatory support is provided [22]. Nearly all
young men now begin NIV; in some countries they progress to T-IPPV once failure
to thrive or bulbar problems intervene. In other countries a noninvasive approach
combining NIV and cough assistance is preferred. Pulmonary morbidity has been
shown to be reduced in some series using the combined noninvasive approach [20]
although once again there have been no true randomised comparisons. A
cardiomyopathy is an almost inevitable accompaniment and should be monitored
with yearly echocardiography and ECG. Comprehensive treatment of left ventricular
insufficiency is recommended with ACE inhibitor and b-blocker. It should be noted
that cardiac failure and respiratory insufficiency do not necessarily progress in
tandem. For example in Becker muscular dystrophy, cardiac dysfunction may
predate respiratory problems and significant heart block and malignant dysrhyth-
mias can be seen in this condition and in Emery Dreifuss muscular dystrophy. A 5-yr
survival of i70% in DMD patients on NIV [23, 24] should be expected with
increasing numbers of patients living into their 30s and 40s [25]; most report a
satisfactory quality of life [26]. Later complications include chronic constipation/
bowel problems and urinary retention.
ALS/MND
The incidence of ALS is 1 in 50,000 per year, with a mean age at onset of 56 yrs.
The most frequent presentation is a mixture of progressive upper and lower motor
neurone signs in the spinal and bulbar territory (‘‘classical ALS’’) although diagnosis
may be problematical and up to 40% of patients experience a delayed diagnosis [27].
An acute presentation with overt respiratory failure [28] or features of nocturnal
hypoventilation is not uncommon [29] and most units have seen an increasing
number of referrals for ventilatory support in the last 5 yrs. Bulbar involvement
affects up to 30% of individuals at the onset the disease [30] but is virtually inevitable
by the terminal phase. Median survival is y2.5 yrs but a quarter of affected
individuals may live for 5 yrs or more. Prognosis tends to be better in younger
patients. The cause of nerve degeneration in MND is unknown but it may be related
to the excessive stimulation of glutamate receptors on the motor neurone. The only
available pharmacological therapy, Riluzole (Rilutek, Rhone-Poulenc Rorer), was
introduced into Europe in 1996 as an anti-excitogenic agent and is known to inhibit
glutamate release.
The key respiratory problems in ALS/MND patients are: dypsnoea; aleovolar
hypoventilation, morning headaches; sleep disturbance, daytime sleepiness; ineffective
cough resulting in chest infections; excessive oral secretions; aspiration and choking
episodes secondary to bulbar involvement; and panic attacks.
The American Academy of Neurology Practice parameter guidelines on care of ALS
patients [31] lists five main respiratory issues to address: ‘‘what are the early indications
of respiratory insufficiency?’’; ‘‘does NIV affect respiratory function or survival?’’;
‘‘does NIV and invasive ventilation improve quality of life or palliate symptoms?’’;
‘‘does experience with NIV aid decision-making regarding progression to invasive
ventilation?’’; and ‘‘what is the optimal method or withdrawing NIV and invasive
ventilation?’’
Additionally one could ask: ‘‘what is the best time to initiate NIV?’’; ‘‘how should one
select ventilatory mode or settings?’’; ‘‘which patients are most likely to benefit from
NIV?’’; and ‘‘who needs a cough assist device?’’
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NIV AND NMD
Identification of respiratory problem

Dyspnoea is unlikely if VC exceeds 70% predicted, but respiratory muscle function
should be closely monitored if the VC falls below this value, as respiratory
decompensation commonly ensues within the following 12 months. Respiratory failure
is virtually inevitable if VC falls below 30% predicted. Analysis of flow–volume loops
will demonstrate abnormalities suggestive of upper airway dysfunction in many patients
with ALS. Not surprisingly, these findings occur more often, but not exclusively, in
patients with bulbar involvement. Bulbar insufficiency can worsen respiratory function
by causing recurrent clinical and subclinical episodes of aspiration pneumonia.
Comprehensive evaluation of bulbar and swallowing function can be obtained by
videofluoroscopy.
Respiratory failure early in the course of the disease denotes phrenic nerve
involvement, often in conjunction with weakness of accessory and other respiratory
muscles. Respiratory muscle strength can be accurately measured using tests such as
maximal sniff pressure [32, 33] with minimal discomfort to patients. LYALL et al. [32]
have shown that, while a fall in VC is a useful predictor of respiratory failure, sniff
pressure may be a better prognostic guide. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in
expiratory muscle strength, as this is a major determinant of cough efficacy. The
subgroup of patients with early respiratory muscle involvement but normal or only
mildly impaired bulbar function and preserved limb strength is the group that usually
responds best to noninvasive ventilation. Use of cough assist devices in ALS/MND is
described in the following section.
Choice of ventilatory technique in ALS

T-IPPV has been used widely in ALS patients in the USA in order to circumvent
progressive bulbar problems. For practical purposes, selection of patients is often
heavily influenced by the degree of insurance cover, the extent of independent financial
resources and the availability of family help/carers. SALAMAND et al. [34] reported a 1-yr
survival of 24% in 24 ALS patients receiving home T-IPPV. However, OPPENHEIMER
[35] showed an improved outcome with an up to 85% 1-yr survival. In that series, .50%
of patients survived for 3 yrs or more using T-IPPV at home. A French cohort of
patients using nasal/mouth ventilation or T-IPPV showed a transient improvement in
pulmonary function and it was possible to discharge all patients home [36]. Clearly T-
IPPV is the only ventilatory option in patients with severe bulbar disease.
On theoretical grounds, NIV should be helpful in patients with ALS and early
respiratory muscle involvement as it may help stabilise the upper airway during sleep.
PINTO et al. [37] showed a significant increase in survival in patients with respiratory
insufficiency using bilevel ventilatory support compared with a nonventilated control
group. However, the quality of life measure used in that study showed no improvement.
ABOUSSOUAN et al. [38] also found that prognosis was improved in patients who could
tolerate NIV.
There has only been one randomised controlled trial of NIV in ALS. BOURKE et al.
[39] followed 92 patients and randomly allocated 19 to standard care and 22 to NIV
when they developed either orthopnoea, a maximum inspiratory pressure of ,60%
predicted or symptomatic daytime hypercapnia. Bulbar function was assessed on a 6-
point scale, with normal of moderate bulbar function score 4–6 and severe bulbar
impairment score 0–3. NIV was supplied using a bilevel pressure support device
(ResMed VPAP STII) in spontaneous timed mode via either a nasal, facial, total or
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A.K. SIMONDS
mouthpiece interface, according to patient choice. Ventilator settings were adjusted,

with the aim of normalising daytime arterial blood gas tensions. Patients were reviewed
at 3-month intervals and were assessed for symptoms, lung function and quality of life
using the SF36, a sleep related score (SAQLI) and the chronic respiratory disease
questionnaire (CRQ). In that trial, cough assist devices were not provided but all
patients were given physiotherapy advice. Importantly, the subgroup with better bulbar
function on NIV showed a survival advantage of 205 days, with improvement in quality
of life scores compared with controls. In the group with poor bulbar function there was
no survival advantage to NIV, but some quality of life measures, particular those related
to sleep symptoms, improved.
Other research [40] also demonstrated an increase in energy and vitality in patients
after starting NIV, and this benefit was sustained even in the face of declining general
muscle function. It is crucial to note that, once daytime Pa,CO2 rises above 6.0 kPa,
severe ventilatory decompensation is imminent (this is confirmed by the BOURKE et al.
study [39] with very high early mortality in hypercapnic patients in the control group).
Bulbar symptoms are not a contraindication to NIV, but may make tolerance of NIV
more difficult for the patient [38]. Patients with severe bulbar impairment can be advised
that NIV is unlikely to prolong survival but may help symptom control, so there is little
to be lost from a trial. Favourable features for successful use of NIV in the home in ALS
are shown below.
Clinical features favouring NIV success in MND/ALS are: early respiratory muscle
involvement; symptomatic nocturnal hypoventilation; some independent breathing
capacity; bulbar involvement not marked; strongly motivated; adequate resources
(caregivers, family, ventilatory equipment, aids to daily living); experienced home-care
team; good liaison between hospital, general practitioner, carers and hospice; and an
agreed plan for supportive care/advance directive planning.
Cough assistance
Weakness of the bulbar, and inspiratory and expiratory muscles contribute to poor
cough in ALS and other neuromuscular conditions. The key components of an effective
cough are maximum inspiration, glottic closure and efficient recruitment of expiratory
muscles. Expiratory muscle strength can be measured using maximum expiratory mouth
pressure, whistle peak flow or gastric pressures, although accuracy may be affected by
buccal weakness, reducing mouthseal, or pseudobulbar problems making compliance
with the measurement difficult. In clinical practice cough peak flow provides a simple
assessment with values ,270 min-1, indicating reduced cough strength. Asking the
patient to cough also allows the efficacy to be graded simply as mildly, moderately or
severely reduced. Physiotherapy techniques, such as huffing should be taught to all
patients. Patients and their families should also be shown how to perform physiotherapy
while receiving NIV. Adjusting the settings by increasing inspiratory positive airway
pressure (IPAP) or breath stacking, using a volume preset ventilator can be helpful
during chest infections. Manual insufflation using an ambu bag with non-rebreathe
valve will augment inspiratory capacity and therefore cough peak flow. Carers can
follow manual insufflation with an abdominal thrust to increase cough peak flow
further.
The cough in-exsufflator (Emerson, and other manufacturers) has been shown to
significantly augment cough in ALS/MND. MUSTFA et al. [41] showed that cough peak
flow increased by 28% in nonbulbar patients and 17% in bulbar patients. Those with the
weakest muscles benefited most. The present author’s practice is to first teach cough
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NIV AND NMD
assistance with NIV and/or ambu bag. If that is not sufficient, a cough in-exsufflator is
added, providing it can be demonstrated to improve cough effectiveness, is well
tolerated by the patient and can be applied by carers/family. The addition of cough in-
exsufflation to NIV has proved extremely helpful in some patients with a markedly
reduced peak cough flow. In individuals with vocal cord dysfunction or pseudobulbar
palsy the in-exsufflator may not be well tolerated but nothing is lost from trying this on
an individual basis.
Dealing with feeding problems, dysphagia and aspiration in

NMD
Percutaneous enteral gastrostomy (PEG) placement should be considered in patients
with symptomatic dysphagia and/or loss of .10% baseline weight or aspiration
problems. Because of the risks of placement, PEG should ideally be sited before FVC is
,50% predicted. A PEG or percutaneous jejunostomy (PEJ) can be placed
radiologically or endoscopically under local anaesthetic or general anaesthetic.
Respiratory management during these procedures is crucial. It is clearly vital to avoid
use of sedation without adequate respiratory support. However, providing close peri-
and post-operative monitoring is carried out, it is possible to safely insert a PEG feeding
tube in a patient reliant on NIV. It is also often prudent to start NIV prior to PEG
insertion to familiarise patient with the technique.
Contraindications to PEG insertion are few but include: the patient is unlikely to
survive 3 months; the patient is unable to give informed consent; and the patient is
unable to manage feeding tube and no carer available [42].
Symptom control
Most ALS patients are under the care of a multidisciplinary team, and there is
evidence that multidisciplinary care patients do better than those under single speciality
(neurology) care [43]. Palliative medicine advice is highly valuable and strongly
recommended in all cases. Admission may occur under the care of the respiratory team
and so familiarisation with palliative strategies is vital [44].
Decision making in ALS including progression to tracheostomy

ventilation
MOSS et al. [45] have shown that 96% of ALS patients are in favour of making
advance directives. A majority are able to place limits on the application of long term
mechanical ventilation eg. they would wish ventilatory support to be discontinued is
they had cardiac arrest or developed a permanent coma. It is crucial that a decision is
made as to whether the patient would like to be intubated in the event of an acute
reversible respiratory event at the start of NIV.
OPPENHEIMER [35] found that ,25% of ALS patients decided to use mechanical
ventilation in advance of an emergency admission but, having started ventilatory
support, nearly all wished to continue this. In a subsequent study [46], 100% of those
using NIV were glad that they had chosen this form of support. From the family
viewpoint, 42% of families who cared for a ALS/MND patient, requiring ventilatory
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A.K. SIMONDS
support at home, felt this to be a major burden [45], but 83% would encourage that
individual to choose mechanical ventilation again, although they were less sure about
receiving this treatment themselves if the need arose. The situation has changed
somewhat with the introduction of NIV, and some patients, for example, choose to limit
ventilatory support to noninvasive methods. In a European survey of patients with
chronic respiratory diseases, including ALS, admitted to high dependency units, y30%
wished to have NIV as a ceiling of ventilatory support [47].
The usual indications for tracheostomy ventilation in progressive conditions are:
severe bulbar impairment resulting in recurrent aspiration or choking episodes; total
ventilatory dependency or inability to control ventilatory failure using NIV or a
combination of noninvasive techniques.
In practice, it may be possible to maintain patients with even severe bulbar disease
with a combination of NIV, cough assistance techniques and PEG/PEJ feeding. As in
DMD patients, this approach has long been advocated by BACH [48]. Realistically, there
is likely to be a subgroup who may wish to progress to tracheostomy care and have the
family and personal resources to cope with this. In the authors’ recent experience, this
has tended to be individuals who wish to extend life as long as possible for cultural of
religious reasons. Our approach has been to facilitate these wishes where possible. An
algorithm on progressive ventilatory care is shown in figure 2.
Quadriplegia
Patients with high cervical cord or bulbar lesions with no independent ventilatory
capacity and an inability to clear secretions require tracheostomy assisted ventilation.
Expertise in managing these patients has been gained in many spinal injuries centres.
Recently, it has been demonstrated that a proportion of quadriplegic patients with
minimal respiratory reserve may cope with long-term noninvasive methods and, where
this is feasible, the option of noninvasive support should be encouraged as it simplifies
care and is preferred by patients and carers [23]. Patients with unrecordable VC may be
able to self-ventilate for periods, using glossopharyngeal (‘‘frog’’) breathing. This
Counselling, anticipatory plan on ventilatory support at diagnosis
Respiratory symptoms, SDB, orthopnoea, FVC <70%
Trial of NIV/cough assist

Ventilatory support declined
Disease progression
Palliative care Daytime NIV plus cough assistance +/-PEG
Disease progression
Withdrawal of ventilation Ceiling of NIV support
T-IPPV
Disease progression
Fig. 2. – Algorithm for ventilatory management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. SDB: sleep-disordered breathing;
FVC: forced vital capacity; NIV: noninvasive ventilation; PEG: percotaneous enteral gastrostomy; T-IPPV:
tracheostomy intermittent positive pressure ventilation.
234
NIV AND NMD
involves the patient gulping a series of breaths in succession so that breath stacking
results.
The aetiology of quadriplegia ranges from traumatic cervical cord injury to stable
neurological disorders (e.g. spina bifida) to progressive neuromuscular disease. An
individual with a cervical cord lesion above C4 is likely to need ventilation immediately.
Those with a C4/5 injury may be able to support ventilation independently but will
decompensate in the presence of underlying chronic lung disease, spinal shock or the
development of a chest infection. Delayed progression to ventilatory failure may occur
in others. Critical to the wellbeing of these patients is physiotherapy and assisted
coughing. Hyperinflation of the chest may be helpful in reducing the tendency to
atelectasis and perhaps improving chest wall and pulmonary compliance, but there are
minimal controlled trials in this area.
Assessment should include measurement of lung volumes, mouth pressures and
overnight monitoring of respiration when symptoms of nocturnal hypoventilation are
present, or VC is ,60% predicted. Cough assist devices can be combined with NIV as
described.
Anticipatory planning in neuromuscular patients with acute on

chronic respiratory failure
Although the use of NIV may reduce the frequency and severity of chest infections in
neuromuscular patients, occasional exacerbations are inevitable. Consideration should
always be given as to whether an exacerbation represents a simple chest infection,
progression of the underlying condition or development of bulbar weakness with
aspiration. It is important to appreciate that respiratory muscle strength and swallowing
function may temporarily deteriorate at the time of an infection.
Decision making about progression to intubation should ideally be carried out in
advance as part of anticipatory care planning [49] and take into account the above
considerations. A noninvasive approach is preferred where feasible. If that is
insufficient, then intubation and a brief period of invasive ventilation to allow the
acute episode to resolve is reasonable in patients with a substantial component of acute
reversible pathology. With the advent of NIV it is now rare for individuals to end up
‘‘trapped on an ICU ventilator’’, although this belief is perpetuated by some teams with
limited experience of neuromuscular patients. Most patients with reasonable bulbar
function can be extubated into NIV. If that fails, the use of a temporary tracheostomy
with the aim of stepping down to NIV should be tried. In some individuals with
deteriorating overall function, however, it may be entirely appropriate to redirect care to
a palliative approach rather than move to invasive ventilation, depending on the
patient’s wishes and clinical course. A US survey has shown wide variations
management of neuromuscular patients with acute respiratory failure, with intensivists
less likely to advocate active management plans compared with rehabilitation specialists.
Decisions should, of course, be made on an individual basis, rather than by diagnostic
label [50]. That includes full assessment of the individual, as even within subgroups of
conditions e.g. spinal muscular atrophy type 1 there can be substantial variation in
functional level and prognosis. Other conditions, e.g. nemaline myopathy and limb
girdle muscular dystrophy, have hugely variable phenotypic expression. If there is doubt
about long-term prognosis, advice should be sought from centres experienced in
managing these patients.
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A.K. SIMONDS
Practical tips for managing established NIV users who are

admitted with an acute chest infection
Table 3 shows a list of practical tips in the management of these NIV users.
Table 3. – Practical tips for managing established noninvasive ventilation (NIV) users who are admitted with an
acute chest infection
Use NIV intensively

Carry out physiotherapy while patient uses NIV as cough enhanced and patient less likely to tire
Add supplemental oxygen therapy to NIV to maintain Sa,O2 .93%
May help to increase IPAP by 2–5 cmH2O incrementally according to PCO2 level and EPAP by 1–2 cmH2O to a
maximum of 7 cmH2O. Increasing back-up rate to just below spontaneous breathing rate will improve CO2 control
If patient becomes near 24-h NIV dependent during an acute episode consider alternating masks to prevent pressure
sores and alternate day and night between two ventilators of the same model, so as not to run ventilator continuously
for days
Add humidfication if patient is 24-h NIV dependent
Use nebulised bronchodilator if evidence of wheeze or bronchial hyperreactivity
Add cough in-exsufflator if secretion clearance using NIV inadequate
Sa,O2: arterial oxygen saturation; IPAP: inspiratory positive airway pressure; PCO2: carbon dioxide tension;
EPAP: expiratory positive airway pressure.
Risk management in neuromuscular patients

Neuromuscular patients are often more dependent on ventilatory support than other
groups and requirements may progress over time. Careful consideration should be given
to regular service of equipment in the home, rapid access to medical advice and attention
to equipment breakdowns, and back-up equipment, e.g. battery power. This should be
supported by a competency training programme provided to the patient, family and
carers, and home team input as required. Telemedicine may be relevant in some patient
groups to reduce readmissions [51]. Risk management factors are considered in detail
elsewhere [52].
Summary
Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in neuromuscular conditions, associated with
respiratory insufficiency, can rapidly improve physiological indices and increase
survival. Even in individuals with severe/progressive disorders, NIV may reduce
symptom burden and improve quality of life. A combined NIV/cough assist approach
may decrease the need for tracheostomy by facilitating sputum clearance, especially at
the time of chest infections.
Keywords: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, cough assist device, Duchenne muscular

dystrophy, nocturnal hypoventilation, spinal muscular atrophy.
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NIV AND NMD
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239
CHAPTER 16
NIV and chronic respiratory failure

secondary to restrictive thoracic disorders
(obesity excluded)
W. Windisch, M. Dreher
Dept of Pneumology, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
Correspondence: M. Dreher, Dept of Pneumology, University Hospital Freiburg, Killianstrasse 5, D-79106

Freiburg, Germany. Fax: 49 7612703704; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) is widely accepted as a treatment
option for patients with chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure (HRF) arising from
different aetiologies including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
restrictive thoracic disorders (RTDs), neuromuscular disorders and obesity hypoventi-
lation syndrome [1–4]. During the application of NPPV, a face mask serves as an
interface between the biological airways of the patient and the artificial airways of the
ventilator [1, 2, 5]. Long-term NPPV is applied with the aim of improving physiological
parameters, such as blood gases, as well as outcome parameters, such as survival and
health-related quality of life (HRQL). NPPV is used intermittently and, most often,
during night, in order to preserve the potential for mobility during daytime; however,
NPPV application, predominantly during the day, has also been described [6]. The
impact of NPPV on both physiological and outcome parameters differs greatly
according to the underlying disorder causing chronic HRF. The present article
summarises the current knowledge about the impact of long-term NPPV in patients with
RTDs. Herein, the different pathophysiological conditions causing chronic HRF in
RTD patients are described, with reference to the different underlying diseases. The
present article also focuses on the impact of NPPV, on both the physiological
parameters and outcome, when used as a treatment for chronic HRF.
Pathophysiology
Different aetiologies, causing deformities of the thoracic rib cage, can lead to RTDs.
Irrespective of the underlying disease, RTDs are characterised by reduced chest wall
compliance and restrictive lung function pattern [7]. Thus, vital capacity, total lung
capacity, functional residual capacity and, to a lesser extent, residual volume are all
reduced. Furthermore, if the deformity occurs early in life, particularly before y4 yrs
of age, lung development is impaired [8]. In contrast to parenchymal lung disease,
which can also cause a restrictive ventilatory defect, pulmonary gas exchange is not
initially impaired. However, rib cage deformity can lead to increased airway resistance
following deformity of the airways. Moreover, in patients with RTDs, the respiratory
muscles are at a mechanical disadvantage due to their suboptimal contraction length.
ISSN 1025-448x.
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This causes an ineffective interaction between the respiratory muscles and the thoracic
cage. As a consequence, the load imposed on the inspiratory muscles is increased,
while the capacities of the inspiratory muscles and especially the diaphragm are
reduced [9]. This imbalance, between load and capacity, results in inspiratory muscle
insufficiency and can lead to chronic HRF; moreover, this risk of developing chronic
HRF increases with advancing age. However, coexisting conditions such as COPD or
severe obesity can accelerate the development of chronic HRF. This risk of chronic
HRF is known to be high once vital capacity falls below 1–1.5 L, although this can
occur earlier [8].
As the disease advances, RTD patients develop a rapid, shallow-breathing pattern in
order to overcome the respiratory demand and minimise the work of breathing; thus
minimising or even avoiding inspiratory muscle fatigue. However, rapid shallow
breathing, where dead space is unchanged but tidal volume is decreased, results in
reduced alveolar ventilation, as indicated by increasing arterial carbon dioxide tension
(Pa,CO2). It is, however, unclear if chronically reduced alveolar ventilation reflected by
hypercapnia, normal pH and elevated bicarbonate levels already reflect inspiratory
muscle fatigue, or whether this scenario represents a physiological mechanism for
preventing inspiratory muscle fatigue.
In RTD patients, hypercapnia initially develops during rapid eye movement (REM)
sleep, due to increased work of breathing and reduced respiratory muscle activity [10, 11].
As the disease advances, hypercapnia also develops during the deeper stages of non-REM
sleep, in the late stages during exercise [12] and, finally, during daytime at rest [8, 13].
Conditions causing restrictive thoracic disorders

In principle, chronic disorders of the sternum, ribs or spine have the potential to result
in chronic HRF. However, sternal diseases rarely cause respiratory failure, except in the
presence of an unstable chest wall, that is, the coupling of a traumatic sternal fracture
with fractures of several ribs that produce a flail segment. In these cases, the affected
chest wall moves paradoxically during respiration, often with ineffective ventilation.
Rib cage abnormalities that lead to RTDs are more often responsible for chronic
HRF. A still-common rib cage abnormality, with the potential to cause chronic HRF,
can occur following thoracoplasty, which was once a treatment for tuberculosis, prior to
the availability of specific chemotherapy. Here, a resection or replacement of the ribs
was performed in order to promote a reduction in thoracic volume, thus leading to
RTDs with the consequences outlined above. The so-called post-tuberculosis syndrome
(PTBS) is an RTD characterised by the consequences of thoracoplasty, chest wall
deformity from tuberculosis spondylitis and other residuals of tuberculosis. A more-rare
condition of RTDs is a cartilaginous disorder of the ribs called asphyxiating thoracic
dystrophy (‘‘Jeune’s syndrome’’).
Another common spine abnormality, kyphoscoliosis (KYSC; fig. 1), is a combination
of kyphosis and scoliosis that results in severe rib distortion. Although scoliosis is
usually combined with kyphosis, the latter can also occur in isolation (e.g. as a result of
severe osteoporosis). The aetiology of KYSC is heterogeneous. Neuromuscular
disorders affecting thoracic muscles, vertebral disease, acquired abnormalities of the
thoracic cage, and connective tissue disorders are all well described as conditions that
lead to KYSC. Specifically, ankylosing spondylitis is a connective tissue disorder in
which chronic inflammation affects the joints of the axial skeleton. This eventually leads
to fibrosis and ossification of the ligamentous structures of the spine, sacroiliac joints
and rib cage; although diaphragmatic function is usually spared. However, the
241
W. WINDISCH, M. DREHER
a) b)
c)
Fig. 1. – A 54-yr-old patient suffering from idiopathic kyphoscoliosis and consecutive chronic hypercapnic
respiratory failure with the need for long-term noninvasive positive pressure ventilation: a) physical examination, b)
radiograph from the spine and c) chest radiograph.
aetiology, in about 80% of KYSC patients, remains unexplained; the so-called idiopathic
KYSC begins in childhood and typically leads to chronic HRF decades later.
Mechanical ventilation for the treatment of patients with

restrictive thoracic disorders
In general, both negative- and positive-pressure ventilation can be used to treat
chronic HRF. However, negative-pressure ventilation that requires lying on the
deformed chest wall is uncomfortable, even painful, for RTD patients. In addition, the
use of bulky devices, together with the risk of upper airway obstruction and the fact that
triggering is only possible in some modern tank ventilators, has led to a decrease in the
use of negative pressure ventilation.
Historically, patients with KYSC and PTBS have been ventilated invasively via
tracheotomy, but since the late 1980s, NPPV with face masks has become the
predominant form of ventilatory support for the treatment of chronic HRF resulting
242
from RTDs [8, 14, 15]. Accordingly, a recent European survey indicated that nasal
masks are used in .80% of RTD patients [4]. Only 5% of RTD patients with the need to
receive long-term ventilatory support still receive invasive mechanical ventilation via
tracheotomy [4]. This survey also indicated that nearly one-third of the patients in
Europe receiving long-term mechanical ventilation suffered from RTDs, although
patients with obesity hypoventilation syndrome were also associated with RTDs [4].
However, a large discrepancy between countries was reported, with Denmark and
Poland reporting the lowest, and Spain reporting the highest, relative numbers of
patients with RTDs receiving long-term mechanical ventilation [4].
Both pressure- and volume-limited NPPV are being used nowadays to treat chronic
HRF [4], although there has been a shift from volume- to pressure-limited NPPV during
the last decade [16]. However, randomised controlled cross-over trials, that have
included patients with RTDs, have demonstrated that both modes of NPPV are
comparably effective on blood gases, sleep quality, physical activity and HRQL [17, 18],
although pressure-limited NPPV reportedly causes fewer side effects [17]. Inspiratory
positive airway pressures between 20 and 25 cmH2O have been recommended in the past
with an inspiratory time of 0.8–1 s, an expiratory time y2 s and an expiratory positive
airway pressure of between 2 and 4 cmH2O [8]. A sensitive trigger system is required to
guarantee synchronisation with the ventilator, thus providing maximal comfort and
high-quality ventilation.
The difficult decision about when to start long-term NPPV for RTD patients still
exists for the clinician [1]. In addition, for neuromuscular patients with various
underlying disorders causing chronic HRF, recent data have shown that physiological
parameters at NPPV onset were essentially heterogeneous [19]. Therefore, it is also
difficult to say if different underlying aetiologies causing RTD require different criteria
for NPPV indication. However, the specific complaints of patients with chronic HRF,
such as daytime hypersomnolence, excessive fatigue, morning headache, cognitive
dysfunction, depression and dyspnoea, are essential for the indication of NPPV. The
more-objective parameters, which justify the initiation of NPPV include data on gas
exchange, the most important of which is Pa,CO2; here, a Consensus Conference Report
identified two objective parameters for the initiation of NPPV, namely, Pa,CO2
i45 mmHg and nocturnal desaturations (table 1) [1].
Treatment compliance in RTD patients is reportedly high. The total percentage of
patients who discontinued treatment is indicatively the lowest in KYSC patients (20%)
and PTBS patients (24%), compared with those with COPD and Duchenne muscular
dystrophy (both 44%) [14]. This has been confirmed by recent data, which also indicate
the highest probability of pursuing NPPV in KYSC patients [16]. However, some RTD
patients do not tolerate NPPV for home mechanical ventilation; therefore, a
comprehensive follow-up is required in order to overcome problems with NPPV, as
well as to ensure optimal patient compliance [20].
Table 1. – Clinical indicators for noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in patients with restrictive thoracic
disorders, as outlined by the Consensus Conference Participants in 1999 [1]
Symptoms (fatigue, dyspnoea, morning headache, etc.) and one of the following:
Physiological criteria (one of the following):
Pa,CO2 i45 mmHg
Nocturnal oximetry demonstrating an oxygen saturation ƒ88% for five consecutive minutes
Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension.
243
Physiological effects of NPPV

Short- and long-term physiological effects of NPPV in RTD patients are shown in
table 2.
Blood gases
Improvements in blood gases following NPPV commencement have been demon-
strated by a large number of studies. In particular, there is an increase in arterial oxygen
tension (Pa,O2) and a decrease in Pa,CO2, once long-term NPPV has been successfully
established in RTD patients. Specifically, improvements in blood gases have been
achieved during not only NPPV [9, 13, 16], but also subsequent spontaneous breathing
following intermittent NPPV, that is applied most often during night [6, 9, 13, 14, 21–24].
Importantly, the improvement in blood gases can be maintained for several years
following successful NPPV establishment [14, 25]. Interestingly, daytime NPPV and
nocturnal spontaneous breathing, a seemingly reasonable and alternative approach to
treating those patients who do not tolerate the nocturnal application of NPPV, have
also been shown to effectively improve blood gases to a similar degree as nocturnal
NPPV [6].
There are currently three different theories about how NPPV improves alveolar
ventilation and gas exchange: 1) by respiratory muscle rest; 2) by resetting the CO2
sensitivity of the central ventilatory controller; and 3) via changes in pulmonary
mechanics [26]. Although the underlying mechanisms of improved gas exchange are still
debated [1], recent work suggests that the increased ventilatory response to carbon
dioxide is the principal mechanism underlying the long-term improvement in gas
exchange following NPPV in RTD patients [9]. This is also supported by the observation
that nocturnal NPPV leads to increasing daytime tidal volume, thus providing sustained
reductions in Pa,CO2 during intermittent periods of spontaneous breathing [13].
Lung function
Slight improvements in lung function parameters have been shown in RTD patients
following NPPV establishment. Here, improvements were observed in both vital
capacity [22–25, 27] and forced expiratory volume in one second [22, 24, 25]. In addition,
the increased vital capacity, following NPPV establishment, has been shown to be
related to improvements in global inspiratory muscle strength [23]. However, in contrast
Table 2. – Effects of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in patients with restrictive thoracic disorders
Short-term effects
Increased ventilation
Reduced work of breathing
Improved blood gases
Increased strength and endurance of respiratory muscles
Long-term effects
Improved exercise capacity
Back-formation of cor pulmonale
Reduced polyglobulia
Improved sleep duration and quality
Increased quality of life
Reduced hospitalisation
Prolonged survival
244
to the substantial improvements in blood gases, changes in lung function are only minor,
and structural changes of the rib cage, from which substantial improvements in lung
function might be expected, do not obviously occur following NPPV establishment.
Moreover, lung function reportedly does not improve, despite significant improvements
in blood gases [9, 21]. Therefore, improvements of lung function and pulmonary
mechanics are unlikely to be the main principles upon which NPPV acts to improve gas
exchange.
Respiratory muscle strength

Reduced inspiratory muscle strength is a common finding in RTD patients with
chronic HRF [6, 9, 13, 16, 22]. There are several studies which demonstrate an increase
in inspiratory muscle strength following successful initiation of NPPV [6, 23, 24, 28, 29].
However, only volitional tests of global inspiratory strength, namely the maximal
inspiratory mouth pressure (PI,max), were the sole means of assessment in the above-
mentioned studies. This diagnostic test is, however, highly dependent on the subject
performing a truly maximal inspiratory effort, and normal values cannot be defined
reliably [30, 31]. Therefore, the improvements in PI,max could also be attributed to
higher motivation after successful NPPV treatment. Importantly, a recent study
conducted more reliable nonvolitional tests on inspiratory muscle strength by using, for
the first time, magnetic stimulation techniques [9]. In that study, there was no increase in
measures of inspiratory muscle strength, including twitch transdiaphragmatic pressure,
following NPPV commencement in RTD patients. However, it was suggested that the
hypothesis of improved respiratory muscle function, resulting from NPPV, cannot be
completely rejected, since respiratory muscle endurance has not been tested [9].
Quality of sleep
Chronic HRF is associated with nocturnal hypoventilation and a reduction in sleep
quality [32]. RTDs exacerbate both the suppressive effects on respiratory centre output
and central chemosensitivity, and the increases in upper airway resistance that occur
with the onset of sleep [33]. NPPV has the potential to resolve this problem and
therefore relieve the symptoms of hypoventilation [28, 33, 34]. It was shown, 20 yrs ago
that NPPV is capable of improving sleep architecture in KYSC patients suffering from
chronic HRF [29]. In addition, nocturnal ventilation and sleep quality in patients with
RTDs have been shown to progressively improve over a 12-month period after NPPV
commencement, and this applied to both REM and non-REM sleep [27]. Most
interestingly, even after the withdrawal of NPPV for one night, these improvements were
still evident during spontaneous breathing; however, the most marked improvements
were evident when NPPV was used during the night.
Pulmonary haemodynamics
One study has reported an improvement in pulmonary haemodynamics in RTD
patients, whereby decreases both in mean pulmonary arterial pressures and pulmonary
vascular resistance were evident after 1 yr of NPPV [21]. Here, the mean pulmonary
arterial pressure decreased in RTD patients from 33¡10 to 25¡6 mmHg after 1 yr of
NPPV, whereas no change in mean pulmonary arterial pressure was found in patients
with COPD [21].
245
Impact of NPPV on outcome

A summary of NPPV effects on outcome in RTD patients is shown in table 2.
Survival
Observational studies have provided evidence that 1-yr survival rates reach y90% in
KYSC patients following the commencement of NPPV treatment [14, 15]; moreover,
two studies reported that the 5-yr survival rate in these patients was 79% [15, 16]. In
addition, 5-yr survival rates in PTBS patients reached 94% in one study [15], but were
found to be considerably lower (,50%) in another study [16]. This discrepancy is
presumably explained by the different mean baseline ages of patients in those two
studies, with PTBS patients being aged 61¡8 yrs in the first study [15] and 75¡6 yrs in
the second study [16]. In addition, patients with chronic HRF, that arose after
thoracoplasty for tuberculosis, were reported to have survival rates of 91, 74, 64 and
55% at 1, 3, 5 and 7 yrs, respectively, once long-term NPPV has been started [35]. In
addition, uncontrolled trials have clearly shown that KYSC [23] and PTBS patients [36]
who receive NPPV have a substantially higher survival rate than those who receive long-
term oxygen therapy alone; however, the patients who received NPPV were deemed to
be more ill, as estimated from lung function parameters and Pa,CO2. Therefore, robust
data from uncontrolled studies are now available to support the notion that survival is
clearly increased when long-term NPPV is used to treat chronic HRF that results from
RTD. While no randomised controlled trials have been performed to compare directly
the outcome of patients who receive long-term NPPV to those who do not, such trials
will, presumably, never be conducted due to ethical concerns.
HRQL
HRQL evaluation is becoming increasingly essential in healthcare practice and
research, as it provides an important means of evaluating the human and financial costs
and benefits of modern, medical-treatment modalities; this is particularly relevant to
patients with chronic and noncurable disorders such as RTD [37–39]. Cross-sectional
studies comparing patients with different underlying disorders, who had already
received long-term NPPV, revealed that KYSC patients have the overall best HRQL
compared with those with PTBS, COPD and neuromuscular disorders [15, 40, 41].
Therefore, it is noteworthy that when using the generic Medical Outcomes Study (MOS)
36-Item Short-Form Health Status Survey (SF-36) [42–44], mental health was shown to
be unimpaired, despite a marked reduction in physical health, when compared with a
normal reference population [40]. Several studies have also indicated that HRQL
effectively improves in KYSC patients upon commencement of NPPV, to treat chronic
HRF [45, 46]. Recently, the Severe Respiratory Insufficiency (SRI) Questionnaire was
developed for the purpose of specifically measuring HRQL in patients with chronic
HRF and the need for long-term NPPV [41]. Using this instrument, a very recent
multicentric prospective trial including RTD patients, mainly those with KYSC and
PTBS, has indicated a substantial increase in overall HRQL [47]. Importantly, HRQL
already showed improvement after 1 month of treatment and remained stable at this
elevated level during the subsequent year. Domains showing the strongest improvements
included ‘‘respiratory complaints’’, ‘‘physical functioning’’, ‘‘attendant symptoms’’ and
‘‘sleep and anxieties’’.
246
Exercise ability
Recent work has shown that nocturnal NPPV, applied over a 3-month period, improved
exercise capacity in patients with chronic HRF arising from RTD, whereas no change in
exercise capacity was found in the control group [22]. Furthermore, the same study also
showed that inspiratory muscle endurance improved when nocturnal NPPV was applied
for 3 months, whereas no change in respiratory muscle endurance was found in the control
group. This provides controlled evidence to suggest that nocturnal NPPV can improve
both respiratory and peripheral muscle endurance [22]. NPPV can also be applied during
exertion in RTD patients, in order to increase exercise capacity. A recent study
demonstrated in severely restrictive patients that NPPV, during exercise, significantly
improved exercise duration and tolerance and increased alveolar ventilation [48]. In
addition, NPPV applied during exercise has also been investigated in patients with PTBS.
Here, NPPV effectively supported ventilation under exertion, with consecutive reductions
in breathlessness and improvements in exercise endurance [12]. This is in accord with a
previous finding in COPD patients, where NPPV-aided exercise resulted in improved
oxygenation, reduced dyspnoea and increased walking distance [49]. Therefore, NPPV-
aided exercise is suggested to be a useful adjunct for rehabilitation programmes, which aim
to improve exercise capability.
Hospitalisation
Although no controlled studies are available, there is increasing evidence that the
need for hospitalisation decreases during the time that follows NPPV commencement.
This has been shown for both KYSC and PTBS patients (table 3) [14], as well as for
KYSC patients alone, whose days in hospital decreased from 11 to 0 days when
comparing the 6-month period preceding and following NPPV establishment [28]. In
addition, a recent study, providing long-term follow-up, showed that the mean number
of days spent in hospital decreased significantly in RTD and neuromuscular patients
following NPPV establishment: 22¡2 days in the year before NPPV; 17¡4 days in the
first year with NPPV; 6¡3 days in the second year with NPPV; 6¡2 days in the third
year with NPPV; 10¡4 days in the fourth year with NPPV; and 7¡3 days in the fifth
year with NPPV [16]. In addition, the hospitalisation rate has been shown to decrease
in KYSC patients following NPPV commencement [45, 46]. Therefore, reduced
hospitalisation following NPPV establishment, as shown by several studies, indicates
an improvement in HRQL, since the number of hospitalisations has been identified as
a main variable in predicting HRQL in patients with chronic HRF, who are receiving
long-term NPPV [50].
Table 3. – Days in hospital before and after initiation of noninvasive positive pulmonary ventilation (NPPV) in
patients with kyphoscoliosis (KYSC) and post-tuberculosis syndrome (PTBS), according to LEGER et al. [14]
Subjects n 1 yr without NPPV First year with NPPV Second year with
NPPV
KYSC 56 34¡31 6¡6 5¡9
PTBS 43 31¡29 10¡17 9¡19
247
Summary
Kyphoscoliosis with different aetiologies and post-tuberculosis syndrome are the most
common conditions causing restrictive thoracic disorders that predispose patients to
the risk of developing chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure. Noninvasive positive
pressure ventilation using face masks has become the standard means of treating
chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure that arises from restrictive thoracic disorders.
Thereby, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation has been shown to improve
physiological parameters, most importantly blood gases, and also pulmonary
haemodynamics and sleep architecture. In addition, noninvasive positive pressure
ventilation is also strongly suggested to improve important outcome parameters such
as long-term survival, health-related quality of life, hospitalisation and exercise
ability. Therefore, patients with chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure due to
restrictive thoracic disorders should be regularly offered long-term noninvasive
positive pressure ventilation.
Keywords: Hypoventilation, intermittent positive pressure ventilation, kyphosis,

noninvasive ventilation, respiratory insufficiency, restrictive thoracic disorder.
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250
CHAPTER 17
NIV and chronic respiratory failure

secondary to obesity
J-P. Janssens*, J-L. Pépin#,", Y.F. Guo+
*Division of Pulmonary Diseases and #Sleep Laboratory, Division of Psychiatry, Belle-Idée, Geneva
University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland, "INSERM ERI 17, HP2 Laboratory, University Hospital,
Grenoble, France, and +Dept of Pulmonary Diseases, Beijing Hospital, Beijing, China.
Correspondence: J-P. Janssens, Centre antituberculeux, Hôpital cantonal, 1211 Geneva 14, Switzerland.
Fax: 41 223729929; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
The epidemic of obesity is a growing concern for medical authorities throughout the
world, especially in industrialised countries. One of its consequences in these countries is a
spectacular increase in the number of patients suffering from obstructive sleep apnoea/
hypopnoea syndrome (OSAHS) and obesity–hypoventilation syndrome (OHS); both are
associated with the metabolic syndrome and, thus, with a marked increase in
cardiovascular and cerebrovascular morbidity. OHS, itself, has a severe prognosis if
untreated. In the present chapter, the major consequences of morbid obesity on ventilatory
function and ventilatory drive will be analysed, as well as the evidence in favour of
noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) as an efficient treatment for OHS.
Definition
Originally reported by BICKELMANN et al. [1], OHS is defined by obesity (body mass
index (BMI) i30 kg?m-2) and chronic alveolar hypoventilation leading to daytime
hypercapnia (arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) .45 mmHg), after exclusion of all
other causes of alveolar hypoventilation (severe obstructive or restrictive diseases, chest
wall disorders, neuromuscular diseases) [2]. Iny90% of patients, OHS is associated with
OSAHS. The remaining y10% have nocturnal hypoventilation with a normal apnoea/
hypopnoea index (AHI) [3, 4]. If not adequately treated, patients with OHS develop
pulmonary hypertension, cor pulmonale and recurrent episodes of hypercapnic
respiratory failure. Without ventilatory support, obesity-associated hypoventilation is
associated with a high morbidity and mortality [5].
Epidemiology of morbid obesity

The prevalence of obesity has risen three-fold or more in many European countries
since the 1980s [6]. According to the World Health Organization, prevalence of obesity
in Europe ranges 5–20% in males and up to 30% in females. If the prevalence continues
to increase at the same rate as in the 1990s, it is estimated that y150 million adults in
Europe will be obese by 2010. The figures show a clear upward trend, even in countries
ISSN 1025-448x.
251
J-P. JANSSENS ET AL.
with traditionally low rates of overweight and obesity such as France, the Netherlands
and Norway.
In the United States, the epidemic has taken on much more-severe proportions with a
doubling in prevalence of obesity reported over the past 25 yrs; presently 33% of the
adult population aged 20–74 yrs has a BMI .30 kg?m-2 [7]. US figures could well
account for the spectacular rise of OHS patients under NPPV (30% of US adults had
class II obesity in 2002, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention);
however, prevalence of class II and class III obesity in Europe are not sufficient for
explaining this trend. Increasing awareness of obesity-related respiratory disorders by
general practitioners and pulmonary physicians is certainly contributive to the
increasing use of NPPV in OHS.
Although prevalence of obesity is reaching epidemic proportions in many developed
countries, to date, large-scale data regarding the prevalence of OHS are not available.
However, prevalence of OHS increases with BMI, averaging ,10% in subjects with a
BMI of 30–34 kg?m-2 and increasing markedly in subjects with a BMI of 35–39 kg?m-2
(10–20%) and .40 kg?m-2 (20–25%) [8]. LAABAN and CHAILLEUX [9] studied 1,141 adult
patients with OSAHS treated by a nonprofit network for home treatment of chronic
respiratory insufficiency (the Association Nationale pour le Traitment À Domicile de
l’Insuffisance Respiratoire chronique; ANTADIR): prevalence of daytime hypercapnia
(Pa,CO2 .45 mmHg) was 7.2% in patients with a BMI ,30 kg?m-2, 9.8% for those with a
BMI 30–40 kg?m-2, and 23.6% for those with a BMI .40 kg?m-2; 11% of the whole
population had daytime hypercapnia before initiating continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP) [9]. Similarly, a Japanese study involving 1,227 patients with OSAHS
found that 14% of patients had daytime hypercapnia [10]. In that study, hypercapnia
was significantly related to severity of AHI, while BMI was a weak predictor of daytime
hypercapnia [10]. NOWBAR et al. [5] noted a similar relationship between prevalence of
hypoventilation and increasing BMI among 150 obese patients admitted to a teaching
hospital; hypoventilation increased from 35% (in subjects with a BMI of 35–44 kg?m-2)
to 71% in subjects with a BMI .45 kg?m-2 [5]. That study included hospitalised patients
potentially suffering from comorbidities, such as cardiac failure; such unstable
conditions can overestimate the prevalence of OHS. Further studies addressing the
prevalence of OHS in ambulatory obese subjects in the general population are necessary.
Impact of obesity on respiratory function

Obesity, compliance of the respiratory system and work of breathing
The most important consequence of severe obesity on respiratory mechanics is a
decrease in compliance of the respiratory system and an increase in work of breathing
(WOB). PELOSI et al. [11] measured lung compliance, resistance and WOB in sedated–
paralysed normal subjects (n510) and morbidly obese patients (n510; BMI:
49¡7 kg?m-2). Respiratory mechanics were markedly altered in obese subjects;
functional residual capacity (FRC) was about one-third of normal and compliance of
the respiratory system was reduced toy50% of that of normal subjects due to a decrease
in both lung and chest wall compliance. The loss of lung compliance was probably
secondary to micro-atelectasis in dependant areas of the lung. The decrease in chest wall
compliance was related to structural changes in the chest wall and rib cage (i.e. increased
adiposity) and to a decreased thoracic volume, bringing the chest wall pressure–volume
curve down to its less compliant segment [12]. Total lung resistance was three-fold
higher in obese patients compared with normal subjects, resulting from an increase in
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NIV AND OBESITY
both airway and lung resistance. Both elastic and resistive WOB were significantly
higher in obese subjects [12]. In a similar study, PELOSI et al. [13] demonstrated a highly
significant exponential inverse relationship between BMI and compliance. Compliance
was further reduced in obese individuals in the supine position [14].
In order to estimate oxygen cost of breathing (V9O2,RESP), KRESS et al. [15] measured
baseline oxygen uptake (V9O2) in morbidly obese patients (n518; BMI 53.4¡14 kg?m-2)
prior to gastric bypass surgery and again after intubation, mechanical ventilation and
paralysis, and compared change in V9O2 to that obtained in nonobese patients (n58;
BMI 22.2¡4.0 kg?m-2) undergoing abdominal surgery. Changes in V9O2 were highly
significant in obese patients (on average, -16%) but not in controls (,1%), obese subjects
exhibiting a five-fold increase in V9O2,RESP/V9O2 and a higher baseline V9O2. Thus, obese
subjects have a markedly increased WOB, and V9O2,RESP resulting from decreased
compliance of the respiratory system and increased total lung and airway resistance.
Obesity, lung volumes and respiratory muscles

As previously mentioned, the most consistent finding in obese subjects is a reduction
in FRC , which implies a reduction in expiratory reserve volume, breathing occurring
close to residual volume and within closing volume (CV) [16]. A significant inverse
relationship between BMI and forced vital capacity (FVC), in subjects aged .40 yrs was
noted in the Normative Aging Study (n5507); conversely, increasing BMI was
associated with an increase in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1)/FVC
ratio, and an increase in the maximal mid-expiratory flow (MMEF; probably as a
consequence of increased elastic recoil of the respiratory system) [17]. Weight changes
are associated with significant changes in pulmonary function tests. In a multicentre
study of pulmonary function testing after smoking cessation (Lung Health Study;
n55,346), WISE et al. [18] showed a significant inverse relationship between weight
changes and changes in either FEV1 or FVC; in sustained quitters, FVC dropped by
174¡15 mL in males and 106¡17 mL in females, for every 10 kg of weight gain. Severe
obesity is, thus, associated with a restrictive defect and impaired ventilation/perfusion
relationships resulting from decreased FRC and FRC-CV.
Strength of inspiratory muscles seems to be reduced, to some extent, in OHS [19, 20].
However, values reported in patients with OHS, alone, cannot explain the occurrence of
chronic hypoventilation [19]. Individuals with OHS are capable of normalising their
daytime Pa,CO2 levels by voluntarily hyperventilating [21]. Furthermore, although NPPV
with a bilevel pressure cycled ventilator has been shown to unload inspiratory muscles,
respiratory muscle strength has not been shown to improve after NPPV; thus,
respiratory muscle fatigue is an unlikely cause of chronic hypoventilation in OHS [19,
20, 22]. It is probable, however, that an adverse load/capacity ratio occurs in OHS and
predisposes to respiratory failure [16]. Acidosis and hypoxaemia encountered in severe
OHS can also have a detrimental effect on inspiratory muscle strength.
Leptin, obesity and respiratory drive

Leptin was initially described as an adipose tissue derived hormone implicated in
control of body weight and energy expenditure; receptors to leptin have been described
in the central nervous system (CNS; e.g. hypothalamus) and in peripheral tissues. Leptin
is also a modulator of the respiratory control system. Indeed, leptin-deficient mice (ob/
ob strain), which spontaneously develop marked obesity, have a reduced diurnal and,
more importantly, nocturnal ventilatory response to inspired carbon dioxide, which is
corrected by exogenous administration of leptin [23]. In fact, ventilatory response to
253
carbon dioxide is abolished during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in ob/ob mice. In
humans with OHS, increases in circulating levels of leptin are most-often reported,
suggesting leptin resistance rather than leptin deficiency (as in ob/ob mice). SHIMURA et
al. [24] studied 106 eucapnic (Pa,CO2 40.9¡0.3 mmHg) and 79 hypercapnic (Pa,CO2
46.6¡0.4 mmHg) male patients with OSAHS; circulating leptin levels were higher in the
hypercapnic group and serum leptin was the only predictor for the presence of
hypercapnia by logistic regression. Levels of leptin increased significantly with BMI,
although more in hypercapnic patients (r50.65) than in normocapnic subjects (r50.38)
[24]. Similar findings were reported by PHIPPS et al. [25], who suggest that increased
leptin in severe obesity may act, initially, to adapt alveolar ventilation to increased
ventilatory load and that failure of this compensatory mechanism may explain
hypercapnic respiratory failure. A recent report including 245 obese subjects (BMI
i30 kg?m-2) found a significant and independent inverse relationship between Log of
leptin and either mouth occlusion pressure (P0.1) or P0.1/end-tidal carbon dioxide
tension (PET,CO2); in other words, higher leptin levels were associated with a reduced
ventilatory drive and reduced response to carbon dioxide [26].
Respiratory disturbances during sleep in OHS

The pathophysiology of OHS results from complex interactions, which involve
increased WOB related to obesity, normal or decreased ventilatory drive and various
sleep-associated breathing disorders (i.e.: OSAHS and REM sleep hypoventilation).
Appropriately identifying these different respiratory patterns occurring during sleep
may help in selecting the most appropriate ventilatory support in a given patient.
Associated OSAHS (fig. 1) is present in most cases of OHS and may contribute to the
occurrence of daytime hypercapnia. The maintenance of eucapnia during sleep in
OSAHS patients requires a balance between carbon dioxide loading during apnoea and
elimination in the inter-event period. BERGER et al. [27] found an inverse relationship
between the slope of the post-event ventilatory response and the chronic awake arterial
Pa,CO2, suggesting that this mechanism might be impaired in OHS patients with OSAHS
(fig. 2). Similarly, chronic hypercapnia has been shown to be directly related to the
apnoea/inter-apnoea duration ratio. With increasing chronic hypercapnia, the inter-
apnoea duration shortens, relative to the apnoea duration [28]. There is, therefore, a
rationale to an initial trial of nasal CPAP (nCPAP) in OHS patients with OSAHS
Obesity
V´O2 and V´CO2 Compliance of Resistance of

respiratory system respiratory system OSAHS
Work of Leptin resistance

breathing or leptin deficiency
Performance of Reduced respiratory drive

respiratory muscles Ventilatory response to CO2
Daytime hypercapnia
Fig. 1. – Items contributing to chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure in obesity–hypoventilation syndrome.

V9O2: oxygen uptake; V9CO2: carbon dioxide production; OSAHS: obstructive sleep apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome.
254
NIV AND OBESITY
instead of a more complex bilevel ventilator, although, as discussed in a following

section, only a subset of subjects can be successfully managed with nCPAP alone.
The second typical respiratory abnormality taking place during sleep in OHS patients
is REM sleep hypoventilation (fig. 3). During REM sleep, rib-cage and accessory
breathing muscle activity is suppressed, particularly during bursts of eye movement;
breathing is more irregular, rapid and shallow, with a significant decrease in ventilation.
REM sleep hypoventilation is central in nature and is related to a reduction in
respiratory drive, associated with phasic REM sleep. It has been recently demonstrated
that, in OHS, the amount of REM sleep hypoventilation is significantly related with
blunted ventilatory responses to carbon dioxide and associated with increased sleepiness
[29]. When REM sleep hypoventilation is prominent, CPAP devices are ineffective [30];
the present consensus is for discouraging the use of auto-adjusted CPAP, in this
situation, and instead using a bilevel positive pressure ventilator [31].
Morbidity and mortality associated with obesity–hypoventilation

Obesity is a component of the metabolic syndrome (abdominal obesity, insulin
resistance, hypertension, low serum high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, elevated
serum triglycerides) and, as such, is associated with a higher risk of hypertension,
diabetes mellitus, and associated cardiovascular and cerebrovascular morbidity [3, 32].
OSA is related to glucose intolerance, insulin resistance and diabetes.
There is evidence for an increased cardiovascular morbidity in OHS subjects
compared with patients with similar degrees of obesity [3, 8, 33]. OHS patients are much
Sa,O2
THO
ABD
THE
+
# ¶
FLO
PTT
EO1
1 2 1 2 REM
Fig. 2. – Repetitive occurrence of obstructive apnoeas (5-min episodes). The maintenance of eucapnia during sleep is
dependent upon the post-event ventilatory response slope (#) and the ratio between the inter-apnoea duration (+) and
the apnoea duration ("). Sa,O2: arterial oxygen saturation; THO: thoracic movements; ABD: abdominal movements;
THE: buconasal thermistor; FLO: nasal pressure; PTT: pulse transit time; EO1: eye movements.
255
Sa,O2 #
THE
¶
THO
ABD
+
FLO
§ §
PTT
EO1
REM
Fig. 3. – Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep hypoventilation (a 5-min epoch is presented). Sa,O2: arterial oxygen
saturation; THE: buconasal thermistor; THO: thoracic movements; ABD: abdominal movements; FLO: nasal
pressure; PTT: pulse transit time; EO1: eye movements. #: sustained oxygen desaturation; ": predominant reduction of
the thoracic contribution to the ventilation during REM sleep; +: sustained reduction in flow; 1: reduction of
respiratory effort during phasic REM sleep reflecting reduced respiratory drive. Adapted from [29].
more likely to be diagnosed with systemic hypertension, diabetes mellitus and cardiac
failure. Obesity is, apparently, not the only determinant of these cardiovascular
consequences. A specific visceral fat inflammation and resistance to leptin demonstrated
in these patients could play a role. Leptin-resistant obese subjects may exhibit resistance
to the anorectic and weight-reducing effects of leptin while showing preservation of
peripheral actions such as increasing renal sympathetic nerve outflow and arterial
pressure, subsequently leading to hypertension [34, 35]. In humans, increased serum
leptin concentrations are associated with hypertension, myocardial infarction and
stroke, independently of obesity status [36]. Elevated plasma leptin levels also contribute
to insulin resistance and low-grade inflammation. Leptin has a pro-atherosclerotic effect
and leptin deficient mice are resistant to atherosclerosis [36]. Leptin can influence the
production of other adipokines involved in fat and systemic inflammation, contributing
to a specific inflammatory profile in OHS patients. This high prevalence of metabolic
and cardiovascular co-morbidity may explain a higher mortality rate in OHS patients.
PEREZ DE LLANO et al. [37] reported a 40% mortality rate over an average follow-up
period of 50¡25 months among 15 patients with OHS who did not accept NPPV.
Among 4,332 hospital admissions, NOWBAR et al. [5] followed 47 patients with obesity-
associated hypoventilation (BMI i35 kg?m-2) and 103 with ‘‘simple obesity’’; at
18 months, mortality was 23% in the ‘‘obesity-associated hypoventilation’’ group versus
9% in the ‘‘simple obesity’’ group. Adjusted mortality rate for patients with obesity-
associated hypoventilation (corrected for age, sex, BMI, electrolyte disturbances, history
of thromboembolism or hypothyroidism) was four times higher than that for subjects
with simple obesity.
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NIV AND OBESITY
Use of healthcare resources in OHS

BERG et al. [33] compared use of healthcare resources by patients with OHS (BMI
47¡11 kg?m-2) to two control groups (obese without OHS and general population)
during the 5 yrs before and the 2 yrs after initiation of positive pressure support; OHS
patients had an average of 11¡2 physician visits per yr versus 5.7¡0.8 for obese
controls and 4.5¡0.4 for the general population. Before treatment, OHS patients had
an increased number of hospital admissions; in the year prior to diagnosis, 70% of OHS
patients were hospitalised at least once. Risk of being hospitalised prior to treatment
was much higher than that of the general population (odds ratio (OR) 8.6, 95%
confidence interval (CI) 5.9–12.7) or of obese subjects without hypoventilation (OR 4.9,
95% CI 4.0–10.4). These differences disappeared after treatment. Similar results were
reported in Switzerland; in 32 patients treated for OHS, the number of days spent in
hospital decreased significantly between the year before NPPV therapy had begun
(26¡4 days) and the 3 yrs after starting NPPV (year 1: 17¡5 days; year 2: mean,
3¡1 days; year 3: mean, 9¡4 days), then increased slightly [19].
Noninvasive ventilation and OHS

Major factors contributing to respiratory failure and impaired gas exchange in OHS
are summarised in tables 1 and 2 and figure 1. Positive pressure support in OHS aims to
decrease upper airway resistance during sleep (pneumatic splinting, for OSAHS),
decrease nocturnal WOB by improving upper airway patency, increase FRC and thus
improve ventilation/perfusion ratio (V9/Q9) matching and, when using bilevel positive
airway pressure (BiPAP) ventilation, unload the respiratory muscles and increase
nocturnal ventilation to improve day- and night-time Pa,CO2 [38]. Because the strength of
respiratory muscles is preserved in most patients with OHS [19], NPPV most probably
improves daytime arterial blood gases through a resetting of respiratory centres and
target value for Pa,CO2. Although no NPPV-related improvement of compliance of the
respiratory system has been formally documented in OHS, improved VC, reported by
some authors, suggests a possible increase in compliance of the respiratory system after
several months of treatment [22, 39, 40].
Benefits associated with noninvasive ventilation in OHS

The first report of an alternative treatment to tracheostomy of patients with severe
OHS, cardio-respiratory failure and associated OSAHS (Pickwickian syndrome) was
published by SULLIVAN et al. in 1983 [41]; low levels of CPAP improved daytime and
nocturnal hypoventilation and nocturnal arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2). With the
advent of the BiPAP1, SANDERS and KERN [42] established that BiPAP1 could be used
to treat OSAHS at lower levels of expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP),
improving acceptance to treatment. More-recent reports showed that short term NPPV
could successfully treat patients with OHS, OSAHS and hypercapnic respiratory failure,
with a persistent correction of daytime hypercapnia. PIPER et al. [43] identified a subset
of patients (n513) with OSAHS, who were ‘‘grossly obese’’ (BMI .35 kg?m-2) and in
whom carbon dioxide retention (62¡2.5 mmHg) and nocturnal (REM) hypoventilation
persisted, despite CPAP therapy; these patients were administered nocturnal NPPV with
a volumetric ventilator for 7–18 days. A total of nine of the patients were able to be re-
established on a CPAP regimen; one had repeated episodes of daytime hypercapnia and
sleepiness and had to be put back onto NPPV; three patients were treated up to
257
Table 1. – Factors contributing to respiratory failure in severe obesity
Increase in work of breathing and oxygen cost of breathing (V9O2,RESP)

Increase in metabolic demand (increased V9O2 and V9CO2) and in total ventilation for a given effort
Decrease in compliance of the lung (micro-atelectasis)
Decrease in compliance of chest wall (increased adiposity)
Increase in upper airway resistance (when associated with OSAHS)
Increase in airway resistance (Raw)
Decrease in ventilatory drive (P0.1, ventilatory response to CO2)
Changes in ventilatory mode (increased respiratory rate, decreased tidal volume)
Respiratory muscle dysfunction
Mechanical disadvantage (inadequate length–tension relationship, decrease in FRC)
Decrease in respiratory muscle strength?
Increased respiratory load
V9O2,RESP: oxygen cost of breathing; V9O2: oxygen uptake; V9CO2: carbon dioxide production; OSAHS:
obstructive sleep apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome; Raw: airway resistance; P0.1: mouth occlusion pressure; FRC:
functional residual capacity.
3 months before being put back on CPAP. That study clearly showed that, among
markedly obese patients with OHS, there were some nonresponders to CPAP therapy
who needed long-term NPPV. It also showed that patients with hypercapnic OSAHS,
who fail to respond initially to nCPAP, may need transient NPPV as an interim measure
[43]. PEREZ DE LLANO et al. [37] described 54 patients with OHS (BMI 44¡9 kg?m-2),
87% of whom had OSAHS, followed for a mean period of 50¡25 months; 49 patients
were treated by BiPAP, and 3 only by nCPAP; all improved their arterial oxygen tension
(Pa,O2), Pa,CO2 and sleepiness scores (Epworth). Ultimately, NPPV could be withdrawn
in 5 patients, and 16 were stabilised with nCPAP. As previously mentioned, for the 15
patients who did not accept NPPV, mortality was high (40%). MASA et al. [20] showed
that patients with OHS, treated by NPPV (volume- and pressure-cycled ventilators) for
4 months because of hypercapnic respiratory failure, improved their arterial blood gases
in a similar manner to patients with kyphoscoliosis. Symptoms such as morning
headache and drowsiness, dyspnoea and leg oedema also improved with NPPV.
HEINEMANN et al. [22] reported on 35 stable OHS patients (BMI 45.9¡8.8 kg?m-2)
treated using BiPAP over 24 months; all patients normalised their daytime Pa,CO2, and
interestingly improved their total lung capacity (TLC), residual volume (RV), VC and
FRC. The authors suggest that these improvements result from opening of micro-
atelectasis and a decrease in premature closure of dependant airways during expiration.
DE LUCAS-RAMOS et al. [40] followed 13 OHS patients (daytime Pa,CO2 6.6¡0.5 kPa,
BMI 42.2¡7.8 kg?m-2), with an AHI of ,10 per h; after 12 months, all patients
significantly improved their arterial blood gases, FVC and ventilatory response to
Table 2. – Factors contributing to impaired gas exchange in severe obesity
Ventilation/perfusion mismatch and increase in D(A-a)O2

Decrease in FRC
Increase in CV
Decrease in FRC-CV
Worsening of ventilation/perfusion mismatch when lying supine
Decrease in ventilatory drive (P0.1, ventilatory response to CO2)
Nocturnal and diurnal hypoventilation
Obstructive sleep apnea and hypopnea syndrome
Repeated episodes of nocturnal desaturation
Progressive blunting of ventilatory response to CO2
D(A-a)O2: Alveolo-arterial gradient; FRC: functional residual capacity; CV: closing volume; FRC-CV: ‘‘breathing
in closed volume’’; P0.1: mouth occlusion pressure.
258
NIV AND OBESITY
carbon dioxide (change in minute ventilation (DV9E)/DPa,CO2 and DP0.1/DPa,CO2) [40].

Withdrawal of NPPV after at least 1 yr of treatment was performed in 12 OHS patients
(BMI 42.5¡7.7 kg?m-2) for 3 months; PFT, arterial blood gases and tests of respiratory
drive did not change after 3 months and respiratory polygraphy showed OSAHS in
seven out of 12 patients. The authors suggest that among patients on long-term NPPV
for OHS in a substantial number of patients, NPPV can either be withdrawn or switched
to nCPAP [44]. The follow-up period was short, however, and only 12 patients were
included. Whenever measured, subjective or daytime vigilance were also improved by
NPPV [20, 29, 37].
nCPAP or BiPAP?
Two short-term studies attempted to distinguish between obese patients who could be
treated by nCPAP alone and those who needed BiPAP. RESTA et al. [45] studied 105
OSAHS patients (confirmed by polysomnography), who underwent a first night trial
with nCPAP; 81 (77%) patients obtained satisfactory results, monitored by polysomno-
graphy, while 24 (23%) required BiPAP. Patients who necessitated BiPAP had a higher
BMI (40¡6 versus 33¡6 kg?m-2), a lower FEV1, FVC and FEV1/FVC than patients
who did well on CPAP; they also had a higher daytime Pa,CO2 (45¡6 versus
40¡4 mmHg), and a lower Pa,O2 and lower mean nocturnal Sa,O2. Among those with
OHS, only six (35%) out of 17 could be managed with nCPAP and 65% needed BiPAP
therapy. SCHÄFER et al. [46] compared 13 patients with OSAHS who failed to respond to
initial CPAP therapy with an AHI-matched control group; nonresponders were
significantly more obese (BMI 44¡8 versus 31¡6 kg?m-2, OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.1–1.6), had
a lower Pa,O2 (OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.6–0.9) and a higher Pa,CO2 (44.7 versus 38.3 mmHg,
OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.1–2.9) and spent more time with a Sa,O2 ,90% on nocturnal pulse
oximeter tracings (OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.0–1.26). In a recent randomised study, PIPER et al.
[47] found a similar efficacy for CPAP and BiPAP in OHS patients. However, the
authors themselves underlined that results were applicable to a subset of patients with
OHS only: those without severe persisting hypoventilation during initial CPAP titration.
These studies suggest that, in OSAHS patients, increasing BMI, daytime Pa,CO2 values
and REM sleep hypoventilation decrease the probability of clinical response to nCPAP
and justify treatment with NPPV.
Leptin, NPPV and chemosensitivity

As previously mentioned, leptin deficiency or, more frequently, resistance to leptin
seems to play an important role in OHS-associated decrease in ventilatory drive and
blunted response to hypercapnia. Interestingly, NPPV is associated with significant
changes in leptin levels. YEE et al. [48] studied 14 patients with OHS (BMI 41¡2 kg?m-2,
Pa,CO2 6.7¡0.2 kPa, respiratory disturbance index (RDI) 44¡35 per h). After a median
of 2.3 yrs, NPPV users (n59) had a significant reduction in leptin levels (p50.001) with
no change in BMI. Improvement in Pa,CO2 did not reach statistical significance. No
change in leptin occurred in nontreated subjects. REDOLFI et al. [49] showed an increase
in serum levels of leptin in six cases of OHS after an average of 10.3 months of NPPV.
These patients had, prior to treatment, lower levels of serum leptin than obese control
patients without OHS. Changes in leptin levels correlated positively and significantly
with changes in the DP0.1/DPET,CO2 slope. CHOURI-PONTAROLLO et al. [29] studied 15
consecutive patients with OHS (BMI 38.7¡6.1 kg?m-2, Pa,CO2 47¡2 mmHg) at baseline
and after five nights of NPPV; those with a low baseline carbon dioxide sensitivity (who
had the highest proportion of hypoventilation during REM sleep) significantly improved
259
their ventilatory response to carbon dioxide. Those patients were the sleepiest and had the
most significant improvements in objective daytime sleepiness after NPPV. The authors
hypothesised that improvements in respiratory drive resulted from improving leptin
resistance. Thus, NPPV appears to improve respiratory drive, even in short-term studies.
These improvements may be related to either a decrease in resistance to leptin or an
increase in leptin levels for subjects with low baseline leptin levels.
Survival associated with OHS treated by noninvasive ventilation

In the Geneva lake area study [19], 71 patients (33% of all patients included) were
treated for OHS (n550, BMI 41.9¡9 kg?m-2) with or without associated OSAHS. All
patients had presented at least one episode of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure and
none of the patients included was treated by NPPV solely because of discomfort or
intolerance to CPAP. Probability of pursuing NPPV was 76% at 3 yrs and 72% at 5 yrs,
the highest among all patients studied, mortality was low (6%), with a 5-yr survival rate
of 88%. BUDWEISER et al. [39] performed a retrospective analysis of 126 OHS patients
treated by NPPV and followed for 41¡27 months, survival was 97% after 1 yr, 92%
after 2 yrs and 70% after 5 yrs.
Technical aspects
Choice of ventilator
In patients with a clear diagnosis of OHS, with or without associated OSAHS, BiPAP
is clearly the ‘‘default’’ treatment reported in most studies [22, 29, 38–40, 44–46, 48–51].
Earlier reports used either volume-cycled ventilators only [52] or offered BiPAP as a
second choice, in case of intolerance to volume-cycled ventilators [20]. Among 71
patients followed in the Geneva Lake area between 1992 and 2000, 58 (82%) used
BiPAP, seven (10%) used volume-cycled ventilators and six (8%) used pressure support
ventilators such as the Breas PV4031 (Breas, Mölnlycke, Sweden) [19]. Average EPAP
levels are usually titrated to overcome upper airway obstructive apnoea or hypopnoea
(4–12 cmH2O); inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) is adjusted to optimise
daytime Pa,CO2 and/or nocturnal transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension (Ptc,CO2). The
usual mode used with BiPAP is the ‘‘S/T’’ (spontaneous/timed) mode, allowing
triggering by the patient, but with a back-up rate, which can compensate for episodes of
central apnoea, hypopnoea or hypoventilation; however, some groups use either the ‘‘S’’
mode (spontaneous) [45] or the ‘‘T’’ (controlled) mode in this indication [46].
A recent bench test study compared performances of 10 bilevel pressure cycled
ventilators designed for home care. Variations in pressurisation between ventilators were
quite substantial [53]. These observations would tend to favour the use of the ventilators
with the highest pressurisation capacities because of the markedly decreased compliance
of the respiratory system in OHS. There is to date, however, no clinical study to support
this recommendation.
Volume targeting
A limitation of BiPAP is the absence of guarantee as to volume delivered to the patient.
Volume targeting is a feature recently made available on certain bilevel ventilators (i.e.
Synchrony1; Respironics Inc., Murrysville, PA, USA; VENTIlogic1; VENTImotion1,
Weinmann, Hamburg, Germany; VS Ultra1 and Elisee1TM 150; ResMed, Sydney,
260
NIV AND OBESITY
Australia; Legendair1 and Smartair1; Covidien AG, Hamilton, Bermuda), which aims to
solve this limitation; the ventilator measures or estimates delivered tidal volume (VT)
through a built-in pneumotachograph and adjusts pressure support within a preset range
to provide a VT as close as possible to a target VT set by the clinician. Target VT
recommended by Respironics1 in obese patients is 8 mL?kg-1 (based on a BM1 of
23 kg?m-2). In a randomised cross-over study, STORRE et al. [51] showed, in OHS patients
(n510, BMI 41¡12 kg?m-2, Pa,CO2 47¡2 mmHg) that BiPAP with volume targeting (7–
10 mL?kg-1 of ideal body weight) decreased mean nocturnal Ptc,CO2 and daytime Pa,CO2
more efficiently than BiPAP alone. The impact of volume targeting on nocturnal Ptc,CO2
was confirmed in 12 OHS patients, who underwent polysomnography for two consecutive
nights with BiPAP with or without volume targeting (7–8 mL?kg-1) in a randomised order,
this improvement was however at the expense of a lesser sleep comfort, increased
awakenings, wake after sleep onset and a shorter total sleep time [54].
Conclusions
Obesity–hypoventilation has become in many industrialised countries the most
frequent indication for home noninvasive positive airway pressure [19]. This
phenomenon results from the rapidly progressing epidemic of obesity in industrialised
countries and from a greater awareness of physicians as to the respiratory consequences
of obesity through the widespread mediatisation of obstructive sleep apnoea and
hypopnoea syndrome. Although untreated obesity–hypoventilation syndrome is
associated with a high morbidity and mortality, noninvasive positive airway pressure
considerably improves survival, physiological parameters, symptoms of chronic
hypercapnic respiratory failure, and quality of life, and decreases use of health resources
(visits to physicians, hospitalisations). Noninvasive positive airway pressure seems to
improve obesity–hypoventilation syndrome mainly through a resetting of respiratory
centres and an improvement of respiratory drive. The role of leptin, leptin resistance and
impact of noninvasive positive airway pressure on leptin resistance opens interesting
perspectives as to a better understanding of hypoventilation and cardiovascular
morbidity in obesity and warrants further clinical studies.
Summary
Morbid obesity is associated with an increase in work of breathing and oxygen cost of
breathing, a decrease in compliance of the respiratory system, lung volumes, ventilatory
drive and respiratory muscle dysfunction. These changes, frequently associated with
obstructive apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome, increase the risk of chronic hypercapnic
respiratory failure and lead to obesity-hypoventilation syndrome. Untreated obesity-
hypoventilation is associated with an increased use of healthcare resources and with a
high morbidity and mortality. Although some patients may respond to nocturnal nasal
continuous positive airway pressure alone, and correct their daytime hypercapnia,
patients with higher body mass index and arterial carbon dioxide tension values will
most often require noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. Bilevel positive pressure
ventilation is the most frequently chosen option, with high survival rates and a decrease
in subsequent hospitalisations for cardiopulmonary failure.
Keywords: Healthcare resources, morbid obesity, noninvasive ventilation, obesity-

hypoventilation syndrome, obstructive apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome, respiratory drive.
261
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CHAPTER 18
NIV and pulmonary rehabilitation
N. Ambrosino, N. Carpenè, M. Gherardi
Respiratory Intensive Care and Pulmonary Diseases Unit. Cardio-Thoracic Dept, University Hospital, Pisa
and Pulmonary Rehabilitation and Weaning Unit, Auxilium Vitae, Volterra, Italy.
Correspondence: N. Ambrosino, Pulmonary Unit, Cardio-Thoracic Dept, Azienda Ospedaliero- Universitaria

Pisana, Via Paradisa 2 Cisanello, 57124, Pisa, Italy. Fax: 39 050996779; E-mail: n.ambrosino@
ao-pisa.toscana.it
Progressive worsening of dyspnoea and reduced exercise tolerance are the most
common symptoms of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In
these patients, dyspnoea leads to inactivity and peripheral muscle deconditioning,
resulting in a vicious cycle leading to further inactivity, social isolation, fear of dyspnoea
and depression. The patients become less and less mobile and reduce their activities of
daily living (ADL). Indeed in a survey of patients with severe COPD on long term
oxygen therapy (LTOT), 50% of them, suffering from Medical Research Council (MRC)
dyspnoea grade 5, did not leave the house and 78% were breathless walking around at
home and performing ADL [1].
Pathophysiology of exercise dyspnoea

Pathophysiological factors contributing to exercise dyspnoea in COPD patients
include increased inspiratory muscle dysfunction and work of breathing (WOB) due to
hyperinflation and related increased intrinsic mechanical loading i.e. the intrinsic
positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEPi) [2], increased mechanical restriction of the
thorax, increased ventilatory demand relative to capacity, gas exchanges abnormalities,
dynamic airway compression, cardiovascular factors and any combination of these
symptoms [3]. Peripheral muscle dysfunction is also an important determinant of
reduced exercise capacity in COPD [4].
Regular physical activity may reduce lung function decline and risk of developing
COPD in active smokers [5] and the risk of hospital admission in COPD patients [6].
Peripheral muscle training counteracts the increased exercise-induced oxidative stress [7]
and improves exercise capacity and dyspnoea. Multidisciplinary pulmonary rehabilita-
tion, including exercise training may offer a useful tool to improve these symptoms [8–10].
Nevertheless, in the most compromised patients, extreme breathlessness and/or peripheral
muscle fatigue limit training at the highest levels of exercise intensity prescribed in
pulmonary rehabilitation programmes.
In the last decade, there has been an increasing interest in the use of noninvasive
positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) to increase exercise capacity [11]. Given that
intrinsic mechanical loading and inspiratory muscle dysfunction contribute to dyspnoea
in COPD, assisted ventilation should provide a symptomatic benefit during exercise,
allowing for higher levels of exercise intensity. There is evidence that the WOB needed to
sustain heavy intensity exercise is correlated to a reduction in leg blood flow and has a
significant influence on the exercise performance of healthy people [12, 13]. In other
ISSN 1025-448x.
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N. AMBROSINO ET AL.
words, during leg exercise there would be a competition for blood flow between
respiratory and limb muscles. Therefore, unloading inspiratory muscles by assisted
ventilation would allow for a shift of blood flow to peripheral muscles; therefore,
promoting improvement in exercise tolerance. Indeed, proportional assisted ventilation
(PAV) [14], prevented exercise-induced diaphragmatic fatigue [15]. Several laboratory
studies have examined the acute effects of different modalities of ventilatory assistance
on dyspnoea and exercise tolerance in advanced COPD [11, 16, 17].
Continuous positive airway pressure

Theoretically, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) should reduce the
inspiratory threshold load on the inspiratory muscles of hyperinflated COPD patients
and enhance neuromuscular coupling, thus improving dyspnoea and exercise tolerance
[18–21] by counterbalancing, at least in part, PEEPi [2]. CPAP reduces the WOB and
increases exercise tolerance in patients with cystic fibrosis [22]. For maximal benefit,
CPAP should be titrated on an individual basis, in order to optimise comfort.
Nevertheless, this, theoretically, implies the measurement of PEEPi, which is rather
difficult to perform on a routine basis [23].
Pressure support ventilation

Inspiratory pressure support (IPS) is a pressure-targeted mode of mechanical ventilation,
in which each breath is patient triggered and supported, that can effectively assist ventilation
when applied noninvasively to patients in acute and chronic respiratory failure [24]. This
modality improved dyspnoea and exercise capacity by reducing the excessive load placed
upon inspiratory muscles, when COPD patients exercise [25–32]. In fact, patients with
severe COPD can sustain exercise-induced lactataemia for longer if assisted with IPS [33].
PAV
PAV is a mode of partial ventilatory assistance endowed with characteristics of
proportionality and adaptability to the intensity and timing of spontaneous ventilatory
pattern by providing inspiratory flow and pressure in proportion to the patient’s effort
[12]. Several laboratory studies have shown that PAV can increase exercise capacity of
COPD patients [34–37].
Controlled mechanical ventilation

Assist-control ventilation is a combination mode of ventilation in which the ventilator
delivers a positive pressure breath, at a preset tidal volume, in response to the patient’s
inspiratory effort. The ventilator will also deliver breaths at a preset rate if no patient
effort occurs within the preselected time period [38]. This modality of assisted ventilation
was delivered noninvasively during exercise in patients with restrictive disorders,
pulmonary tuberculosis sequelae and kyphoscoliosis, resulting in a significant
improvement in breathlessness and increase in exercise endurance [39–41].
Ventilatory assistance and pulmonary rehabilitation

The message of the previously performed physiological studies can be summarised as
follows: different modalities of NPPV, during exercise reduce dyspnoea and WOB, and
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NIV AND PULMONARY REHABILITATION
enhance exercise tolerance in COPD patients. Given the established usefulness of NPPV
in increasing exercise tolerance and reducing dyspnoea in the acute (i.e. laboratory)
setting [11], the next step would be to evaluate whether assisted ventilation could be used
as an aid, during exercise training sessions. This is an important issue, since the recent
development of new therapeutic approaches like lung transplantation and lung volume
reduction surgery make most of patients with severe COPD, even with chronic
respiratory failure, candidates for rehabilitation programmes [42–46].
Nevertheless, conflicting results have been reported on the application of NPPV in
exercise training programmes. A randomised controlled study [47] found no additional
benefit of PAV on exercise tolerance, dyspnoea and health status, when compared to
training alone. Alternatively, another similar study [48] found that mean training
intensity and peak work rate were higher after PAV-assisted than after nonassisted
training. Isoworkload lactataemia after training was more reduced in the assisted than
in the nonassisted patients. A significant inverse relationship was found between
reduction in isoworkload lactataemia after training during the constant work rate test
and peak work rate achieved during the last week of training. This was considered as a
marker of true physiological training effect [48]. Other authors have confirmed benefits
of addition of NPPV to exercise training [49–52]. Furthermore, in chronic hypercapnic
COPD under long term ventilatory support, high-intensity NPPV could also be
administered during walking, using unchanged ventilator settings compared with
settings used at rest, thus resulting in improved oxygenation, decreased dyspnoea and
increased walking distance [53].
Problems of ventilatory assistance

Despite promising, although conflicting, results, ventilatory assistance during exercise
training programmes is unlikely to have a role in the routine pulmonary rehabilitation
setting. Some problems are as follows [54]:
Interfaces. During high intensity exercise, patients may breathe through the mouth
rather than the nose, thus requiring a face mask or mouthpiece. Nevertheless,
compliance to a face mask may be not as easy.
Comorbidities. Many COPD patients have significant comorbidities [55], including a

high proportion of cardiac ischaemic disease [56, 57]. It is of concern that reduction of
dyspnoea with this kind of ‘‘mechanical doping’’ [54] might expose an unaware COPD
patient to a load greater than his/her coronary ischemic threshold.
Practicalities. In one study [47], a high rate of withdrawal, due to lack of compliance
in ventilated group, a mean 17-min spent setting the ventilator and supervising the
training session during NPPV, were practical drawbacks of the addition of mask
ventilation during a high intensity training programme. Therefore, it might not be
worthwhile submitting patients to unpleasant equipment (e.g. mask and related
troubles) with the need of the constant supervision of an individual operator, to check
for leaks and reset the ventilator when needed, and a substantial risk of lack of
compliance. Furthermore, there is a need of a one-to-one patient–therapist interaction,
which will add to the cost of a rehabilitation programme; especially in the light of the
recognised benefits of well conducted standard exercise training programmes, which do
not require either complex or sophisticated machinery, or a personalised physiothera-
pist [9, 10, 54, 58].
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Night-time NPPV and day-time exercise

Another way to use NPPV to improve results of exercise training is possible: patients
with severe stable COPD, undergoing home nocturnal NPPV and daytime exercise
training, showed a significant improvement in exercise capacity and quality of life
compared with patients undergoing exercise training alone [59]. The hypothesis, that the
observed increase in exercise performance with nocturnal NPPV may be associated with
increased quadriceps strength, was not confirmed [60].
In conclusion, noninvasive modalities of mechanical ventilation may be useful in
improving exercise tolerance and reducing dyspnoea in patients with ventilatory
limitation. The practical role of this modality in pulmonary rehabilitation programmes
is still being discussed.
Summary
Dyspnoea is the most common symptom of patients with chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD). Exercise training can improve dyspnoea and exercise
tolerance in these patients in whom higher intensity levels may be prevented by
extreme breathlessness and/or peripheral muscle fatigue. As mechanical loading and
inspiratory muscle dysfunction contribute to dyspnoea in COPD, assisted ventilation
should provide a symptomatic benefit by unloading and assisting such overburdened
ventilatory muscles.
Continuous positive airway pressure and different modalities of noninvasive positive
pressure ventilation (NPPV) applied during exercise resulted in improvement of
dyspnoea and exercise tolerance. Inspiratory muscle unloading and reduction in
intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure have been considered among mechanisms
underlying these effects in COPD patients. Nevertheless, the role of NPPV in
pulmonary rehabilitation, if any, is still controversial. The addition of nocturnal
domiciliary NPPV during a day-time exercise programme in patients with severe
COPD resulted in an improvement in exercise tolerance and quality of life.
Keywords: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, dyspnoea, exercise, fatigue,

training.
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52. Toledo A, Borghi-Silva A, Sampaio LM, Ribeiro KP, Baldissera V, Costa D. The impact of
noninvasive ventilation during the physical training in patients with moderate-to-severe chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Clinics 2007; 62: 113–120.
54. Ambrosino N. Assisted ventilation as an aid to exercise training: a mechanical doping? Eur Respir
J 2006; 27: 3–5.
55. Fabbri LM, Luppi F, Beghé B, Rabe KF. Complex chronic comorbidities of COPD. Eur Respir J
2008; 31: 204–212.
56. Le Jemtel TH, Padeletti M, Jelic S. Diagnostic and therapeutic challenges in patients with
coexistent chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol
2007; 49: 171–180.
57. Crisafulli E, Costi S, Luppi F, et al. Role of comorbidities in a cohort of COPD patients
undergoing pulmonary rehabilitation. Thorax 2008; 63: 487–492.
58. Ambrosino N, Palmiero G, Strambi SK. New approaches in pulmonary rehabilitation. Clin Chest
Med 2007; 28: 629–638.
59. Garrod R, Mikelsons C, Paul EA, Wedzicha JA. Randomized controlled trial of domiciliary
noninvasive positive pressure ventilation and physical training in severe chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 1335–1341.
60. Schönhofer B, Zimmermann C, Abramek P, Suchi S, Köhler D, Polkey MI. Non-invasive
mechanical ventilation improves walking distance but not quadriceps strength in chronic
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CHAPTER 19
NIV and chronic respiratory failure in

children
B. Fauroux*, G. Aubertin*, F. Lofaso#
*Paediatric Pulmonary Dept, Armand Trousseau Hospital, Paris, and #Physiology Dept, Raymond Poincaré
Hospital, Garches, France.
Correspondence: B. Fauroux, AP-HP, Hopital Armand Trousseau, Paediatric Pulmonary Dept, Research
Unit INSERM UMR S-893 Equipe 12, Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, 28 Avenue du Docteur Arnold
Netter, Paris, F-75012 France. Fax: 33 144736174; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
A growing population of children have chronic respiratory failure, due to conditions,
such as muscle disease, abnormalities of the airways, the chest wall and/or the lungs, or
disorders of ventilatory control. Two factors explain the important development of
noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) in this population group. First, most
of these disorders are fundamentally hypoventilation disorders. As such, oxygen therapy
alone is not only usually ineffective in relieving symptoms, but also has been shown to be
dangerous and may lead to a marked acceleration of carbon dioxide retention [1, 2].
Secondly, by definition, NPPV is a noninvasive technique that can be applied on
demand and preferentially at night, causing much less morbidity, discomfort and social
life and family disruption than a tracheostomy. But NPPV is not applicable to all
children. Noninvasive forms of mechanical ventilation are technically more difficult to
apply in infants and young children. Usually, NPPV is applied during the night and
during the daytime nap in young children. A minimal respiratory autonomy is thus an
absolute prerequisite for NPPV, even if the beneficial effects of NPPV can extend, after
a certain period, during periods of spontaneous breathing. NPPV is often used on an
empirical basis in children, with a gap between the expanding use and the lack of precise
knowledge on physiological effects. This makes it difficult to establish both the
appropriate timing of initiation of NPPV and the most pertinent therapeutic goals.
The present chapter focuses on long-term noninvasive ventilator management of
infants and children. The first section examines the diagnoses requiring ventilatory
assistance for infants and children. The second section deals with the (potential)
physiological benefits of long term NPPV in children. The third section focuses on
special considerations for infants and children concerning ventilation techniques,
equipment and practical use.
Disorders that may justify NPPV

The ability to sustain spontaneous ventilation can be viewed as a balance between
neurological mechanisms controlling ventilation, together with ventilatory muscle
power, on one side, and the respiratory load, determined by lung, thoracic and airway
mechanics, on the other (fig. 1). Significant dysfunction of any of these components of
ISSN 1025-448x.
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NIV IN CHILDREN
the respiratory system may impair the ability to spontaneously generate efficacious
breaths. In normal individuals, central respiratory drive and ventilatory muscle power
exceed the respiratory load and are, thus, able to sustain adequate spontaneous
ventilation. However, if the respiratory load is too high and/or ventilatory muscle power
or central respiratory drive is too low, ventilation may be inadequate, resulting in
hypercapnia. Chronic ventilatory failure, then, is the result of an imbalance in the
respiratory system, in which ventilatory muscle power and central respiratory drive are
inadequate to overcome the respiratory load. If this imbalance cannot be corrected with
medical treatment, the patient may benefit from long-term ventilatory support. Thus,
infants and children may require noninvasive long-term ventilatory support due to three
categories of respiratory system dysfunction: increased respiratory load (due to intrinsic
cardiopulmonary disorders, upper airway abnormalities, or skeletal deformities),
ventilatory muscle weakness (due to neuromuscular diseases or spinal cord injury) or
failure of neurological control of ventilation (with central hypoventilation syndrome
being the most common presentation; fig. 1).
Increase in respiratory load

Upper or lower airway obstruction or chest wall deformity are characterised by an
increase in respiratory load.
Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is less common in children than in adults. The
pathophysiology is also different with the predominant role of enlarged tonsils and
adenoids [3]. If tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy are not able to relieve upper airway
obstruction, then noninvasive continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) ventilation is
proposed as the first therapeutic option [4–6]. Indeed, the maintenance of airway
patency by means of a continuous positive pressure reduces the respiratory muscle
Decrease in respiratory muscles capacity

Neuromuscular disorders
Increase in respiratory load
Cystic fibrosis
Upper airway obstruction
Alveolar hypoventilation
Pa,O2 and Pa,CO2
Fig. 1. – Spontaneous ventilation is the result of a balance between neurological mechanisms controlling ventilation
together with ventilatory muscle power on one side, and the respiratory load, determined by lung, thoracic and airway
mechanics, on the other. If the respiratory load is too high and/or ventilatory muscle power or central respiratory
drive is too low, ventilation may be inadequate, resulting in alveolar hypoventilation with hypercapnia and
hypoxaemia.
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output, which translates into an improvement in alveolar ventilation. Young children

are more exposed to these problems; their small lung volumes and the progressive
maturation of sleep stages may render them particularly susceptible to the
cardiovascular consequences of increased upper airway resistance during sleep.
In children and young adults with advanced pulmonary cystic fibrosis (CF), as lung
disease progresses, with a progressive fall in the forced expiratory volume in one second
(FEV1), there is an increase in the respiratory muscle load [7]. Indeed, as FEV1 falls,
indices reflecting the respiratory muscle output, such as the pressure/time product of the
oesophagus (PTPoes) and diaphragm (PTPdi) and the elastic work of breathing increase.
Indeed, in a group of children with CF, having a FEV1 of 30–50% of predicted value,
PTPoes and PTPdi were increased 3–5-fold [7]. As a result, the patients develop a
compensatory mechanism of a rapid, shallow breathing pattern in an attempt to reduce
the increase in load. Although this breathing strategy maintains the level of ventilation,
arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) rises. Thus, in CF, an imbalance between the
load imposed on the respiratory system and the capacity of the respiratory muscles,
explains the inability of the respiratory muscle pump to clear carbon dioxide. Short-term
physiological studies, during waking and sleep, have demonstrated that NPPV reduces
respiratory muscle load and work of breathing [8–10], increases minute ventilation [8,
10] and, thus, improves alveolar ventilation and gas exchange.
Restrictive parenchymal lung diseases are difficult to manage with long-term NPPV.
Experience of NPPV in this group of patients is poor. Infants with hypoplastic lungs
may be candidates for long-term mechanical ventilation but because of their age and the
poor prognosis, they are most-often ventilated with a tracheostomy.
Chest wall abnormalities such as severe scoliosis, kyphosis or thoracic dystrophy are
among the chest wall abnormalities that may cause restrictive disease, severe enough to
require long-term NPPV. The prognosis of these children depends upon the severity,
type and evolution of the disease. In some children, the chest wall abnormalities will
cause progressive restrictive pulmonary disease, ultimately resulting in death, even with
mechanical ventilation. Other children appear to improve clinically, even in the absence
of changes in the chest wall anomaly, due to certain degree of catch-up caused by the
physiological growth.
Respiratory muscle weakness

Respiratory muscles are rarely spared in neuromuscular diseases [11]. In general,
respiratory muscle weakness is associated with inspiratory muscle weakness, which
limits inspiration, resulting in atelectasis and expiratory muscle weakness, causing
inability to cough, predisposing to pulmonary infection and hypoventilation, resulting in
inadequate gas exchange. Respiratory muscle weakness, dysfunction, or paralysis can
occur because of neuromuscular disease, or as a result of spinal cord injury.
The most common neuromuscular diseases requiring NPPV during childhood are
Duchenne muscular dystrophy and spinal muscular atrophy. Duchenne muscular
dystrophy is a progressive disorder and ventilatory failure is inevitable in the course of
the disease, although the time course of progression to it varies between individuals.
Home NPPV counteracts the hypoventilation and can improve survival [12–14].
Respiratory failure is also common in children with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).
The SMAs are inherited as autosomal recessive disorders. Severity is inversely
proportional to the amount of survival motor-neuron protein in the anterior horn cell.
SMAs range from total paralysis and need for ventilatory support from birth, to the
relatively mild muscle weakness presenting in the young adult. Diaphragmatic strength
is generally preserved and respiratory muscle weakness predominates on the other
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inspiratory muscles and the expiratory muscles [11]. Respiratory failure is less frequent
in other muscular dystrophies, such as Becker, limb-girdle and facioscapulohumeral
dystrophies. Congenital myopathies are often static [11]; however, the condition of
children may deteriorate functionally with growth because weakened muscles are unable
to cope with increasing body mass.
The importance of respiratory failure associated with spinal cord injury depends on
the level of the injury. High spinal cord injury, above C-3, causes diaphragm paralysis.
This almost always causes respiratory failure in infants and young children. NPPV can
be attempted in older children, who have a sufficient respiratory autonomy for at least
8–10 h?day-1. In patients with lower cervical cord injury, expiratory muscle function is
severely compromised, impairing cough and the clearance of bronchial secretions. As a
result, retention of secretions, leading to atelectasis and bronchopneumonia, frequently
occurs in such patients and may require short periods of NPPV during episodes of acute
respiratory failure. However, these children, with respiratory muscle weakness, often do
not have severe intrinsic or parenchymal lung disease, thus making them good
candidates for home NPPV.
Failure of the neurological control of ventilation

Disorders of neurological control of breathing, that are severe enough to cause
chronic respiratory failure, are uncommon to rare. Congenital central hypoventilation
syndrome (‘‘Ondine’s curse’’) is the most common presentation in childhood and is
characterised by the failure of autonomic control of breathing [15]. Hypoxia and
hypercapnia worsen during sleep. A tracheostomy is nearly always mandatory in infants
and young children but NPPV may be successful in older children, who sustain adequate
ventilation during waking but require ventilatory assistance during sleep [16, 17].
Benefits of NPPV
The benefits of NPPV vary according to the underlying disease. Some beneficial
effects, such as the correction of nocturnal alveolar hypoventilation are common to the
different diagnostic groups, whereas other effects, such as the increase in survival, may
be specific for a group of disorders (table 1).
Correction of nocturnal hypoventilation and gas exchange

The most obvious effect, in the paediatric population, is the correction of nocturnal
hypoventilation. Sleep is associated with changes in respiratory mechanics, such as an
increase in ventilation–perfusion mismatch, an increase in airflow resistance and a fall in
functional residual capacity (fig. 2). Although the activity of the diaphragm is preserved,
those of the intercostal and upper airway muscles are decreased significantly. Finally,
central drive and chemoreceptor sensitivity are less efficient during sleep than during
waking. All of these abnormalities explain a physiological degree of nocturnal
hypoventilation, even in normal subjects, causing a rise in Pa,CO2 of up 3 mmHg
(0.4 kPa) in adults [18]. This decrease in alveolar ventilation predominates during rapid
eye movement (REM) sleep and explains why patients with chronic respiratory failure
are vulnerable during this sleep stage. Nocturnal hypoventilation will also predominate
during REM sleep in children with OSA because of the physiological relaxation of the
upper airway muscles.
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Table 1. – Potential benefits of long term noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in children according to the
underlying disease.
Neuromuscular disorders Obstructive sleep apnoea Cystic fibrosis

Improvement in nocturnal Yes Yes Yes
hypoventilation and gas
exchange
Increase in survival Yes (in patients with Duchenne Not applicable (tracheost- Not proven
muscular dystrophy) omy is an alternative)
Improvement in lung function Not proven Not applicable Limited data
Improvement in respiratory Not proven Not applicable Limited data
muscle performance
Improvement in exercise Not proven Not applicable Yes
tolerance
Preservation of normal Not proven Not applicable Not applicable
pulmonary mechanics and
lung growth
Improvement of quality of life Yes Yes (as an alternative to Not proven
tracheostomy)
The efficacy of NPPV in relieving nocturnal hypoventilation in children with OSA has
been demonstrated in several studies. Nasal CPAP has been used by some experienced
teams for several decades [4–6]. Therapy with nasal CPAP eliminated the signs of OSA
in 90% (of 80) children in whom this treatment was tried due to the persistence of the
symptoms after adenotonsillectomy [4].
Several studies have shown the efficacy of NPPV to correct or improve nocturnal
hypoventilation in patients with CF. These patients may experience periods of
oxyhaemoglobin desaturation, during sleep, that are most marked during REM sleep
[19, 20]. A study including seven adults with CF showed that, compared with a control
night without CPAP, nasal CPAP resulted in a significant improvement in arterial
oxygen saturation (Sa,O2) during both REM and non-REM sleep [19]. However,
transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension (Ptc,CO2) measurements were not significantly
different between the control and CPAP nights. Another interesting study compared gas
exchange and quality of sleep in adults with CF during three nights: a control night, a
night with oxygen and a night with NPPV [21]. Similar significant improvements of
Sa,O2 and time spent in REM sleep, were observed during the nights with oxygen and
NPPV. Most interestingly, the night with oxygen was associated with a significant
increase in Ptc,CO2, whereas NPPV resulted in a significant decrease in Ptc,CO2.
Sleep
Ventilatory Respiratory Respiratory

drive muscles mechanics
Central drive Preservation of the activity Ventilation/perfusion mismatch

Chemoreceptor sensitivity of the diaphragms Airflow resistance
Activity of the upper Functional residual capacity
airway muscles
Fig. 2. – Physiological alterations during sleep explaining the worsening of respiratory failure during sleep.
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NIV IN CHILDREN
Sleep-related respiratory disturbances are frequent in teenagers and adults with

Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients, especially when diurnal arterial hypoxaemia is
present [22]. NPPV has been shown to be associated with a substantial improvement in
alveolar hypoventilation during both night and day, in children with various
neuromuscular diseases [23]. The benefits of NPPV may be due to combined effects
of several interrelated processes. The increase in respiratory drive is probably due to a
reduction in cerebrospinal fluid bicarbonate concentration which resets the ventilatory
response to carbon dioxide, and to an improvement in sleep quality which influences the
ventilatory response to carbon dioxide and respiratory muscle endurance [24]. In
addition, NPPV may decrease the work of breathing during spontaneous ventilation as a
result of an increase in chest wall and lung compliance due to the increase in respiratory
movements during NPPV.
Increase in survival
The improvement in survival represents a major expectation of NPPV in patients with
progressive neuromuscular or lung disease. But this benefit has only been demonstrated
in patients with neuromuscular diseases in a case series [13] and in one nation-wide
study. Indeed, the benefit of NPPV on the survival of patients with Duchenne muscular
dystrophy in Denmark was evaluated between 1977 and 2001 [14]. While overall
incidence remained stable at 2.0 per 100,000 people, prevalence rose from 3.1 to 5.5 per
100,000 people, mortality fell from 4.7 to 2.6 per 100 yrs at risk and the prevalence of
ventilator users rose from 0.9 to 43.4 per 100. Ventilator use is probably the main reason
of this dramatic increase in survival.
An increase in survival has not been demonstrated in patients with CF. In other
diseases, such as OSA, survival is not an issue, because a tracheostomy may constitute
an alternative to NPPV.
Improvement in lung function, respiratory muscle performance and exercise

tolerance
The stabilisation or slowing of the decline in lung function, by NPPV, in patients
whose disease course is characterised by a decline in lung function, such as patients with
neuromuscular disease or CF, represents a major expectation of long-term NPPV. No
data are presently available to support this hypothesis for patients with neuromuscular
disease. Recent data from the French Cystic Fibrosis Observatory have shown that
NPPV was associated with a stabilisation of the decline in lung function in patients with
advanced lung disease [25]. Indeed, 44 patients (NPPV group) were compared with
matched controls (control group), 1 yr prior to the initiation of NPPV, during the year
of NPPV initiation, and after 1 yr of NPPV treatment. Each patient of the NPPV group
was matched for a control patient for sex, CFTR genotype, age¡1 yr, weight¡2 kg,
FEV1¡10% predicted and follow up at the same centre. During the year prior to
initiation of NPPV, the two groups were comparable but at the year of initiation, the
NPPV group had a significantly greater decline in vital capacity (VC) and FEV1. After
1 yr, the decline in VC and FEV1 was similar in the two groups, demonstrating a
stabilisation of lung function decline in the NPPV group.
NPPV has been associated with an improvement in respiratory muscle performance in
patients with CF. PIPER et al. [26] reported an increase in maximal expiratory (PE,max)
and inspiratory pressure (PI,max) in four adults with CF after 1 month of NPPV.
However, improvement due to a learning effect or better motivation could not be
excluded because of the volitional nature of these tests. Significant decreases have been
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observed in PE,max and PI,max, in 19 children with CF, after a 20-min physiotherapy
session [27]. When the physiotherapy session was performed with pressure-support
ventilation (PSV) administered by a nasal mask, a significant increase of these
parameters was observed. The improvement of PI,max after the PSV session suggests that
pressure support may ‘‘rest’’ the inspiratory muscles during chest physiotherapy. The
improvement of PE,max after the PSV session could be explained by the increase in tidal
volume (VT) during PSV. During PSV, the VT tends to the total lung capacity. This
allows a larger amount of energy to accumulate, thereby facilitating expiration and
decreasing the work of the expiratory muscles.
Noninvasive CPAP ventilation has been associated with an improvement in exercise
tolerance in 33 patients with CF [28]. Indeed, 5 cmH2O CPAP ventilation resulted in a
decrease in oxygen consumption, respiratory effort, assessed by the transdiaphragmatic
pressure (Pdi) and dyspnoea score. These beneficial effects during exercise were the most
important in the patients with severe lung disease in whom the presence of intrinsic
positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may be favourably counteracted by CPAP.
Preservation of normal pulmonary mechanics and lung growth

The physiological changes in the compliance of the lungs and the chest wall play a
crucial role in the normal development of the lung. In infancy, the chest wall is nearly
three times as compliant as the lung [29]. By the end of the second year of life, chest wall
stiffness increases to the point that the chest wall and lung are nearly equally compliant,
as in adulthood. Stiffening of the chest wall plays a major role in developmental changes
in respiratory system function such as the ability to passively maintain resting lung
volume and improved ventilatory efficiency afforded by reduced rib cage distorsion. An
important point would be to know if long-term NPPV in infants and young children can
preserve a near to normal chest wall compliance, in both children with a too stiff chest,
due to chest deformity for example, or those with neuromuscular disease, exposed to
ankylosis in the costosternal and costovertebral joints and to gradual stiffening of the
rib cage because of a breathing at smaller VT and greater respiratory frequency.
Chronic hypoventilation can alter the dynamic or static compliance of the lung. The
majority of observations in patients with neuromuscular disease have shown a
significant reduction in pulmonary compliance [11]. The measurements of these patients
were of dynamic compliance reflecting abnormalities in airways rather than a true
change in the elastic properties of the lungs. Specific compliance, relating static
expiratory compliance to total lung capacity, is normal in patients with respiratory
muscle weakness. Atelectasis could explain the hypoxaemia, due to the ventilation–
perfusion mismatching.
A major concern in paediatric patients is the effect of chronic hypoventilation on lung
growth, and, as a logical consequence, the effect of NPPV in promoting or preserving
physiological lung and chest wall growth in the developing child. To the present authors’
knowledge, this has not been studied in children; however, animal models have shown
that the congenital absence of the diaphragm or the intercostals muscles is associated
with both lung hypoplasia and a lack of lung differentiation [30, 31].
Improvement of quality of life

Studies are scarce, but NPPV has not been shown to be associated with deterioration
in quality of life in children with neuromuscular disease. In a small group of children
with SMA and other neuromuscular diseases, NPPV was associated in an improvement
in symptoms of nocturnal hypoventilation, and the maintenance of the different
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NIV IN CHILDREN
modules of quality of life measures, except the physical module, which reflects the
progression of the underlying neuromuscular disease [32]. NPPV was also associated with
an improvement in quality of life in boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy [13]. Such a
benefit has not been demonstrated in patients with CF. In patients with OSA, the
alternative for NPPV is tracheostomy, which clearly puts the balance in favour of NPPV.
Criteria to initiate NPPV

Validated criteria for beginning long term NPPV are lacking in children [33]. Several
consensus conferences agree on the value of daytime hypercapnia and an acute
exacerbation to initiate NPPV because these criteria are the signature of established
ventilatory failure [34–36]. But these two classical criteria are preceded by a variable
period of nocturnal hypoventilation, during which, treatable symptoms, such as
frequent arousals, severe orthopnea, daytime fatigue and alterations in cognitive
function, may deteriorate the daily life of the patient. There is also a wide agreement to
consider that clinical symptoms attributable to nocturnal hypoventilation are most
important for the decision of NPPV. Initiation of NPPV before overt daytime
hypercapnia may thus be beneficial, not only on quality of sleep but also, according to
the underlying disease, on survival, lung growth and lung function and respiratory
muscle performance.
A major problem is thus to optimally schedule a polysomnographic sleep study in order
to document nocturnal hypoventilation. A polysomnography should be realised without
delay when the patient recognises symptoms related to sleep disordered breathing but
patients with neuromuscular disorders tend to underestimate symptoms, such as fatigue,
before using mechanical ventilation. Sleep disordered breathing may be difficult to
establish in children because of reliance on parents and second-hand caregivers, who have
a different perception of the child’s disease. Lung function parameters are poor indicators
of nocturnal hypoventilation. Thus, further studies are mandatory to establish, for every
diagnostic group, first, the most pertinent criteria which should ask for a sleep study, and
second, those which may require the initiation of NPPV.
A recent study showed that the initiation of NPPV at the stage of nocturnal
hypercapnia without daytime hypercapnia in children and adults with neuromuscular
disorders and chest wall disease was associated with an improvement in nocturnal gas
exchange [37]. Larger prospective studies, in homogeneous groups of patients, are
warranted in order to confirm the benefit of this ‘‘early’’ initiation of NPPV.
Ventilation techniques, ventilation equipment and use in children

Ventilation techniques
The type of equipment and the specific ventilator settings that should be chosen
remain a matter of debate. The specific equipment available for therapy evolves more
rapidly with industry capability rather than with clear indications available from
scientific trials.
Nasal CPAP is the treatment of choice for obstructive events during sleep [6, 38].
Upper airway patency is maintained with nasal CPAP by a pneumatic splinting effect. In
addition, it has been demonstrated that CPAP reduces the work of breathing in patients
with flow limitation [39, 40]. In such patients, CPAP overcomes the inspiratory
threshold imposed by auto-PEEP, and pneumatically splints the airways to prevent
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dynamic collapse during exhalation. Thus, if the main indication of CPAP is OSA, it is
also advocated in obstructive lung disease, when intrinsic PEEP increases the work of
breathing; however, because upper airway loading with complete or partial obstruction
and intrinsic PEEP are not the sole mechanisms of hypoventilation, CPAP should be
insufficient in patients with respiratory function abnormalities.
Volume-targeted ventilation is characterised by the delivery of a fixed, predetermined
VT. The main advantage of this mode is that a guaranteed minimal VT is delivered, but
this can result in detrimentally high inspiratory airway pressures causing discomfort and
poor tolerability. Despite many of the volume-targeted ventilators having no leak
compensation mechanisms, this mode is suited to patients with neuromuscular diseases,
where the ventilator acts as a substitute for the weakened respiratory muscles, which are
unable to trigger the ventilator. However, a relatively high back up rate (2–3 breaths
lower than the spontaneous respiratory rate of the patient) is required to avoid
nocturnal desaturations, and, as a consequence, many patients adopt a controlled mode
without triggering the ventilator. Also, the inspiratory triggers of these ventilators are
not very sensitive, which is another factor justifying the use of a relatively high back up
rate [9, 41]. Initial studies with long term NPPV in children with neuromuscular disease
and CF have used volume-targeted devices [42, 43]. These ventilators designed for home
use are relatively portable. They are not as technologically sophisticated as hospital
ventilators. Furthermore, few of them are capable to operate within certain limits (i.e.
VT ,50–100 mL).
PSV is pressure-targeted, during which each breath is triggered and terminated by the
patient and supported by the ventilator; the patient can control their respiratory rate,
inspiratory duration and VT [44]. This explains the relative ease in adapting to, and the
greater comfort and synchrony of this mode. In contrast to volume-targeted ventilation,
VT is not predetermined but depends on the level of PSV, the inspiratory effort of the
patient and the mechanical properties of the patient’s respiratory system. During this
mode, since there are no mandatory breaths present, an in-built low-frequency back-up
rate is used to prevent episodes of apnoea. Furthermore, because the breaths are
triggered by the patient, the sensitivity of the trigger is crucial. The sensitivity of the
inspiratory triggers of the different ventilators designed for the home is variable but
some are as sensitive as those of intensive care devices [41, 45]. Because, during PSV,
inspiratory muscle activity may influence respiratory frequency and VT, this ventilatory
mode is generally proposed in patients who can breathe spontaneously for substantial
periods of time and require mainly nocturnal ventilation.
Bi-level PPV is the combination of PSV and PEEP, permitting an independent
adjustment of expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP) and inspiratory positive
airway pressure (IPAP). In this condition upper airway obstruction and/or work of
breathing induced by intrinsic PEEP are prevented by EPAP and thus PS can be
triggered easily by the patient. This ventilatory mode has been used in children with
OSA, CF [46, 47] and neuromuscular disease [46, 48, 49].
For all ventilatory modes, alarms must be correctly set. When positive pressure
ventilators are used, low pressure or disconnect alarms are classically present. Alarms for
high pressure, incorrect timing and power failure are also frequently present. The alarm of
a minimal VT is very useful in children. A back-up frequency is generally set on the
ventilator. All these alarms must be carefully checked before the discharge of the patient.
Interfaces
The necessity of interfaces, specifically designed for children, represents an important
technical limitation of NPPV in paediatric patients. In adults, four different types of
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interfaces are used: full face masks (enclose mouth and nose); nasal masks; nasal
pillows or plugs (insert directly into the nostrils); and mouthpieces. Nasal pillows and
plugs are too large for children and mouthpieces require a good co-operation and are
difficult to use in neuromuscular patients. In young children, nasal masks are preferred
because they have less static dead space, are less claustrophobic and allow
communication and expectoration more easily than full face masks. Nasal masks
allow also the use of a pacifier in infants, which contributes to the better acceptance of
NPPV and the reduction of mouth leaks; however, few industrial masks are available
for children. This shortcoming is even more important for infants. Most often, NPPV
is thus restrained to some highly specialised paediatric centres which have the
possibility of manufacturing custom-made masks for infants and children who can not
use industrial masks [50].
The nasal interface represents a crucial determinant of the success of NPPV. The
patient will be unable to tolerate and accept NPPV in case of facial discomfort, skin
injury or significant air leaks. The evaluation of the short term tolerance of the nasal
mask is thus an essential component of NPPV [50]. NPPV is generally used during sleep,
which can represent the major part of the day in young infants. In these young patients,
there is a potential risk of skin injury and facial deformity, such as facial flattening and
maxilla retrusion, caused by the pressure applied by the mask on growing facial
structures. These potential side effects justify the systematic follow up of children
receiving NPPV by a paediatric maxillo-facial specialist.
Additional therapies
Oxygen therapy at home must be justified on the basis of an individual-based medical
necessity, as determined by appropriate physiologic monitoring, such as Sa,O2 during
periods of sleep, wakefulness, feeding and physical activity and arterial blood gases. CO2
should be minimised first by ventilator use before considering oxygen therapy, especially
for patients with neuromuscular disorders and OSA. It is important to remember that
supplemental oxygen is not a replacement for assisted ventilation in patients who
hypoventilate.
Systematic humidification of the ventilator gas is not necessary for NPPV because of
the respect of the upper airway. However, nasal intolerance, due to excessive dryness can
resolve after humidification of the ventilator gas.
The maintenance of an optimal nutritional status is of major importance. Chronic
respiratory insufficiency is associated with an increased energy demand, feeding
difficulties and poor caloric intake. Swallowing problems may occur in patients with
neuromuscular disease [51]. In some patients, gastrostomy may be a useful adjunct
therapy to NPPV and contribute to postponing the time of a tracheostomy [51, 52].
It is essential that the child, if the age permits it, and the parents should have the
opportunity to discuss NPPV therapy in advance. Discussion should start long enough
before the anticipated need, to allow the child and the family to evaluate options
thoroughly and to discuss their feelings. NPPV, here, has an essential first place as a
noninvasive therapy but still represents an objective element reflecting a further step in
the severity of a disease. It is crucial to determine short- and intermediate-term goals of
NPPV with the child and the family and to explain the principles of NPPV. A wide
range of ventilators and masks are available and great care will be taken to choose the
most appropriate equipment and settings. The final objective is that NPPV translates
into well-being and a better quality of life with a total adherence of the child and their
family.
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Contraindications, side effects and limits of NPPV

The general point-of-view is that NPPV is preferred over invasive mechanical
ventilation as the first therapy of chronic respiratory failure. However NPPV is
contraindicated in some circumstances (table 2) [53]. NPPV is also contraindicated in
case of recent pneumothorax, which can occur in patients with advanced CF lung
disease. Pneumothorax can also occur as a side effect of NPPV in patients with
neuromuscular disorders [54]. In patients with CF, nasal polyps are common and should
be treated before the initiating of NPPV.
Side effects are common; they are caused by the interface and the delivery of a positive
pressure. In the present authors’ experience, skin injury, from transient erythema to
permanent skin necrosis, due to the nasal mask, has been observed in 53% of the 40
patients during their routine 6-months follow-up [50]. In young children, there is also a
potential risk of facial deformity, such as facial flattening and maxilla retrusion, caused
by the pressure applied by the mask on growing facial structures. These potential side
effects justify the systematic evaluation before the initiation and during the follow up of
children receiving NPPV by a paediatric maxillo-facial specialist. Abdominal distension
is an uncommon problem which can be lessened by switching to a PSV or decreasing the
VT on a volume-targeted ventilator [53].
NPPV is not always successful in adequately relieving hypoventilation. Air leaks have
been shown to be an important cause of persistent hypercapnia in both invasively and
noninvasively ventilated neuromuscular patients [55]. In these patients, simple practical
measures such as changing the mask, using a chin strap, increasing minute ventilation
and changing the type of the ventilator, were able to reduce the volume of air leaks and
improve the efficacy of ventilation [55].
In patients with neuromuscular disease, cough assisted techniques are useful when
ventilatory dependence is increasing. Several techniques are available such as manual
physiotherapy, intermittent positive pressure breathing, and mechanical insufflation-
exsufflation [56-59]. These techniques, associated with daytime ventilation by means of a
mouthpiece [60], extend the use of NPPV in patients having increasing ventilatory
dependency. However, despite these measures, in progressive diseases such as some
neuromuscular diseases, a tracheotomy will become necessary at a certain moment.
Close monitoring of the patient’s physiological status and disease progression, together
with clear information of the family are essential. Technical problems, especially with
regards to the nasal mask and the ventilator equipment, frequently limit the use of
NPPV in infants. Because noninvasive ventilation leaves airway protection, those with
copious secretions or severe swallowing dysfunction may respond poorly, requiring the
discussion of a tracheostomy with the patient and their family.
Table 2. – Contraindications for noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV). Adapted from [53]
Relative contraindications
Severe swallowing impairment
Inadequate family/caregiver support
Need for full-time ventilatory assistance
Absolute contraindications
Complete persistent upper airway obstruction during NPPV
Uncontrollable secretion retention
Inability to co-operate
Inability to achieve adequate peak cough flow, even with assistance
Inadequate financial resource
Inability to fit an interface
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In conclusion, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation is increasingly used in

children and infants. Unfortunately, in this age group, this therapy is generally initiated
on an empirical basis. Further studies are urgently needed to determine the most
pertinent criteria to initiate noninvasive positive pressure ventilation according to the
disease and the age of the patient; to evaluate the long term benefits, with regard to the
increase in survival, stabilisation in the decline in lung function and respiratory muscle
performance; to promote lung growth and respiratory mechanics; and, most
importantly, to improve the quality of life of the child and their family.
Summary
Domiciliary noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) is increasingly used in
children. Three categories of respiratory system dysfunction can justify long term
NPPV: an increase in respiratory load (due to intrinsic cardiopulmonary disorders or
skeletal deformities); respiratory muscle weakness (due to neuromuscular diseases or
spinal cord injury); or failure of neurologic control of ventilation (such as the central
hypoventilation syndrome). In these different diseases, the role of NPPV will be to
respectively unload the respiratory muscles, to replace the respiratory muscles or to
replace central drive, in order to correct alveolar hypoventilation. The benefit of
NPPV on nocturnal and daytime gas exchange has been demonstrated in children.
Other effects, such as an improvement of lung function, respiratory muscle
performance or respiratory mechanics, are less well documented. The effect of
NPPV on lung growth is an important point that needs to be investigated. The type of
equipment and the specific ventilator settings that should be chosen remain a matter
of debate and evolve more rapidly with industry capability than with clear indications
available from scientific trials. The major advantage of NPPV is that it can be applied
at home, combining greater potential for psychosocial development and family
function, at a lesser cost. The use of home NPPV requires appropriate diagnostic
procedures, appropriate titration of the ventilator, co-operative and educated families
and a careful, well-organised follow up. NPPV represents a challenge for the future
whose objective is to improve the well-being of a child with chronic respiratory
insufficiency and his or her family.
Keywords: Alveolar hypoventilation, children, chronic respiratory insufficiency, home

care, noninvasive mechanical ventilation.
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CHAPTER 20
NIV and palliative care
R. Scala*, S. Nava#
*Respiratory Unit, Ospedale San Donato di Arezzo, Arezzo, and #Respiratory Intensive Care Unit,
Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri, IRCCS, Istituto Scientifico di Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
Correspondence: S. Nava, Respiratory Intensive Care Unit, Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri, Via Maugeri
n.10, 27100 Pavia, Italy. Fax: 39 0382592075; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Thanks to modern pharmacological and nonpharmacological approachs (i.e. long-
term oxygen therapy and home mechanical ventilation), pulmonologists are able to
prolong the survival of patients with chronic respiratory diseases until very advanced
stages of their natural course [1]. However, the increase in the survival rate is not always
associated with a satisfactory quality of life since an impaired lung function is often
associated with a limitation in the patients’ activities of daily living (ADLs) and with
discomfort and distress (i.e. dyspnoea, weakness, depressive symptoms) [2, 3].
It is known that, with the technological innovations in both the diagnosis and the
multidisciplinary treatment, the mortality rate, at least for selected types of both solid
cancers and haematological malignancies, has been reduced. However, patients with
malignant neoplasms may often develop respiratory complications related to the
underlying disorder and/or the aggressive treatment strategy; this may adversely affect
their outcome even if intensive care measures are adopted [4].
For both clinical scenarios (i.e. end-stage non-neoplastic respiratory diseases and
respiratory complications in malignancies), prolonging survival is not always a desirable
goal to achieve for both the physician and the patient according to the modern vision of
patient-centred management of diseases [3]. Conversely, palliation of symptoms and
shared end-of-life decisions are the main target of the care in order to maintain human
dignity in death [5].
With the introduction of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) to treat acute respiratory
failure (ARF) of different aetiologies y20 yrs ago, classical outcome measures, such as
hospital mortality, need for endotracheal intubation, complications of invasive
ventilation and length of hospital stay, have been drastically improved [6]. The
feasibility and usefulness of NIV in the palliative care of patients with ARF near the end
of their lives is still not well demonstrated [5, 7]. In the present chapter, the rationale and
the little available literature about this nonconventional use of NIV in end-stage non-
neoplastic chronic respiratory diseases and in malignancy will be widely discussed.
ISSN 1025-448x.
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End-stage non-neoplastic respiratory diseases

Clinical and ethical scenario of end-of-life decisions
Although advances in medicine have greatly improved the ability to treat seriously ill
patients and prolong life, there is increasing recognition that extension of life might not
always be an appropriate goal. This is particularly true for patients with end-stage
chronic respiratory failure for whom palliative care plays a crucial role within the
complex ethical and medical burden of end of life. As a matter of a fact, in that subset of
patients with poor life expectancy, who are commonly admitted to general and
respiratory intensive-care settings for the management of what could be the ‘‘terminal’’
episode of ARF, the palliation of symptoms (e.g. dyspnoea) should be one of the more
important ‘‘musts’’ for physicians who have to face the dilemma of end-of-life decisions
[2, 3, 8, 9].
Pulmonary physicians, especially those dealing with mechanical ventilation, are facing
the problem of end-of-life decisions in critically ill patients affected by acute or chronic
respiratory disorder everyday. End-of-life decisions include several kinds of practice,
which show substantial differences among each other despite a potential overlap
between some of them (table 1) [8–11].
The overall incidence of these practices in Europe and the rest of the World is only
partially known and, even more importantly, it has been shown that there are important
differences between countries or regions, reflecting the absence of a common strategy
even within the European Community [10–17].
A very recent survey performed on behalf of the European Respiratory Society to
assess end-of-life practices in .6,000 patients with chronic respiratory diseases admitted
to European respiratory intermediate care units (RICUs) and high-dependency units
over a 6-month period, reported that an end-of-life decision was taken in 21.5% of cases
with significant differences in some practices (i.e. ‘‘do not intubate’’ (DNI)/‘‘do not
resuscitate’’ (DNR)) between northern and southern countries [11].
In everyday clinical practice it is often difficult to identify the ‘‘ideal’’ candidate for
this dramatic end-of-life decision. In fact, it is almost impossible to always determine the
preference of individual patients; indeed patient preference may change over time with
changing circumstances [3, 18]. The decision to withhold or withdraw life-sustaining
treatment is often hindered by prognostic uncertainly, since it is usually difficult to
identify at an early stage and without reasonable doubts, those patients who will
inevitably die. Typically the prognosis only becomes obvious late in the evolution of the
acute illness and not, for example, when the patient is admitted to the hospital.
Table 1. – End-of-life decisions in patients with acute or chronic respiratory failure
Withholding A planned decision not to institute therapies that were otherwise warranted (i.e. intubation, renal
replacement therapy, increased doses of vasopressor infusions, surgery, transfusion,
nutrition and hydration).
Withdrawal Discontinuation of treatments that had been started (i.e. decreasing fraction of inspired oxygen
to 21%, extubation, turning off the ventilator, suspend the vasopressors etc.).
Palliative sedation Consists of pain and symptom treatment with the possible side effect of shortening life.
Euthanasia From the Greek words eu hanatos meaning ‘‘good death’’. It means that a doctor is intentionally
killing a person who is suffering unbearably and hopelessly at the latter’s voluntary, explicit,
repeated, well-considered and informed request.
Physician-assisted It means that a doctor is intentionally helping/assisting/co-operating in the suicide of a person
suicide who is suffering unbearably and hopelessly at the latter’s voluntary, explicit, repeated, well-
considered and informed request. These acts do not include withholding or withdrawing
treatments although these latter may occur prior to physician-assisted suicide.
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Unfortunately the available severity scoring systems such as the Acute Physiologic and
Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) and Simplified Acute Physiologic (SAPS)
scores, do not predict outcome in individual patients with sufficient accuracy to be
useful in end-of-life decision making [15].
In a prospective survey conducted in French ICUs, FERRAND et al. [16] showed that,
among the patients with chronic illness prior to ICU admission (i.e. cirrhosis, malignant
diseases, AIDS, chronic heart failure, chronic respiratory failure, chronic neurological
and psychiatric diseases), the proportions of patients with cirrhosis, severe cardiac or
respiratory insufficiency and solid cancer were significantly higher in the group with
decisions to withdraw or withhold therapy, than in the group without decisions.
Recently, COOK et al. [17] demonstrated that the strongest determinants of the
withdrawal of ventilation were the physician’s perception that the patient preferred not
to use life support, the physician’s predictions of a low likelihood of survival in ICU and
poor cognitive function.
Similarly, the recent European pulmonologist survey confirmed that the indications
given for withdrawing and withholding treatment, as well DNI/DNR decisions, were
highly related to the judgement of the involved physician [11].
The results of these surveys highlighted the idea that a reduced life expectancy may
influence the end-of-life decision of the physician and this may hold particularly true for
the subset of patients affected by end-stage chronic respiratory failure (i.e. chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, other neuromus-
cular diseases, and pulmonary fibrosis). Additionally, the way in which end-of-life
decisions were handled is likely to be influenced by other factors, such as age, religion,
skill and experience of the attending physician [18]. Last, but not least, the existing local
legislation and guidelines concerning the end-of-life decision may vary dramatically
among the different European countries [11]: in the Netherlands, withholding,
withdrawal and euthanasia are legally covered in the law on contracts for medical
treatment [19]; in Belgium, despite there being no law covering end-of-life care in the
ICU, it is no longer a criminal offence to commit euthanasia if several strict conditions
are fulfilled [20]; conversely, in Italy, the legal context of end-of-life decision is very
confused due to the lack of specific laws, and the decision must be made on the basis of
civil and penal codes of law that date from the 1940s [21].
Mechanical ventilation near the end of life

Mechanical ventilation is one of the life-sustaining measures which is much more
involved in the end-of-life decision and, therefore, raises controversial ethical issues for
what withholding and withdrawing concern, especially in end-stage chronic lung
diseases [8, 11]. With any life-sustaining interventions, the decision of the institution, or
for discontinuation of mechanical ventilation, should be based on the analysis of the
balance between beneficence and maleficence, which needs an up to date understanding
of what mechanical ventilation could achieve for the patient and the burden that it will
impose (table 2) [9].
A good communication between physician and patient is essential to reach a shared
end-of-life decision about mechanical ventilation in end-stage respiratory patients.
Physicians should target their chronic respiratory patients for efforts to improve
patients’ education about diagnosis and disease process, treatment, prognosis, what
dying might be like and advance care planning. In order to address these issues, DALES
et al. [18] developed and tested an aid to assist COPD patients with making decisions
concerning mechanical ventilation. From that study, it can be concluded that, with the
help of an informative aid (i.e. an audiocassette and a booklet describing intubation and
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Table 2. – Use of noninvasive ventilation near end of life
Pro Con
May prolong survival May unduly delay the process of dying
May improve quality of life May increase depression and anxiety
May improve quality of dying May increase suffering
May improve communication May increase hospital costs
May give time to say good bye and solve ‘‘open’’ Withdrawing may be difficult
personal problems
May improve dyspnoea and discomfort Discharge at home may be impossible without a ventilator
mechanical ventilation and its possible outcomes), a firm decision may be made easier by
patients with satisfaction and confidence.
Unfortunately, several studies [9–14, 22] have shown that inadequate and insufficient
communication between the medical staff and the members of the family is a key issue.
For example, it has been reported that, in some countries (i.e. Sweden and Italy), in
.50% of patients (competent and incompetent) undergoing end-of-life decisions, these
issues were discussed with neither the patient nor relatives [14]. Similarly, in a recent
European survey performed specifically on advanced chronic respiratory disorders, only
a relatively small percentage of the patients (,40%) participated in end-of-life decision
making [11].
Even when it was performed, the outcome of mechanical ventilation is often discussed
without the correct emphasis on its burden. FRIED et al. [23] have assessed how
treatment preferences are affected by the burden of treatment (i.e. length of stay in
hospital, extent of tests, invasiveness of interventions), as well as the outcome, in a
groups of patients with COPD, cardiogenic pulmonary oedema (CPO) or cancer. The
authors showed that the burden of treatment had a significant impact on decision
making, as 98.7% of participants would accept a low-burden treatment if it restored
current level of health while only 11.2% of them would refuse high-burden treatment
that produced a similar outcome. Alternatively, .70% of the patients would reject a
low-burden treatment that resulted in a severe functional or cognitive impairment.
Interestingly, for the three age-matched categories of patients, although there was no
difference in treatment preferences, subjects with COPD had the worst perceived health
and functional levels.
Finally, it should not be forgotten that the awareness of the prognosis of end-stage
respiratory patients, such as those with COPD, could be strongly influenced by mass
media (i.e. educational television programmes) [24].
NIV in end-stage lung diseases

Patients with end-stage chronic respiratory diseases may be the ‘‘ideal’’ candidate for
the limitation of life support treatment [25]. However, a nihilistic behaviour of
physicians towards such kind of respiratory patients may not be always appropriate,
since ‘‘alternative’’ methods of life support (i.e. NIV) may be successfully employed in
the case of severe acute or chronic respiratory failure in patients with end-stage
respiratory disease, not judged to be appropriate for intubation [5, 7]. In the European
survey [11], the use of NIV as the treatment ceiling together with withholding of
mechanical ventilation and DNR orders accounted for .80% of end-of-life decisions.
Moreover, withdrawing was rarely used in European RICUs, mainly because NIV was
used as the ceiling of ventilatory care in almost a third of the patients. Indeed, NIV has
increasingly been used as an alternative to invasive ventilation in patients with a DNI
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order [26–31]. It is clear that the availability of a noninvasive tool to sustain ventilation
in end-stage respiratory patients has changed in recent years and is likely to greatly
modify the behaviour of physicians and patients towards the possibilities of end-of-life
decision making.
This option of using NIV in end-of-life decisions is particularly emerging in RICUs
where a European epidemiological survey has clearly shown that a large majority of
patients with end-stage chronic respiratory disorders are treated by pulmonologists [32].
This is not surprising, as RICUs differ substantially from classical ICUs in terms of
patient population, staffing, monitoring systems and the use of NIV as the preferred
ventilatory approach, where applicable. Furthermore, a very recent American survey
showed that the stated use of NIV and the confidence on its utility in end-of-life patients
was greater for pulmonologists than for intensivists [7]. This discrepancy could be due to
the belief that NIV relieves dyspnoea is greater in pulmonologists than in intensivists. A
pulmonologist’s point of view may be also influenced by caring for end-stage respiratory
patients over the entire spectrum of their illness compared with the greater focus on
acute care among intensivists.
The overlap existing between some definitions of end-of-life decision practices may be
a cause of confusion for both physicians and patients. For example, the use of NIV as
the treatment ceiling may be considered similar to a DNR/DNI order and, alternatively,
in some instances as a ‘‘full’’ form of ventilatory support. Perhaps the time has come to
add the term ‘‘do not noninvasively ventilate order’’ to the DNI/DNR orders.
Goals of NIV for palliative care

Although NIV is a widely accepted treatment for selected patients with ARF who
desire maximum life-prolonging treatment without preset limits on advanced life
support measures, the palliative use of NIV in patients, who have decided to forego
endotracheal intubation, and in those with end-stage respiratory disease is still
controversial, according to several clinical studies and two position papers [5–8].
Some authors have proposed the palliative use of NIV in this scenario to alleviate
respiratory distress, to allow the communication and/or to provide additional time to
finalise personal affairs and to come to terms with death [33]. Conversely, other authors
consider this use to be inappropriate because NIV is still a form of life support even if
delivered noninvasively by a mask, which may itself cause discomfort and may
unnecessarily prolong the dying process, while diverting critical care resources away
from other patients more likely to survive [34].
Clinicians themselves may be unclear about the goals of NIV when applied in end-of-
life conditions, with adverse consequences, including unmet or conflicting patient/family
expectations, inappropriate use of medical resources, inadvertent prolongation of dying
process, intensification of patient/family anxiety and psycho–physical stress [5]. Specific
concerns have been raised about whether patients and their families have an adequate
discussion and a clear understanding about the goals of care when NIV is used in the
end-of-life context: DNI/DNR and/or ‘‘comfort measures only’’ (CMO) [35]. Physicians
should be aware and should clearly understand that when NIV is applied with palliative
aims, the aim is not patient survival but symptom control.
It must be kept in mind that, compared with other fields of medicine, evidence-based
guidelines or recommendations are difficult to establish for what end-of-life care
concerns. This is particularly true for NIV indications in end-stage respiratory patients
due to their complex and dynamic ethics and medical connotations. However, an
attempt to clarify the rationale of the application of NIV in patients with end-of-life
decisions is helpful for both physicians and patients/families to better understand the
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expected benefits and the potential disadvantages of NIV and to stimulate an active and
dynamic communications between patient and caregiver.
Very recently, a Task Force on the ‘‘Palliation Use of NIV’’ from the Society of
Critical Care Medicine [5] suggested classifying the use of NIV, for patients with ARF,
into three categories: 1) NIV as life support with no preset limitations on life-sustaining
treatments; 2) NIV as life support when patients and families have decided to forego
endotracheal intubation; and 3) NIV as a palliative measure when patients and families
have chosen to forego all life support, receiving CMO. The Task Force suggested an
approach to the use of NIV for patients and families who choose to forego endotracheal
intubation. NIV should be applied after careful discussion of the goals of care, with
explicit parameters for likelihood of success and failure, by experienced personnel, and
in appropriate healthcare settings. It is important to acknowledge that individual
patients may transition from one category to another as the goals of the care or the risk/
benefit balance of NIV dynamically change [5].
The difference in goals of NIV, when applied for palliative purpose compared with
‘‘conventional’’ use, must be stressed. In the first category of patients, without preset limits
on the provision of and advance life support (i.e. endotracheal intubation) NIV must be
considered successful only if it improves gas exchanges, is reasonably tolerated and
provides an efficient support to buy time to treat the precipitating cause of ARF. In this
scenario, even though it is important for the patient to be comfortable on NIV, they may
be encouraged to tolerate some discomfort for a short time if NIV is improving
oxygenation and ventilation and is likely to avoid endotracheal intubation and to survive.
NIV will be discontinued in case of successful ability of the patient to breath
spontaneously without mechanical support or in case of either NIV failure or poor mask
tolerance, with the need for invasive ventilation [6, 36]. Moreover, a reduced level of
consciousness is not an absolute contraindication for NIV, in this subset of patients,
provided that NIV is used in only a close monitored setting with a skill and experienced
clinical team ready to intubate the patient if their sensorium does not improve quickly [37].
The goals and the time for discontinuation of NIV are similar for those patients who
decline endotracheal intubation and invasive mechanical ventilation, with the difference
that NIV will be withdrawn if not successful and/or tolerated any longer, and CMO will
be intensified. From the ethical point of view, before the application of NIV to DNI
patients, it is crucial to have their informed consent [5, 9].
Additionally, patients belonging to a third category, such as those at the end stage of a
chronically progressive disease (i.e. COPD, neuromuscular disorders and chronic heart
failure) or those with terminal malignancy, do not want any form of life-prolonging
therapy as their baseline quality of life is found unacceptable despite a maximal therapy.
In this subset of patients, who choose CMO to palliate their symptoms, NIV will be
considered successful only if it improves dyspnoea, without having negative
consequences, and improves the ability to communicate with the family [38]. In contrast
to the other categories, patients in this category should not be encouraged to tolerate the
discomfort associated with NIV because the goal of the chosen therapy is only the
palliation of the symptoms and not the improvement of physiological parameters.
Consequently, NIV should be discontinued if patients feel that NIV is not making them
more comfortable. In this scenario, there is no sense in providing NIV to patients who
are unable to communicate (i.e. have a decreased level of consciousness) as they could
not feel the potential impact of NIV on their symptoms [5]. This palliative use of NIV
may also allow CMO patients to be transferred home in order to spend the end of their
lives in their own beds [30].
An ambivalent behaviour towards life-sustaining treatments may be found in at least
some patients or some families who choose CMO, as they may still maintain a desire or
hope for a cure or a miracle [39]. A patient who has chosen not to undergo
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endotracheal intubation and is using NIV, hoping it will, if only briefly, prolong their
life should be considered as the second category rather than the third. It may also be
that some patients who do not want prolonged life-sustaining therapy may choose to
undergo a short-term trial of NIV in order to achieve the goal of surviving either until
they get their personal affairs in order or until the arrival of family members or friends
[7]. Although these patients may have a terminal illness and may be actively dying, the
use of NIV in this scenario would be an example of the second category’s rationale. It
is important to acknowledge that the boundaries between the two categories of NIV
use in patients refusing intubation have not yet been exactly defined. As a matter of a
fact, the Critical Care Medicine Task Force advises that the goals of the care should be
continually reassessed, because risks, benefits and treatment preferences change over
time and, therefore, the goals of the care and the category of NIV also change in the
same patient [5].
Evidence and behaviour for NIV use at the end of life

Data from the European survey [11] showed that in 40% of patients undergoing NIV,
it was used solely as a palliative treatment. This finding was confirmed by a more recent
multicentre self-administered survey performed in North America [7] to determine the
attitudes of clinicians (i.e. physicians and respiratory therapists (RTs)) towards the use
of NIV for patients with ARF who have a DNR/DNI order or have chosen CMO,
aiming to understand if NIV helped those patients to achieve important health or
personal goals, or whether it merely prolonged the dying process. According to that
study, 62% of physicians and 87% of RTs included the potential use of NIV during life
support discussions with their DNR patients at least sometimes. For patients choosing
CMO, 49% of physicians and 41% of RTs reported including NIV sometimes as an
option in their discussions [7].
The application of NIV to treat ARF in DNI/DNR patients and to palliate symptoms
in CMO patients is based more on personal clinical experience and patient shared
decisions than on any clear scientific data. This is mostly due to the fact that most of the
randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on the use of NIV in ARF, systematically excluded
DNI patients [36]. The recent American Academy of Critical Care Medicine
recommendations for end-of-life care in the ICU, which included palliative use of
NIV, did not use an evidence grading system because most of the reported suggestions
were based on ethical and legal principles and not derived from empirically based
evidence [8].
As far as the evidence supporting NIV use in the Critical Care Medicine Task Force
second category is concerned, three UK RCTs [40–42], which showed reduced rates of
mortality and endotracheal intubation in COPD exacerbations with NIV compared with
the standard medical therapy, did not exclude DNI patients. However, as these studies
did not conduct an a priori or post hoc subgroup analysis, specifically on patients from
the second caegory, conclusions about the benefits of NIV in those patients could not be
drawn.
Observational studies have examined the potential usefulness of NIV in ARF patients
who have a DNI order. In a single-centre study of 17 patients who were considered DNI
because endotracheal intubation was contraindicated, NIV was initially successful in 10
(59%) patients with a hospital mortality of 47% (9 out of 17) [26]. MEDURI et al. [27]
reported a 64% hospital discharge in a series of 11 DNI patients, all with hypercapnic ARF.
In a recent multicentre study [28], NIV was applied to treat episodes of ARF in 114
patients with DNI orders. A total of 43% survived and were discharged from the ICU;
with y50% of those patients with COPD and 70% with CPO surviving at hospital
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discharge. The authors found that a higher level of baseline hypercapnia, the diagnosis
of COPD or CPO, the presence of strong cough and of wakefulness were associated with
a better hospital survival.
Similar results have recently been obtained by SCHETTINO et al. [30], in a single-centre
prospective observational study investigating the use of NIV in 131 consecutive DNI
patients with ARF. The authors reported an overall hospital mortality of 65%, with a
much poorer prognosis of patients with advanced cancer showing a hospital mortality of
85%; those with COPD and CPO showed a hospital survival rate of 63 and 60%,
respectively. It is not clear whether these predictors are specific to DNI patients because
in neither of the latter two studies, were patients in category 2 distinguishable from those
in category 3; however, it is possible that the majority of the enrolled patients belonged
to category 2 because most of them were discharged alive.
A further uncontrolled study compared the long-term outcome of 80 consecutive
patients with COPD exacerbations treated with NIV independent of whether they had a
DNI order; the former showed a shorter 1-yr survival compared with the latter (30 and
65%, respectively). Patients in the DNI group were significantly older, had a worse
dyspnoea and APACHE II scores, and were more limited in their ADLs [29].
Similar findings were observed in another recent retrospective study [31] performed on
233 patients submitted to NIV: hospital survival was lower in 34 DNI patients than in
199 non-DNI patients (25 versus 74%, respectively; p,0.001) and DNI was the strongest
independent predictor of both in-hospital and 6-month mortality. However, while
hospital survival was better for COPD versus non-COPD patients with and without
DNI order, at 6 months, the outcome was not different for COPD versus non-COPD.
These clinical data are in agreement with the findings of the recent American survey
about near end of life showing that most physicians (.80%) use NIV and most RTs
(.80%) are asked to initiate NIV for DNR patients with COPD or CPO. Conversely,
according to this survey fewer clinicians reported using NIV for DNR patients with
underlying malignancy (59% of physicians, 69% of RTs) or for patients choosing CMO
(40% of physicians, 51% of RTs; p,0.001) [7].
Another potential field of application of NIV in terms of palliative care is as a
treatment ceiling in end-stage patients already receiving home NIV, but no data
concerning this issue were available.
To date, no studies have fully assessed the effectiveness and the safety of NIV
specifically applied in patients who choose to undergo CMO (i.e. category 3), even
though NIV has been shown to be effective in reducing dyspnoea in COPD
exacerbations [27, 40] and in advanced solid cancer with ARF [43].
The more controversial point is whether the benefit of NIV to palliate dyspnoea may
be outweighed by the discomfort and the limited communication induced by a tight-
fitting mask. Additionally, the physician should not forget to consider and to let the
patient/family be aware of the other possible complications of NIV, such as
gastrodistension, eye irritation, pneumothorax, agitation, patient–ventilator asynchrony
and haemodynamic instability that may further deteriorate the poor quality of life of
CMO/DNI patients [30, 44]. It is important to emphasise that, presently, there is no
convincing evidence that NIV will relieve symptoms in CMO patients. However,
understanding the attitudes of physicians towards the goals of NIV and the length and
the modality of its application in patients at the end of their life may be helpful.
In order to further understand the reasons for the palliative short-term use of NIV in
patients with dyspnoea at the end of life, SINUFF et al. [7] reported that about half of the
physicians aimed at providing time for patients and their families to come to terms with
the patient’s death, as well as allowing patients to get their personal affairs in order.
Moreover, following an initial successful application of NIV for the acute management
of ARF, two-thirds of physicians decided to continue NIV as long as the patient is
294
comfortable, while almost three-quarters withdraw NIV without restarting if patients

deteriorate and less than one-quarter did not discharge to home, NIV patients if they
were unable to be weaned.
Another unexplored question is whether NIV is more effective than pharmacological
therapies, such as opiates, in palliating symptoms. It is imperative that the patient can
and must keep control over the decision to continue NIV. If discomfort related to the
use of the mask exceeds the benefit, the patient may simply choose to discontinue NIV
and their comfort should be achieved with drugs. The use of anticipated doses of
opiates before withdrawing NIV at the end of life may be an option to achieve the
higher level of patient comfort, similar to what was already reported with invasive
mechanical ventilation [8]. The transition from mechanical support to an oxygen mask
seems much simpler both ethically and technically with NIV than with invasive
ventilation.
However, studies assessing patient comfort, and/or satisfaction of patients and their
families, with NIV near or at the end of life are lacking. According to the SINUFF et al.
[7], almost 60% of the physicians believed that NIV can provide two benefits in DNR
patients: 1) an additive effect to analgesic and/or anxiolytics for the relief of dyspnoea;
and 2) a facilitation of verbal communication with families and clinicians due to
avoidance of intubation. Less than half of physicians agreed that NIV may provide these
benefits in CMO patients.
Underlying respiratory diseases

The great amount of data is still limited to the use of NIV in the palliative care of end-
stage respiratory patients with COPD. In addition to the epidemiological weight of this
disease, this is due to the fact that NIV has become the first-line therapy in patients with
severe exacerbation of COPD and decompensated respiratory acidosis [5].
Another area where ethical and decisional issues frequently arise for respiratory
physicians is the management of patients with neuromuscular disease or neurological
disorders which impair respiratory function [9, 45]. This is especially the case in
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, motor neuron disease/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
and children with severe spinal atrophy, where respiratory complications produce the
burdensome of symptoms and are the most common cause of death. Presently, a
permanent restoration of health is not possible in these incurable and degenerative
conditions but the general principle of beneficence suggests the physician should do
all they can to palliate symptoms and maintain or even prolong a quality of life that
is considered acceptable to the patient. Long-term home mechanical ventilation,
included NIV in the early phases of neuromuscular diseases, has dramatically
changed the prognosis of these patients by improving their survival and quality of
life [46].
Despite the home ventilatory support, progressive neuromuscular diseases lead to a
full dependence on mechanical ventilation and increased disability. Nearly all
neuromuscular patients treated with home NIV choose to continue treatment even in
the terminal phase of the disease [9, 45]. Although the noninvasive long term
management of very advanced neuromuscular disorders has been successfully reported
by very specialised teams in patients needing NIV 24 h?day–1 [47], the indication for
tracheostomy and home invasive ventilation is almost unavoidable, especially in case of
severe bulbar involvement and difficult removal of secretions.
A still unexplored and emerging clinical problem is the management of end-stage
idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and other progressive interstitial lung diseases, for which
it is known that ARF occurs commonly, often as a terminal event after a prolonged
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course of illness and the outcome is really disappointing despite the use of invasive and
noninvasive mechanical ventilation [48–52]. The potential role of NIV used for CMO in
interstitial lung disease patients with ARF has yet to be fully investigated compared with
standard medical and oxygen therapy, always presenting the balance between burden
and usefulness for the patients.
Neoplastic diseases
The dilemma of the care in cancer patients with ARF
ARF is common in cancer patients. New types and modalities of chemotherapy and
radiotherapy, circulating pluripotent haematopoietic cell grafts and bone marrow
transplantation have contributed to the increase in successful treatment of solid and
haematological malignancies. However, these regimens may predispose patients to
various life-threatening complications, such as infection, haemorrhage, capillary leak
syndrome, radiation toxicity or drug-related toxicity [53–55]. The lung is the target
organ most frequently involved in these complications; BLOT et al. [56] showed that an
episode of ARF is by far the most common reason for admitting a cancer patient to the
ICU. The reasons leading to referral for intensive care appear quite familiar:
pneumonia, followed by exacerbated COPD, pulmonary oedema and haemoptysis.
Short-term mortality is mainly related to the severity of organ dysfunction and not to
the characteristics of the malignancy [57]. The occurrence of ARF is often seen by
oncologists as a terminal phase of the disease, based on studies reporting limited survival
at considerable cost [58–64]. Alternatively, a large proportion of cancer patients with
severe respiratory failure are denied admission to an ICU because the intensive care
specialists are aware that intubation and mechanical ventilation are both strong
predictors of mortality in critically ill cancer patients [54, 63, 65, 66]. Despite these
problems, the ICU mortality rate of cancer patients has decreased dramatically in the
last 20 yrs, and this is particularly true for those patients requiring mechanical
ventilation [57].
Mechanical ventilation and prognosis of advanced cancer patients

The overall survival of cancer patients, admitted to the ICU, is still very
disappointing, despite the fact that more recent studies have shown that mortality has
now decreased below the threshold of 50%. Mortality in the subgroup of patients
requiring mechanical ventilation is particularly high and, until the middle of the 1990s,
averaged above 90% [58–64]; more recently there seems to have been a turning point, so
that mortality in this subgroup is nowy75–80% [54, 65, 66]. The overall decrease in ICU
mortality in the last 5 yrs does, therefore, seem to be related to the improved prognosis
of the patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Thus could be attributed to the
following factors: 1) patients with poor functional status or patients with no life-
prolonging treatment may be denied admission to the ICU; 2) earlier referral of cancer
patients to the ICU for noninvasive diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, provided that
these strategies do not delay intubation and optimal management; and 3) a better
knowledge of certain complications that develop in critically ill patients with
malignancies [4, 57]. In fact, among the variables recorded at ICU admission, only
two have been shown to be independently associated with mortality and, quite
surprisingly, they are not related to the type of cancer (i.e. solid or haematological
malignancy) [56, 69].
296
The first independent predictor of mortality is, obviously, the severity of the patient’s
clinical condition on admission to the ICU which is recorded by various scores, such as
SAPS I and SAPS II [67], APACHE II and APACHE III [68]. The second and
‘‘stronger’’ independent predictive factor of mortality is the need for mechanical
ventilation. Despite the efforts made to prevent bacterial contamination of the patient/
ventilator circuit, ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) and worsening of a pre-
existing infection are still the major challenges in intubated patients [70]. The mortality
risk may vary from 30 to 76% and is strictly dependent on the bacteria isolated;
mortality among patients infected with aerobic Gram-negative bacteria being
significantly higher than that among patients with Gram-positive bacteria.
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are evenly distributed among immuno-
compromised cancer patients with pulmonary infiltrates, but fungal pathogens and
viral agents are also well represented [53, 64]. The prognosis of these infected patients
worsens significantly when respiratory failure occurs and mechanical ventilation is
instituted. Despite adequate diagnostic evaluation and treatment in the ICU, the
mortality remains so high that the benefit of mechanical ventilation has been seriously
questioned; the ethics have also been questioned. This is especially true for bone-
marrow transplant recipients [63]. In those patients who do survive, nosocomial
pneumonia is responsible for a longer stay in hospital. An endotracheal tube can
predispose to the development of pneumonia by impairing cough and mucociliary
clearance; furthermore, contaminated secretions can accumulate above the cuff and
leak around it and bacterial binding to the surface of bronchial epithelium is increased
[70, 71]. Invasive ventilatory support also increases the risk of feeding aspiration.
ELPERN et al. [72] showed that y50% of tracheotomised patients receiving prolonged
ventilation had feeding aspiration.
The role of NIV in cancer patients

Since the act of intubation and the institution of invasive mechanical ventilation have
been shown to be among the two major determinants of survival in critically ill cancer
patients [63, 65, 66, 69], it is important to understand what has changed in the field of
mechanical ventilation in the last 5–10 yrs to explain the improvement in short-term
survival in these patients.
It is entirely possible that new therapies, in particular for the treatment of
infections (e.g. new antibiotics and anti-viral agents), new diagnostic procedures (e.g.
diffusion of protected bronchoalveolar lavage), preventive measures (e.g. oro-tracheal
intubation instead of naso-tracheal intubation, use of the semirecumbent position to
avoid aspiration pneumonia), new ventilatory modes (e.g. low tidal volumes with
protective hypercapnia), the development of clinical guidelines and, finally, better
monitoring systems, may have led to a better outcome [57]. It is, however, unlikely
that these factors alone have increased ICU survival three-fold in the last few years
(from 10 to 30%).
AZOULAY et al. [69] retrospectively studied a cohort of patients with solid or
haematological cancer admitted to the ICU for ARF. The first group of 132 patients
was admitted in the period 1990–1995 and the second group, composed of 105 patients,
was admitted in 1996–1998. The types of cancer were equally distributed among the two
groups and were acute leukaemia and lymphoma (51%), myeloma (21%), and solid
tumours (28%). The survival rate in the period 1996–1998 was significantly higher than
that in the previous period (39 versus 18%, respectively; p50.0003). Univariate analyses
of the patients’ characteristics, comorbidity and type of malignancy did not show that
any of them (including neutropenia and bone-marrow transplant) were significantly
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associated with 30-day mortality. However, in the multivariate analysis two variables
were found to predict ICU outcome: higher SAPS II score at admission was associated
with an increased mortality rate, whereas the use of NIV during the 1996–1998 period
was associated with a marked improvement in survival. In order to define the impact of
NIV on better outcome, a pairwise-matched exposed–unexposed analysis was
performed. A total of 48 patients, who received NIV as the first ventilation method,
and 48 patients, who did not, were matched for SAPS II score, type of malignancy and
period of ICU admission. Crude ICU mortality rates from those exposed to NIV and
from the controls were 44 and 71%, respectively. NIV still had a protective effect against
mortality after adjustment for matching variables. According to the risk of death
attributable to mechanical ventilation, approximately four patients needed to receive
NIV in order for one death is prevented.
The use of NIV to treat a severe episode of respiratory failure in acutely ill cancer
patients is a new field of application, which is expanding very quickly given the very
promising results obtained, particularly in the patients with haematological malig-
nancies.
Between 30–40% of the patients with neutropenia may develop severe pulmonary
infections and these are frequently fatal. Indeed, during the window period of
immunodepression, patients may also be prone to developing other respiratory
complications such as alveolar haemorrhage, capillary leak syndrome, radiation toxicity
or drug-related toxicity [53–55].
Endotracheal intubation increases the mortality risk because of the greater
possibility of developing new or superimposed infections, such as sinusitis and
VAP [73]. The endotracheal tube bypasses the mechanical defenses of the upper
airways and causes local damage. In addition, the portion of the trachea between the
cuff and the vocal cords becomes a reservoir of secretions colonised by bacteria
originating from the sinuses, the nasal passages, pharynx, oral cavity and the
stomach. These infected secretions can be introduced into the lung with nursing
manoeuvres [37], such as bronchoaspiration [74]. In this situation, NIV seems to be
an interesting alternative due to the lower risk of complication [75]. The first attempts
to apply NIV in immunocompromised patients, although not in those with
haematological disorders, were made in the early 1990s by GREGG et al. [76] and
later by GACHOT et al. [77] in patients with ARF due to Pneumocystis carinii infection.
Both studies, although uncontrolled, concluded that continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP) delivered via a face mask was an effective supportive therapy in
these acutely ill patients.
In 1992 TOGNET et al. [78] reported the first attempt to ventilate patients with
haematological malignancies with NIV delivered via a face mask. They found that, for
similar severity of disease and arterial oxygen tension (Pa,O2)/inspired oxygen fraction
(FI,O2), the ICU mortality was significantly higher in the group of patients ventilated
invasively than in those managed with NIV (100 and 55%, respectively).
In 1994, the first pioneering study performed in cancer patients was by MEDURI et al.
[27]. In that observational investigation the authors applied NIV in a group of 15
patients in the terminal phase of their disease after these patients had refused consent to
be intubated or had signed a DNI order. Two of these patients had ARF due to a
haematological disorder and one due to lung cancer. Gas exchange and respiratory rate
improved very rapidly after the application of NIV, and two of the three were
discharged from the ICU a few days later. This highlighted, for the first time, that NIV
may be used even in patients in whom endotracheal intubation is clinically or ethically
questionable.
The first pilot, prospective study on the use of NIV in immunocompromised patients
with haematological malignancies was performed in 1998. CONTI et al. [79] enrolled 16
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consecutive patients with severe ARF (mean Pa,O2/FI,O2 of 87¡22) treated with pressure
support ventilation (PSV) through a nasal mask. The criteria for intubation were
predetermined. A total of 15 out of these 16 patients showed a significant improvement
in arterial blood gases and respiratory rate within the first 24 h. In particular, Pa,O2
increased in the first hour of ventilation from 43¡10 to 88¡37 mmHg. Five patients
died in the ICU following complications independent of the respiratory failure (three
septic shock, one gastrointestinal bleeding and one acute myocardial infarction) and 11
were discharged from the ICU in a stable condition after a mean stay of 4.3¡2.4 days.
The authors concluded that NIV is feasible and may be a good choice for the treatment
of a selected population of critically ill patients, who would otherwise have had a high
probability of needing intubation.
HILBERT et al. [80], 2 yrs later, expanded the previous observation in a larger group
of patients, using noninvasive CPAP. Over a 5-yr period the authors enrolled 64
patients presenting with febrile acute hypoxaemic (Pa,O2/FI,O2 of ,200) respiratory
failure and haematological malignancy. CPAP was administered for 6 h?day-1 in the
first week of ICU admission. The respiratory rate decreased to ,25 breaths?min-1 in
the majority of the patients, while Pa,O2/FI,O2 increased from 128¡32 to 218¡28.
Despite these favorable results, CPAP successfully avoided intubation in ‘‘only’’ 16
out of the 64 patients. Interestingly, all the responders survived the hospital stay
whereas only four nonresponders did so. In the multivariate analysis, two variables
were predictive of the failure of CPAP: the SAPS II score and liver failure at entry to
the study.
The studies by CONTI et al. [79] and HILBERT et al. [80] gave, apparently, quite
different success rates but the discrepancies in the results can be explained. First, the
ventilatory techniques used were different, since CONTI et al. [79] employed PSV in
combination with CPAP whereas HILBERT et al. [80] used CPAP alone. This latter
strategy has been shown to be no more effective than oxygen therapy alone in treating
an episode of hypoxaemic ARF [81], while in the same context PSV with CPAP was
associated with a better clinical outcome than that produced by oxygen therapy [82].
Secondly, although the authors used different scores to assess the severity of their
patients’ conditions on admission (SAPS I and SAPS II, respectively), it is possible to
extrapolate that, on average, the patients enrolled into the study by HILBERT et al. [80]
were more severely ill.
A later study by HILBERT et al. [83] gave scientific dignity to NIV, partly because it
was published in one of the most authoritative medical journals, the New England
Journal of Medicine, and partly because of the very impressive clinical results. The
authors conducted a prospective, randomised trial of intermittent NIV compared with
standard treatment with supplemental oxygen and no ventilatory support, in 52
immunosuppressed patients with pulmonary infiltrates, fever and an early stage of
hypoxaemic ARF (Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio of ,200). The large majority of the patients had a
haematological malignancy and neutropenia or drug-induced immunosuppression.
Periods of NIV delivered through a face mask were alternated every 3 h with periods of
spontaneous breathing with supplemental oxygen. The decision to intubate was made
according to standard, predetermined criteria. The main results of the study were that
fewer patients in the NIV group than in the standard-treatment group required
endotracheal intubation (12 versus 20, respectively; p50.03), had serious complications
(13 versus 21, respectively; p50.02), died in the ICU (10 versus 18, respectively;
p50.03) or died in the hospital (13 versus 21, respectively; p50.02). Overall, that study
clearly showed that early implementation of NIV was associated with significant
reduction in the rate of intubation, serious complications and death, in both the ICU
and hospital.
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R. SCALA, S. NAVA
A case–control study (34 patients) was performed to assess the efficacy of early
administration of noninvasive CPAP delivered by face mask versus the newly
developed interface, the helmet, in patients with haematological malignancies and
fever, pulmonary infiltrates, and hypoxaemic ARF (Pa,O2/FI,O2 ratio of ,200) [84].
Each patient was treated with CPAP outside the ICU in the haematology ward. The
authors described the highest possible rates of success in the patients ventilated with
the helmet. As a matter of fact, oxygenation improved in all patients after CPAP but,
while no patient failed helmet CPAP because of intolerance, eight patients in the mask
group did. Indeed, NIV could be applied continuously for a longer period of time in
the helmet group (28.44¡0.20 versus 7.5¡0.45 h in the mask group). The most
important conclusions from this study are that NIV can also be applied outside the
ICU, at least in the early stage of ARF and only in selected population of patients
[85]. Indeed, the helmet may be a feasible alternative to a face mask in case of
intolerance. Great caution should be taken however in using a helmet in hypercapnic
patients, since the risk of potential CO2 rebreathing has not yet been completely
elucidated [86].
Finally, a few comments should also be made on the use of NIV in cancer patients in
the terminal phase of their disease or in those who expressly state that they do no want
to be intubated under any circumstances. The large majority of studies in cancer
patients are limited to patients affected by haematological cancers, while scant data are
available from cases with solid tumours. This may be a field of great potential interest,
since a subgroup of these patients may also be affected by comorbid conditions and, at
some point, may develop acute failure of a specific organ, not necessarily related to the
site of cancer. For example, a substantial number of cancer patients are, or were,
smokers, frequently affected by chronic pulmonary or cardiac disease; thus, acute
exacerbation of COPD or CPO, leading to ARF, are relatively common. Despite the
fact that most of these episodes are promptly reversible if adequately treated, patients
do not always receive ventilatory support, just because they ‘‘have cancer’’. For
instance in most of the studies performed on NIV, malignancy is an exclusion
criterion.
The present authors prospectively recruited 23 patients needing NIV with a pre-
existing diagnosis of solid cancer. NIV was delivered with PSV plus CPAP [43]. The
application of NIV was associated with a significant improvement in arterial blood gases
and dyspnoea score after only 1 h of ventilation. The survival at 6 and 12 months was
low, as expected. From this pilot study, it can be suggested that the use of NIV is feasible
and associated with a reduction of dyspnoea in patients with ARF and a pre-existing
solid tumour [43]. A very appealing goal of NIV in this kind of patients is to achieve a
good control of the dyspnoea in addition to the traditional pharmacological therapy.
The preliminary results of a recent multicentre RCT [87] performed in advanced solid
cancer patients showed that, compared with only oxygen and medical therapy, the
adjunct of NIV may reduce the amount of the needed doses of opiates and, therefore,
their side effects, such as the depressed level of sensorium. This may mean a better
capability of communication for the patient at the end of their life, with a good control
of symptoms.
The location for the palliative use of NIV

The choice of the setting in which to perform NIV should be made carefully in order
to balance the severity of ARF and the intensity of care needed together with the
optimisation of the limited economical resources of health national systems [88].
300
Whatever environment is established to apply NIV, the experience of the team (medical
doctors, RTs, nurses) needs to be adequate to the severity of the acute illness. The more
the team is experienced in NIV, the greater the severity of the ARF that can be managed
[89], provided that the switch from noninvasive to invasive ventilation may be done very
quickly in patients who do not refuse advanced life-sustaining measures. Last but not
least, ethical and palliative issues should be taken in account in the assignment of an
acute patient to a specific setting [5, 7].
While the use of NIV in ARF patients, without preset limitation on life sustaining
treatment, should be reserved for intensive care units, respiratory high-dependency units
or the step-down setting with well-trained staff and adequate monitoring, where the
transition to invasive ventilation is available if noninvasive ventilation fails; the ideal
palliative care of patients belonging to category 2 and 3 is likely to be more appropriate
outside the intensive care unit. In fact, for these categories, the failure of noninvasive
ventilation requires rapid intensification of comfort measures only, which could be more
adequately performed in totally or partially ‘‘open’’ environments, such as respiratory
high-dependency units or respiratory/general wards, with the help of the member of the
family [5]. However, the same monitoring and alarm system required for category 1
patients should also be in place for patients from categories 2 and 3, to be sure that they
are comfortable and at the same time to quickly identify patients for whom NIV is no
longer helpful. The hospice setting may be an appropriate setting for category 3 patients
provided that the staff and the family are well trained even if it has not been proved. It
must be underlined that in a setting in which clinicians are unfamiliar with NIV the
chance of benefit is low and there is the risk of increasing discomfort and stress at the
end of life [7].
Summary
As pulmonary physicians, especially those dealing with mechanical ventilation, we
are facing the problem of withholding and withdrawing life support in terminally ill
patients affected by acute or chronic respiratory disorders every day.
The overall incidence of these practices in Europe is only partially known and, even
more importantly, it has been shown that there are important differences between
countries or regions, reflecting the absence of a common strategy even within the
European Community.
The ‘‘shared decision’’ taken together by physicians, nurses and the patient’s family
may be the best approach to these decisions. There is good evidence that noninvasive
ventilation (NIV) may be used in terminally ill patients with different objectives, such
as: 1) life support with no preset limitations on life-sustaining treatment; 2) life
support when the patients decided to forego intubation (DNI); and 3) a "pure"
palliative measure. Up to 30% of end-stage chronic respiratory patients are receiving
NIV in the last days of life, solely to relieve dyspnoea, and this "ceiling" practice has
also been applied to end-stage cancer patients. About 50% of DNI patients with acute
respiratory failure may also be successfully treated and discharged from the hospital,
mainly if affected by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or chronic heart failure.
The success of NIV is strictly dependent on the experience of the staff involved, and
the patients should be allowed to withdraw from the treatment in every instance.
Keywords: Acute respiratory failure, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,

dyspnoea, intubation, noninvasive ventilation.
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R. SCALA, S. NAVA
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CHAPTER 21
Domiciliary ventilators: from bench to

bedside
L. Vignaux*, J-P. Janssens#, P. Jolliet*
*Service des soins intensifs and #Service de Pneumologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Genève, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Correspondence: P. Jolliet, Service des soins intensifs, Hôpital Cantonal Universitaire, 1211 Geneva 14,
Switzerland. Fax: 41 223729105; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
The number of patients receiving long-term home ventilation for a variety of diseases
causing chronic respiratory insufficiency is steadily increasing [1, 2]. In part, this has
been made possible by the major technological developments resulting in the availability
of compact, quiet, high-performance home ventilators [3, 4], as well as the creation of a
robust technical-support infrastructure [5, 6]. Over the last decade, domiciliary
ventilators have gained in power, sophistication and available options. However, the
wide spectrum of this offer does not necessarily make choosing a machine easier for
clinicians, especially given the cost constraints that are nowadays ubiquitous in
healthcare systems. Furthermore, sophistication can lead to the user interface being very
complex, making rapid setting changes difficult.
Bench testing can provide useful insights into this problem, by confronting the
machines to various abnormal respiratory mechanics and intensity of inspiratory effort,
thereby comparing their performances [3, 4, 7] and testing their user friendliness [8].
Nonetheless, the results of bench testing cannot be directly extrapolated to patients, as
the clinical relevance of bench test results must be evaluated in the clinical setting.
Therefore, clinical and pathophysiological studies must also be conducted to verify
bench findings.
In the present chapter, the available data from various bench model studies of
domiciliary ventilators is reviewed and the data in discussed in the context of the results
of relevant clinical trials.
Domiciliary ventilators: lessons from the bench

Bench testing of ventilators pursues two goals. First, to evaluate the performance of a
machine by simulating various situations that it is likely to face in the clinical setting,
such as abnormal respiratory mechanics, severe leaks and high ventilatory demand.
Secondly, in order to compare these performances with those of other ventilators
available on the market, thereby helping the clinician in choosing the most appropriate
machine for a given patient’s ventilatory support needs. Naturally, bench models can
only provide a partial model of the complex situation of real-life patients and their
results should always be interpreted with this caveat in mind.
ISSN 1025-448x.
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L. VIGNAUX ET AL.
Testing performance: the ventilatory cycle

The most logical approach to bench testing is to evaluate the different phases of a
typical positive-pressure ventilatory cycle in terms of patient–ventilator interaction [9],
given that optimal synchrony is essential in obtaining proper tolerance to noninvasive
ventilation (NIV). Each ventilatory cycle comprises four key phases (fig. 1): triggering,
pressurisation, cycling and expiration, which will now be examined in the light of the
presently available data.
Triggering. The inspiratory trigger should be sensitive enough to allow easy triggering
by the patient, without autotriggering, and have a short delay between the onset of
patient inspiratory effort and pressurisation by the ventilator (known as ‘‘trigger
delay’’). Ideally, trigger delay should be ,100 ms, since higher values can be perceived
by the patient and lead to discomfort [10].
Regarding sensitivity, although differences exist among machines, all bilevel devices
generally require very little triggering effort [3]. The inspiratory trigger level is adjustable
most of the time, but the adjustment is most often done with arbitrary units. During
NIV, leaks lead to autotriggering because they generate a flow which mimics that which
is generated by the patient’s inspiratory effort.
Bench test performances are heterogeneous among domiciliary ventilators. Although
some machines rapidly trigger into inspiration (,100 ms), others take considerably
longer, sometimes up to 500 ms [3, 11, 12]. In general, ventilators based on pressure
triggering have higher trigger delays. Ventilators based on the flow waveform method of
triggering (BiPAP1 Vision, Synchrony1 and Harmony1 BPPV ventilators; Respironics,
Murrysville, PA, USA) have the shortest trigger delays [12]. However, this approach
sometimes leads to a greater occurrence of autotriggering [13]. Leaks can also increase
the trigger delay [14].
Trigger delay also increases with obstructive conditions, although not to a great
extent [12]. Finally, in a recent study evaluating performances of 17 ventilators available
for home ventilation in France with the most common ‘‘paediatric profiles’’
(neuromuscular disease, upper airway obstruction and cystic fibrosis), triggering
performances showed a great variability and depended on the type of trigger (flow or
pressure), the type of circuit (simple or double), the patient profile and the presence of
leaks [15]. No single ventilator was able to ventilate all the profiles. A total of 12
Paw
+
§
Time
#
Fig. 1. – Key phases of a typical pressure support cycle. Paw: airway pressure. #: trigger; ": pressurisation; +: level of
pressure support; 1: cycling.
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DOMICILIARY VENTILATOR EVALUATION
ventilators had a trigger delay ,150 ms for less than two profiles and only one
ventilator for three profiles. In all other cases, the trigger was ‘‘inappropriate’’, meaning
that ineffective efforts or autotriggering were present.
Pressurisation. During this phase, inspiratory flow should be sufficient to match

inspiratory demand. The matching depends on ventilator performance, pressure support
level, pressurisation slope and inspiratory effort level. Leaks, unavoidable during NIV,
and high inspiratory effort can impair pressurisation [11, 16, 17].
In a study by BATTISTI et al. [3], major differences were found between bilevel devices
in terms of pressurisation performance, especially when a high inspiratory demand was
present (fig. 2). During pressure-target ventilation, delivered tidal volume (VT) differs
substantially between ventilators despite similar adjustments, even in the absence of
leaks [18]. These differences are related to variability in inspiratory flow rates, actual
pressure delivered and inspiratory duration. The possibility of increasing inspiratory
time (‘‘timed (T) mode’’) on bilevel devices allows insufflation of a higher VT, despite the
presence of leaks [17, 18].
Ventilators using volume-target modes deliver the expected volumes fairly accurately;
however, in the presence of leaks, airway pressure decreases and delivered volume is
reduced. A fall of 50% of the VT has been observed in such ventilators [18]. However,
leak compensation differs considerably between the volume-target modes, according to
the machine’s ability to increase the inspiratory flow rate [18]. With a small or large leak,
VT was better maintained by the pressure target modes. This was shown in a study by
HIGHCOCK et al. [11], testing four bilevel devices in the presence of leaks; the fall in
delivered VT was ,10%.
Cycling. During ventilatory cycles triggered by the patient (‘‘spontaneous (S) mode’’ or
‘‘spontaneous/timed (S/T) mode’’ in bilevel pressure support) cycling occurs as the
inspiratory flow decreases to a pre-adjusted percentage of the peak inspiratory flow.
This cycling criterion is termed ‘‘expiratory trigger’’ (ET) [19]. Ideally, cycling should
coincide with the end of the patient’s inspiratory effort. However, synchronisation
between the latter and the ventilator’s ET is mainly determined by respiratory mechanics
[20]. Obstructive respiratory mechanics lead to a late cycling [21] and restrictive
80
70
60
50
PTP500 %
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bilevel device
Fig. 2. – Bench model evaluation of the pressurisation capacity of 10 bilevel ventilators. Data are presented as
mean¡SD % of ideal pressurisation measured 500 ms after onset of ventilator cycle (PTP500 %). Modified from [3].
309
L. VIGNAUX ET AL.
respiratory mechanics to a premature one [20]. Equally, if not more importantly, during
NIV, leaks delay the decrease of the inspiratory flow, leading to a late cycling [22].
Cycling varies markedly among devices, being strongly influenced by the ET used
(fig. 3). In the absence of leaks, bilevel devices with ‘‘default’’ ET tend to cycle
prematurely with normal and restrictive respiratory mechanics and to exhibit delayed
cycling in obstructive respiratory mechanics conditions [3]. As expected, leaks increase
in the magnitude of delayed cycling on most machines [3]. Modifying the ET, if possible,
allows improvements in both premature and delayed cycling.
The automatic cycling based on the flow waveform method of triggering implemented
on an intensive care unit (ICU) ventilator allows for a better cycling despite the presence
of leaks than the traditional default 25% of peak flow [14]. Another possible solution is
the adjustment of the inspiratory time (T mode).
Expiration. On domiciliary ventilators a single limb circuit is often used, entailing the
risk of carbon dioxide rebreathing, which in turn increases work of breathing. A
solution to avoid carbon dioxide rebreathing is the fitting of a calibrated leak valve [23]
and the maintenance of a minimum mandatory end-expiratory pressure level, known as
expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP; usually 4 cmH2O). The continuous high-
level flow which generates EPAP thereby maintains a leak through the calibrated valve,
allowing improved carbon dioxide washout [23]. The use of specific valves has been
shown to add to the total expiratory resistance of the circuit, although the clinical
relevance of this finding remains uncertain [23]. LOFASO et al. [24] showed that
considerable differences existed between available models, potentially leading to
worsening dynamic hyperinflation.
User-friendliness
Over the years, research on the interaction between caregivers and the machines they
use has shown that more attention should be given to this topic [25, 26]. Indeed, in order
80
60
40 * *
20
tI, excess %
*
* *
0
-20
-40
-60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Bilevel device
Fig. 3. – Bench model measurement of cycling of nine bilevel ventilators. Data are presented as excess inspiratory
time (tI,excess) expressed as mean¡SD percentage of patient inspiratory time. Positive values indicate delayed cycling,
negative values indicate premature cycling. h: baseline conditions, with the standard leak of the calibrated expiratory
valve. &: presence of a major added leak designed to mimic leaks at the patient–ventilator interface. *: p,0.05 versus
baseline.
310
to properly set a ventilator, especially if major asynchrony develops, patient safety

depends on a rapid and efficient intervention by the caregiver. Such an intervention not
only depends on whether or not that person is familiar with the device but also on the
ease with which alarms can be understood, problems identified and settings changed.
Therefore, the ergonomics of domiciliary ventilators should be part of their global bench
testing, as the benefits derived from good performance can sometimes be outweighed by
a confusing, error-prone and time-consuming user interface. So far, only one such study
has been performed on these devices. GONZALEZ-BERMEJO et al. [8] evaluated the user-
friendliness of 11 home ventilators. The authors asked ICU physicians, experienced in
mechanical ventilation but not with the tested devices, to perform a series of
standardised tasks (e.g. switching on, unlocking, mode recognition and change). Any
action taking longer than 3 min was considered to have failed. Overall, their results
showed that major differences between machines existed, with long and potentially
dangerous delays necessary to accomplish even the most-simple tasks. Some of the tasks
could not even be accomplished in the 3-min allocated time [8]. These findings underline
the need for better standardisation of machine–user interfaces and more in-depth
research of the ergonomics of user–ventilator interaction. This type of research and
development should involve end users early in the development of domiciliary
ventilators.
From bench to bedside

Although bench tests can provide valuable data on the performance of domiciliary
ventilators, the clinical relevance of these findings is not always obvious. Indeed, the
main challenge for the clinician is not necessarily to choose the most powerful machine
in terms of pressurisation, but the one which best fits a given patient’s needs. Further
complicating the issue is the increasing sophistication of home care ventilators, with
numerous options and settings that clearly warrant independent clinical and
physiological validation. In this section, data from the bench will be discussed in the
context of those from clinical trials.
As a preliminary comment, one should note that, although wide differences exist
between available options (inspiratory and expiratory trigger adjustment, pressurisation
rate or rise time, volume targeting) and performances of ventilators designed for home
care [3], there are, to date, no formal recommendations as to the choice of ventilators in
national or international guidelines (i.e. volume- or pressure-cycled) or the use of
specific options (i.e. volume targeting). Optimal ventilator settings in chronic respiratory
failure are also poorly defined and left to the appreciation of the clinician and patient.
Volume- or pressure-cycled ventilator type: the situation in Europe

Customs and practices in relation to home mechanical ventilation (HMV) in Europe
have been recently reported on the basis of a large survey performed in 16 European
countries [2]: 329 centres reported data on 21,526 patients. Almost all HMV users had
positive pressure ventilators. Volume-cycled ventilators were used most frequently for
neurological problems (airway diseases: 15%; chest wall deformities and obesity-
hypoventilation: 28%; and neuromuscular diseases: 41%). The percentage of pressure-
cycled ventilators varied widely from one country to another, ranging from y50%
(Belgium, Spain, the Netherlands) to .90% (Portugal, UK, Ireland) [2]. A Swiss survey
performed in the Geneva lake area [1] showed that there was a clear trend over a 7-yr
observation period (1992–2000) for an increasing use of bilevel positive pressure
311
L. VIGNAUX ET AL.
ventilation (BPPV) and an increasingly marginal use of volume-cycled ventilators in all

indications. As in the Eurovent survey, volume-cycled ventilators were used more
frequently in patients with neuromuscular or chest wall disorders, while BPPV was
almost exclusively used in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and obesity-
hypoventilation syndrome (OHS).
Volume- or pressure-cycled ventilators: clinical trials

Up to the end of the 1980s, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) was
delivered through volumetric ventilators only. The first studies of the BiPAP1, were
published in 1990 [27, 28]. In the early 1990s, several short-term studies demonstrated
the efficacy of the BiPAP1 as a mode of positive pressure ventilation: the BiPAP1 was
capable of markedly decreasing the electromyographic activity of the diaphragm,
thereby reducing respiratory muscle workload [29–31]. Reports of the long-term use of
either barometric and volumetric ventilators, or barometric ventilators alone appeared
as of 1995 [28, 32–36]. When mentioned, the choice of a volumetric versus barometric
ventilator by the investigators was determined mainly by the patients’ degree of comfort
with each ventilator [32–34].
There are a few clinical comparative studies comparing volumetric and barometric
ventilators in chronic respiratory failure. In a short-term study, MEECHAM-JONES and
WEDZICHA [35] compared the efficacy and the acceptability of two barometric
ventilators (BiPAP1; Respironics, Murrysville, PA, USA; and NIPPY1; B&D
Electromedical, Strafford upon Avon, UK), and two volumetric ventilators
(BromptonPac1; PnevmoPac Ltd, Luton, UK, and Monnal D1; AirLiquide Santé,
Paris, France) in patients with stable chronic respiratory failure, who had all previously
used NPPV; there were significant changes in arterial blood gases after 2 h with each
ventilator with no significant difference between volumetric and barometric ventilators;
all ventilators proved equally acceptable to patients studied. LEGER et al. [37] studied 11
patients with restrictive pulmonary disorders, treated by home NPPV. These patients
were submitted to two consecutive periods of NPPV, first with a BiPAP1 (mean
inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) 18.6¡2 cmH2O, EPAP 2 cmH2O) and then
with a Monnal D1 volumetric ventilator; the major endpoint of the study was sleep
architecture (i.e. total sleep time, sleep efficiency, % of rapid eye movement (REM) time,
mean arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2) during REM, number of arousals and
desaturation index did not differ between both types of ventilators). RESTRICK et al.
[38] compared volume-cycled with BPPV in 12 stable patients already treated with
domiciliary ventilatory support. Patients underwent, in a randomised order, three
consecutive nocturnal polysomnographic recordings with BPPV (S mode), volume-
cycled ventilation (S/T mode with a back-up frequency of 10 breaths?min-1) or without
ventilatory support. There were no significant differences between ventilators in terms of
correction of arterial blood gases, improvement of mean nocturnal Sa,O2, time spent
with a Sa,O2 ,90% or mean nocturnal transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension (Ptc,CO2).
Visual analogue scale ratings of comfort and quality of sleep were also similar with both
types of ventilator. SCHÖNHOFER et al. [39] compared volumetric NPPV with BiPAP1 in
30 consecutive patients with chronic respiratory failure due to obstructive or restrictive
pulmonary disorders; patients were initially treated by volumetric NPPV for 1 month
(Lifecare PLV1001; Respironics, or Drägger EV8001; Drägerwerk AG, Lübech,
Germany, in ‘‘controlled’’ mode), then switched to BPPV for 1 month (BiPAP1,
Respironics, in the T mode), and classified as ‘‘responders’’ or ‘‘nonresponders’’ to
barometric ventilation on the basis of correction of arterial blood gases and nocturnal
hypoventilation. Of the 30 patients included, 18 (60%) were classified as ‘‘responders’’
312
and were equally improved by both ventilatory modes; two did not tolerate volumetric
NPPV and were successfully managed with the BiPAP. Ten (33%) patients were
considered ‘‘nonresponders’’, i.e. had worsening arterial blood gases and symptom
scores with barometric ventilation. The likelihood of being a ‘‘nonresponder’’ was not
related to the underlying diagnosis. The conclusions of that study are subject to debate
because of the ‘‘controlled’’ mode chosen with both ventilators and used in all patients,
irrespective of underlying diagnosis, which may have increased patient–ventilator
asynchrony [39]. Another short-term study (two 1-h periods of NIV) included 11
patients, all under long-term NIV for at least 1 yr and in a stable clinical condition,
comparing BPPV (O’NYX plus1; Puritan Bennett, Boulder, CO, USA, S/T mode) and
volumetric NPPV (Eole IINA1; SAIME, Savigny le Temple, France, assisted-controlled
mode); the authors found no significant difference in terms of correction of arterial
blood gases or increase in VT [40]. More recently, TUGGEY and ELLIOTT [41] compared
pressure support and volume ventilation (Breas PV4031, Molyycke, Sweden) in 13
patients with chest wall deformities, over a 4-week randomised cross-over trial. Impact
on arterial blood gases, quality of sleep (assessed by polysomnography) and health
status (SF-36 and HAD scores) was identical in both modes. Data from the Geneva lake
study, comparing patients with volumetric to barometric ventilators, showed no
difference in probability of pursuing NPPV, suggesting a similar acceptance by patients
and a similar benefit on survival [1]. Thus, except for in the study by SCHÖNHOFER et al.
[39], all available reports fail to find any significant differences between volume-cycled
and pressure-cycled ventilation, either in short- or long-term studies. Costs of pressure-
cycled ventilators are far below that of volume-cycled machines. Furthermore, BPPV
ventilators are much less cumbersome, lighter and often perceived as more comfortable
[42], which explains their present use as ‘‘default’’ ventilators in most indications for
domiciliary NPPV.
S, S/T or T modes: clinical trials

One of the conclusions of the review of the literature regarding volume-cycled versus
pressure-cycled ventilators is that the choice of the S, S/T or T mode is highly variable
from one group to another and does not seem to follow a clear physiological reasoning.
In the Geneva lake study, 51% of the patients under BPPV used S mode. RESTRICK et al.
[38] compared the efficacy of a BiPAP1 in the S mode versus S/T mode (with a minimal
respiratory rate of 10 breaths?min-1) and found no significant difference between both
modes in terms of correction of mean nocturnal Sa,O2 and mean Ptc,CO2, in 12 patients
with either chronic airflow limitation or restrictive disorders (chest wall or
neuromuscular diseases), suggesting that the BiPAP in S mode (much cheaper than
the S/T apparatus) might be sufficient to control these parameters. Conversely,
PARREIRA et al. [43] compared effective ventilation during wakefulness and sleep using a
BiPAP either in T mode (at 17 and 25 breaths?min-1) or in a spontaneous S mode in
eight normal subjects; BiPAP was more effective in the controlled mode (i.e. induced a
higher minute ventilation (V9E)) at lower IPAP pressures, than in the S mode, mainly
because of the frequent occurrence, even in normal subjects, of nocturnal respiratory
rhythm instability (i.e. periodic breathing and central apnoeas) and associated
desaturations. The authors suggest using a back-up respiratory rate of at least
20 min-1. FAUROUX et al. [44] found similar results in 10 patients with cystic fibrosis,
aged 9–20 yrs (mean 15¡4), naı̈ve to NPPV but fulfilling criteria for home NPPV.
Patients underwent consecutive periods of spontaneous breathing, then 20-min trials of
either pressure support or volume-cycled ventilation at spontaneous breathing (SB),
maximum tolerated ventilation frequency fv,max (individually determined), and fv,max–5
313
L. VIGNAUX ET AL.
and fv,max–10 (5 and 10 breaths below fv,max, respectively). No patient–ventilator

asynchrony was observed in any of the studied modes. Tidal volume, V9E and Sa,O2
increased in all modes versus SB. However, end-tidal carbon dioxide decreased
significantly only at fv,max. All indices of respiratory effort were decreased at all
frequencies, but these indices were lower during fv,max than during fv,max–5. As expected,
percentage of assisted breaths decreased at fv,max versus fv,max–5 or fv,max–10. In this
specific group of patients, pressure support at fv,max had a maximal impact in decreasing
inspiratory effort, expressed as the pressure/time product (PTP). Conversely, lower
back-up rates were either poorly tolerated or associated with a significant increase in
PTP [44].
Inspiratory triggering
Inspiratory triggering is an option presently available on most home ventilators,
except for those with complex synchronisation algorithms (‘‘flow waveform method of
triggering’’: Synchrony1 and Harmony1 BPPV ventilators, Respironics). Home
volumetric ventilators (i.e. Lifecare PLV 1001, Breas PV 5011) most often rely on
pressure-triggering while barometric ventilators commercialised for home care rely on
flow-triggering systems which are more sensitive and may contribute to a lower work of
breathing for triggering. NAVA et al. [45] compared the effect of flow versus pressure
triggering on inspiratory effort during pressure support ventilation (PSV) and
volumetric assisted controlled (A/C) mode delivered noninvasively in patients with
COPD recovering from an acute exacerbation: flow triggering reduced the inspiratory
effort byy15% (oesophageal PTP (PTPoes) and change in airway pressure DPaw) during
both PSV and A/C modes compared with pressure triggering.
The flow waveform method of triggering (BiPAP1 Vision, Synchrony1 and
Harmony1 BPPV ventilators, Respironics) has been compared with the Evita 4
(Drägerwerk) in pressure support mode, in 12 intubated and sedated patients treated for
acute respiratory failure (ARF) [13]; the flow waveform method of triggering was more
sensitive to patient effort than conventional flow triggering but led to more
autotriggerings, and cycling with the flow waveform method of triggering was similar
to the use of 25% of peak inspiratory flow criteria.
Time to peak inspiratory pressure

The possibility of adjusting time to peak IPAP pressure (Breas PV 102, VPAP II S and
S/T, and Breas PV 401) has been shown to decrease the work of breathing in patients
with restrictive disorders [46, 47]; it is also an important factor for patient comfort.
Expiratory trigger setting (cycling)

Recent bilevel pressure cycled ventilators and pressure support ventilators such as the
Breas PV430 ventilator, have adjustable expiratory triggers. Commonly, arbitrary units
correspond to different percentages of peak inspiratory flow; in some ventilators,
percentage of peak inspiratory flow of cycling can be defined.
The relevance of adjusting expiratory trigger was demonstrated by TASSAUX et al. [21]
in 10 intubated patients with COPD; increasing expiratory trigger from 10 to 70% of
peak inspiratory flow was associated with a marked reduction in delayed cycling,
intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEPi), unrewarded inspiratory efforts and
triggering effort. Whether the same would hold true in patients receiving long-term NIV
314
remains to be determined. Indeed, during NIV, even though obstructive mechanics are
likely to promote delayed cycling, leaks at the patient–mask interface have been shown
to be a major contributor to this problem [22]. When this is the case, reducing the
magnitude of leaks and/or adding an upper limit to inspiratory time can improve the
situation.
Comparison of different BPPV ventilators in vivo

Very few clinical trials comparing ventilators in vivo are available to date. Using five
widely used home BPPV ventilators, VITACCA et al. [48] studied 28 patients, 11 of whom
were on long-term home ventilation; patients were equipped with an oesophageal
balloon, and then NPPV was applied, in random order, for 20-min trials. Tubing and
nasal mask were the same for all trials. Mean values of comfort reported by the patients
varied considerably; however, effort to trigger the ventilators, improvement of V9E and
inspiratory muscle unloading was similar between ventilators. HIGHCOCK et al. [49]
compared, in vivo, two BPPV home ventilators, which had showed important differences
on bench testing. A total of 10 subjects with chest wall diseases were recruited and
underwent polysomnography on two consecutive nights with either ventilator, in a
randomised order; sleep quality, sleep architecture, mean Sa,O2 and Ptc,CO2 well all
unchanged between ventilators, raising the issue of the clinical relevance of in depth
bench testing for clinical practice.
Volume targeting
A limitation of BPPV is the absence of guarantee as to the minute-volume delivered to
the patient. Volume targeting is a feature recently made available on some bilevel
ventilators (i.e. Synchrony1, Respironics; VENTIlogic1, VENTImotion1, Weinmann,
Hamburg, Germany; VS Ultra1 and Elisee1TM 150, ResMed, Sydney, Australia;
Legendair1 and Smartair1, Covidien AG, Hamilton, Bermuda) which aims to solve this
limitation: the ventilator measures or estimates delivered tidal volume (VT) through a
built-in pneumotachograph, and adjusts pressure support within a preset range to
provide a VT as close as possible to a target VT set by the clinician. Target volume
recommended by Respironics1 in obese patients is 7–8 mL?kg-1 (or 8–12 mL?kg-1 of
ideal body weight). In a randomised cross-over study, STORRE et al. [50] recently
showed, in patients with OHS, (n510, BMI 41¡12 kg?m-2, Pa,CO2 47¡2 mmHg) that
BPPV with volume targeting (7–10 mL?kg-1 of ideal body weight) decreased mean
nocturnal Ptc,CO2 and daytime Pa,CO2 more efficiently than BPPV alone. The impact of
volume targeting on nocturnal Ptc,CO2 was confirmed in 12 OHS patients, who
underwent polysomnography during two consecutive nights while receiving BPPV with
or without volume targeting (7–8 mL?kg-1) in a randomised order; however, this
improvement was at the expense of a lesser sleep comfort, increased awakenings and
wake after sleep onset, as well as a shorter total sleep time [51].
Conclusion
The steady increase in the number of patients receiving long-term home ventilation
and the continuous technical improvements which have made possible the development
of compact and sophisticated ventilators has resulted in a wide range of available
ventilators on the domiciliary market. Paradoxically, the choice has become more
arduous for the clinician in the face of this abundant offer when attempting to equip a
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L. VIGNAUX ET AL.
given patient with the appropriate ventilator, while attempting to contain costs. Bench
tests provide useful data on the performance of ventilators, as well as on their
comparative benefits and drawbacks, but their results must be confronted to those of
clinical trials in order to determine their relevance on patient care. The ergonomics of
ventilators are an area which needs further exploration, as available results indicate that
there is a need to improve their user-friendliness.
Summary
The increasing number of patients receiving long-term home ventilation over the years
has fuelled demand for the development of reliable, compact, powerful and quiet
home ventilators. Manufacturers have been quick to respond and there is now an
abundant offer of such machines on the market. However, this large range can
sometimes make choosing the appropriate device difficult for physicians. Bench
testing can provide valuable data to assist in that decision and several such studies
have been published in recent years. However, the clinical relevance of these tests must
also be determined through pathophysiological and clinical studies. The combined
data stemming from these two complementary approaches should help clinicians in
making the right decision when choosing a ventilator for an individual patient in need
of chronic home ventilation.
Keywords: Bilevel devices, home ventilation, mechanical ventilation, noninvasive

ventilation.
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CHAPTER 22
Noninvasive mechanical ventilation in

chronic respiratory failure: ventilators and
interfaces
J.H. Storre*, B. Schönhofer#
*Dept of Pneumology, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, and #Dept of Pneumology and
Intensive Care Medicine, Krankenhaus Oststadt-Heidehaus, Hanover, Germany.
Correspondence: J.H. Storre, Abteilung Pneumologie der Medizinischen Klinik, Klinikum der Albert-
Ludwigs-Universität, Killianstrasse 5, D-79106 Freiburg in Breisgau, Germany. Fax: 49 7612703704;
E-mail: [email protected]; B. Schönhofer, Abteilung für Pneumologie und Internistische
Intensivmedizin, Krankenhaus Oststadt-Heidehaus, Klinikum Region Hanover, Podbielskistraße 380, D-
30659 Hanover, Germany. Fax: 49 5113779; E-mail: [email protected]
The present chapter deals with the technical aspects of ventilators and interfaces used
in noninvasive ventilation (NIV) of patients with chronic respiratory failure (CRF).
Before going into details, it might be helpful to highlight one important clinical issue:
patients with CRF are more or less in a respiratory stable condition and are not
dependent on ventilatory support 24 hours a day; however, patients with CRF have
limited ventilatory capacities, thus the use of NIV as an intermittent treatment should be
clinically beneficial and lead to stabilisation of the ventilatory failure. Therefore, in
contrast to invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV), cessation of NIV does not cause an
immediate life-threatening risk. Complications of IMV, such as failure of the ventilator,
changes in ventilator settings, accidental disconnection from ventilator or accidental
decannulation, may lead to acute deterioration of clinical status, acute hospitalisation or
even death. Therefore, to minimise these complications, ventilators in IMV are equipped
with many surveillance devices and alarms [1]. In contrast, such a surveillance system is
not necessary when NIV is used to treat CRF, thus avoiding unnecessary irritation to
the patient. Accordingly, a recently published study investigated the technical
performance of nine portable pressure ventilators (which are also used as NIV
ventilators in the home) and found that most of the portable pressure ventilators
evaluated were able to respond to high ventilatory demands, even outperforming the
intensive care unit (ICU) device [2].
The objective of the first section of the present chapter is to discuss the principal
characteristics of ventilators that have been designed for use in patients with CRF
requiring NIV. In the second section, the interfaces of NIV are discussed.
Ventilators
Historical development
From an historical point of view, negative pressure ventilation (NPV) was the first
mode of NIV to be widely applied to CRF patients (i.e. during the 1950s poliomyelitis
epidemic). NPV takes place by exposing the chest to subatmospheric pressure during
ISSN 1025-448x.
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J.H. STORRE, B. SCHÖNHOFER
inspiration. During expiration the pressure around the chest wall changes to
atmospheric pressure in order to allow passive exhalation [3]. In the past, body
ventilation was provided with different models, e.g. tank respirator or cuirass type
device driven by a negative pressure cycled machine.
Apart from some specialised centres that have maintained the tradition of using NPV
as a treatment for CRF, this mode of ventilation has steadily lost its former impact over
the last decades and has been almost completely substituted by positive pressure
ventilation (PPV) modes. The main reasons for this trend were the large, cumbersome
NPV-devices, the lack of accessibility by the patient, the need for considerable
experience to operate the device and, finally, the danger of inducing upper airway
obstruction [4]. These shortcomings were emphasised by a monocentre retrospective
study which investigated, over a 46-yr period, long-term NIV of patients with
neuromuscular disorders [5]. It was shown that, compared with NPV, a greater number
of patients with PPV (67%) reported positive outcomes (i.e. improved sense of wellbeing,
independence and perform daily activity). However, there were still patients with CRF
who did not tolerate PPV but did well with NPV; therefore, NPV should be considered
as an alternative means of ventilation in case of PPV intolerance.
Terminology and classification of modes

The existing set of terminology describing the modes of NIV can sometimes be
confusing. The most frequently used modes and abbreviations are shown in table 1. The
answers to the following basic questions may facilitate communication and simplify the
terminology dealing with NIV. 1) Is the NIV mode pressure-targeted ventilation (PTV)
or volume-targeted ventilation (VTV; the frequently used term ‘‘volume control’’ may be
inaccurate, since the volume leaving the ventilator is not really controlled; this is due to
leakage that can occur during the delivery of air to the patient)? 2) Should positive
pressure be applied during inspiration, expiration or both? 3) Does NIV work in the
assist (triggering), assist-control (triggering with back-up rate) or cycled (control) mode
with a fixed breathing frequency?
Before going into details about the two main types of NIV modes (volume and
pressure target-ventilation), it should be noted that the drive of breathing by the patient
and ventilators can be set up in the following ways.
Table 1. – Modes of ventilation
Abbreviation Meaning
ASB Assisted spontaneous breathing
ASV Adaptive servo ventilation
ASSPCV Assisted-pressure controlled ventilation
BiPAP Biphasic positive airway pressure
CPAP Continuous positive airway pressure
IPPV Intermittent positive pressure ventilation
NIV Noninvasive ventilation
NPPV Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation
PAV Proportional assist ventilation
PCV Pressure controlled ventilation
PEEP Positive end-expiratory pressure
PSV Pressure support ventilation
SIMV Synchronised intermittent mandatory ventilation
VCV Volume controlled ventilation
320
NIV IN CRF: VENTILATORS AND INTERFACES
Assist mode. When the ventilator detects and supports the patient’s spontaneous
breath, this process is called ‘‘triggering’’. When NIV is set to assist mode (e.g. pressure
support ventilation (PSV), proportional assist ventilation (PAV) or assist VTV), it is
possible to achieve both a patient-adapted breathing pattern and a high synchrony of
ventilation between the patient and the ventilator. However, triggering requires
considerable inspiratory work of breathing, which does not end abruptly with the
ensuing mechanical pressure support of the inspiration cycle. FLICK et al. [6] showed
through electromyogram (EMG) recordings that inspiratory work of breathing persisted
after triggering diaphragmatic activity. Moreover, it could be demonstrated that the
oxygen consumption of the respiratory muscles were clearly higher in the assisted mode
of intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) than in the controlled mode [7].
Control mode. In control mode, there is a preset automatic cycle based on either
volumetric ventilation (i.e. volume controlled ventilation (VCV)) or barometric
ventilation (i.e. pressure controlled ventilation (PCV)). In PCV, fixed inspiratory and
expiratory pressure levels, breathing frequency and inspiratory and expiratory times are
preset. Ventilators for VCV are characterised by the presetting of fixed inspiratory
volume, fixed breathing frequency and inspiratory and expiratory times. In pure control
mode, the breathing frequency of the ventilator is generally set to a high level in order to
avoid the patient’s spontaneous efforts. Only this procedure enables actual passive
ventilation. In general, preset-controlled volume and pressure modes are preferable in
patients with an unreliable respiratory effort, massively overloaded respiratory muscles,
apnoea and hypopnoeas, and failure of PSV.
Assist-control mode. This mode is a combination of assisted and controlled modes.

Depending on the spontaneous breathing frequency, the patient may either trigger to
receive inspiratory support (i.e. pressure or volume targeted), or be passively ventilated
with the chosen back-up frequency.
Concerning pressure ventilators, this mode is often called ‘‘spontaneous/timed’’,
whereas in volumetric ventilators, the mode is called ‘‘assist-control ventilation’’. In
principle, the synchronised intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) mode also
belongs to this category.
The two main types of NIV-ventilator in CRF: VTV and PTV

Most of the initial studies in the 1990s used VTV as the preferred mode of NIV in
CRF [8, 9]. In line with these findings, a study by SIMONDS et al. [10] reported that the
broad majority of patients (n5170) used VTV, while only ten patients used PTV.
Furthermore, a group study by LEGER et al. [11] revealed the exclusive use of VTV
among the 276 patients studied.
However, due to various reasons, PTV has been increasingly prescribed in recent
years and its usage surpassed that of volume respirators by the end of the 1990s [12–14].
This trend is shown in figure 1 [15]. Here, during the observation period from 1990–
1999, the entire group of 530 CRF patients were adapted to NIV in the Kloster
Grafschaft hospital (Schmallenberg, Germany). The number of new NIV patients per
year continuously increased from 13 in 1990 to .100 patients in 1998 and 1999. Apart
from in 1990, when NIV was exclusively started with VTV, PTV dominated the years
that followed. Within the PTV users, the application of PTV in the assist mode
decreased, while PTV in the control or assist-control mode increased (fig. 1).
In general, PTV and VTV are still characterised by some typical advantages and
disadvantages which are listed in table 2. In two prospective randomised cross-over
321
100
90
80
70
Ventilators % 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Fig. 1. – Development and distribution of applied noninvasive ventilators from 1990–1999 in the Kloster Grafschaft
hospital (Schmallenberg, Germany) [15]. h: volume-targeted ventilators; &: pressure-targeted ventilators (assist
mode); &: pressure-targeted ventilators (control or assist-control mode).
studies, no advantages in sleep quality, gas exchange or quality of life over a 4-month
period were reported when comparing VTV with PTV in the treatment of CRF [16, 17].
However, reduced patient comfort and increased gastrointestinal side-effects were
reported with VTV application [16] while leak compensation is superior in PTV [18, 19].
This trend is particularly obvious in the case of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)-induced CRF, where the high airway pressures that arise from the high airway
resistance in VTV may partly underlie the development of gastrointestinal side-effects
and reduced comfort. In Europe today, PTV is the more commonly used mode in the
treatment of CRF, with two-thirds of the 21,526 patients on home mechanical
ventilation using this mode of ventilation (fig. 2) [14]. University hospitals are
increasingly using PTV, since the percentage of VTV is higher both in non-university
hospitals and the long-established centres using NIV [14, 20].
VTV. Most VTV ventilators in NIV have a one-line circuit with an integrated demand
valve; therefore, CO2-rebreathing is not a problem. Furthermore, most VTV ventilators
on the market deliver the inspiratory volumes via a piston or bellow without integrated
PEEP; however, newer devices are blower-driven and capable of internal PEEP
adjustment.
VTV ventilators deliver a fixed tidal volume, while the associated airway pressures
result from airway resistance, lung and thoracic compliance, flow rate and inspiratory
cycle. Although the method of triggering is not consistently specified, VTV is mostly
applied in the assist-controlled mode. As mentioned, the use of VTV as a mode of NIV is
currently decreasing compared with PCV.
However, VTV as an NIV-mode is still used frequently in CRF due to neuromuscular
diseases [14, 21], and in some countries VTV is still used as often as PTV [14]. Volume
ventilation may be preferred by some patients with neuromuscular diseases who
sometimes need high tidal volumes for ventilation, coughing and increasing the volume
of their voice during NIV. According to the need to attain maximal lung insufflations
for assisted coughing, adolescent and adult patients with respiratory muscle dysfunction
used portable volume-cycled ventilators, rather than pressure-cycled ventilators. This
former disadvantage of PTV is now redeemable, since the currently available generation
of PTV ventilators deliver higher maximum inspiratory pressures (i.e. 40 cm H2O). VTV
with a high flow capacity and pressure limitation may cope adequately with leaks;
322
Table 2. – Advantages and disadvantages of pressure-targeted ventilators (PTV) and volume-targeted

ventilators (VTV)
Aspect PTV VTV

Constant inspiratory volume - ++
Constant inspiratory pressure ++ -
Improvement in sleep quality + +
Improvement in gas exchange + +
Improvement of quality of life + +
Leak compensation ++ -
Gastrointestinal side-effects + -
Comfort + -
Advantages range from + to ++ and disadvantages are shown as -.
however, in general, PTV still provides better compensation for such leaks. Finally, it
should be mentioned that SIMV, a subtype of volume-cycled ventilators, is also
available as an NIV mode. However, this is not recommended, since SIMV is associated
with increased work of breathing [22].
PTV. In contrast to VTV, all of the currently available PTV ventilators are compressor/
blower driven. One-line circuit models with or without an integrated demand valve are
available.
PTV ventilators cycle between preset inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) and
expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP), thus providing PSV [23]. This allows the
patient to control inspiratory and expiratory times while providing a preset pressure,
which, along with patient’s effort, determines the inspiratory flow and tidal volume.
IPAP and EPAP can be adjusted independently in order to augment alveolar ventilation
and maintain upper airway patency during sleep. PSV may facilitate an acceptable
patient–ventilator synchrony, while the addition of external PEEP reduces dynamic
hyperinflation by offsetting intrinsic PEEP [24]. Therefore, PSV may help the patient to
100
80
60
Ventilators %
40
20
0
UK
All
Portugal
Germany
Belgium
Netherlands
Greece
Italy
Norway
Poland
Spain
Denmark
Sweden
Austria
France
Ireland
Finland
Fig. 2. – Percentage per country of pressure- (&) and volume- (&) targeted positive pressure ventilators used for
home mechanical ventilation (n521,526) [14].
323
feel more comfortable. A further advantage of portable PTV devices is the absence of
unnecessary alarms (depending on the product) in clinically stable patients. In addition,
the PSV equipment is generally lighter and less expensive.
An important advantage of PSV and PCV is the compensation for mild-to-moderate
mask or mouth leaks [18, 19]. In the presence of leak the pressure in the patient–
ventilator-circle drops and PTV increases inspiratory flow to compensate for the drop in
pressure.
CO2-rebreathing has been documented in PSV, and the risk of CO2-rebreathing is
greater with a single delivery circuit that lacks an active exhalation valve [25, 26]. A
recent study from SCHETTINO et al. [27] dealt with CO2-rebreathing and the influences of
the exhalation port position and mask design in the PSV-mode. In that bench study, a
lung model with a single-limb circuit was used. In that setting, the full mask with the
exhalation port positioned within the mask, demonstrated less CO2-rebreathing than
either the closed full-face mask, with a whisper swivel, or the total face mask [27].
Furthermore, the high respiratory rates and low external PEEP increased the risk of
CO2-rebreathing caused by the shorter expiratory time and lower CO2 washout of
the circuit. A minimal EPAP (.2–4 cmH2O) is therefore necessary to avoid CO2-
rebreathing in a single tube circuit without valves, in order to wash out CO2. However,
to the best of the present authors’ knowledge, no study has shown that CO2-rebreathing
is clinically significant.
A further critical issue of PSV is the detection of the patient’s inspiration. There are
ventilators fitted with both a fixed and variable trigger. In the past, ventilators were
often pressure-triggered. More-recent studies have found that flow-triggered devices
appeared to be more sensitive than pressure-triggered devices [28]. Another technical
challenge is ‘‘pressurisation’’, in other words, the ability of the ventilator to meet the
flow demand of the patient. Flow demand mainly depends on the underlying
pathophysiology (e.g. resistance and compliance), the given level of pressure support
and inspiratory pressure rise time; the shorter the rise time, the lower the level of work of
breathing [29]. Depending on the type of ventilator, the pressure rise time is either
adjustable or fixed. It may be possible that in an individual case (e.g. an obese patient
with severe airway obstruction) a ventilator does not have enough power to yield
adequate pressure.
Both expiratory trigger and resistance may have a clinically relevant impact on
expiratory effort and the possibility of desynchronisation between the patient and
ventilator [30, 31]. During PSV, cycling to exhalation is triggered by a decrease in
inspiratory flow from a peak to threshold value. A time limit of inspiration is usually
added because the aforementioned technique becomes inoperative when mask leaks are
present. Furthermore, systems using active exhalation valves have shown significant
variation in their valve resistance to exhalation. Increased resistance associated with
difficulties in exhalation can significantly increase the work of breathing.
Compared with PSV, the aforementioned issues (i.e. CO2-rebreathing, inspiratory and
expiratory triggering) are less critical in the PTV assist-controlled and controlled modes,
since they are dominated by automatic cycling.
Compliance might also be improved by allowing the patient to maintain control of the
breathing pattern. PAV has been proposed as a mode of synchronised partial ventilatory
support, in which the ventilator pressure output is proportional to instantaneous patient
effort, thus unloading the resistive and elastic burden [32, 33]. Studies in patients with
acute respiratory failure (ARF) have shown that PAV is well-tolerated and just as
effective as PSV [34, 35]; however, PAV currently remains as an experimental mode of
ventilation. The majority of studies, investigating the short-term application of PAV in
patients with CRF, has revealed some interesting pathophysiological insights [36, 37].
PAV has been shown, especially during physical activity, to be more efficient than PSV
324
in assisting the diaphragm and in increasing minute ventilation [37]. Since NIV has been
postulated as a promising therapy option for rehabilitation programs in CRF [38–40],
PAV could be, in this case, one of the preferred modes of ventilation; however, further
studies are needed to investigate this suggestion. Long-term studies, investigating the
application of PAV as an NIV mode in sleep or the effect of long-term application in
CRF, are yet to be performed.
Finally, it should be mentioned that in both intensive care medicine and
anaesthesiology, the biphasic positive airway pressure (BiPAP) mode is associated with
a different mode of the Evita ventilator (Draeger, Lübeck, Germany). This mode
consists of a phasic change between two preset demand-valve CPAP values (‘‘P-low’’
and ‘‘P-high’’) during which spontaneous breathing remains unrestricted at each CPAP
value. The mechanical support is defined by: 1) the difference between the two pressure
levels and 2) the variable duration of both pressure levels.
To conclude this section, it should be added that some manufacturers of home
ventilators have recently focused on providing a combination of both PTV and VTV in
the same machine. The role of these hybrid modes of ventilation have not yet been
sufficiently explored to warrant their use in NIV but a pilot study has indeed shown
promising results [41]; in that study, patients with obesity-hypoventilation syndrome
were randomised in a cross-over design to either the BiPAP spontaneous/timed or the
hybrid combination of BiPAP spontaneous/timed with average volume-assured pressure
support (AVAPS). Each mode was applied for 6 weeks of home mechanical ventilation.
The authors reported that with the addition of the AVAPS mode there was a
significantly greater reduction of transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension (Ptc,CO2) during
the night; however, sleep quality and quality of life did not benefit from the addition of
the AVAPS mode when compared with BiPAP spontaneous/timed alone [41]. Similar
findings were reported by JANSSENS et al. [42], who reported that the AVAPS mode led
to a slight improvement in alveolar ventilation but did not significantly affect the
objective indices of sleep structure; however, this new mode was associated with a
subjective feeling of reduced sleep quality, increased leaks and increased ventilator
pressures. Since these were the first studies to investigate the hybrid mode of ventilation
in CRF, it remains unknown as to whether these new modes do actually offer any long-
term advantages over the modes in current use.
Choice of ventilator and setting

Regarding the choice of ventilator and ventilator setting, an individualised approach
to each patient appears, in general, to be a useful practice [43, 44]. From a practical
point of view this means that the ventilator type and its setting should be determined by
each patient’s degree of comfort, coupled with the patient’s ability to increase minute
ventilation, improve gas exchange and diminish the work of breathing. Indeed, this
constitutes the ideal aim of every specialist in the field of respiratory medicine. However,
data that deal with these topics are virtually non-existent in literature, while evidence-
based recommendations are also lacking.
Furthermore, despite the described differences between the NIV modes, it still remains
open as to whether these differences are of clinical importance. In view of this, HILL [45]
stated 15 yrs ago that, based upon the data available at the time, considerations such as
leak compensation and reliably delivered volumes, did not appear to be major
determinants of NIV success; this statement remains valid to the present day.
Accordingly, data regarding the validity of PTV versus VTV in NIV are available.
These data generally emerged from physiological studies, which were conducted mainly
over short time periods in small groups of patients [46–48]. A disadvantage of these
325
previous studies was the introduction of additional variables such as assist-control VTV
versus PSV [47, 48], thus making the comparison between the two ventilation modes
more unreliable.
Several studies have compared the long-term efficacy of different NIV modes in CRF
[12, 16, 17, 49, 50]. CRINER et al. [12] investigated the efficacy and compliance of long-term
NIV in 40 patients with CRF; here, the aforementioned trend from VTV to PTV was
demonstrated. After initial evaluation, 34 patients received NIV via PTV (i.e. BiPAP)
while only six patients required NIV via VTV. During the 6-month follow-up, 14 patients
ceased NIV due to incompliance; in the compliant patients, blood gases and functional
status improved on a chronic basis. Also, on a long-term basis, SCHÖNHOFER et al. [49]
conducted a prospective study of the effect of volume- and pressure-cycled ventilation
modes of NIV in patients suffering from CRF. After 4 weeks of treatment with VTV in
the time-cycled mode, the effect was compared with that of PTV, which was also
performed in the same mode over a 4-week period. From these results, the authors
concluded that VTV proved superior to PTV in one-third (10 out of 30) of their patients,
since this subgroup deteriorated during the PTV period and had to return to VTV.
However, the majority of patients (20 out of 30) remained stable during the subsequent
PTV period. Subjective scores and carbon dioxide tension values provided a distinction
between long-term responders and nonresponders to PTV. It could be speculated that the
amount of reduced work of breathing accounted for the discrepancies between the two
modes. In contrast to the study of SCHÖNHOFER et al. [49], SMITH et al. [50] reported that in
a mixed collective of 10 CRF patients who deteriorated under VTV, the exchange of the
ventilator to PTV led to a reversal of the deterioration observed under VTV.
More recently, PTV and VTV were compared in two prospective randomised cross-over
studies [16, 17]. In one of the studies, 12 CRF patients with chest wall deformities
underwent a four-week single-blinded randomised cross-over study in either VTV or PTV.
In conclusion, the authors suggested that pressure- and volume-ventilation are equivalent
in terms of the effects on nocturnal and daytime physiology, resulting daytime function
and health status [17]. In line with these findings, WINDISCH et al. [16] investigated, in a
similar prospective randomised cross-over study, PTV and VTV in 10 patients with
obstructive (n55) and restrictive (n55) CRF. After 6 weeks of home mechanical
ventilation in the assist-controlled mode, an equivalent improvement in gas exchange and
sleep quality was seen overnight. However, PTV was better tolerated by the patients,
whereas more gastrointestinal side effects were associated with VTV; these findings
therefore contribute to the trend towards the use of PTV over the last 15 yrs [16].
Finally, it should be mentioned that the glottis function plays an important role in
NIV, since the glottis is known to narrow substantially or even close completely, in
response to NIV. This may induce deterioration in the quality of both NIV and sleep
[51, 52]. Furthermore, it has been shown that a substantial increase in glottis resistance
can occur with the use of different modes of NIV [53, 54], leading to narrowing of the
glottis reflex and inducing (amongst others) mouth leaks. It was found that, by altering
the delivery of tidal volume, inspiratory flow and ventilatory frequency or positive
inspiratory pressure (as well as manipulating the ventilatory mode), the glottis response
can be regulated, thus improving ventilatory efficacy. This warrants further trials with
CRF patients, since glottis function may act as a practical determinant of ventilator
mode and setting, respectively.
General issues concerning technical equipment

The major advantage of NIV is its applicability outside the hospital, e.g. in the
patient’s home. Compared with long-term invasive mechanical ventilation at home [1],
326
which often needs accessory equipment, the technical equipment and design of NIV
ventilators should remain simple and be easy to handle. Therefore, NIV ventilators
would not need the following technical details in general: a second, back-up ventilator;
humidification; external battery; non-rebreathing valve; PEEP; supplemental O2;
pressure and volume monitoring; and alarms for high and low pressure and failure of
the battery.
Routine care for patients receiving NIV at home should include the following:
patients and caregivers should be properly trained by technicians, specialised nurses or
respiratory therapists from the home care company, in the use of the ventilatory
equipment prior to hospital discharge. Once assigned to NIV for home mechanical
ventilation, patients should be visited at home at least during the first week; subsequent
visits would then be dependent on the patient’s needs. During these visits, the ventilator
should be checked for proper function. Preventative maintenance is performed
according to the manufacturer’s specifications. The home-care company must guarantee
a 24 h technical service, in order to answer emergency calls and repair technical
dysfunctions of the ventilatory equipment. After a certain period of usage (e.g. every
5,000 h), the ventilators are to be removed from the home for complete preventative
maintenance at the factory. Additional services which are organised by the healthcare
providers (such as mask consultation) offer further support for the patient.
A thorough investigation into the frequency of home ventilator failure revealed that
such failures were relatively uncommon, with nearly all suspected failures being resolved
at home [55]. Caregivers’ misuse, tampering or damage led to half of the reported
failure. True mechanical failures occurred in only 40% of the reports. No patient
suffered any adverse clinical effects, resulting from the failure. However, in a more
recent, European survey [56], the quality control of equipment in home mechanical
ventilation showed some interesting facts that should be considered: 1) ventilator service
was mainly carried out by external companies (62% of centres), with a service occurring
every 3–12 months; 2) interaction between servicing companies and prescribers was
limited (only 61% of centres were consistently informed of major incidents); 3)
participation of centres in equipment quality control was poor; and 4) only 23% of
centres were sufficiently aware of the vigilance systems [56]. In line with previous
findings, that report revealed that regular assessment of actual ventilator performance at
the patient’s home is an important quality-control procedure for detecting any
malfunctions which could otherwise compromise both the compliance and outcome of
home mechanical ventilation [57].
Interfaces
The interface between the patient and ventilator is crucial for the success of NIV; a
patient may refuse NIV on the grounds of an uncomfortable mask, or a poorly fitting
interface may reduce the efficacy of NIV. Custom sizing and fitting of the mask may
require several attempts in order to accommodate the facial architecture. Despite the
clinical impact, the choice of different interfaces has received little scientific attention;
hence, no general consensus exists in regard to the management of interfaces.
Spectrum of interfaces
As seen historically, the quality of interfaces has markedly improved over the past
25 yrs. In the early 1990s, the percentage of custom-made nasal and facial masks in use
was high, due to a lack of sufficient fitting and comfortable commercial masks [15].
327
Today, a variety of commercial masks are available and more frequently used than
custom-made masks (figs 3 and 4). Commercial manufacturers continue to improve
mask design and develop gauging tools in order to help the clinician choose the correct
mask and size for the patient.
a) 100
80
Lung HMV users %
60
40
20
#
0
b) 100
80
Thoracic HMV users %
60
40
20
c) 100
Neuromuscular HMV users %
80
60
40
20
0
Italy
Portugal
Poland
All
Netherlands
Austria
Belgium
Greece
Spain
Sweden
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Ireland
Norway
UK
Fig. 3. – Proportion of interfaces for different diseases categorised by country for a) lung, b) thoracic and c)
neuromuscular home mechanical ventilation (HMV) users (n521,526) [14]. &: nasal masks; &: facial masks; h:
tracheostomy. #: no data were available for Polish lung users.
328
In the aforementioned European survey of home mechanical ventilator users, the

majority of interfaces are represented by nasal and facial masks, with the majority of
patients using nasal masks (fig. 3) [14]. However, as shown in figure 3, there are still
patients on home mechanical ventilators who are tracheostomised. The use of this
invasive interface is dependent on the underlying disease, whereby the highest rate of the
tracheostomised patients suffer from neuromuscular diseases (24%). Fewer patients with
lung diseases, like COPD (8%) or restrictive thoracic disorders (5%), require
tracheostomy [14]. This distribution also depends on the country of the patient. For
example, the respective proportions of tracheostomised patients with neuromuscular
diseases in Poland (90%) and the Netherlands (50%) are much higher compared with
other countries (fig. 3).
The varieties of interfaces that are currently in frequent use are given in figure 4;
approximately 20–30 types of both nasal and face masks are on the market, each being
characterised by their own advantages and disadvantages. A comparison of these most-
frequently used interfaces is described in table 3. In special indications, total face masks,
nasal pillows and mouthpieces are also used (fig. 4).
Commercial interfaces
There are only a few reports which directly compare the success rate of nasal masks,
facial masks and other devices. In a study by NAVALESI et al. [58], patients with chronic
hypercapnic respiratory failure showed an overall better tolerance of the commercially
available nasal masks compared with both the facial masks and nasal pillows (p,0.005).
However, the full-face masks were associated with the most favourable reduction in
arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2). A recently published study reported that nasal
masks are just as effective as full-face masks in terms of sleep quality and gas exchange
in CRF patients. Here, the nasal masks were often attached with a chin strap in order to
compensate for oral leaks [59]. In line with these findings, the nasal mask was considered
to be more comfortable than the face mask during CPAP therapy for sleep apnoea [60].
However, nasal masks dominate as the type of interface used in CRF [14, 61]. In
a) b) c)
d) e) f)
Fig. 4. – Variety of interfaces. a) Commercial nasal mask, b) custom-made nasal mask, c) commercial full-face mask,
d) full-face mask with nasal pillows, e) mouthpiece and f) total face mask.
329
Table 3. – Comparison of oronasal and nasal masks
Aspect Oronasal mask Nasal mask

Mouth leak No Yes
Mouth breathing Possible Decreases NIV quality
Dental status Independent Dependent
Application of airway pressure Higher Lower
Dead space High Low
Dynamic of ABG improvement Quicker Slower
Communication Reduced Possible
Eating and drinking No Possible
Expectoration No Possible
Risk of aspiration Elevated Reduced
Risk of aerophagia Elevated Reduced
Claustrophobia Elevated Reduced
Comfort Lower Higher
ABG: arterial blood gas; NIV: noninvasive ventilation.
contrast, due to various reasons, oronasal masks are used more often in the treatment of
ARF [61, 62].
In order to avoid leaks, masks are often fitted tightly; however, this can induce
pressure sores which, in turn, may lead to reduced tolerance. Pressure sores mostly
appear on the nasal bridge and different dressings have therefore been evaluated to
prevent nasal bridge abrasion. The proper fit of the nose mask can be improved by
applying mask cushions or by padding the bridge of the nose. Variations include the
bubble type- or gel-masks.
Patients with an intolerance of such nasal interfaces (i.e. masks or nasal pillows) might
be more willing to try masks that cover both the nose and mouth. Accordingly, CRINER
et al. [63] found that the total face mask was likely to improve comfort, minimise air
leakage and improve ventilation in patients who were previously unable to tolerate NIV
via nasal or oronasal masks.
Recently, helmets were introduced as a new interface in NIV. In two studies by
ANTONELLI et al. [64, 65], the helmet was a promising tool in the treatment of acute
hypoxemic respiratory failure [64]; however, in patients with CRF, the reduction of Pa,CO2
with the helmet was not as favourable as that achieved with treatment by the full-face mask
[65]. Recently, a study by NAVALESI et al. [66] showed, in patients with COPD and CRF,
that the helmet and facial mask were equally tolerated and that both were effective in
ameliorating gas exchange and decreasing inspiratory effort. However, the helmet was less
efficient in decreasing inspiratory effort and worsened the patient–ventilator interaction.
Currently, the helmet cannot be recommended as an interface for long-term NIV.
Customised interfaces
Despite the wide use of commercially available masks there are some potential side
effects such as a large mask volume, nasal bridge pressure sores or significant leakages.
In this case, custom-made nasal or facial masks may be an alternative (fig. 4). In a short-
term physiological study, a volumetric ventilator was used to compare commercially
available and custom-made nasal masks during NIV [67]; the nasal mask showed a
higher effectiveness of NIV, most probably since it has a smaller dead space and reduced
air leakage compared with the custom-made mask. In a French population study, masks
were constructed by modelling a mixture of silicone and catalyst to the patient’s face.
The entire mask-making procedure took approximately 30 min and the masks were then
330
usable for around 6 months [11]. The most-recent trend involves the use of semi-
customised masks consisting of a prefabricated frame in which quick-drying filler is
injected and then moulded to the unique facial contours of each patient.
Mouthpieces
BACH et al. [68] reported on the use of mouthpieces as an interface that precludes the
necessity of tracheotomy in patients with neuromuscular disease. A commercially
available mouthpiece interface covers the lips and is held in place by straps. Here the
mouthpiece, like the nasal mask, facilitates both communication and secretion
clearance. A simple mouthpiece may be kept adjacent to the mouth for easy accessibility
during the day, with a lip seal added for nocturnal use; the addition of a bite plate may
also facilitate the use of an oral interface. However, this type of interface has been
associated with adverse effects, e.g. air leakage, dry mouth, risk of aspiration, altered
dental occlusion and temporomandibular joint problems.
A recently published study by TOUSSAINT et al. [69] recommends NIV with a
mouthpiece as the interface of choice for additional daytime NIV in end-stage Duchenne
patients. Here, patients who underwent NIV with a nasal mask and were normocapnic
during the night, but developed end-diurnal hypercapnia, were additionally ventilated
with a diurnal mouthpiece. A 7-yr follow-up of 42 patients has been performed and
revealed NIV with a mouthpiece as a safe means of improving daytime gas exchange,
prolonging survival and stabilising vital capacity. The authors also recommended the
addition of a self-supporting harness to aid NIV with a mouthpiece.
Dead space
The increase in dead space, as well as the inherent CO2-rebreathing associated with
mask use, is a crucial aspect. CRINER et al. [63] found the following values for dead
spaces: total face mask, 1,500 mL; oronasal mask, 250 mL; and nasal mask, 105 mL.
Studies in this field are quite rare, but one study of SCHETTINO et al. [27] dealt with CO2-
rebreathing, the position of exhalation port and the design of the mask. In that bench
study, a lung model with a single-limb circuit was used. Within this setting, the full-face
mask, with its exhalation port fitted in the mask, demonstrated less CO2-rebreathing
compared with either the closed full-face mask with a whisper swivel or the total face
mask. A further study investigated the dynamic dead space in 19 commercially available
face masks in a lung model; here, with the use of a face mask, the total dynamic dead
space during spontaneous ventilation was increased above physiological dead space
from 32 to 42% of tidal volume [70]. NIV in either bilevel or CPAP mode that exerts
continuous pressure throughout the expiratory phase led to a reduction in total dynamic
dead space to approach physiological dead space with most face masks, whereas NIV in
PSV mode led to less of a reduction, namely from 42 to 39%. Face masks using
expiratory ports over the nasal bridge resulted in beneficial flow characteristics within
the face mask and nasal cavity. Here, a decrease in total dynamic dead space to less than
physiological dead space from 42 to 28.5% of tidal volume was demonstrated [70]. In
conclusion, more studies on this subject are needed to verify the above findings.
Air leakage
The two major sites of air leakage are: 1) between the skin and the mask and 2) through
the mouth. Leaks, especially mouth leaks, play a major role in the ineffectiveness of NIV.
331
Leaks should be monitored and quantified and, for the multiple reasons that have been
already mentioned, the potential for leaks should also influence the choice of mask (nasal
or oronasal). The effect of a high rate of leakage on the efficiency of ventilation during
sleep should be monitored, in addition to the potential effect on arousal and the role of
nasal airway resistance.
Leaks may decrease the quality of both ventilation and sleep. BACH et al.
demonstrated, through the use of volume ventilators for NIV, that severe leakage (i.e.
a loss of 33% of the tidal volume) occurred for a median of 55% of sleep time and was
associated with significant hypoventilation. In line with these findings, MEYER et al. [72]
found severe mouth leak during sleep. In that study, a single limb bilevel device was used
to allow for the possible compensation of leaks. In contrast to the study by BACH et al.
[71], oxygenation was well maintained, despite prevalent leaking. Based on polysomno-
graphic studies, it was found that leaks .24 L?min-1 were associated with frequent
arousals during sleep stages 1, 2 and rapid eye movement (REM) and this contributed to
sleep fragmentation; arousals were infrequent during slow-wave sleep.
Indeed, leak-induced deterioration of sleep and ventilation may be compensated by
adequate interfaces. For example, CRF patients who wore mouth tape during NIV
demonstrated a marked reduction in leakage, improved ventilation (i.e. decrease of
PCO2) and improved sleep quality (i.e. reduction of arousal index and increase of REM
sleep), when, compared to patients without mouth taping [73]. In order to prevent
mouth leaks that are associated with wearing a nose mask, the addition of chin straps
can be helpful, and this combination has been shown to be just as effective, in terms of
gas exchange and sleep quality, as the full-face mask in patients with CRF [59].
Although several mechanisms may be potentially involved in the development of
nasal discomfort during NIV, mouth leaks are particularly important because they cause
unidirectional inspiratory nasal airflow and progressive drying of the nasal mucosa. This
mechanism is also known to promote the release of inflammatory mediators and
increase nasal airway resistance [74, 75], which increase mouth breathing and promote
further leakage, respectively.
Furthermore, RICHARDS et al. [74] found that increased nasal resistance can be
prevented by the addition of humidification. Their findings showed that, because of the
high flows, a cold burst of humidification only increased the relative humidity by 6–9%
and thus had no effect on improving airway resistance. However, a hot water bath
humidifier increased the relative humidity to .97%, and changes in nasal resistance
were either greatly attenuated or abolished. Although no consensus has been found
concerning the optimal level of air humidification, it is an issue that deserves much more
attention in NIV.
Due to the lack of trials dealing with air humidification during NIV of CRF patients,
it seems to be feasible to apply to NIV in CRF the central findings of studies of air
humidification during CPAP treating sleep apnoea. Both physiological and long-term
clinical trials support the impact of air humidification.
Thus, in physiological studies it has been clearly shown that even during mouth leak,
heated humidification can significantly increase relative humidity in the airways [76].
Furthermore CPAP treatment in sleep apnoea was associated with the highest rate of
compliance (i.e. hours of CPAP usage) and optimal degree of satisfaction when
supplemented with heated humidification, compared to both non-heated humidification
and no humidification [77].
Finally, the question of when a face mask should be used instead of a nasal mask
could be answered by considering the degree of leak monitoring. Compared to patients
with CRF, those with ARF are more closely monitored for ineffective ventilation and
mouth leaks. This may account for the reason why oronasal masks are preferred in ARF
[61, 62]. Nevertheless, mouth leaks can also be a major problem in CRF. Hence,
332
monitoring the presence of mouth leaks, especially during sleep, should help to optimise
mask management.
Conclusions
Although there is an immense variety of both ventilators and interfaces for NIV
currently available, this form of therapy is a life-changing treatment in which patients
may still feel uncomfortable during ventilation. Therefore, further dedication to this
matter is needed to ensure the ongoing improvement of ventilators and interfaces.
Many specialists (i.e. physicians, respiratory therapists and skilled nurses), working in
hospitals, specialised centres or home-care companies are well-qualified to adapt
patients to NIV. However, the choice of the ventilator, the interface and the ventilator
are usually based on intuition rather than evidence. Finally, monitoring the patient–
ventilator interaction or air leaks during sleep is rarely performed and the knowledge
about these phenomena, therefore, remains low.
Even though almost 15 years have passed since MEYER and HILL [8] published their
review article, the concluding sentence ‘‘…several issues relating to the use of NIV are
unresolved. The optimal interface and ventilator design have not been determined, and
these may differ among patients’’ remains true.
Summary
Negative pressure ventilation (NPV) was the first reported form of noninvasive
ventilation (NIV) to be widely applied to chronic respiratory failure (CRF). However,
during the past decades, NPV has gradually lost its former impact and, apart from in
a few centres, has been almost completely replaced by positive pressure ventilation
(PPV) modes.
The existing plethora of terminology describing NIV modes can sometimes be
confusing, especially with respect to ventilators. Pressure-targeted ventilation (PTV)
and volume-targeted ventilation (VTV) are the main modes of NIV; Both types can be
used in an assisted or controlled setting.
PTV has surpassed VTV in recent years as the treatment option for CRF. Both modes
have been successfully applied to NIV in CRF. However, PTV has become the
preferred mode due to the higher comfort level for the patient, as well as the lower
costs and the compensation it provides for mild-to-moderate mask or mouth leaks.
Recently, hybrid modes of PTV and VTV were introduced.
The choice of ventilator and its setting should address different pathophysiological
aspects of the underlying disease, of which is variable amongst CRF patients; in
patients with COPD, the expiration time should be set at a higher level to avoid air
trapping, while higher pressures may be useful to achieve a sufficient tidal volume.
Furthermore, the addition of an positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may be
helpful to offset intrinsic PEEP in these patients. Various studies have shown that a
controlled mode of ventilation is useful and well tolerated by all patients, irrespective
of the underlying disease. When a controlled mode of ventilation is favoured, an
assist-controlled mode is suggested to increase the patients’ subjective tolerance.
However, an individualised approach to each patient is beneficial and further studies
investigating ventilator settings are needed to continually improve recommendations.
The interface between patient and ventilator is crucial for the success of NIV. In
various studies, different interfaces have been used with success. However, despite its
333
high clinical impact, the choice of different interfaces has received little scientific
attention. A variety of masks are now available, and manufacturers continue to
improve mask design. The majority of interfaces is represented by commercial or
custom-made nasal masks and oronasal masks. In special indications, nasal pillows or
mouthpieces are used. It is suggested that nasal masks should be used prior to
oronasal masks in CRF, since there are fewer limitations and communication with the
patients is more convenient. In contrast, if patients are mouth breathers, an oronasal
mask is favoured. In patients using nasal masks, leaks can occur through an open
mouth, especially during night; these leaks can lead to NIV insufficiency, where both
the quality of ventilation and sleep may be reduced. In this case, changing the
interface to an oronasal mask should be considered. In general, mechanical
ventilation can lead to dryness of the upper airway. Therefore, nasal resistance may
be an important reason for reduced compliance, which may be compensated by
additional humidification.
Keywords: Chronic respiratory insufficiency, hypoventilation, interfaces, mechanical

ventilators, noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank S. Dieni for proofreading the manuscript.
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CHAPTER 23
Interfaces and humidification in the home

setting
P. Navalesi*, P. Frigerio#, C. Gregoretti"
*Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Eastern Piedmont University ‘‘A. Avogadro’’, Maggiore della Carità
Hospital, Novara, #Spinal Cord Unit, ‘Niguarda Ca’ Granda Hospital, Milan, and "Emergency Dept, CTO-
M.Adelaide Hospital, Turin, Italy.
Correspondence: P. Navalesi, SCDU Anestesia, Terapia Intensiva e Rianimazione Generate, Azienda

Ospedaliero-Universitaria ‘Maggiore della Carità’, Corso Mazzini 18, 28100 Novara, Italy. Fax: 39
3213733406; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Noninvasive ventilation (NIV), currently, plays a key role in the treatment of patients
with acute respiratory failure [1–7]. NIV is also used for long-term treatment of patients with
chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure due to thoracic deformities, neuromuscular diseases,
sleep-disordered breathing and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [8–10].
The patient’s comfort is crucial for NIV success in both the acute [11, 12] and chronic
[13] setting. Because a poorly-fitting interface decreases clinical effectiveness and patient
adherence to NIV, the choice of the interface has been recognised as one major
determinant of the success of this form of treatment [14, 15]. The patient’s comfort may be
affected by the interface with respect to many aspects, such as air-leaks, claustrophobia,
facial skin erythema, acneiform rash, eye irritation and skin breakdown [14].
The lack of heating and humidification is a less-recognised cause of discomfort for the
patient receiving NIV. In patients undergoing overnight nasal continuous positive
airway pressure (CPAP) for treatment of obstructive sleep apnoeas (OSAs), in presence
of mouth leaks, cold dry air increases nasal resistance [16], which causes nasal symptoms
[16] and reduces the patient’s compliance to CPAP [17]. Recent work suggests that the
same problems could affect nasal NIV and that heated humidification has the potential
to reduce these adverse effects and improve NIV comfort [18].
Interfaces
General characteristics
Although the availability of interfaces has greatly increased in the recent years and
new products are continuously arriving on the market, the ‘‘perfect interface’’, best for
all patients in all situations, does not exist and will likely never exist. When choosing the
interface for a patient, one has to compromise between different aims, such as leak
minimisation, ease of use and best comfort. The ideal characteristics of the interface for
NIV are presented in table 1.
A large variety of masks, both disposable and reusable, are available in different sizes from
a number of manufacturers. Ready-to-use masks are usually composed of two parts: a stiff
ISSN 1025-448x.
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INTERFACES AND HUMIDIFICATION IN THE HOME SETTING
Table 1. – Ideal characteristics of the interface for noninvasive ventilation
Characteristics of the ideal interface

Leak-free
Good stability
Nontraumatic
Light-weight
Long-lasting and nondeformable
Range of sizes
Made of nonallergenic material
Low resistance to airflow
Reduced dead space
Inexpensive
Easy to secure
Easy to clean
Transparent#
Quickly removable#
Anti-asphyxia valve#
#
: desirable characteristics for oro-nasal mask.
shell and a soft cushioned or flailed surface in direct contact with the patient. These two parts
can be either glued in a single block or hooked to one another, in a manner to be easily
attached and detached. In this latter case, the same shell is applicable to soft surfaces of
different size, so that one single shell can fit a wide range of users. A few masks are composed
by a single piece. The shell, commonly transparent, can be made of rigid polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), polycarbonate or Orfit1. The piece directly in contact with patient’s skin can be made
of soft PVC, polypropylene, silicon, silicon elastomer, gel or hygrogel [19].
In the past, especially for long-term home ventilation, custom masks were often
moulded directly on the patient or from a previously obtained impression of their face
contour [20]. Fabrication time and quality are largely operator-dependent; with respect
to the model used, the time required to prepare a mask varies 5–30 mins for a skilled
operator [21]. Recently, one manufacturer has proposed a ready-to-use nasal mask that
can be customised to the patient’s face contour; once removed from the packaging, the
mask is put in boiled water and then cooled and pressed against the patient’s face.
The body mask includes the prongs to anchor the headgear. In principle, more points
of attachment increase the chance of obtaining a good fit and vary the site of maximal
pressure application. Prongs sited more peripherally may result in a more uniform
distribution of pressure on the face [22].
In some masks the upper part is secured on the forehead rather than at the bridge of
the nose. One important feature of these masks is the forehead spacer, made of foam or
gel, that, filling the gap between the forehead and the mask, reduces the pressure exerted
on the bridge of the nose. In order to further decrease the pressure on the nose, the
forehead can be mounted on an adjustable arm.
Masks are connected to the ventilator circuit through connectors, swivels and
adapters that can be externally applied or built into the shell. In some models of nasal
masks, flexible tubing is mounted between the shell and the connector. This approach
improves the comfort, by allowing the patient to move without affecting mask stability
but causes an increase in dead space, which may be relevant at low tidal volumes.
Classification of interfaces
Interfaces can be classified according to the manner in which they are connected to the
patient as: 1) oral interfaces; 2) nasal interfaces; or 3) oro-nasal interfaces. While the
339
P. NAVALESI ET AL.
studies performed on acute patients used an oro-nasal mask preferentially, the nasal
mask was preferred in more than 75% of the studies evaluating long-term domicilary
NIV, followed by nasal pillows (11%), facial mask (6%) and mouthpiece (5%) [15].
The continuous development of new products by the manufacturers has definitely
increased the availability of interfaces and the chance of meeting different requirements.
In patients necessitating several daily hours of NIV, however, the rotation of different
interfaces remains, in the present authors’ opinion, the best strategy to avoid or to
reduce to a large extent, the risk of skin breakdown, by alternating the distribution of
pressure upon the skin and varying the site of maximal friction [23].
Oral interfaces. Mouthpieces are commercially available in different types and sizes in
order to meet patient comfort and improve NIV compliance. They can be divided into:
1) standard narrow mouthpieces with different degrees of flexion in order to be grabbed
by patient’s teeth and/or lips; and 2) custom moulded bite-plates. table 2 summarises
advantages and disadvantages of this interface.
Mouthpieces are simple and not expensive. One of their major limitations relies on the
large amount of air leaking, which may compromise NIV efficacy and cause unwanted
alarming of the ventilator. In order to limit air leaks, mouthpieces configured with a lip
seal can be used; some suggest that air leaks can be managed by occluding the nostrils
with nose plugs [14]. Mouthpieces may stimulate salivation, elicit gag reflex and,
ultimately, cause vomiting. Vomit aspiration is potentially a severe complication but it
seems to be more hypothetical than real [14, 24]. Standard mouthpieces may produce
orthodontic deformities over time.
Nasal interfaces. Nasal interfaces can be divided into: 1) full nasal masks; 2) external
nostril masks; and 3) internal nostril masks. Full nasal masks fit at the bridge of the
nose, on the upper lip and at the side of the nostrils. The soft surface can be either
cushioned or flailed. The cushion of the nasal mask can be filled with air or gel. Although
full nasal masks have also been used for the treatment of acute hypercapnic [1, 2] and
hypoxaemic [25] respiratory failure, they are preferentially chosen for chronic patients on
long-term home ventilation. In patients with chronic respiratory failure of mixed
aetiology, full nasal masks are better tolerated than facial masks and nasal pillows, but less
effective in ameliorating gas exchange [23].
External nostril masks are recently developed interfaces that have the advantage to
minimise the bulk of the mask, to eliminate the occurrence of claustrophobia, and to
allow the patient to wear glasses while the ventilator is in use. External nostril masks are
applied around the outer wall of the nostrils, thereby assuring minimal facial contact
and no pressure on the bridge of the nose.
Internal nostril masks, often called nasal plugs, are available from a few
manufacturers and consist of soft plastic plugs inserted into the nostrils. The pressure
applied during inspiration helps to seal the wall of the pillows against the inner surface
of the nasal vestibule. Nasal pillows are held in place with specifically designed
Table 2. – Advantages and disadvantages of mouthpiece
Advantages Disadvantages
Negligible dead space Ineffective if patient cannot maintain mouth seal
Less interference with speech (patient allowed to use the Difficult to use overnight
ventilator intermittently) Nasal leaks
Possible gag reflex, salivation, vomit
Possible orthodontic deformities over time
340
headgears. The nasal pillows can be as effective as oro-nasal masks in improving gas
exchange but less tolerated than full nasal masks [23].
Dual pressure ports are common for allowing oxygen administration and pressure
check. Most masks are available with exhalation ports directly included in the shell to
eliminate the exhaled air and avoid rebreathing. This apparatus represents a real anti-
rebreathing system and should not be used when the circuit has separated inspiratory
and expiratory limbs or when an expiratory valve or another external device for CO2
elimination is present. In order to avoid erroneous connections between masks and
circuits, some manufactures make a distinction between interfaces with and without vent
holes, using different colours or connections. Advantages and disadvantages of nasal
masks are listed in table 3.
Oro-nasal interfaces. Oro-nasal interfaces can be divided into: 1) facial masks,

comprehensive of the surface around nose and mouth; 2) total face mask, which also
include the eyes [26]; and 3) helmet, including the whole head. They are available in a
variety of sizes and are often equipped with an anti-asphyxia valve, which automatically
opens when airway pressure falls below a minimal pressure (2–3 cmH2O), enabling the
patient to breathe room air while still wearing the mask. As it may occur during power
failure or machine malfunctioning, oro-nasal masks are preferred for severely dyspnoeic
patients with acute respiratory failure, who breathe through both the nose and the mouth.
Facial masks fit on the nasal bridge, below the lower lip and beside the nose. Facial
masks can be cushioned or flailed. The cushion is either air-filled or foam-filled. In some
masks the cushion is inflatable; air is added or removed to improve mask fit [27, 28]. A
transparent dome is preferred because it allows visual assessment of the presence of
secretions [22]. Facial masks are also available with exhalation vents. Technical
improvements, such as more-comfortable seals, improved air sealing capabilities, quick-
release straps and anti-asphyxia valves have increased the acceptability of the facial
masks also for long-term application [14].
The total face mask has a soft flail that seals around the perimeter of the face. The
total face mask can be an alternative for patients who are unable to obtain a good seal
[14]. As it covers the entire face, the total face mask does not exert pressure on the nose
bridge. Its use is characterised by large air leaks, which make it compatible only with
ventilators with high air leak compensation capability.
The helmet is a transparent hood secured by two armpit braces at two hooks sited on
a metallic ring that joins the hood to a soft collar. It was designed to deliver a precise
oxygen fraction during hyperbaric oxygen therapy, but is now used in Europe to apply
CPAP and, less commonly, NIV, in the acute setting. The helmet has no indication for
long term NIV.
Table 4 shows advantages and disadvantages oro-nasal interfaces.
Table 3. – Advantages and disadvantages of nasal interfaces
Less risk of aspiration Mouth leaks
Less interference with cough Less effective with nasal obstruction
Allow patient to eat and drink Nasal irritation and rhinorrhea
Less claustrophobic Mouth dryness
No risk of asphyxia in case of ventilator malfunctioning Problematic expiratory tidal volume monitoring"
Not pressure over the bridge of the nose#
Allow patient to wear glasses#
#
: only for external and internal nostril masks; ": only for internal nostril masks.
341
P. NAVALESI ET AL.
Table 4. – Advantages and disadvantages of face mask and total face mask
No mouth leaks Claustrophobic
Effective in mouth breathers Increased risk of aspiration
More stable airway pressure Difficult communication
Lower resistance to airflow Impossible to eat and drink
Less need for patient cooperation Disconnection necessary to expectorate
Securing system. The use of an appropriate mask is obvious but equal attention
should be also directed to the choice of the headgear. The securing system is an
important determinant of air-leak control, mask stability and overall patient comfort.
The headgear secures the mask by means of hooks or straps, which can be attached on
either the outer edge or the centre of the body mask. Attachment of the headgear to the
outer edge of the mask may result in a better distribution of the pressure and facilitate
the seal. Some styles of headgear are designed as a cap to minimise movement of the
interface. Oro-nasal masks should be rapidly pulled out in emergency by means of
headgear quick-release systems. Table 5 lists the ideal characteristics of the securing
system.
Selecting the right interface

The choice of the interface requires a careful evaluation of patient, underlying disease,
type of ventilator and circuit, and ventilatory mode and settings. In the present authors’
opinion, a large availability of different types and sizes of interfaces is helpful to make
the right choice.
Physiological issues. Air leaks may reduce the efficiency of NIV by reducing tolerance,
increasing patient–ventilator dyssynchrony, altering trigger sensitivity and promoting
arousals that lead to sleep fragmentation [29, 30]. Leaks hinder the achievement of the
inspiration-termination criteria during pressure support [31, 32] and are associated with
daytime hypercapnia in neuromuscular patients receiving nocturnal NIV for treatment
of chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure [33].
SCHETTINO et al. [34] studied air-leak dynamics and mask mechanics and estimated
the pressure determining the adhesion of the mask on the skin (Pmask-occl) as the
difference between the pressure pushing the mask upon the face (Pmask-fit), assessed
as the pressure inside the cushion, and airway pressure (Paw). The air leak was
Table 5. – Ideal characteristics of the securing system
Characteristics of the ideal securing system

Stable
Easy to put on and remove
Nontraumatic
Light and soft
Made of transpiring material
Available in different sizes
Nonspecific for a single interface
Re-washable
Quick-release system
342
negligible and nearly constant for Pmask-occl values .2 cmH2O; when Pmask-occl
decreased below that threshold, however, air leaks became relevant [34]. As a
consequence, increasing Pmask-occl promote air-leak containment, which can be
obtained either lowering the overall pressure applied by the ventilator or tightening
the headgear (i.e. increasing Pmask-fit). With the latter approach, however, Pmask-fit
may exceed skin capillary pressure, which impairs tissue perfusion and cause skin
abrasions [14, 35].
The improvement in alveolar ventilation can be limited by an increase in the
dynamic dead space (VD,dyn), which is the physiologic dead space (VD,phys) plus
the dead space of the apparatus (VD,app), which depends on the inner volume of the
interface. Different flow patterns and pressure waveforms may also influence the
dead space of the apparatus. SAATCI et al. [36] found that the face mask produced an
increase in VD,dyn (from 32 to 42% of tidal volume) during spontaneous breathing.
The addition of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) lowered VD,dyn close to
VD,phys [36]. Pressure support without PEEP reduced VD,dyn to a lesser extent, from
42 to 39% of tidal volume, leaving VD,dyn higher than VD,phys. In presence of PEEP,
an exhalation port close to the bridge of the nose made VD,dyn lower than VD,phys.
FERGUSON and GILMARTIN [37] first showed that reducing PEEP, below 4 cmH2O,
significantly increased rebreathing, unless a non rebreathing exhalation valve was
used. In a lung-model study conducted to evaluate the effect of exhalation port
location and mask design on CO2 re-breathing during NIV, SCHETTINO et al. [38]
reported a lower volume of rebreathed CO2 with the exhalation port in the mask,
compared with the exhalation port in the circuit. The authors concluded that masks
with exhalation ports located within the mask minimised rebreathing during NIV. In
a study performed on 7 COPD patients, moving the path for exhalation reduced
CO2 rebreathing to almost zero [39]. Masks that do not have ports sited in the
optimal place, however, may still perform quite well, probably due to unintentional
air leaks [40].
Clinical issues. Mouthpieces are utilised for long-term ventilation in patients affected
by severe chronic respiratory failure due to neuromuscular diseases [24]. In acute
patients, the mouthpiece has been shown to be as effective as the oro-nasal mask in
improving gas exchange [41, 42]; compared with the mask, however, the mouthpiece was
considered less comfortable by the patients [41]. A recent study, still in abstract form,
demonstrated that the mouthpiece is able to reduce inspiratory effort, although to a
lesser extent than facial and nasal masks [43].
During daytime, the mouthpiece can be attached to the wheelchair and mounted
close to the mouth, so that the patients may use the ventilator either intermittently or
breath by breath, according their own needs [14]. During sleep, some patients use
strapless custom mouthpieces and others use strapped-on lip seals [24]. Although a
few individuals have learned to use such mouthpieces during sleep, the majority of
patients use the mouthpiece only during daytime and switch overnight to another
interface [44, 45]. In a retrospective evaluation of a cohort of 257 patients, requiring
continuous or quasi-continuous ventilatory support, BACH et al. [24] reported the use
of mouthpiece alone or in association with other interfaces. The mouthpiece was the
preferential interface for providing daytime ventilatory support for 228 individuals. In
some cases, a narrow flexed mouthpiece was used during the day-time and a nasal
mask overnight, but in 163 individuals, 61 of whom had little or no measurable vital
capacity, a standard mouthpiece with lip seal retention or a custom moulded
orthodontic bite was used also for nocturnal aid [24]. The authors concluded that for
patients with chronic respiratory muscle insufficiency and intact bulbar function,
343
P. NAVALESI ET AL.
mouthpieces may be an effective alternative to tracheostomy [24]. The use of

mouthpieces has also been reported in a series of patients with respiratory failure
secondary to cystic fibrosis [46].
Compared with oro-nasal masks, nasal interfaces add less static dead space, are less
claustrophobic and allow communication, expectoration and oral intake without
removing the mask [15]. Oro-nasal interfaces are preferable for treating severe episodes
of acute respiratory failure because dyspnoeic patients breathe through the mouth,
which makes nasal masks prone to increased air leakage and lower effectiveness [47, 48].
In order to reduce mouth leaks while wearing a nose mask, a chin strap has been
proposed [33]; this approach is, in the present authors’ opinion, often of limited benefit
and always ineffective in edentulous patients. Total face mask may be advantageous in
patients who are unable to tolerate a nasal mask because of nasal pathologies or
clinically relevant mouth leaks persisting, despite application of chinstrap. Finally,
compared with nasal masks, facial masks allow application of higher positive pressure
and require less patient co-operation.
Patient tolerance is primarily improved by avoiding air leaks and skin breakdown
[14]. Small amounts of air leakage may be well tolerated if the tidal volume is adequate.
Air leaks, however, often profoundly affect the patient’s tolerance and long-term
response to NIV by causing side effects, such as eyes irritation, mouth and nose dryness,
noise, impaired ventilator cycling and patient–machine dyssynchrony. Air leaks also
deteriorate sleep quality, worsen gas exchange and increase inspiratory muscle effort
contributing to treatment failure [49].
The site involved by bruising depends upon the type of interface: nose bridge and
upper lip from the full nasal mask, nose bridge and chin from the facial mask, nasal
mucosa and upper lip from the nasal pillows and pit from the helmet. Skin sensitivity
to certain materials and excessive sweating may facilitate bruising. A common mistake
is to fit the headgear too tight. While further tightening of the headgear does not
necessarily improve the fit of the mask, it does frequently worsen the patient’s comfort.
With this latter approach, in fact, the pressure exerted by the mask may exceed skin
capillary pressure, which impairs tissue perfusion and determines abrasions [14, 34, 35].
A good ‘‘rule of thumb’’ is to keep the straps loose enough to allow one or two fingers
to pass between the headgear and the skin [35]. In order to improve the mask fit and
avoid leaks it is also helpful to maintain the headgear straps parallel to one another.
There are several helpful strategies to limit the risk of skin breakdown, such as
rotational use of different types of interfaces, skin and mask hygiene and the use of
forehead spacers.
Humidification
The importance of heating and humidifying the inhaled air is well recognised for
patients undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation in both the acute [50] and long
term [51] setting. On the contrary, few studies have, so far, evaluated this aspect
during NIV. Inhaling dry cold air can effect release of inflammatory mediators [52],
increase mucosal blood flow [53], and increase nasal airway resistance [54] In OSAs
patients receiving nocturnal CPAP, the lack of humidification increases nasal
resistance and causes nasal symptoms [16]. These side-effects, which have been
primarily attributed to mouth leaks causing unidirectional inspiratory nasal airflow
and progressive drying of the nasal mucosa, are attenuated by heated humidification,
while the use of cold pass-over humidifier is no beneficial [16]. Dryness of inhaled air
344
during CPAP is attenuated by heated humidification, even with mouth leaks, and
further reduced by using a face mask in place of a nasal mask [55]. Although heated
humidification of nasal CPAP has been repeatedly demonstrated to reduce upper
airway symptoms [56, 57], its use has produced controversial results with respect to
patient’s compliance to treatment, which resulted in significant improvement in one
study [58], slightly and only initially ameliorated in a second study [56] and unchanged
in a third [57].
Most patients on long-term domiciliary NIV use nasal masks and are, therefore,
subject to air leaking through the mouth [18]. Recently, a daytime study performed on
healthy individuals showed that a short period of mouth leak during nasal NIV increases
nasal resistance, which negatively affects the delivered tidal volume [18]. These effects
were reduced using heated humidification, which improved comfort, both in the absence
of leaks and following a period of increased leak [18]. These data indicate that heated
humidification may improve the comfort by attenuating the adverse effects of mouth
leak in patients on domiciliary NIV.
In acute patients, heated humidification and heat-and-moisture exchanger (HME)
have been compared in two recent studies [59, 60]. Compared with heated
humidification, HME reduced NIV efficiency, resulting in higher Pa,CO2, respiratory
rate and minute ventilation [59], and increased the work of breathing [60]. In principle,
HME should be avoided with nasal NIV because the air leaked through the mouth
makes it less effective or ineffective at all. Furthermore, the additional resistance
imposed by HME [60] may interfere with ventilator triggering. Very recently, NAVA et
al. [61] performed a pilot randomised cross-over 12-month study on 16 patients with
stable chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure who underwent NIV with either heated
humidification or HME. Although a higher number of patients decided to continue
NIV with heated humidification, no significant difference was found with respect to
NIV compliance, airway symptoms, rate of hospitalisation consequent to acute
exacerbation [61].
In conclusion, data from physiological studies suggest a beneficial effect of heated
humidification for patients on long term noninvasive ventilation and, in particular, for
those using a nasal mask who have nasal symptoms. Further randomised controlled
trials are needed to evaluate the long-term effects of heated humidification and the
efficacy of the different humidification devices.
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P. NAVALESI ET AL.
Summary
The choice of the interface is crucial for the success of noninvasive ventilation (NIV)
in both the acute and chronic setting. Type (oral, nasal, oro-nasal), size, design,
material and securing system of the interface may affect the patient’s comfort with
respect to many aspects, such as air-leaks, claustrophobia, skin erythema, eye
irritation and skin breakdown. Although the continuous development of new
products has increased the availability of interfaces and the chance to meet different
requirements, in patients necessitating several daily hours of NIV, the rotational use
of different interfaces remains an excellent strategy to decrease the risk of skin
breakdown.
While the importance of heating and humidification for long-term invasive
mechanical ventilation is well known, it is less recognised for the patient receiving
long term NIV. Recent work, however, suggests that, in the presence of airleaks, cold
dry air increases nasal resistance, causes nasal symptoms and reduces the patient’s
compliance to NIV, and that heated humidification has the potential to reduce these
adverse effects.
Keywords: Air heating and humidification, long-term mechanical ventilation,

mechanical ventilation, noninvasive ventilation, noninvasive ventilation interfaces.
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CHAPTER 24
Sleep and NIV: monitoring of the patient

under home ventilation
J-L. Pépin*,#, J.C. Borel*,#, J-P. Janssens", R. Tamisier*,#, P. Lévy*,#
*Pulmonary Function Test and Sleep Laboratory, Dept of Rehabilitation and Physiology, and #HP2
Laboratory, INSERM-ERI 17, University Hospital, Grenoble, France, and "Division of Pulmonary Diseases,
Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.
Correspondence: J-L. Pépin, Pôle Rééducation et Physiologie, CHU de Grenoble, BP 217 X, 38043,
Grenoble, France. Fax: 33 476765586; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
Sleep is a unique physiological state associated with deep changes in upper airway
(UA) resistance, respiratory control and lung mechanics. In patients with chronic
respiratory diseases, this specific situation induces different categories of consequences.
First, as minute ventilation decreases particularly in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep,
sleep-related hypoventilation is the first sign of respiratory failure, systemically
preceding the development of daytime chronic hypercapnic failure. Secondly, as
abnormal respiratory events occur specifically during sleep, noninvasive ventilation
(NIV) settings which are appropriate for ventilating awake patients may not work
appropriately during the night. Alternatively, sleep itself increases nonintentional leaks,
patient–ventilator asynchrony and periodic breathing or glottic closures, thus justifying
a specific monitoring of NIV efficacy during the night.
In the present chapter, the overall mechanisms for ventilatory changes occurring
during sleep, the ability of NIV to suppress respiratory events during night and improve
sleep quality, and the tools that can be proposed for monitoring NIV efficacy during
sleep, will be successively reviewed. These topics will be covered for patients suffering
from chronic respiratory failure, in stable state and home-ventilated by NIV.
During sleep changes in ventilation

There are several mechanisms explaining that, even in normal subjects, ventilation is
slightly reduced during sleep. Modifications occur in muscle activity, respiratory drive
and lung mechanics. Depending upon the underlying respiratory disease, these different
mechanisms isolated or in association may aggravate or reveal respiratory failure during
sleep.
Reduction of activity of respiratory muscles

During sleep, the loss of the wakefulness stimulus is associated with a decreased
activity of the medullary respiratory neurons [1] leading to a reduction of respiratory
muscles tonic activity. There is a concomitant fall in ventilation [2]. In normal
individuals, arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) rises by 2–8 mmHg, arterial oxygen
ISSN 1025-448x.
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SLEEP AND NIV
tension (Pa,O2) decreases by 3–10 mmHg and oxygen saturation drops by ,2% [3–5].
These changes occur despite the reduction in oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide
production during sleep [4]. The decrease in ventilation occurs during all stages of sleep
and worsens during REM, particularly during phasic REM sleep [1, 6, 7]. Phasic REM
sleep is associated with a dramatic reduction in intercostal muscle phasic and tonic
activity and a reduction in diaphragm tonic activity, whereas diaphragmatic phasic
inspiratory activity is preserved [8, 9]. During this period, breathing is more irregular,
rapid and shallow (fig. 1) [10].
Diaphragmatic functioning is absolutely critical in REM sleep because the other
respiratory muscles alone cannot maintain normal alveolar ventilation. Subjects with
diaphragmatic weakness, as in neuromuscular disorders or breathing with a diaphragm
in unfavourable mechanic conditions, as in morbid obesity or chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) with hyperinflated lungs, are highly prone to hypoventilate
during REM sleep.
Changes in ventilatory control

Ventilatory control is physiologically altered during sleep, resulting in a diminished
responsiveness to chemical, mechanical and cortical inputs. During REM sleep [8, 9],
there is virtually no metabolic control in ventilation. The respiratory muscles also
exhibit a diminished response to ventilatory drive during sleep [8]. This reduction in
ventilatory response is particularly deleterious in patients who already have an
abnormal chemosensitivity during wakefulness, such as patients with myotonic
dystrophy or obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS). In OHS, daytime ventilatory
responses to carbon dioxide are highly related to percentage of REM sleep spent in
hypoventilation [11].
REM
Hypnogram
Sp,O2 s s s s s s s s s s s s
95 94 94 94 95 95 94 94 96 95 95 95
Tho
Abd
Flow
Phasic inhibitions of ventilation during REM sleep
PTT
ABP
EM
Fig. 1. – Irregular, rapid and shallow breathing during phasic rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Decrease in
ventilation during phasic REM sleep episodes: a sustained reduction in flow and thoracic and abdominal movements
occurs concurrently with rapid eye movements. This occurs to various degrees in normal subjects and is aggravated or
revealing in patients with respiratory failure. Sp,O2: arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry; Tho:
thoracic movements; Abd: abdominal movements; Flow: flow signal; PTT: pulse transit time; ABP: arterial blood
pressure; EM: eye movements.
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J-L. PÉPIN ET AL.
Changes in functional residual capacity

In normal subjects, functional residual capacity (FRC) decreases during REM sleep
as a result of supine position and atonia of the intercostals muscles [12–14]. This
reduction in FRC is particularly marked in morbidly obese subjects and in patients
using their accessory muscles to compensate for either a diaphragm weakness or a
diaphragm working in an unfavourable geometrical position.
Change in ventilation/perfusion mismatch

Breathing irregularity and rapid shallow breathing during REM sleep [15] also
increase the physiological dead space in COPD patients and, thus, impair gas exchange
[14, 16–18].
Associated sleep-disordered breathing

The UA resistance is increased, secondary to a reduction in tonic and phasic activity
of the UA muscles. These UA muscles are responsible for both preventing pharyngeal
collapse during the contraction of the diaphragm (phasic activity) and maintaining the
UA tone during sleep (tonic activity) [1, 6, 7]. Obstructive sleep apnoea is a common
condition and thus its association with another frequent disease, such as COPD, is
expected. However, sleep apnoea is not more prevalent in COPD than in the general
population. Conversely, prevalence of sleep apnoea seems to be increased in
kyphoscoliosis and in neuromuscular disorders. Finally, severe sleep apnoea is almost
always present in OHS and is a key factor in the pathophysiology of chronic respiratory
failure in these patients.
NIV can suppress or reduce sleep-related hypoventilation and

episodes of upper airway collapse and improve sleep quality
In order to limit its impact on quality of life and to compensate for the physiological
decreases in nocturnal ventilation which may be critical in chronic respiratory failure,
NIV is mainly applied during night. Efficacy of NIV is mainly assessed by daytime
outcome measures, such as blood gases, health-related quality-of-life scores and number
of hospitalisations. Surprisingly, there is a limited number of studies specifically
addressing the question of NIV efficacy during the night in terms or improving
nocturnal hypoventilation and sleep quality.
In restrictive chronic respiratory failure patients, SCHONHOFER et al. [19] showed that
nocturnal hypoventilation improved and both slow wave sleep and REM sleep increased
after 1 yr of home NIV. Interestingly, after 6 months of treatment, a one-night
withdrawal of NIV was associated with a significant but lesser degree of sleep
hypoventilation compared with baseline. This suggests that long-term NIV improved
respiratory drive and limited immediate recurrence of severe REM sleep hypoventi-
lation. A recent meta-analysis [20], in neuromuscular and chest wall disorders, found
only eight trials (144 participants) eligible. In these studies, alleviation of sleep
hypoventilation or correction of sleep-disordered breathing was measured by nocturnal
pulse-oximetry only. Arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2) is, however, a surrogate marker
which cannot clearly discriminate between apnoeas or hypopnoeas and episodes of
REM sleep hypoventilation. Using NIV, the average increase in mean nocturnal Sa,O2
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SLEEP AND NIV
was 5.45% (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.47–9.44) [20]. In a similar population of
neuromuscular and chest wall disorders, WARD et al. [21] noted that patients with
nocturnal hypoventilation (nocturnal transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension (Ptc,CO2)
.6.5 kPa) but with normal daytime Pa,CO2 at baseline are likely to deteriorate with the
development of daytime hypercapnia and/or progressive symptoms within 2 yrs. Early
introduction of nocturnal NIV, before occurrence of daytime hypercapnia, reduced
levels of nocturnal Ptc,CO2.
O’DONOGHUE et al. [22] documented sleep hypoventilation in .43% of a group of
hypercapnic COPD. Sleep hypoventilation was associated with significant increases in
night-to-morning Pa,CO2 and proposed as contributing to long-term elevations in Pa,CO2.
Accordingly, in a randomised controlled trial, MEECHAM-JONES et al. [23] showed using
Ptc,CO2 measurements that degree of improvement in daytime Pa,CO2 was correlated with
the improvement in mean overnight Ptc,CO2 by using NIV. A meta-analysis, addressing
the issue of efficacy of NIV in COPD patients with chronic respiratory failure, suggested
a detrimental (although nonsignificant) effect of the device in terms of sleep efficiency
[24]. However, the small sample size precludes a definitive statement regarding the
clinical implications of such a result. In another systematic review of NIV in COPD,
sleep-related difficulties were reported in four out of the 15 included studies [25].
In OHS patients, NIV treats associated sleep apnoea syndrome, improves ventilatory
responses and sleep quality, and suppresses REM sleep hypoventilation [11].
Conversely, in a percentage of extremely obese subjects, continuous positive airway
pressure (CPAP) treatment alone corrected upper airway collapse but severe oxygen
desaturation persisted and NIV was required [26] in this situation in order to treat sleep-
related hypoventilation.
Thus, in different diseases associated with chronic respiratory failure, NIV is capable
of counteracting the different mechanisms associated with sleep-related hypoventilation.
Even though robust data are lacking, it is generally accepted that sleep quality is
improved. However, in the real life of home-ventilated patients, the situation appears
more problematic and sleep hypoventilation or sleep fragmentation is far from being
perfectly corrected [27–29].
Potential undesirable respiratory events and sleep fragmentation

induced by NIV
Nonintentional leaks, around the mask or through the mouth are common during
sleep [27–30] and remain one of the main events which impair effectiveness of ventilatory
support. Leaks can either alter the functioning of the NIV apparatus (i.e. triggering,
pressurisation delay) [31, 32] or directly decrease level of ventilation [33] inducing
recurrent episodes of hypoventilation and oxygen desaturations. GONZALEZ et al. [34]
demonstrated a significant relationship between air leaks and persistent hypercapnia.
Moreover, by increasing microarousals related to leaks, sleep efficiency can be
significantly altered [27, 29, 30].
Although nonintentional leaks may lead to inappropriate ventilatory support, other
patterns of sleep-disordered breathing (i.e. periodic breathing, closure of the glottis and
patient–ventilator asynchrony) may be induced by the ventilatory support itself [35–37],
independently of leaks.
NIV has the potential to induce periodic breathing during sleep. In a recent
polysomnography study, 40% of obese patients using NIV showed a high index of
periodic breathing, mostly occurring in light sleep and associated with severe nocturnal
hypoxaemia [36]. A Pa,CO2 apnoeic threshold exists during sleep at 1.5–5.8 Torr below
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J-L. PÉPIN ET AL.
eupnoeic Pa,CO2 [38]. If NIV settings lead to hyperventilation, bursts of central apnoeas
or hypopnoeas can occur, particularly during transitions between sleep onset and
wakefulness. The susceptibility to periodic breathing varies considerably among
subjects; its occurrence under NIV is thus difficult to predict and needs to be specifically
monitored (fig. 2). High levels of pressure support are more frequently associated with
this abnormality.
Hyperventilation, associated with NIV use, can also lead to glottis narrowing and
closures [37, 39]. Glottis narrowing seems more related to a controlled mode (both in
volumetric and barometric support). In spontaneous cycles, initiation of inspiration by
the patient may allow an activation of the inspiratory glottis abductors inducing vocal-
cord abduction [40]. High levels of ventilation and hypocapnia are more frequently
associated with these adverse events. During NIV, ventilatory responses to hypoxia are
highly dependent on carbon dioxide levels and can be definitely abolished by severe
hypocapnia (Pa,CO2 ,27 mmHg) [41]. This means that glottis closures can be associated
with severe desaturations before reopening of the glottis and resumption of effective
ventilation.
Profound modifications in the recruitment of the respiratory muscles may occur
during the various stages of sleep, potentially leading to inappropriate triggering.
Patient–ventilator dyssynchrony may be a cause of suboptimal ventilation and sleep
fragmentation (fig. 3) [42]. In a systematic polysomnographic study in OHS, 55% of the
patients exhibited desynchronisation, occurring mostly in slow-wave sleep and REM
sleep and associated with arousals [36]. Auto-triggering was more sporadic and usually
limited to one or two breaths [36]. Similarly, FANFULLA et al. [43], including 48 patients
enrolled in a long term home NIV programme, found a mean of 48¡37 ineffective
efforts per hour during sleep compared with none during wakefulness.
Sp,O2 s s s s s
s s s s
s s
94 88 89 92 s 94 91 93 93 91
85 85 86
Tho
Abd
PTT
Flow
Pre
Fig. 2. – 5-min epoch of polysomnography with central events induced by noninvasive ventilation. Arterial oxygen
saturation measured by pulse oximetry (Sp,O2) oscillations related to central events occurring in stage-1 sleep. Note the
decrease in respiratory effort during events, identified by pulse transit time (PTT). Tho: thoracic movements; Abd:
abdominal movements; Flow: flow signal measured using a pneumotachograph; Pre: pressure.
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SLEEP AND NIV
s s s s s s s
Sp,O2 s s s s 92 92 91 92 91 91 89 90
83 83 83 83
Tho
Abd
PTT
Flow
Pre
Fig. 3. – 5-min epoch of polysomnography with patient–ventilator asynchrony. Ineffective efforts (arrows) and
arterial oxygen saturation oscillations related to patient–ventilator asynchrony. Sp,O2: arterial oxygen saturation
measured by pulse oximetry; Tho: thoracic movements; Abd: abdominal movements; PTT: pulse transit time; Flow:
flow signal; Pre: pressure.
How should NIV be monitored during sleep?

During sleep, specific respiratory events result from both physiological changes and
the use of NIV. An appropriate strategy for monitoring these respiratory events should
be proposed. Monitoring tools can be limited to the recognition of consequences such as
oxygen desaturation or increases in Ptc,CO2. More complex and complete evaluations
can be performed by polygraphic or polysomnographic recordings. These assessments
provide more insights as to the mechanisms involved but are more costly and less
available. Finally, manufacturers have developed software, using signals included in
NIV devices, that provide interesting information. The following chapter aims to
describe the different techniques and their respective contribution for assessing home
ventilated patients during sleep.
Nocturnal pulse-oximetry
The amount of nocturnal oxygen desaturation is considered as one of the major
determinants of adverse neurocognitive and cardiovascular consequences occurring
during chronic respiratory failure and sleep apnoea syndrome [44, 45]. It is obviously an
important item to monitor in home-ventilated patients. It has been suggested that the
morphological pattern of Sa,O2 desaturation could be specific to the different
mechanisms explaining their occurrence [46]. When Sa,O2 measurements are performed
in spontaneous breathing, repetitive episodes of brief desaturation/reoxygenation
sequences with simultaneous acceleration/deceleration of heart frequency (fig. 4a) are
generally accepted as being associated with obstructive or central apnoeas. However,
overnight nocturnal pulse-oximetry cannot distinguish between central and obstructive
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J-L. PÉPIN ET AL.
events [47]. In patients using NIV at night, repetitive oscillations in Sa,O2 should be
interpreted more cautiously, as they may reflect central events (fig. 2), residual
obstructive events (fig. 5), patient–ventilator asynchrony (fig. 3) or repetitive leaks
interrupted by microarousals. Another characteristic pattern of Sa,O2 recordings in
spontaneous breathing is a prolonged desaturation (10–30 min) with concurrent
acceleration of heart frequency, occurring approximately every 90–120 min, during
the night. This is a typical pattern of REM sleep hypoventilation (fig. 4b). In ventilated
patients, however, the same aspect can result not only from persistent REM sleep
hypoventilation (fig. 6), but also from prolonged leaks or insufficient pressure support
irrespective of sleep stage.
In summary, the occurrence of desaturations is highly sensitive to detect breathing
abnormalities in NIV users but the different patterns are difficult to interpret. When
abnormalities are present, polygraphy or polysomnography is required for under-
standing the relevant mechanisms and adjusting ventilator settings and/or interfaces.
Ptc,CO2 monitoring
Assessing Pa,CO2 overnight is essential for evaluating efficacy of NIV during sleep.
The simplest approach is to measure Pa,CO2 by arterial puncture at the end of the night
to document night-to-morning increases in Pa,CO2 [22]. However, blood is most often
sampled after arousal and thus after a short period of appropriate ventilation. In this
condition a normal morning Pa,CO2 actually does not reflect the abnormal time course of
a) 100
95
Sp,O2 %
90
85
b) 90
70
fC bpm
50
30
00:30 01:00 01:30 02:00 02:30 03:00 03:30 04:00
c) 100
90
Sp,O2 %
80
70
60
d) 120
110
100
fC bpm
90
80
70
02:30 03:00 03:30 04:00 04:30 05:00 05:30 06:00
Fig. 4. – 4-h recordings of arterial oxygen saturation in spontaneous breathing. a and b) Repetitive episodes of brief
desaturation/reoxygenation sequences with simultaneous acceleration/deceleration of cardiac frequency (fC) generally
accepted as associated with obstructive or central apnoeas. c and d) Persistent desaturation (10–30 min) with concurrent
acceleration of the fC and occurring approximately every 90–120 min during the night. This corresponds to a typical of
pattern of rapid eye movement sleep hypoventilation. Sp,O2: arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry.
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SLEEP AND NIV
Sp,O2 s s s s s s s s
s s
92 95 95 94 s 96 93 93
s
95
89 90 88 88
Tho
Abd
PTT
Flow
Pre
Fig. 5. – 5-min epoch of polysomnography with residual obstructive events. Sp,O2: arterial oxygen saturation
measured by pulse oximetry; Tho: thoracic movements; Abd: abdominal movements; PTT: pulse transit time; Flow:
flow signal measured using a pneumotachograph; Pre: pressure.
s s s
Sp,O2 s s s s s s s 96
s
94 95
87 88 87 87 87 88 87 86
Tho
Abd
PTT
Flow
Pre
REM sleep Wake
Fig. 6. – 5-min epoch of polysomnography in a noninvasive ventilation user with a transition from persistent
hypoventilation during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and awakening. See flow reduction during REM sleep with
sustained desaturation. Sp,O2: arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry; Tho: thoracic movements; Abd:
abdominal movements; PTT: Pulse transit time; Flow: Flow signal measured using a pneumotachograph; Pre:
pressure.
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J-L. PÉPIN ET AL.
Pa,CO2 during the night. Repeated sampling of arterial blood from a catheter in the
radial artery remains the ‘‘gold standard’’ for estimating Pa,CO2 changes but is not
conceivable for routine assessment in stable state patients. End-tidal carbon dioxide is
unreliable in patients with chronic respiratory failure, particularly in COPD and is
technically difficult to measure with the continuous flow related to bi-level pressure
support. Continuous Ptc,CO2 recordings (fig. 7) show good agreement with arterial
measurements [48–50] even if high levels of Pa,CO2 may increase Pa,CO2/Ptc,CO2 bias [48].
Importantly, further studies [48–53] have reported that the good agreement between
Ptc,CO2 and Pa,CO2 is preserved when patients are treated by CPAP or pressure support.
A limitation of the technique is the requirement for periodic calibration and changes of
membrane in order to ensure sufficient precision of transcutaneous measurements.
Despite these precautions, Ptc,CO2 sensor drift has been reported during overnight
recordings [22]. Compensation of this drift has been proposed by using linear
interpolation but this actually requires two arterial measures of Pa,CO2 (at the beginning
and at the end of Ptc,CO2 recording) [22]. One study, however, showed that, in 28
subjects under NIV, Ptc,CO2 recordings could be performed continuously for 8 h at a
probe temperature of 43uC, without any local discomfort or significant signal drift [51].
a) 9.31
7.98
6.65
Ptc,CO2 kPa
5.32
3.99
2.66
1.33
b) REM
Wake
1
Sleep stage
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Epoch
Fig. 7. – During night evolution of transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension (Ptc,CO2). Note the systematic increase in
Ptc,CO2 (a) concurrently with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (b). Arrows depict significant increase in arterial
carbon dioxide tension night-to-morning. Modified from [22].
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SLEEP AND NIV
More-recent devices, combining Ptc,CO2 and arterial oxygen tension measured by pulse
oximetry (Sp,O2) earlobe sensors, have been validated in acute care and chronic clinical
settings, are designed for continuous recording over 8-h periods without requiring
recalibration and are feasible for routine use [53–55]. All Ptc,CO2 sensors have a lag-time
(y2 min) which precludes monitoring of rapid changes of Pa,CO2 such as those which
could be associated with recurrent apnoeas, hypopnoeas or brief leaks [49].
In summary, nocturnal Ptc,CO2 should be considered as a reliable noninvasive tool to
monitor nocturnal Pa,CO2 for patients treated with NIV on a long-term basis.
Limitations of the technique are the cost of the devices, the increase in bias between
arterial and transcutaneous values at high Pa,CO2 values [48], and the occasional
occurrence of unexplained errant values. Recent devices, however, are easy to use, have
user-friendly software and can be connected to polysomnography software. Finally,
nocturnal Ptc,CO2 reveals the occurrence of episodes of hypoventilation but provides no
information as to their cause (inappropriate settings, leaks, etc.).
Data available from NIV machines

The majority of industrial companies have designed NIV devices to include flow and
pressure sensors and to store raw data of these parameters on a long-term basis. Specific
software allows home-care providers or clinicians to download these data onto a
personal computer.
Downloaded data can be separated in three categories. The first is a ‘‘synthesis
report’’ (i.e. a trend of each parameter recorded during a given period; fig. 8).
Depending on the manufacturers and the machines (table 1), compliance, settings, mean
Fig. 8. – Synthesis data analysis downloaded from noninvasive ventilation (NIV) device software. Example of data
downloaded from GK 425 Tyco HealthcareTM using Silverlining 3.0 software. Compliance data, mean respiratory
rate and percentage of spontaneous cycles are available.
359
Table 1. – Specifications of software from noninvasive ventilation (NIV) devices allowing the download of data
Device Software Synthesis data Detailed data Polygraphic data

VPAP3-ST (A) ReScan 3.5 Compliance per day, settings, minute Minute ventilation, respiratory frequency, Simultaneous recording of Sp,O2 and heart
ResMedTM ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory level of leaks# L?min-1, residual AHI n?h-1 rate (available with additional module:
frequency, level of leaks# L?min-1, RESLINK)
residual AHI n?h-1
HARMONY SYNCHRONY Encore pro 1.8 Compliance per day, settings, minute Minute ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory Simultaneous recording of Sp,O2, heart rate
RespironicsTM ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, level of leaks", flow (cycle to and respiratory effort (available with
frequency, level of leaks", flow, cycle acquisition is available with additional additional module STARDUST)
alarms module STARDUST)
VENTIMOTION WeinmanTM VentisupportTM Compliance per day, settings, minute Pressure, flow, level of leaks Pressure, flow, level of leaks could be
(Hamburg, Germany) ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory transferred to any polygraph with the
frequency, level of leaks#, flow, ‘‘analog box-Weinmann’’
inspiratory time/total time, alarms
GK 425 TycohealthcareTM Silverlining 3TM Compliance per day, settings,
(Pleasanton, CA, USA) respiratory frequency, pressure
SMARTAIR, Airox com 3.5.1 Compliance per day, settings, Tidal volume, respiratory frequency, Simultaneous recording of Sp,O2 available
360
SMARTAIR+ LEGENDAIR technical alarms and ventilation inspiratory time/total time, leaks#, pressure/ with SUPPORTAIR monitoring of Sp,O2
SUPPORTAIR alarm time curve, flow/time curve
Airox-Covidien TM (acquisition requires a connection to a compu-
J-L. PÉPIN ET AL.
(Pau, France) ter when the patient is under NIV)

VS ULTRA, VS INTEGRA Easydiag1.1.3 Compliance per day, settings, minute Tidal volume, respiratory frequency, level of
SAIMETM (Savigng le ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory leaks#,(+), flow (direct acquisition is possible
Temple, France) frequency, level of leaks, flow, when the patient is under NIV)
inspiratory time/total time
ELYSEE 150 Easyview 150 Compliance per day, settings, minute Minute ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory
TM
SAIME (2.11) ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, level of leaks
frequency, level of leaks (direct acquisition is possible when the patient
is under NIV)
VIVO 30-40 Vivo PS soft- Compliance per day, settings, minute Pressure, flow, tidal volume, level of leaks
BreasTM (Mölngcke, ware 2.5 ventilation, tidal volume, respiratory (acquisition cycle to cycle directly on the patient
Sweden) frequency, level of leaks", flow, alarms or differed)
AHI: apnoea/hypopnoea index; Sp,O2: arterial oxygen tension measured by pulse oximetry. #: level of nonintentional leaks (mask must be recognised to ensure a valid
assessment of leaks) expressed in L?min-1 (or L?s-1); ": level of total leaks (including intentional leaks of masks and nonintentional leaks) expressed in L?min-1 (or L?s-1);
+
: when using double way tubing, the level of leaks is expressed as the ratio (insufflated tidal volume/expired tidal volume).
SLEEP AND NIV
level of leaks, tidal volume, respiratory frequency and/or minute ventilation could be
provided. The second category is ‘‘detailed data analysis’’. Raw data of a given
parameter could be analysed cycle by cycle (fig. 9). The third category provides
‘‘polygraphic data analysis’’. In this situation, by adding an external module connected
to the machine (Reslink; ResmedTM, North Ryde, Australia, or Stardust;
RespironicsTM, Murrysville, PA, USA), physiological parameters such as oxygen
saturation, heart rate and respiratory effort can be recorded and displayed, in addition
to the signals already stored by the device (fig. 10).
There are large discrepancies in parameters provided by the different software. This
reflects the fact that relevant parameters for monitoring NIV have not been yet clearly
defined by clinicians and that recommendations in this field should be proposed by
scientific societies. Additionally, the validity of several parameters estimated by the NIV
devices (minute ventilation, tidal volume, apnoea hyponoea index) is questionable and
must be validated by independent clinical and/or bench test studies. For pulse-oximetry,
these data should be used as screening tools for identifying, in a large population of
home ventilated patients, those requiring further investigations.
Polygraphy and polysomnography

As illustrated by figures 1–7, polysomnography is the most integrative assessment of
NIV during sleep, allowing in most circumstances a precise description of the different
mechanisms involved in desaturations, episodes of hypoventilation, or disrupted sleep
structure. Identifying the mechanisms involved in these respiratory events is crucial for
Fig. 9. – Detailed data analysis downloaded from noninvasive ventilation device softwares (5-min epoch). Pressure
(press), flow and leaks monitored respiratory cycle by respiratory cycle (download from Ventimotion WeinmannTM
using Ventisupport 1.01 software) are shown. Owing to the increase of leaks, pressure support move to back-up
frequency (spontaneous cycles are replaced by controlled cycles; widening of inspiratory pressure delay).
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J-L. PÉPIN ET AL.
Fig. 10. – Polygraphic data by using the noninvasive ventilation (NIV) device associated with an external module (2-
h epoch). Combination of data usually provided by the NIV machine and physiological data (arterial oxygen
saturation measured by pulse oximetry (SpO2) and heart rate); download from VPAP 3 ST ResmedTM using Rescan
5.3 software). Note oxygen desaturation explained by a huge increase in leaks levels.
adapting NIV settings or interfaces. Thus, documenting residual obstructive events in an

obese patient will lead to an increase in positive expiratory pressure. Persistent
hypoventilation during REM sleep may warrant either increasing level of pressure
support or implementing a volume-targeting mode which has been shown to more
efficiently decrease Ptc,CO2 during sleep [56]. Periodic breathing and glottis closure,
frequently associated with hypocapnia and hyperventilation, might be diminished by
reducing the levels of ventilation and increasing inspiratory trigger sensitivity than
favouring spontaneous cycles. Finally, patient–ventilator asynchrony may require
adjusting inspiratory and expiratory triggers and reducing nonintentional leaks, when
present. Leaks increase the probability of most abnormal respiratory events under NIV,
thus reducing the efficacy of ventilatory support. It must be kept in mind that
relationships between these events and quality of sleep are extremely complex. For
example, volume targeting may improve ventilation but seems to be associated with
increased sleep fragmentation [57]. Moreover, increasing ventilation to correct residual
REM sleep hypoventilation can favour the emergence of periodic breathing particularly
in non-REM sleep.
An important contribution of polysomnography is to document sleep fragmentation
and to relate microarousals to their cause. Microarousals related to leaks should be
managed by improving the interface or using a mouth strip [28, 29, 58]. Conversely,
microarousals related to other above-mentioned respiratory events require adapting
NIV settings. GUO et al. [36] reported that patient ventilator asynchrony is usually not
associated with significant changes in Ptc,CO2 or oxygen saturation (Sp,O2) and thus
polysomnography was necessary in order to identify these respiratory events and
improve NIV settings.
For all these reasons, periodic polysomnography is recommended by experts in the
follow-up of home ventilated patients [58, 59]. However, in the field of sleep medicine,
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SLEEP AND NIV
interpreting polysomnography under NIV is probably one of the most difficult tasks.
Resulting flow and pressure signals are influenced by not only the patients’ ventilation
but also the technical specifications of the device and the ventilatory mode. Specific
recommendations regarding the channels that need to be recorded and consensus criteria
for scoring are highly desirable.
Polygraphy is easier to perform in an outpatient setting and clearly useful for
identifying events such as patient–ventilator asynchrony, periodic breathing, auto-
triggering, and their impact on Sp,O2. Obviously, impact on sleep structure of these
events will not be detected, although integration of signs of ‘‘autonomic arousals’’ in
portable polygraphy recordings may be useful in the near future.
Conclusions
Overall sleep and breathing during NIV are far from ideal. Screening studies using
ventilator software and/or nocturnal pulse-oximetry are useful for identifying patients
with significant problems but these tools may not suffice. Polysomnography (or
polygraphy) under NIV, interpreted by trained specialists, may allow for improved
ventilator settings, respiration during sleep and hopefully sleep quality. Future studies
are needed to establish whether recognition and correction of these abnormalities,
during sleep, positively impact either on long-term efficacy of NIV, compliance or
quality of life.
Summary
The present chapter first reiterates the different mechanisms underlying ventilatory
changes occurring during sleep and the capability of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) in
correcting abnormal respiratory events and improving sleep quality in different
diseases. In order to ensure long-term NIV efficiency, appropriate strategies for
monitoring ventilation and sleep, during NIV treatment, are proposed. Different
tools, allowing monitoring of chronic respiratory failure patients treated using long-
term home NIV, and their respective interests and limitations are successively
reviewed. Tools only aiming to recognise the consequences of residual events, such as
oxygen desaturations or increases in nocturnal transcutaneous carbon dioxide tension
are distinguished compared with more complex strategies, such as respiratory
polygraphy and polysomnography. Finally, specific software, designed by ventilator
manufacturers for at-home monitoring, and the use of flow signals included in NIV
devices, are remarked upon. These data may provide useful information for clinicians.
Keywords: Chronic respiratory failure, long-term respiratory care, noninvasive

ventilation, sleep-disordered breathing.
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CHAPTER 25
NIV: discharging the ventilator-dependent

patient
J. Escarrabill
Correspondence: J. Escarrabill, Institut d’Estudis de la Salut, C/ Roc Boronat, 81-95 1st floor, 08005
Barcelona, Spain. Fax: 34 932607576; E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction
The continuity of care is one of the key elements in evaluating the quality of
healthcare [1]. There are many difficulties in guaranteeing the coordination of this care.
In the majority of cases, multiple health providers intervene and this intervention can be
unplanned (in some cases as a result of decisions made by the patient or by the health
services) and, what’s more, the interoperability of these information systems is not
guaranteed. In addition, the coordination requires time and a consideration of the
problems in terms of the bigger picture, things that are not systematically promoted in
clinical practice, which focuses mainly on acute problems.
The discharge of a patient who has been admitted to hospital is not an administrative
procedure. The process of discharge has a big impact on the later evolution and progress
of the patient. NEALE et al. [2] observed that 18% of the errors made in clinical practice
to patients admitted to two London hospitals take place during the process of discharge.
In patients with complex needs, such as patients with noninvasive ventilation (NIV),
the coordination of the caregivers and the planning of the process of discharge are
especially important. This planning must be considered in two situations: in the moment
that NIV begins and following hospital admission due to an acute exacerbation. The
process of discharge, having initiated the NIV, determines the future course of
treatment: adaptation to the ventilation, and completion by, and security of, the patient
and the caregiver. From a practical point of view, this process of discharge from the
initiation of the ventilation can be divided into three main periods: 1) evaluation and
adaptation, 2) critical period (moment of discharge and the first few days at home) and
3) progress beyond.
It is difficult to identify the best manner of clinical practice, especially when we refer
to patients with complex needs in very different welfare and social contexts. HAYNES et
al. [3] suggest that good practice depends on diverse factors: the scientific evidence, the
preferences of the patient, the circumstances and the clinical situation and, especially,
the skills of the team. The decisions can vary from one circumstance to the other,
according to the support that the patient has or the accessibility to healthcare
mechanisms.
In any case, the organisation of the healthcare services has to be prepared in order to
respond to the needs of the patient. The care team must make sure that the patient (and
the caregiver) is fully informed, that they retain control over the decisions, that they
participate in the care programme and that individual values are respected in the process
of care [4]. In a general way, the basic elements of the ‘‘patient-centred care’’ are
summed up in table 1.
ISSN 1025-448x.
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Table 1. – Patient-centred care
Respect for patients’ values and preferences

Coordination and integrated care
Information, communication and education
Physical comfort
Emotional support
Involvement of family and friends
Data from the Institute of Medicine (Washington, DC, USA) [4].
The six elements that define the quality of the healthcare service are: safety (an unsafe
treatment cannot be a quality treatment), effect (it produces benefits in actual conditions
of use), focus on the needs of the patient, time (waiting does not help to improve the
quality of treatment), efficiency and equitability.
Feasibility
Feasibility has to do with whether a proposed project is practical or not. At the same
time as raising the possibility that NIV is needed, we must respond to the question of
viability. A decisive aspect, obviously, is the clinical criteria that hint at the use of the
NIV, but next we must determine whether the circumstances make this proposal viable.
The clinical criteria refer to the characteristics of the illness, the natural history and
technical aspects and to the physiological response to the ventilation support. The
circumstances refer to the situation in terms of a caregiver, the preferences of the patient,
the characteristics of the household and the availability, or not, of technical home
support. That is to say, the viability depends on both technical and social aspects of the
case. If from the beginning it is clear that the patient will not be able to receive care at
home, it will be necessary to consider alternatives (e.g. hospices), which will affect the
design of the therapeutic plan.
Evaluation and adaptation to the NIV

The indication of the NIV can raise itself in the course of an acute exacerbation (with
the patient admitted to the hospital) or in the monitoring of patients with restrictive
illnesses. In any case the doctor faces an important decision for the patient as, in order
to obtain benefits to their wellbeing (to ensure survival and improve their general state
of health), they must accept important changes to their lifestyle (becoming dependent on
a ventilator).
The adaptation to the ventilation is a process that can take several days. The technical
criteria of indication have been discussed in other chapters of this European Respiratory
Monograph. The adaptation is a process which requires the collaboration of the patient
and the caregiver, as the rhythm cannot be established in the same way for every patient.
In general it is recommended to try first to achieve a good adaptation with the patient
awake, beginning with a few minutes and then, little by little, lengthening the time on the
ventilator. When the patient is well adapted during the day it is necessary to weigh up
the efficacy of the ventilation with the parameters used: ventilator parameters that do
not manage to improve the gaseous exchange with the patient awake will not manage it
during the night.
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NIV PATIENT DISCHARGE
Table 2. – Roles for the discharge plan
Role Functions/needs
Patient Education
Risk management
Caregiver Education/risk management
Special attention to formal caregivers without direct relationship with the hospital team
Hospital Experience
Case manager
Accessibility
Case manager Integral evaluation of the patient and caregiver
Home conditions
Mobility
Communication
Health service Financial issues
Supplier Technical competence
Relationship with hospital team
Service 24 h/7 days
If the patient is admitted to hospital (or if it is an outpatient adaptation), it is very

important to make use of this period to educate the patient and the caregiver. Table 2
sums up the roles of those who intervene in the plan of discharge of a patient with NIV.
Outpatient NIV
The possibility of starting the ventilation without the need to admit the patient
depends on the gravity of the patient’s condition, the accessibility to the hospital
(outpatient NIV is more difficult with patients who live very far from the hospital), the
possibility of having a place adapted to running a training programme and, in some
countries, on financial limitations.
According to the circumstances and to the health resources available, it will be crucial
to evaluate the effort and the cost for the patient and the team who will have to carry out
the outpatient treatment. When a patient is admitted, if complications do not arise, the
adaptation takes 4–6 days. Trying to reduce the consumption of resources (hospital
stays) has very little impact (on the whole) on the consumption of resources of the
patients with chronic respiratory illnesses [5].
For patients with serious respiratory insufficiency or for those who are suffering an
acute exacerbation it seems more prudent to carry out the adaptation ‘‘in-house’’ (at the
hospital). For the rest of the patients, either option should be satisfactory: inpatient or
outpatient adaptation.
The process of adaptation

Informing and educating the patient and the carer are basic elements of the process of
adaptation. This whole process requires time and that time varies between patients [6].
There is a risk of overwhelming the patient and caregiver with an excess of information.
It is important to provide written information and to make sure that the essential
elements are properly understood. In the long term, NIV is a safe procedure, but it is
crucial to make sure that the patient and the caregiver are aware that zero risk does not
exist. Although fatal accidents have been registered in patients on NIV relating to
electrical power failures, we must insist that these occurrences were exceptional and that
it is possible to minimise the risks. Table 3 summarises the key elements with regard to
risk management for the patient undergoing NIV in the safest possible way.
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Table 3. – Risk management
Problem Resolution
Ventilator
Power supply failure Spare ventilation parts
Additional batteries
Apparatus problems Regular review
Service 24 h/7 days
Accessories
Mask (fixing) Basic spare parts
Circuits Regular cleaning
Replacement of security
Medical
Exacerbation Signs of alarm
Telephone contact
Ambulance contact
Monitoring Telephone contact of the expert team
Regular updates of the knowledge of patient (and caregiver)
Self-management
Regular review of written care plans
Compliance and consumption of resources
Compliance Regular access to the hours of ventilation
Consumption of resources Repeated alarm calls, technical problems, unclear or unscheduled visits
or emergencies
Data taken from SIMONDS [7].
In a very short space of time, a lot of information must be conveyed and, therefore, it
is advisable that the welfare teams make a check-list with all the information they must
give to the patient, the educational targets and the necessary equipment for the proper
administering of treatment. This systematic action is especially important in the
management of patients with complex needs and involving the coordination of various
professionals.
Critical period: planning for discharge

The adaptation process is concluded on the day on which it is decided that the patient
has adapted well and can be administered the ventilation alone at home. This is the
critical period when they must put into practice everything that they have been
preparing for.
The discharge plan is defined as designing a customised plan for each patient, which
takes place before leaving the hospital (or before starting independent treatment at
home). The discharge plan for patients with complex needs is a multidisciplinary effort
with the goal that this transition between hospital and home is made efficiently and
safely [8]. The discharge plan is aimed at preparing the patient and the caregiver from a
technical and a psychological standpoint, in order to achieve maximum possible
independence for the patient and, simultaneously, to ensure the continuity of care.
The discharge plan must include considerations of the practical aspects of daily life,
which, in the end, are the ones the patient will have to resolve at home. Therefore, in
addition to the respiratory needs, it is important to bear in mind all the basic needs of
the patient: communication, hygiene, transfers, mobility, social activities, etc. In some
cases the patient, before starting NIV, must make changes to the structure of their house
or have a vehicle adapted. These elements, while they cannot be resolved by the welfare
team, must be kept in mind to facilitate the successful outcome of the NIV. In many
370
cases it is useful for a member of the care team to visit the home of the patient before
they are discharged, so that adjustments can be suggested in order to help with the
installation of the equipment that the patient will need.
From a practical perspective, the discharge plan must contemplate the simplest option
that obtains the maximum benefits.
The care team must take particular care on the first day of NIV at home. A phone call
or a visit after the first night of NIV at home can be especially useful. The strategy of the
discharge plan is simpler than it looks. BERTOYE et al. [9] magnificently described how
the first inpatients who required ventilatory support after long-term acute poliomyelitis
accepted the challenge of returning home with the ventilator. The key elements for a
successful transfer from hospital to home are: 1) agreement between the doctor, patient
and caregiver; 2) clinical stability; 3) a willing and competent caregiver; 4) availability of
technical elements, with the financial coverage necessary; and 5) a good plan for risk
management. Ventilation at home is possible through this agreement between the
patient (and the caregiver) and the doctor, assuming a certain risk and all the work that
will go into the care.
Case manager
The discharge plan is a result of the work of a team, but, in the case of a patient with
complex needs, it is unlikely that the team, spontaneously through the routine work, will
be able to respond to all the requirements of the patient. In the most complex cases it is
easy for duplications or deficiencies to arise, related more to fragmentation of care than
to the knowledge of the team members.
The figure of the nurse case manager plays a vital role in implementing the plan of
care for patients with NIV. It is useful for all patients, but it is imperative for those with
more complex needs, such as constant need for ventilation, major limitations with
autonomy (e.g. for a neuromuscular disease) or where there are doubts about the
competency of the caregiver, or, simply, for those that live far from the expert team.
The nurse case manager is the one who sees the bigger picture of the problem and
identifies the needs. The patient and the caregiver have a competent advisor, the
intervening professionals have a mediator to resolve any doubts or propose changes in
the treatment and the doctor can focus his energy on the clinical problems, with the
reassurance that the overall treatment plan is being executed as planned.
Most of the problems associated with outpatient NIV are the result of mismanage-
ment of the care rather than problems with technical or clinical issues.
The nurse case manager has a broad and diverse field of activity, but table 4
summarises those particular activities or skills that will facilitate the development of the
discharge plan.
Table 4. – Case management competencies
1 Identify competences that health professionals need to care for specific patients:
In the course of the diseases there are a lot of professionals that cooperate with the expert team
2 Leading complex care coordination:
Different providers
Social services
3 Proactive management of clinical problems
4 Managing mental well-being (of the patient and the caregiver)
5 Supporting self-management
6 Proactive risk management
7 Managing care at end of life
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General needs
Having initiated the NIV, most teams deal with all the respiratory needs of the
patients: ventilators, access to airways, suction cleaners for secretions, supplementary
oxygen, humidification, nebulisation, complementary batteries to counter any failure in
the power supply, etc. However, addressing the needs of the patients to perform the
activities of daily life is just as important as thinking about respiratory needs [10].
The needs of daily life can be grouped into different dimensions as follows.
Communication. The discharge plan must consider the ability of the patient to
communicate and the availability (and ease of operation) of alarms to call the caregiver
when they are not in attendance.
Ensuring patient communication does not exclusively require the use of sophisticated
technology. A poster with photographs or small book with icons may be sufficient for
basic communication. Having alarms (in addition to those of the ventilator) is an
important element in giving confidence to the patient.
Accessibility. The accessibility in the home is an element that can affect the activities of
daily living for the patient and limit or facilitate their autonomy and social relations.
Narrow stairs or the absence of a lift (elevator) facility are factors to be considered with
patients who, in addition to the disability related to their illness, require a wheelchair.
Mobility. With patients who have mobility problems and must move around with the
ventilator, special care must be taken to adapt the unit to the chair. Social services can
be a big help in terms of facilitating travel by public transport or by identifying means to
adapt private vehicles.
Adaptation of the home. The adaptation of the home can be a problem for many
patients. The bathroom and the bedroom are very important because their adjustments
must be mindful of the transferences that the patient will have to undergo.
Technological support. There are countless technological tools that facilitate the
adaptation to the activities of daily life for patients with disabilities. In many cases it is
necessary to resort to expert advice in order to find the best solution to each problem.
With rapidly evolving diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the
technological support needs change rapidly. For the patient and the caregiver this fact is
an inconvenience, both from an economic perspective and in choosing the best option.
The creation of ‘‘banks of material’’ can facilitate a quick solution to the problems
posed by the changing needs for technological support.
Relationship with community resources

There is no team or assistive device that is capable of answering all the welfare needs
of complex patients in a continuous manner. The expert teams should assume the bulk
of the assistance for the patient but, to a greater or lesser extent, they will have to look
to and coordinate the collaboration of other professionals [11]. The health
organisations are very different in each country but in a general way, the expert
teams must coordinate with the welfare and social resources closest to the patient.
General practitioners, the nurses and physiotherapists from the community and the
social workers play a greater role, which can be assigned from the perspective of a
centre of expertise. This effective coordination should be based on a level of
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cooperation, so that the transmission of information is made in a way that is quick and
complete and there are open discussions about improved therapeutic alternatives, and
accessibility should be the desired formal framework. The community resources are not
there to comply with the orders of the expert team but to contribute to its skill and
knowledge of the treatment plan.
The discharge plan after an exacerbation

The discharge plan is not a one-off but a plan that is developed progressively
depending on the needs of the patient. The patient’s needs can change, in which case the
care plan must be adapted, as previously mentioned.
However, when there is an admission caused by a worsening of the symptoms
(especially when the admission is unexpected), it may be necessary to reformulate an in-
depth care plan. The discharge after an exacerbation may require a care plan as complex
as the one designed at the time of the NIV initiation. One of the worst situations for the
care of patients with complex needs is the routine repetition of care.
Follow-up
Even once the patient is stabilised and well adapted to their home, the care plan is
incomplete if it does not include a long-term monitoring programme. The European
study on home mechanical ventilation (HMV; Eurovent survey) [12] showed a great
variability in the care plans for patients with HMV: more than half the patients with
HMV did not have a home-care specialist. Access to healthcare alternatives to
conventional hospitalisation was also very heterogeneous. Additionally, there are many
differences between countries and within the same country when it comes to technical
checks on the ventilators [13].
The monitoring of the patients with NIV must be proactive (it is not enough to
facilitate access to a consultation) and plan visits according to the patient’s clinical
condition. The role of the nurse case manager is very important. In the first phase the
patient should be monitored very closely. Most patients to be discharged from the
hospital after beginning the ventilation will not yet have reached the maximum degree of
improvement that can be expected. In fact, most patients do not obtain the maximum
benefits of the NIV until 2 or 3 months after the initiation of treatment [14].
One very important aspect is the quality control of the ventilators. FARRÉ et al. [15]
noted that the prescribed parameters did not coincide with the parameters observed
during surveillance of the ventilators in the home. A larger study confirmed these
discrepancies between the prescribed and observed parameters, although they did not
observe any negative impact on the number of admissions [16] or the clinical condition
of the patients. The control of the ventilators and complaints from patients regarding
their operation is not a subject that has been studied in depth, but it is possible that in
addition to the routine checks it will be necessary to pay closer attention to the patient/
ventilator interrelationship.
The monitoring of the patients must be planned in accordance with the available
resources. Information and communication technology could facilitate this monitoring [17],
especially in the case of patients who live far from the hospital. However, in general, these
technologies are there to compliment the care and they do not completely replace home
visits or external consultation visits.
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Care of the caregiver

The monitoring of patients with NIV must include attention to the caregiver. Caring
for a patient with NIV can lead to psychological problems. Overall, 15% of caregivers
for patients with long-term home ventilation develop symptoms of depression 6 months
after the discharge [18]. Sometimes the role of informal caregivers is underestimated,
given that sometimes this role is played by very young people [19]. Even though it may
seem that the opposite is the case, and in spite of the chronicity, the patients and the
caregivers do need regular information about their condition and the therapeutic
recommendations [20]. This necessity for information is even more important as the
patient approaches the final phases of life [21]. In patients with ALS, the burden on the
caregiver can be very great, requiring between 12 and 14 h a day [22]. It has also been
shown that 60% of caregivers with patients with ALS and tracheotomy must leave their
jobs to care for the patient [22].
TALLEY and CREWS [23] insist that there is still little interest in caring for the caregiver,
despite the recognised fact that if the caregiver falls ill, the whole fragile system of
welfare can collapse. The caregiver may give up due to health problems, when they
‘‘forget’’ to take care of themselves, e.g. to comply with medication or visit the doctor.
Therefore, when analysing the problems of patients with NIV, we should always
consider the triangle of patients, health professionals and caregivers. The carers need
communication and temporary discharges of obligations of care [24]. The social
isolation caused by caring for a very dependent patient has an enormous impact on the
satisfaction of the caregiver [25]. On other occasions the impact of care can be difficult
to detect. In highly dependent patients, the biggest impact for the caregiver can manifest
itself in interruptions of sleep [26]. Caregivers of patients with neuromuscular diseases
must mobilise them up to 10 or 12 times every night.
Since the impact on health is sometimes imperceptible, some authors call the caregiver
the ‘‘hidden client’’ [27].
Ultimately, the success of home treatment for patients with complex needs, such as
patients with NIV, is partly based on an appropriate discharge plan and adapted to the
needs of the patient [7, 28].
Summary
In patients with complex needs, such as patients with noninvasive ventilation (NIV),
the coordination of the caregivers and the planning of the process of discharge are
especially important. The care team must make sure that the patient (and the
caregiver) is fully informed, that they retain control over the decisions, that they
participate in the care programme and that individual values are respected in the
process of care.
The adaptation to the ventilation is a process that can take several days and it requires
the collaboration of the patient and the caregiver. The discharge plan is defined as
designing a customised plan for each patient that takes place before leaving the
hospital (or before starting independent treatment at home). The discharge plan must
contemplate the simplest option that obtains the maximum benefits. The figure of the
nurse case manager plays a vital role in implementing the plan of care for patients
with NIV.
Keywords: Caregiver, case manager, home mechanical ventilation.
374
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survey to identify level of burden in real life. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis 2007; 67: 142–147.
18. Douglas SL, Daly BJ. Caregivers of long-term ventilator patients: physical and psychological
outcomes. Chest 2003; 123: 1073–1081.
19. Doran T, Drever F, Whitehead M. Health of young and elderly informal carers: analysis of UK
census data. BMJ 2003; 327: 1388.
20. Rossi Ferrario S, Zotti AM, Zaccaria S, Donner CF. Caregiver strain associated with
tracheostomy in chronic respiratory failure. Chest 2001; 119: 1498–1502.
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23. Talley RC, Crews JE. Framing the public health of caregiving. Am J Public Health 2007; 97:
224–228.
24. Koopmanschap MA, van Exel NJ, van den Bos GA, van den Berg B, Brouwer WB. The desire for
support and respite care: preferences of Dutch informal caregivers. Health Policy 2004; 68: 309–320.
25. Ibañez M, Aguilar JJ, Maderal MA, et al. Sexuality in chronic respiratory failure: coincidences
and divergences between patient and primary caregiver. Respir Med 2001; 95: 975–979.
26. Creese J, Bédard M, Brazil K, Chambers L. Sleep disturbances in spousal caregivers of individuals
with Alzheimer’s disease. Int Psychogeriatr 2008; 20: 149–161.
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28. Lewarski JS, Gay PC. Current issues in home mechanical ventilation. Chest 2007; 132: 671–676.
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CHAPTER 26
Cost-effectiveness of NIV applied to chronic

respiratory failure
E.M. Clini*,#, E. Crisafulli#, M. Moretti*, L.M. Fabbri*
*University of Modena, Dept of Oncology, Haematology and Pneumology and #Ospedale Villa Pineta, Dept
of Rehabilitation, Pavullo, Modena, Italy.
Correspondence: E.M. Clini, Dept of Oncology, Haematology and Pneumology, University of Modena,
Ospedale Villa Pineta, Via Gaiato 127, 41026, Pavullo n/F (MO), Italy. Fax: 39 053642039;
Introduction
Home mechanical ventilation (HMV) is an established therapy for severe chronic
hypercapnic respiratory failure (HRF). The 1990s saw a substantial rise in the HMV
attributed to: 1) increased numbers of patients surviving the critical care; 2) increased
awareness and experience with indications and technologies; and 3) improved life
expectancy and reduced morbidity of treated patients, especially those with chest wall
and neuromuscular disease [1]. In particular, HMV delivered noninvasively (either with
positive or negative modalities) has received growing interest. The expansion of HMV in
the last 15 yrs was stimulated by the introduction of noninvasive mask ventilation and
the recognition that more patient groups could benefit [2].
A report in France has shown that most of the population of ventilated individuals
were using tracheostomy HMV during the 1990s; this figure has changed in the last
decade, showing a progressive increase of noninvasive HMV, thus paralleling the
numbers of tracheostomised patients [3].
The rapidly growing number of patients on noninvasive HMV in France mirrors the
development in other countries; in particular, a recent European survey has reported
updates on centre characteristics, user demographics and equipment choice for 329
centres and 21,526 users [4]. In this survey, an estimated HMV prevalence of about 6 per
100,000 citizens (range 0.1–17 per 100,000 for different countries) was shown; the
presence of detailed observatories or national registers might have explained the highest
prevalence of HMV in countries nearer the northern borders of Europe. Moreover, the
vast majority of patients were treated noninvasively; 34% of users (.7,000 people) had
parenchymal lung disorders, the majority of whom probably represented chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients.
Impact and effectiveness of long-term noninvasive

mechanical ventilation
The most recent evidence suggests that HMV delivered by mask ventilation has
proven effective in terms of both physiological and clinical outcomes in several
conditions [5, 6]. In other chapters of this European Respiratory Monograph this aspect is
extensively discussed. We here briefly summarise and report the major findings in
ISSN 1025-448x.
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E.M. CLINI ET AL.
Table 1. – Mechanisms of action of ventilatory support in respiratory failure due to restrictive disease
Supposed mechanism of action Positive study Negative study

First author [ref.] Outcome First author [ref.] Outcome
Resetting the CO2 sensitivity NICKOL [7] Increased ventilatory
of the central ventilatory ANNANE [8] response to CO2
controller Decreased Pa,CO2
Changes in lung mechanics: DELLBORG [9] Increased VC NICKOL [7] No improvement in
increased lung volume, SIMONDS [10] ANNANE [8] lung mechanics
improved compliance,
reduced dead space by
recruitment of atelectatic
lung
Increase in muscle strength NICKOL [7] Increased MIP and MEP NICKOL [7] No improvement in
DELLBORG [9] ANNANE [8] muscle strength
Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension; VC: vital capacity; MIP: maximum inspiratory pressure; MEP: maximum
expiratory pressure.
restrictive and obstructive patients treated by noninvasive HMV. Tables 1 and 2 report
the mechanisms of action which have been suggested in noninvasive HMV.
Restrictive disorders
Since the 1980s, extensive experience has been gained in using all forms of home
ventilatory support in chest wall and neuromuscular disorders. Nowadays, noninvasive
mask ventilation is a well-established long-term treatment in patients with symptomatic
HRF secondary to restrictive thoracic disease [20].
Hypercapnia develops in restrictive ventilatory disorders when the force that can be
generated by the respiratory muscles is outweighed by the extra load placed on them by
Table 2. – Mechanisms of action of ventilatory support in respiratory failure due to chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
Supposed mechanism of action ositive study Negative study

First author [ref.] Outcome First author [ref.] Outcome
Downward resetting of MEECHAM JONES [11] Improved sleep quality, GAY [13] No reduction in
the respiratory centre ELLIOTT [12] decreased Pa,CO2 and LIN [14] daytime Pa,CO2
sensitivity to CO2 increased ventilatory
response to CO2
Reduction in lung Dı́AZ [15] Decreased FRC, RV
hyperinflation and TLC
Increase in muscle strength BRAUN [16] Decreased Pa,CO2 ZIBRAK [18] No improvement in
GUTIÉRREZ [17] Increased VC, MIP SCHÖNHOFER [19] daytime gas
and MEP exchange or
inspiratory muscle
strength [18]
Daytime gas
improvement
without increase in
respiratory muscle
strength [19]
Pa,CO2: arterial carbon dioxide tension; FRC: functional residual capacity; RV: residual volume; TLC: total lung
capacity; VC: vital capacity; MIP: maximum inspiratory pressure; MEP: maximum expiratory pressure.
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COSTS IN LONG-TERM NIV
the reduced compliance of the respiratory system. The increased work of breathing and
reduced respiratory muscle activity leads to hypercapnia during sleep and, later,
wakefulness [21]. Improvement in arterial blood gases in these individuals rests on three
main hypotheses: 1) increased ventilatory sensitivity to carbon dioxide during
spontaneous breathing; 2) resting of the fatigued respiratory muscles; and 3) improved
pulmonary mechanics [22]. In particular, NICKOL et al. [7] found a relationship between
hours of use and fall in arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2) and sleepiness score.
Nonetheless, the respiratory muscle resting with noninvasive positive pressure
ventilation still remains a controversial hypothesis [8–10].
The most common chest skeletal abnormalities leading to respiratory failure include
scoliosis and, less frequently, kyphosis with rib deformity, sequelae of thoracoplasty and
(although rarely) spinal disorders (i.e. ankylosing spondylitis). There is considerable
evidence that long-term HMV improves physiological measures, survival, quality of life
and psychosocial functions [23, 24] in these patients. Very interestingly, the probability
of survival in patients with kyphoscoliosis using noninvasive HMV greatly exceeds that
provided by the use of long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) [25].
Several neuromuscular conditions, either nonprogressive (e.g. poliomyelitis), slowly
progressive (e.g. some myopathies and muscular dystrophy variants) or rapidly
progressive (e.g. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)) may take advantage of HMV
when in the stage of respiratory failure.
Recent advances in the respiratory care of neuromuscolar diseases have improved the
outlook for these patients, and many caregivers have changed from a traditional
noninterventional approach to a more aggressive, supportive approach. Significant
improvements in nocturnal and diurnal gas exchange, mortality and quality of life are
reported in patients with slowly progressive conditions, especially when HMV is
delivered by mask ventilation [24].
Patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, who are at substantial risk for sleep-
disordered breathing, may benefit from noninvasive HMV, since improvement in
quality of life and reduction in morbidity and early mortality have been reported [26].
This benefit is likely to be due to a slower rate of decline in pulmonary function
compared with the untreated control subjects. In patients with ALS, where even a small
elevation in diurnal Pa,CO2 indicates high risk for incumbent decompensation, noninvasive
HMV should be prompted by the occurrence of early symptoms of nocturnal
hypoventilation or lung function impairment, thus favouring both survival [27] and
residual life quality [28].
Obstructive disorders
The possibility that noninvasive HMV might aid patients with stable hypercapnic
COPD has intrigued clinicians and researchers for decades. At least theoretically,
ventilation could be beneficial in these patients through the following mechanisms:
1) reduction of hyperinflation; 2) improved CO2 response of the respiratory centre; and
3) improved respiratory muscle function. Notwithstanding, these suggested mechanisms
for improvement still remain controversial [11–19].
Due to the high prevalence of associated sleep-disordered breathing (e.g. obstructive
sleep apnoea or hypoventilation) in these patients [29], the use of long-term ventilatory
support is likely to be successful when adopted during night. Indeed, early studies
reported favourable effects in this condition [11, 30]. In addition, the beneficial effect of
noninvasive HMV in stable hypercapnic COPD has proven effectiveness by reducing
lung hyperinflation [15], improving the inspiratory muscle strength [18, 19] and lowering
the diaphragmatic fatigue threshold [31].
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E.M. CLINI ET AL.
From a clinical point of view, the efficacy (quality of life, survival and hospitalisation
rate) of noninvasive HMV in COPD patients still remains controversial [5]. Both
observational and controlled studies on small case series with short follow-up did not
completely answer the question [5]. Many factors, such as sample characteristics, degree
of severity and setting of ventilator used, could explain these differences. A 2-yr
prospective, randomised Italian study [32] is the largest trial showing that the addition of
nocturnal mask ventilation to LTOT in stable hypercapnic COPD patients may improve
daytime Pa,CO2, dyspnoea and health-related quality of life compared with oxygen
alone. Although, at present, the data do not clearly demonstrate a definitive benefit (i.e.
improved survival) due to chronic ventilatory support in these patients, this approach
has become popular in several European countries [4]. This optimistic attitude could be
supported by clinical evidence and experimental data showing that noninvasive HMV is
associated with a reduction in hospitalisation for acute-on-chronic ventilatory failure in
the most severe hypercapnic COPD [33].
Analysis of costs
In the management of healthcare resources, cost-analysis currently represents a
method for evaluation of the expenditure due to the effects on health of a new (or
specific) intervention and for assessing it in the economic perspective [34].
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a systematic methodology that measures
health outcomes expressed in ‘‘natural units’’, i.e. the number of cases of disease
prevented, the number of lives saved or the number of life-yrs gained by a new
medical act [35]. However, the costs and the benefits in CEA are considered in
‘‘noncomparable units’’ and their ratio provides a yardstick with which to assess the
productive efficiency [36]. For example, if an intervention is both more expensive and
more effective than an alternative, then the criterion for efficiency becomes the ratio
of the net increase in costs to the net increase in effectiveness (the incremental cost-
effectiveness ratio).
In cost-benefit analysis (CBA), it is possible to establish, first, whether an individual
intervention offers an overall net welfare gain and, secondly, how the welfare gain from
that intervention compares with that from alternative interventions. Increased use of
interventions with the greatest net gain will increase efficiency. Therefore, by valuing all
costs and benefits in the same units, CBA compares diverse interventions using the net
benefit criterion.
To complete the analysis of costs in healthcare, cost-utility analysis (CUA) could also
be used [37]. This is an adaptation of CEA that measures an intervention’s effect on both
the quantitative and qualitative aspects of health (i.e. morbidity and mortality). This
ratio provides a yardstick based on outcomes such as quality years of life gained; the
relative efficiency is here assessed using the incremental cost-utility ratio. An
intervention is deemed productively efficient, relative to an alternative, if it results in
higher (or equal) benefits at lower costs. Therefore, CUA can address both productive
and allocative efficiency.
In general, these three types of analysis (CEA, CBA and CUA) should be performed
in more than one perspective, thus comparing all the costs, effectiveness and benefits
deriving from a intervention. This would allow selection of the mix that can maximise
health for a given set of resources. More often the cost-analysis studies are conducted at
a complex level (involving more than just a local programme) and with periods of
follow-up to look at the long-term impact of interventions [38].
380
Application of a cost-analysis
Most cost-analysis studies pursue an incremental approach that compares the additional
costs of an intervention over the current practice with additional health benefits [39, 40].
The overall philosophy is that a new strategy intervention is being compared with the
existing practice (‘‘gold standard’’) or any other relevant alternative (best-available, low-
cost or do-nothing) in the calculation of the cost-effectiveness ratio:
Cost(with new strategy) {Cost(with current practice)
Cost-effectiveness ratio~
Effect(with new strategy) {Effect(with current practice) (1)
The first step is needed in order to compare a set of interrelated interventions with the
same target (e.g. to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, improve the health of
children under 5 yrs of age, etc.) and then to provide information, which involves
comparison of costs and outcomes of all the different types of possible interventions,
and is useful to the decision on how to allocate resources. This requires cost-
effectiveness to be estimated using an outcome indicator that measures changes in
health, taking into account fatal and nonfatal outcomes. Disability-adjusted life-yrs
(DALYs), healthy-yr equivalents (HYEs) and quality-adjusted life-yrs (QALYs) are all
time-based measures of health that include the impact of interventions on years of life
lost due to premature mortality and years of life lived with a nonfatal health outcome,
weighted by the severity of that outcome [41, 42]. A CEA is, therefore, expressed as the
cost spent for a DALY, HYE or QALY unit of measurement.
GOLD et al. [43] argue that people take into account the impact of an intervention on
their future production when providing utility weights for QALYs, so that the effects are
implicitly included in the denominator of the CEA ratio.
DALYs were first used jointly by the World Bank, the World Health Organization
(WHO) and Harvard School of Public Health in the Global Burden of Disease (GBD)
study [44, 45]. This study began in 1988 with the objectives of quantifying the burden of
disease and injury of human populations and of defining the main health challenges at
the global level using a measure that could also be used for CEA. Using DALYs, the
GBD calculated by 1990 was projected up to 2020. Moreover, DALYs were used in 1993
to estimate the disease burden combined with cost-effectiveness in the World
Development Report [46], in order to define priorities for investments in health. This
summary measure of population health was then refined and it is now used routinely by
WHO as a measure of CEA and to report health status in populations [47].
Table 3. – Advantages and disadvantages of cost-analysis studies
Pros Cons
Promotes fiscal accountability in programmes Requires a great deal of technical skill and knowledge
Difficult to assign a value in money to social programme
Establishes priorities when resources are limited (as human lives saved) independently of any moral
issue
Extremely useful to the legislators, policy makers Market costs (what people actually pay for something)
and other funders don’t always reflect ‘‘real’’ social costs
Sometimes there are multiple competing goals, thus need
to weight or prioritise them in some way
The best-known cost-benefit studies have looked at long-
term outcomes, but most programme evaluations don’t
have the time or resources to conduct long-term follow-
up studies
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E.M. CLINI ET AL.
The advantages and disadvantages of cost-analysis studies in healthcare are briefly

summarised in table 3.
The costs and benefits of a set of related interventions should be evaluated with
respect to the counterfactual of the ‘‘null set’’ of the related interventions. The
counterfactual scenario for estimating population effectiveness is the null set, defined as
the lifetime health experience of a defined population in a situation where all related
interventions directed against a disease or condition are stopped. The null set can be
estimated using natural history models, using trial data or by back-adjusting using
coverage rates and effectiveness of currently implemented interventions. Data on the
efficacy of interventions ideally comes from systematic reviews of studies. Efficacy can
be expressed as relative risks for rates and effect sizes for means. Efficacy should be
adjusted to a specific population, taking into account factors like coverage, quality of
care, adherence and other local factors. Figure 1 shows the integrated assessment for
healthcare costs calculation.
In the calculation of costs in the cost-analysis models every aspect has to be taken into
account. Indeed, direct medical costs (directly linked and incurred by medical providers,
such as for hospitalisations, drugs and visits), direct nonmedical costs (imposed on
nonmedical care personnel, such as for patient and family member transportation and
childcare), indirect costs (e.g. loss of productivity due to illness, time spent in medical
appointments and disability) and intangible costs (e.g. pain and human suffering) should
be calculated. Therefore, the actual cost of a studied drug might be only a small part of
the total final cost involved [37].
Cost of care in long-term noninvasive mechanical ventilation

The delivery of noninvasive mechanical ventilation (NIV) in the acute-care hospital
has been depicted as a labour-intensive therapy, which indicates that some patients
treated with this modality may incur substantial healthcare costs [48, 49]. In this setting,
the overall cost should be balanced by the reimbursement from the local healthcare
system. To date, the financial balance between costs and diagnosis-related group
reimbursement for acute-care NIV has been shown to be inappropriate, needing a
different payment scale [50]. Although disappointing, this evaluation mainly referred to
the hospital costs, which are known to be related more to the cost of healthcare
personnel (y60% of total cost) than to the use of specific supplies, drugs and
technologies. This is particularly evident in those patients who are bedridden and
require significant medical and nursing therapy to treat the underlying condition.
Resources Healthcare Programme Outcome

Cost paid Cost avoided Health status Value for money
- direct - direct - mortality
- indirect - indirect - morbidity
- QOL
Cost/cost study - utilities
- others
Cost/efficacy study
Cost/utility study
Cost/benefit study
Fig. 1. – Integrated assessment for healthcare costs calculation. QOL: quality of life. Data tahen from TORRANCE [37].
382
Different problems and perspectives can be addressed when considering the use of
NIV as a long-term treatment in those candidates suffering from chronic respiratory
insufficiency.
Although the effectiveness of noninvasive HMV has been addressed [20], and this
treatment has been recognised in the last decades as useful in terms of individual
physiological improvement and/or survival [51–54], the impact of this treatment on the
overall costs has not been clearly reported or demonstrated.
So far, the cost of a formal home-care service for ventilator-dependent individuals in
the USA has been estimated at yUS$6,000?month-1?patient-1 [55]. However, it is rather
difficult to compute costs related to the prolonged use of mechanical ventilation. Indeed,
in contrast to the costs related to hospital care, several different factors related to the
patient (including the family burden) and even to the local organisation may contribute
to this calculation. In actual fact, the majority of data related to costs of noninvasive
HMV in patients suffering from chronic respiratory failure relate to COPD.
A list of both direct and indirect costs related to NIV is included in table 4.
Direct costs
When chronic respiratory patients develop HRF, they report incremental use of
healthcare resources. Indeed, they are more likely have increased exacerbations, access
to primary care, use of medications and hospital and intensive care admissions [56], as
well as a further deterioration of their health-related quality of life [57].
Most of these individuals, especially those with COPD, have been prescribed LTOT,
which is known to provide better survival [58]. Notwithstanding, it is still unclear
whether the addition of noninvasive HMV may be associated to further benefits in these
patients [5], as already mentioned. Nevertheless, due to some recognised physiological
and clinical advantages, which also include the improvement of individual physical
performance [59], noninvasive HMV is currently popular among physicians [4].
Recently, a retrospective study in chronically ventilated COPD patients reported an
analysis of direct costs of care [33]. The authors calculated the cost?day-1?patient-1 of
major healthcare charges (oxygen, drugs and hospitalisations) over 2 yrs in COPD
patients treated by nocturnal noninvasive HMV in addition to the usual LTOT regimen
compared with similar patients continuing LTOT alone. They were able to show that the
addition of HMV is associated with a 20% saving of these direct costs compared with
LTOT alone; in particular, they reported that the burden of costs due to the ventilatory
equipment provision and management increased the whole costs up to the same limit
reached by those patients using LTOT alone.
Table 4. – List and categories of main costs related to noninvasive mechanical ventilation
Direct Indirect
Medical Nonmedical
Ward (capital, nursing workload, pharmacy) Transportation Loss of productivity and other financial issues
Intensive care (daily costs) Childcare Unemployment
Equipment (ventilator, humidifier, Time spent in appointments
consumables, annual servicing,
training)
Drugs Disability
Outpatient attendance (scheduled and Professional relationships
unscheduled visits)
Housekeeping
Social isolation
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E.M. CLINI ET AL.
However, it seems difficult to compare this analysis of direct costs with others that
have been previously published [50, 60]. Indeed, different healthcare systems and
reimbursement policies in different countries might have biased the results, making
comparisons rather difficult to draw.
Among the results that arose from the Italian randomised trial [33], it was interesting to
note that a reduction in the use of healthcare resources in terms of hospital readmission
was fairly well correlated with the use of NIV in these individuals. This research has
confirmed that the overall burden of care costs is not increased when noninvasive HMV is
adopted and that this regimen is associated with a 34% cost saving related to the re-
hospitalisation rate, in particular. Very interestingly, this saving of costs was associated
with a significant reduction in the high-cost admissions in the critical care areas.
The use of medications is another important category of direct costs in COPD. It has
been calculated that costs due to drug acquisition account for y40% of direct costs in
these patients, with a proportional increase according to severity of the disease [61].
In the Italian study [33], the mean percentage cost of drugs out of the total direct costs
was less than approximately 15%. This is not surprising, since this particular subgroup
of patients with a very advanced disease are likely to have reached a threshold limit in
their standard (evidence-based addressed) pharmacological treatment, which therefore
accounts for a proportionally lower amount of the total cost that includes other
advanced nonpharmacological therapies (including oxygen) or different direct costs.
Additionally, the computed cost for medications in that group of COPD patients did not
take into account the increased use of pharmacological resources during hospital
admissions. As a matter of fact, CLINI et al. [33] did not find any difference in the current
cost of medications between the two study groups, thus underlining the fact that this
part of the direct cost is less likely to influence the overall burden in these patients.
These particular individuals suffering from COPD therefore represent patients for
which a third part’s payment decision making should not be exclusively based on a
rough rather than on a precise cost-effectiveness analysis of cost [62].
Indirect costs
Direct cost gives only a partial estimate of the total costs. Indeed, this view limits the
logical and more important burden of indirect costs often associated with the use of
noninvasive HMV.
Among these, the indirect costs related to the family caregivers may be extremely
relevant and may even further affect the efficacy of any domiciliary programme,
especially in those individuals who are totally home-bound or confined to bed. Indeed,
patients with COPD and neuromuscular disorders under noninvasive HMV have
important burdens (e.g. high dependency, high levels of pre-morbidity score, recurrent
exacerbations with following hospitalisation), which in turn may impact on the quality
of their families’ lives. Overall, more than 50% of ventilator-dependent patients at home
suffer from two or more burdens needing specific family care [63].
In a cross-sectional survey conducted among primary family caregivers of patients
who were ventilator dependent and who were living at home, it was shown that the total
cost of home-care services was substantial (.US$6,000?month-1?patient-1 in the mid-
1990s) [55, 60]. Very interestingly, the monthly cost increased up to two-fold when
various values of caregiver effort were incorporated into this calculation [55]. The
incorporation of the caregiver’s time value into cost estimates did not substantially
reduce the proportion of patients for whom home care was the least expensive
alternative, except when caregiver effort was valued at a registered nurse’s wage rate.
However, the long-term economic impact on caregivers who reduce their work hours or
384
forego employment or educational opportunities may further increase the burden, but
this has never been strictly calculated.
Therefore, home care for these patients is labour intensive and costly. Thus, although
models of home-care programmes in patients with noninvasive HMV may merely prove
clinical effectiveness [64, 65], the development of policies and programmes to support
home placement is still lacking. Since the use of main public healthcare services for
ventilator-dependent patients may be significantly affected by factors related to
caregivers, the situation of caregivers should be considered when implementing the
use of resources and should be included in the policy making [66].
In a recent study, the subjective and objective burdens imposed on families of 50
patients under noninvasive HMV were explored [67]. It was found that profound
objective burden was reported in the field of social relations (49% of cases), household
management (43%), financial issues (32%) and employment issues (29%). Interestingly,
family members of these patients experienced a lower subjective burden and they were
used to adopting several strategies to cope with the imposed burden, including re-
orientation of life goals (92% of cases), resignation (88%), passivity (63%), hopefulness
(45%), ambivalence (20%) and guilt (14%). Therefore, clinicians caring for patients with
chronic respiratory failure should consider the family’s needs when noninvasive HMV is
prescribed. The domains causing major distress in the family (financial issues,
professional relationships and housekeeping) are sectors commonly faced by the
caregivers. Their impact should be taken into account by policymakers when home care
is organised and/or implemented.
Additional research regarding indirect factors that may affect the global burden, as
well as the ability or willingness of family members to accept the cost and to share the
responsibility for caring for the patients, is now required. Indeed, it has been calculated
that the use of major services and resources may be decided more by the needs of
caregivers than by the care level of the applicants [66].
Another aspect, which is still far from being considered in the evaluation of indirect
costs, is the estimation of those charges needed for initiating domiciliary ventilation. For
example, it could be important to calculate how many patients have to try the
noninvasive HMV equipment before the staff could find that the patient is likely to
accept the treatment. Moreover, it could also be important to include among the indirect
costs the time and effort spent by the staff to train the patient and his/her relatives
during the hospital stay.
Only one observational study refers to costs related to patient training during hospital
care [68], comparing periods without or with noninvasive HMV. Based on a previous
economic analysis [69], the ongoing training of ward nursing staff showed similar
charges in the two periods.
Similar analysis specifically related to personnel involved in training patients and
relatives outside acute care and before discharging home with noninvasive HMV has not
yet been reported, but it is likely that this cost may also contribute substantially to the
global burden of this treatment even in the long term.
Economic analysis
To date, very few data based on true economic analysis in patients under noninvasive
HMV have been published. To the best of our knowledge, the most recent and
retrospective audit on the cost of noninvasive HMV in hypercapnic COPD has been
conducted in a very small sample of patients in the UK [68].
The analysis performed in this study was based on the costs data (hospital admissions
in a ward or in an intensive care unit, healthcare personnel charges, equipment, training
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E.M. CLINI ET AL.
and outpatient attendance) comparing 1 yr before and after initiation of noninvasive

HMV in 13 COPD patients with chronic hypercapnia and recurrent admissions [68]. It
was found that the year spent with noninvasive HMV resulted in significantly lower
costs (y60% saving) compared with the year before, in this small sample. Therefore, it
was concluded that noninvasive HMV, once its clinical efficacy is proved, may be cost-
effective in a highly selected group of COPD patients with recurrent admissions, thus
potentially minimising costs.
Notwithstanding, this study identified costs and placed values on these costs from the
perspective of the acute hospital. Indeed, on the one hand, the acute hospital has the
most to gain financially from reducing admissions and, on the other hand, it may result
in a increased demand (and costs) on services in the primary care.
It has been calculated that, for the provision of home NIV to become cost neutral, the
increased burden on primary care would have to be in excess of 450 consultations or 200
home visits per patient [70]. As a matter of fact, the study by JONES et al. [71] actually
found a reduction in general practitioner consultations after noninvasive HMV was
instituted.
Such evidence could be important in obtaining financial support for providing a
service dedicated to HMV. For example, it has been shown that the cost-efficacy of
prolonged mechanical ventilation provision in hospital settings varies dramatically
based on factors like age and the likelihood of poor outcomes [72]. Therefore,
identifying patients likely to have unfavourable prognosis due to their underlying
diagnosis and reducing costly readmissions should be future priorities in improving the
clinical value of prolonged mechanical ventilation especially in the domiciliary setting.
Other and more detailed analysis of costs could eventually be considered when
studying chronic patients at home under prolonged mechanical ventilation. In
particular, the effectiveness and the utility of this treatment would both be useful
aspects to be assessed with regard to the impact of noninvasive HMV on patient survival
and quality of life (or health status), respectively.
It has been shown that noninvasive HMV in hypercapnic COPD patients provides a
median survival ofy29 months [68], which is comparable to that achieved by providing
noninvasive ventilation during acute exacerbations or with the conventional medical
treatment alone [73]. If acute ventilation per se does indeed prolong life in these
patients, it is possible that noninvasive HMV postpones the costs related to the acute-
care setting to a period often longer than that usually observed in the analysis of costs.
Thus, the savings observed early after the institution of noninvasive HMV would be
lost in the longer period. Therefore, a cost-effectiveness analysis taking survival time
into account would better balance the true impact of noninvasive HMV therapy on the
disease.
Similarly, long-term noninvasive HMV has shown that quality of life and health
status are maintained [74] and even significantly improved [32]. This could be evaluated
by a specific economic analysis of the outcome in Euros per QALY [75] (see also the
foregoing discussion).
The Italian study on nocturnal noninvasive HMV in COPD patients failed to show
any advantage in QALY compared with LTOT alone (Italian Association of
Pneumologists, Salerno, Italy; personal communication). However, this was mainly
due to the uncompleted availability of quality-of-life data in the database and the partial
recordings of computed costs, with the absence of any aspect referring to the indirect
costs related to this treatment. Nonetheless, it is quite interesting to note that, in a
cohort from the USA in the acute-care setting, incremental costs per QALY gained by
prolonged mechanical ventilation provision exceeded US$100,000 in patients aged
.68 yrs (with a predicted 1-yr survival .50%) [72].
386
Thus, new information on stable chronic patients with noninvasive HMV is welcomed
from this point of view. It is likely that this kind of analysis might further help the
overall decision making and selection of candidates for noninvasive HMV.
Conclusions
The indication and use of noninvasive HMV have become popular in the last decades,
since it has been proven effective on both physiological and clinical grounds in a large
population of patients suffering from chronic respiratory failure.
Noninvasive mechanical ventilation has been described as a labour-intensive
treatment in these patients. Notwithstanding, there is lack of accurate calculations of
costs and specific analysis of costs in this population.
Direct and (partially) indirect cost calculations have been observed and reported,
especially in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients under noninvasive home
mechanical ventilation. The most recent data underline the large impact of noninvasive
home mechanical ventilation on both patient outcome (reduction of recurrent
admissions and increase in quality of life) and family burden (unemployment, financial
and social issues), thus prompting further studies with appropriate cost-effectiveness
and/or cost-utility analysis which, at present, are still lacking. This would better help in
addressing the overall policy on decision making and selection of candidates.
Summary
The expansion of home mechanical ventilation (HMV) in the last 15 yrs was
stimulated by the introduction of noninvasive mask ventilation and the recognition
that more patient groups could benefit.
In the management of healthcare resources, cost-analysis currently represents a
method for evaluation of the expenditure due to the effects on health of a new (or
specific) intervention and for assessing it in the economic perspective. Disability-
adjusted life-yrs, healthy-yr equivalents and quality-adjusted life-yrs are all time-based
measures of health that include the impact of interventions on years of life lost due to
premature mortality and years of life lived with a nonfatal health outcome, weighted
by the severity of that outcome.
Although the effectiveness of noninvasive HMV has been addressed, the impact of
this treatment on the overall costs has not been clearly reported or demonstrated and
very few data based on a true economic analysis in patients under noninvasive HMV
have been published. Direct and (partially) indirect cost calculations have been
observed and reported, especially in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients
under noninvasive HMV. The most recent data underline the large impact of
noninvasive HMV on both patient outcome (reduction of recurrent admissions and
increase in quality of life) and family burden (unemployment, financial and social
issues), thus prompting further studies with appropriate cost-effectiveness and/or
cost-utility analysis.
Keywords: Cost analysis, home care, mechanical ventilation, respiratory insufficiency.
Support Statement: E.M. Clini has received an unrestricted research grant (project no. 21 of the
research programme 2005/2006) from the Italian Association of Pulmonologists (Salerno, Italy).
387
E.M. CLINI ET AL.
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CHAPTER 27
Home NIV: results and lessons from a

European survey
J. Goldring, J. Wedzicha
Academic Unit of Respiratory Medicine, Royal Free and University College Medical School, London, UK.
Correspondence: J.A. Wedzicha, Academic Unit of Respiratory Medicine, Royal Free and University
College Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, UK. Fax: 44 2074726141;
Introduction
The prevalence of chronic respiratory failure in Europe continues to rise, mostly
because of an aging population demographic but also because of an increase in the
uptake of smoking in Russia and the former Eastern Bloc countries [1, 2]. This has been
accompanied by the expansion [3–5] over the last three decades in the use of home
mechanical ventilation (HMV) to treat chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure. HMV is
usually delivered as noninvasive ventilation (NIV), with the majority of patients using
only nocturnal or nocturnal plus part-daytime NIV, and in many cases has been shown
to reduce mortality and morbidity [6, 7] and to improve quality of life [8].
The magnitude of the rise in HMV is impressive, with the numbers of patients
receiving home ventilatory support increasing from 130 patients, in one survey, in 1988
to 3,120 patients in 1998 [3]. This expansion has been driven by not only the growing
population of individuals with chronic respiratory failure but also the increasing
recognition that NIV can be of benefit in many different causes of ventilatory failure [9].
Technological advances have meant that ventilators are easier to use and that the
interfaces are more comfortable. Additionally, HMV offers the individual the advantage
of retaining an independent lifestyle and it offers the state a health–economic benefit as
it is less costly when compared with invasive mechanical ventilation [10]. As well as the
patient, there are industrial manufacturers and distributors of the machines, who will
also benefit from the increasingly widespread use of HMV. It is, of course, important
that the growth of HMV in Europe is on a properly planned basis and not simply driven
by market considerations. However, it will be seen from the present chapter that the use
of HMV in Europe is not presently standardised, regulated or consistent.
The present chapter will describe and explore the wide variation in practises that
occur within and between the countries of Europe with regards to HMV. Firstly, it will
look at predominantly national surveys which took place in the 1990s before progressing
to the most recent pan-European survey which took place in 2001–2002.
Surveys within Europe in the 1990s

The most comprehensive early questionnaire survey of HMV to have been undertaken
in Europe took place in 1992 [11]. The European Working Group on Home Treatment
for Chronic Respiratory Insufficiency looked at the organisation of HMV, continuous
ISSN 1025-448x.
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HOME NIV
positive airway pressure (CPAP) and long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) in 13 European
countries. The group were well aware that differences existed between the countries and
the stated aim was to characterise these variations and to allow the individual countries
to benefit from the comparison of data. The group’s efforts were hampered by
information that was ‘‘incomplete, erratic in detail and characterised only by its paucity
in outcome modalities’’. Only France, with its Association Nationale pour le Traitement à
Domicile del’Insuffisance Respiratoire Chronique (National Association for Home Care
Patients with Chronic Respiratory Insufficiency; ANTADIR), and Switzerland (Swiss
Lung Association) had national registers at that time for HMV and which facilitated
comprehensive data gathering. Since 1981, ANTADIR have been responsible for
managing y70% of patients receiving HMV in France and, since 1984, a subgroup of
these patients have been surveyed annually [12]. The group were also able to obtain
complete information on HMV from Denmark and Belgium via health-service data and
commercial supply companies. The information gleaned from the remaining countries
was much patchier and was generally easier to obtain for LTOT than for mechanical
ventilation (MV) or CPAP, perhaps because, on the whole, LTOT has been established
for longer in most of the countries studied.
The main findings from that survey were that HMV was being used substantively
for chronic lung disease, chest wall deformities (CWD) and neuromuscular disease
(NMD) in all of the countries, apart from Poland, which had a negligible number of
ventilated patients being treated at home. This latter observation could probably be
extrapolated to other European states that have recently joined the European Union
[13]. The majority of ventilators in use were positive pressure and of those, most were
volume-cycled as opposed to pressure-cycled. Italy and Belgium used volume-cycled
machines exclusively. Prescriptions for HMV were being written by both respiratory
physicians and nonspecialist physicians. Prescription rules existed in only a few
countries with most having no regulation of prescribing whatsoever. The ventilators
were supplied through commercial companies or nationalised health services and paid
for, primarily, by the latter. Specific details on supervision and technical support for
HMV were difficult to extract from the article because the data were combined with
those for LTOT.
The authors concluded that major differences occurred between the 13 European
countries and that these were probably explained by the ‘‘historical origin of home care
in each country, the different impact of commercial companies and the supervision of
insurance companies on doctor’s prescriptions.’’ In order to improve the uniformity and
quality of HMV provision they proposed: the establishment of further national registries
to improve data collection; a standardised Europe-wide set of guidelines to advise
clinicians; and a system that would ensure adequate equipment performance and
maintenance.
There are other notable single European country reviews of home respiratory care
from the 1990s. A follow-up study between 1992 and 2000 provided longitudinal data on
changes in HMV practice in Geneva [5]. JANSSENS et al. [5] noted that, during the course
of the study, there was a marked increase in the proportion of patients with chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS)
from 0 and 14% at the outset to 25 and 39%, respectively, by the end of the study. The
advent of cheaper, smaller and arguably easier to use pressure-cycled ventilators also
heralded a change from the exclusive use of volume-cycled ventilators in 1992 to
predominantly pressure-cycled ventilators by the end of the study. A similar longitudinal
study in Sweden [4] also highlighted the rapid growth of HMV prescription for patients
with OHS.
MIDGREN et al. [14] reported on cross-sectional data from the Swedish register of
HMV, which was established in 1996 by the Swedish Society of Chest Medicine. The
393
J. GOLDRING, J. WEDZICHA
salient findings were that: the prevalence of HMV use varied widely between healthcare
regions from 1.2 to 20 per 100,000 inhabitants and only 3% of patients had COPD as the
indication for HMV. The authors believed that the difference in prevalence of HMV
between healthcare regions could be because ‘‘the indications for HMV are not well
defined, which may make room for more individual decision making’’. Further analysis
by LAUB et al. [4] demonstrated that the disparity between the regions could not be
explained by socioeconomic or demographic differences. The under-representation of
COPD patients was ascribed to a lack of ‘‘enthusiasm among Swedish physicians to
offer patients with these diagnoses, HMV’’, perhaps because of the conflicting evidence
of a long-term benefit for ventilation in this patient group [15, 16]. Another finding
reported from the Swedish registry was that the age distribution was bimodal. The
authors contrasted this discovery to Denmark, whose age distribution was unimodal
because of a heavy bias towards young patients with muscular dystrophy. The bias was
attributed in part by MIDGREN et al. [14] to the high profile Danish Muscular Dystrophy
fund. Finally, with regards to the Swedish registry, there were some similarities with the
Geneva study [5] in that prospective analysis of the registry data suggested that the
choice of ventilator was changing from volume- to pressure-cycled.
a) 2000
l
l l l l
l l l
l l l
1990 l l
Year of starting HMV
l l
1980
l#
1970
1960
b) 300
l¶
200
Users n
100 l
l
l
l l l
0 l l l
l
l l
l l
l
AT BE DK FI FR DE GR IE IT NL NO PL PT ES SE UK
Country
Fig. 1. – a) Year of starting home mechanical ventilation (HMV) and b) centre size for each country. Data are
presented as median¡interquartile range. #: median and full range shown due to only two centres being included;
"
: median only, range 250–253 for the two centres. AT: Austria; BE: Belgium; DK: Denmark; FI: Finland;
FR: France; DE: Germany; GR: Greece; IE: Ireland; IT: Italy; NL: the Netherlands; NO: Norway; PL: Poland;
PT: Portugal; ES: Spain; SE: Sweden. Reproduced from [17] with permission from the publisher.
394
HOME NIV
100
80
60
Users %
40
20
0
All AT BE DK FI FR DE GR IE IT NL NO PL PT ES SE UK
Country
Fig. 2. – Percentage of users in each disease category by country. &: lung/airways (chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis, pulmonary fibrosis and paediatric diseases); &: Chest wall deformities
(kyphoscoliosis, old tuberculosis, obesity hypoventilation syndrome, surgical resection); h: neuromuscular (muscular
dystrophy, motor neurone disease, post-polio kyphoscoliosis, central hypoventilation, spinal cord damage and
phrenic nerve palsy). AT: Austria; BE: Belgium; DK: Denmark; FI: Finland; FR: France; DE: Germany; GR: Greece;
IE: Ireland; IT: Italy; NL: the Netherlands; NO: Norway; PL: Poland; PT: Portugal; ES: Spain; SE: Sweden.
Reproduced from [17] with permission from the publisher.
The ‘‘Eurovent’’ pan-European survey

The latest pan-European survey was undertaken in order to explore the custom and
practice in 16 different countries [17] to determine if they had changed in the 10 yrs after
FAROUX et al. [11]. The questionnaire survey, completed in 2001–2002, was more
expansive and provided data on 329 centres and 21,526 HMV users, predominantly in
Western Europe. More national registers were available for this study and so
documentation concerning HMV from the member countries had improved over the
preceding 10 yrs. However, the survey, like the previous one, continued to show wide
variations in practice. For example, the prevalence of HMV per 100,000 inhabitants
ranged from 0.6 in Greece to 17 in France. Overall prevalence of HMV in Europe was 6.6
per 100,000. Countries that started their HMV programme earlier (fig. 1a) had a greater
prevalence and larger centre size (fig. 1b) although this could not be the only explanation
for the wide variation in prevalence. The proportion in different disease categories was
also wide ranging (fig. 2) with Denmark having proportionately more individuals with
NMD being ventilated, whereas patients with COPD predominated in Italy and Portugal.
This discrepancy also seems to be related to the date at which the HMV programme
started, with the newer centres tending to focus on COPD patients. Overall, 34.4% of
patients suffered from lung and airway problems, 31.2% had CWD and 34.4% had NMD.
Other findings from the Eurovent survey were that patients were most likely to have
their HMV initiated and maintained by a university hospital rather than non-university
hospital. The study also demonstrated that there was a bimodal distribution of users
with older patients (age .66 yrs) having predominantly lung and chest wall diseases and
younger patients (age ,65 yrs) having predominantly NMD and neurological diseases.
The latter group of patients were most likely to be ventilated for longer periods
(.10 yrs), whilst the majority of those with intrinsic lung diseases had been on HMV for
,1 yr. Patients with CWD ran a more intermediate course, with most of them being
ventilated for 6–10 yrs. The length of time that patients had spent on HMV could be
explained partly by the expected survival differences between the different diagnostic
395
a) 70
60
In charge of servicing %
50
40
30
20
10
0
Comp Tech Other Phys Comp+ Comp+ Tech+
tech Phys Phys
Person or company
b) 100
Serviced by a company %
80
60
40
20
0
c) 12
Routine servicing periodicity
10
8
months
0
Country
Fig. 3. – a) Answers to the question ‘‘who is in charge of the servicing and repair of ventilators in your centre?’’,
b) centres answering that ventilator servicing was carried out by an external company, and c) answers to the question
‘‘how often is your equipment routinely serviced?’’ by country. Comp: ventilator company; Tech: hospital technical
service; Other: other hospital department; Phys: physician in charge of the patient; AT: Austria; BE: Belgium; DK:
Denmark; FI: Finland; FR: France; DE: Germany; GR: Greece; IE: Ireland; IT: Italy; NL: the Netherlands; NO:
Norway; PL: Poland; PT: Portugal; ES: Spain; SE: Sweden. Reproduced from [21] with permission from the publisher.
categories [7] and partly by the fact that some centres had only recently begun recruiting
COPD patients.
Pressure-cycled machines predominated in 2002 (70.6% of the total) and only a very
small percentage of patients (0.005%) were using variants of negative-pressure
ventilators. Ventilation was performed via a tracheostomy in just 13% of the overall
survey population, and the patients with NMD accounted for most of these.
396
HOME NIV
a) 100
80
Informed of problems %
60
40
20
0
b) 100
80
control/maintenance
Updated on
60
40
20
0
c) 100
80
without agreement %
Possible change
60
40
20
0
Fig. 4. – Answers to the questions: a) ‘‘Are you regularly informed of any problems with home mechanical
ventilation by the person/company responsible for the maintenance of the equipment?’’; b) ‘‘are you regularly updated
on the specific control/maintenance of the equipment performed by the person/company responsible?’’; and c) ‘‘can
the person/company providing the ventilator change the model of ventilator without asking for your agreement?’’ by
country. AT: Austria; BE: Belgium; DK: Denmark; FI: Finland; FR: France; DE: Germany; GR: Greece; IE: Ireland;
IT: Italy; NL: the Netherlands; NO: Norway; PL: Poland; PT: Portugal; ES: Spain; SE: Sweden. Reproduced from
[21] with permission from the publisher.
Tracheostomy ventilation was more common in France, Greece, Italy and Belgium and
probably reflects local expertise in this area [18].
Quality control and servicing of HMV equipment in Europe

HMV is considered to be relatively safe [19] but a recent study demonstrated that there
are sometimes considerable differences between the actual, set and prescribed values of
ventilator variables and that the alarm function, when present, does not always work [20].
397
As an extension of the pan-European study of 2002, FARRÉ et al. [21] investigated the
quality control procedures employed at the 329 HMV centres. Predictably, wide
variations existed both within and between countries. The salient findings from the
study were as follows. There was a wide variation between countries as to whether the
ventilator company, a hospital technician or both took a role in servicing the machine
and also in the periodicity of routine servicing (fig. 3). The timing of the servicing was
unlikely to be related to technical factors so it can only be assumed that it was due to
economic or administrative differences. There was also evidence for poor communica-
tion between the servicing provider and the clinician (fig. 4). An example of this is that
in Sweden, it was relatively common for the ventilator to be changed without the explicit
agreement of the prescriber. This might be a problem for patients whose ventilatory
demands are sometimes suited to a specific ventilator model. There also appeared to be
some ambivalence on the part of the prescribers to involve their patients in quality
control; on average, only 56% of centres assessed whether or not the patients or their
caregivers correctly maintained the equipment and only 21% gave the patients or their
caregivers written information about quality control items pertaining to their particular
ventilator. This is perhaps a missed opportunity, as patient self-management is now
widely encouraged because of evidence of improved patient satisfaction and more
importantly improved patient outcome [22].
Conclusions
The number of patients receiving HMV in Europe will continue to rise due to the
combination of an aging population demographic, improved survival of patients with
chronic respiratory disease and a shift towards treating more people with COPD and
OHS. Indeed, in the short-to-medium term, the prevalence of COPD and OHS
themselves are also expected to increase.
Other than consensus opinion on when to initiate home mechanical ventilation [23],
there are as yet very few guidelines within Europe on how to practically implement it. It
is probably for this reason that there is little standardisation and regulation of home
mechanical ventilation between or even within European countries. This lack of
uniformity extends to quality control of the equipment itself and this may impact on
patient safety as well as satisfactory patient outcomes.
Summary
There has been a dramatic rise in the use of home mechanical ventilation (HMV) in
Europe over the last two decades driven by the widening indications for HMV and
increasing prevalence of chronic respiratory failure. The implementation of HMV
differs widely among European countries and it would be desirable to standardise
provision in order to provide equitable patient outcomes.
Keywords: Europe, home mechanical ventilation, prevalence surveys, quality control.
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12. Muir JF, Voisin C, Ludot A. Organization of home respiratory care: the experience in France
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13. Lloyd-Owen SJ. Organisation of home mechanical ventilation in Europe. In: Simonds AK ed.
Noninvasive Respiratory Support: A Practical Handbook. 3rd Edn. London, Edward Arnold,
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14. Midgren B, Olofson J, Harlid R, Dellborg C, Jacobsen E, Nørregaard O. Home mechanical
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15. Casanova C, Celli B, Tost L, et al. Long-term controlled trial of nocturnal nasal positive pressure
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tracheostomized patients with COPD treated by home mechanical ventilation. A multicenter
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19. Srinivasan S, Doty SM, White TR, et al. Frequency, causes, and outcome of home ventilator
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399
CHAPTER 28
Future trends in noninvasive mechanical

ventilation in adults
D. Robert, L. Argaud
Medical Intensive Care Dept, Université Claude Bernard, Hôpital Edouard Herriot, 5 Place d’Arsonval 69003
Lyon, France. Fax: 33 472110042; E-mail: [email protected]
The modern form of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) using a facial
interface as opposed to negative pressure ventilation, which appeared in the 1980s as an
advantageous mode of ventilatory support for some patients needing long-term
assistance; either with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) for obstructive
sleep apnoea [1] or with intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) for chronic
respiratory insufficiency related to neuromuscular or parietal disorders [2–6].
Since this pioneering time, the evolution of the medical knowledge and of the
technical aspects concerning NIPPV are continuously growing, with many studies
opening new areas for the application of NIPPV or bringing clinical evidence of its
efficacy [7–12].
Indications of NIPPV may be considered according to their clinical usefulness as
‘‘clearly validated’’, as ‘‘probably interesting but needing additional studies’’ or as ‘‘new
possible fields of interest’’. Besides clinical considerations, NIPPV, compared with
invasive ventilation, has the risk of becoming less efficient in relation to the difficulty in
continuously mechanically ventilating for long periods and to inevitable nonintentional
leaks, between the mask and the skin [13, 14]. So, the final results are a balance between
negative and positive effects; the way to progress is to decrease the negatives and to
improve the positives.
NIPPV was first used at home and in the intensive care unit (ICU) but as evidence of
its efficacy emerged, NIPPV was progressively used in other places, such as emergency
department, intermediary unit, medical ward and step-down unit [15–18].
The present chapter will review many points which might progress in an attempt to
anticipate the future.
Clinical application of NIPPV

Acute respiratory failure
The results concerning acute failure on chronic respiratory insufficiency clearly
contrast with those without previous respiratory insufficiency. According to the
literature, NIPPV must be employed as the first line mode of ventilatory assistance in
cases of acute failure on chronic respiratory disease [10, 16, 19–21], while several studies
report conflicting results in acute failure without previous respiratory disease [22–27].
This is relatively easy to understand if it is considered that, in case of previous
respiratory insufficiency, any minor additional factors, potentially easily reversible, may
ISSN 1025-448x.
400
FUTURE TRENDS IN NIV
precipitate the patient in a threatening failure. NIPPV, even of imperfect efficiency in

term of assistance, may allow the rapid regaining of the previous respiratory state.
Conversely, de novo respiratory failures, due to severe disease like infectious
pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), are not prone to rapid
recovery and need the most efficient and continuous ventilatory assistance. The only
way would be to be able to select the cases with a rapid potential for reversibility and/or
to improve the NIPPV technique in order to deliver more continuous and more efficient
ventilatory assistance. It seems probable that subgroups considered as good candidate
for NPPV would be individualised among these patients. Probably chest trauma would
become a recommended indication [28].
In immunocompromised patients it seems to be important to avoid infectious risk by
using NIPPV as often as possible. Nevertheless, even if studies in short series favor such
approach, other larger trials seem necessary in order to confirm these data [29–31]. As
the number of patients living longer with chronic immunosuppressive treatment
increases rapidly, new data on this field are necessary [32]. For example, the specific use
of NPPV to perform early and securely bronchoalveolar lavage in such patients must be
promoted in the future [33].
In asthma, some authors have speculated that the positive pressure may have a
salutary effect on airway dilatation [34, 35]; one study in asthma without respiratory
failure actually showed beneficial effects [36]. Nevertheless, routine use of NIPPV in
severe acute asthma can not, at present, be recommended. Probably, in the future,
cautious trials in severe asthma crisis not responding to the first hour of conventional
therapy would be performed in order to clarify such indication [37].
In the context of extubation, NIPPV has certainly a place but the results presently
available in the literature remain unclear. Several randomised controlled trials have
shown that the use of NIPPV in order to advance extubation in COPD difficult to wean
(assessed by the T-tube trial failure) resulted in reduced periods of endotracheal
intubation, complication rates and increased survival [38, 39]. Obviously, NIPPV may
avert most of the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with weaning failure in
these patients. Similarly, a priori NIPPV applied immediately after extubation is
effective in avoiding failure in patients at risk, particularly those with chronic
respiratory disorders and hypercapnic respiratory failure [40]. Conversely, the use of
NIPPV in the management of respiratory failure, actually occurring after extubation,
did not show clinical benefits [41]. Even if the clear understanding in this context is not
totally established, it seems probable that future studies will indicate that NIPPV is
useful in case of previous chronic respiratory insufficiency or when nonsevere factors
would explain the inability to completely manage the whole spontaneous breathing. It is
likely that the efficacy to prevent respiratory complications of early NIPPV application
during the post-operative period in patients at risk would be confirmed in the future
with the same concept [42–44].
Cardiac pulmonary oedema is a very frequent event. Many studies have shown the
efficacy of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or NIPPV to get rapid
improvement and to improve the survival rate. Meta-analyses have not demonstrated
the superiority of either [45–54]. Additionally, the potential risk of NIPPV in unstable
coronary diseases remains possible by decreasing the cardiac output and would prompt
a preference for CPAP [55, 56]. Consequently, CPAP, which is simpler must be preferred
and will be more early and widely used in the future, particularly during the pre-hospital
emergency treatment.
NIPPV may be proposed when intubation is contraindicated. It is important to
consider, as reported by different studies, that NIPPV performed in substitute of
intubation may bring favorable issues. NIPPV must be considered as the possibility of
offering a chance without taking the risks of intubation, which are: the necessity to be in
401
D. ROBERT, L. ARGAUD
an ICU, the invasiveness, the potential weaning difficulties and the difficulty in
extubating a patient as a process to die. In spite of respiratory failure theoretically
indicating intubation, its achievement may be contraindicated in three main situations,
coming either from patient willingness or from the medical situation. In the first
situation, the patient could have expressed an advanced ‘‘do not intubate’’ directive or
could express refusal to be intubated [57]. Potential difficulties may occur when the
physician in charge of the patient is convinced that the use of intubation is the only
technique which may cure the patient. A typical example could be observed in a suicide
attempt; the issue would depend on the national regulations, habits, religions and
philosophical points of view. In North America, the advanced directives must be
followed, while in Southern Europe, the decision of the physician and his personal
conviction may be predominant at least when the patient has lost the ability to confirm
possible advance directives.
In the second situation, the physician may estimate that invasive ventilation is not
indicated but NIPPV may afford reasonable chances without the risks of an intubation
[58]. The role of the physician is to explain to the patient and his relatives why NIPPV is
the right choice.
In the third situation, the use of NIPPV has the only objective of palliation, comfort
and relief of dyspnoea for patients with a very short-term poor prognosis, independent
of an efficient ventilatory assistance. NIPPV may be considered either as an acceptable
end point or as an inacceptable way to prolong the dying process [59, 60]. We may
anticipate, in the future, new studies and recommendations, aimed to clarify the
different clinical situations in which NIPPV may be applied as a ceiling treatment taking
in account cultural and religious habits.
Chronic failure needing long-term domiciliary NIPPV

During the past 15 yrs, the use of long-term ventilation at home has drastically
increased [61]. This is mainly explained by the facility to use NIPPV as opposed to
tracheostomy, since the positive effects of long-term ventilation were already
demonstrated in the 1980s [62]. Conceptually, it is important to consider five different
situations: 1) cases which need full-time mechanical ventilation related to total
respiratory paralysis and a relatively normal lung (neuromuscular); 2) cases which
need only part-time mechanical ventilation nightly or diurnally, typically performed in
diseases with thoracic cage deformities and a remaining lung, decreased in volume but
relatively functional (idiopathic kyphoscoliosis, mutilating tuberculosis etc.); 3) cases
which need part-time mechanical ventilation performed nightly in lung diseases (COPD,
cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis etc.); 4) sleep apnoea, which may receive NIPPV
specifically during sleep, either obstructive, in cases of upper airway abnormalities or
central, in cases of severe chronic left cardiac insufficiency (periodic breathing); and 5)
obesity hypoventilation syndrome, which seems relatively close to the second group.
Since the techniques are the same, there is a temptation to think that the results must be
identical, which may lead to serious mistakes. The future trends may be anticipated
according to each group.
In the neuromuscular group, the number of patients treated would continue to
increase if the positive results in term of extension of the life and improvement of the
quality of life are considered, even in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), provided they
have no or only modest swallowing disorders [63–68].
Even if only seldom used, at present, the long-term technique will include special
approaches for secretion clearance in order to avoid and treat chest infections and
402
atelectasis, which are the major complication and reason to die in late-stage
neuromuscular disorders. In those patients, the inability to generate an effective cough
can be due to low vital capacity, impaired bulbar function and expiratory muscle
weakness. The goal is to reproduce cough by inflating the lung up to its maximal
inspiratory capacity in order to increase the expiratory peak flow to values up to 300–
400 L?min-1. Different devices and methods have been proven to promote this effect:
glossopharyngeal breathing (frog breathing), volume targeted ventilators, intermittent
positive pressure breathing (IPPB) devices and the in-exsufflator (cough assist). The
systematic use of such techniques, twice daily, has been proposed when the spontaneous
expiratory peak flow is lower than 160 L?min-1, and more frequently in cases of clinical
mucus retention and when the arterial oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry
(Sp,O2) is ,95% [69–74]. These approaches are not new but they are not routinely
practiced; so they may become most popular and new indications and recommendations
about the techniques will appear in the future. These techniques will continue to allow
less possibility for long-term tracheostomy, at least in the adult population [75].
In thoracic cage disorders, NIPPV will remain the uncontested method but a
continual decrease in the number of cases due to the spine surgery performed during
childhood may be anticipated [76–81]. Nevertheless, future physiological studies will
probably confirm the specific complex mechanisms of efficacy in such patients,
combining the resetting of the respiratory centres, muscle rest, better oxygenation and
lung recruitment [80, 82].
In COPD, the results of NIPPV are still disappointing even if, over time, COPD with
concomitant chronic hypercapnic respiratory failure has become a major indication for
domiciliary NIPPV [61]. Positive effects have been reported in blood gas levels;
particularly a reduction of hypercapnia but the role in long-term survival is still a topic
of controversy [79, 83–85]. A meta-analysis of clinical trials does not support this form
of therapy [86]. Due to these uncertainties and the important and growing number of
COPD prospective trials will probably bring new information in the future.
Nevertheless, considering the patho-physiology of COPD, which gradually and
continuously destroys the lung with a chronic inflammatory state and a general disease,
it seems unlikely that NIPPV may significantly alter the natural evolution of this
devasting disease.
NIPPV during exercise in COPD has been investigated and could be a future
development, with the main aim being to improve exercise capabilities in daily life [87–
89]. The development of a smaller portable ventilator would facilitate use during
walking. Arterial oxygen tension decreases during walking in these patients when only
supplemental oxygen is given but increases when NIPPV is added to the oxygen. There is
also significantly less dyspnoea and a longer walking distance. Therefore, NIPPV during
walking may be developed in order to provide an additional role for palliative treatment
of COPD patients with hypercapnic chronic respiratory failure. Following this,
forthcoming studies may be anticipated which determine the role of NIPPV during
exertion and walking in addition or not of nocturnal NIPPV.
In symptomatic obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), the use of CPAP during sleep is now
strongly validated with many positive effects on cardiac, vascular, cognitive, metabolic
disorders and finally on survival [90]. The use of a true NIPPV, which provides
inspiratory assistance, is controversial and has been advocated in case of CPAP failure.
NPPV using a bilevel device has been proposed as an optional therapy in some cases
where high pressure is needed and the patient experiences difficulty exhaling against a
fixed pressure [91]. It may be anticipated that, in cases of OSA not combined with other
abnormalities, new clinical data will have few chances to report a better efficacy of
NIPPV. In cases of OSA associated with other causes of respiratory impairment
featured by hypercapnia, such as obesity hypoventilation syndrome [92–95],
403
neuromuscular diseases (myotonic dystrophy, muscular dystrophy, etc.) or COPD, the use
of NIPPV is usually recommended even if CPAP alone could also be beneficial [91]. New
clinical data will probably be reported bringing new insights for these complex cases.
In the most severe form of chronic cardiac insufficiency, periodic breathing or
Cheyne–Stokes breathing is present in y50% of cases and has been shown to be an
indicator of a worsening prognosis. The main therapeutic approaches, besides the
treatment of cardiac insufficiency, are nocturnal oxygen therapy, CPAP or NIPPV [96–
98]. Small studies usually report equal efficacy of CPAP or NIPPV on cardiac function,
exercise tolerance and quality of life. Unfortunately, a recently published trial showed
no difference in survival between CPAP and medical treatment alone [99], so there are
few chances to admit indication of NIPPV in this context. Nevertheless, according to the
strong rationale for using CPAP or NIPPV, it is certain that new trials will be
performed. Additionally, new modes combining CPAP and NIPPV have been proposed
and will also be specifically studied [100–104]. Nevertheless, whatever the results of
future clinical trials, it seems unlikely that important improvements of the prognosis will
be observed, if we consider the extreme severity of the underlying cardiac insufficiency in
such patients. The possibility of using NIPPV in the most severe cases as a bridge to
heart transplantation in selected patients is also a potential issue.
Obesity is considered to be an increasingly epidemic disease with relatively modest
respiratory symptoms, except in a minority of patients who present the so called obesity
hypoventilation syndrome. Long-term domiciliary NIPPV normalises hypercapnia and
markedly improves hypoxaemia as well as polycythaemia [105]. Additionally, NIPPV leads to
a significant reduction in restrictive ventilatory disturbances, predominantly by increasing the
expiratory reserve volume [106]. Nevertheless, the necessity to definitely continue NIPPV is
not clearly established and would necessitate long-term comparative studies [94].
Locations where NIPPV is applied

The application of NIPPV requires a good understanding of the method but does not
need sophisticated technical means besides ventilator and mask. The fact that NIPPV
used at home is very successful with only the daily supervision of the patients, or their
families in totally dependent patients, clearly prove its good feasibility. In addition the
development of portable ventilators for the home allows its use in conventional medical
wards without any particular equipment. Therefore, it is more the actual severity of the
clinical situation rather than the technique itself which determines the locations where
NIPPV is used.
This explains the large and rapid spread of NIPPV outside the two original locations,
which were the ICU and the home. Nowadays, NIPPV is performed in many different
locations such as emergency rooms, intermediary units, weaning centers, medical wards
(pneumology, neurology, cardiology, etc.) and rehabilitation centres [14–16, 107–112].
To be safely applied, the actual and potential severity must be determined in order to
choose the correct place in which dedicated professionals are trained to practice NIPPV.
In addition, in case of the condition worsening, the immediate availability of a back up
unit and technique must be anticipated. So NIPPV, as a technique, offers a great
versatility. A recently published study showed a small series of patients already treated
at home for chronic respiratory failure who were maintained at home in the context of
acute threatening failure with the reinforcement of the daily duration under NPPV and
medical and nurse supervision [113]. This may open the door to early home treatment of
acute crises at the cost of a specific home service.
404
The spread of NIPPV in different locations and the involvement of numerous

professionals (medical doctors, respiratory therapists and nurses) are clear advantages
allowing the delivery of NIPPV at earlier stages with minor utilisation of resources other
than in the ICU. Nevertheless, it may be anticipated that recommendations for good
practice will be regularly proposed and that specific training for personell will be
necessary, in particular to apply NIPPV outside of the ICU [114, 115]. Dedicated mobile
teams would probably be proposed in order to secure the use of NIPPV across hospitals.
Technical trends
The application of NIPPV to treat acute and chronic respiratory failure is increasing
tremendously in many different settings from the hospital ward and units to home. The
choice of the ventilator, setting and interface is crucial for NIPPV success because poor
tolerance and excessive air leaks are significantly correlated with NIPPV failure [14,
116–120]. So, in addition to the progress afforded by the manufacturers, the clinician
must understand and apply all the finer points to optimise patient–ventilator synchrony
to adequately set NIPPV to respond to the patient’s ventilatory demand. Many
advances have been recently made and will continue to appear in the forthcoming years.
Ventilators
In order to anticipate the possible evolution of the ventilators in the future the best
way is to consider the progress made since the introduction of NIPPV and to continue
the trail [121].
In 1990, the available ventilators were ICU ventilators and home ventilators. ICU
ventilators were big, powered by high pressure air and oxygen sources and offered volume
preset modes (control, assist, intermittent mandatory ventilation (IMV) and pressure preset
modes (control, assist, spontaneous or pressure support, IMV) [122]. Home ventilators were
portable, powered by inside electrical motor (some with an internal battery) and offered
volume preset modes.
The main progresses come from conceptual and technical advances for home
ventilators able to deliver enough tidal volume in spite of inevitable and jolting leaks
observed during NIPPV [123–125]. Home ventilators have progressively taken the place
of ICU ventilators and allow mechanical ventilation anywhere in hospital, not just the
ICU [126, 127]. At the present time, the main features concern the mode, the pressure
source, the alarms and the monitoring. The available modes were enriched with bi-level
positive airway pressure (BiPAP) in 1990 [123]. BiPAP is a pressure targeted mode with
an expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP) and a higher inspiratory positive airway
pressure (IPAP) alternatively established in a leaking one limb circuit with a risk for
CO2 rebreathing [128, 129]. Specific algorithms, aimed at correctly detecting the start
and end of inspiration, in order to improve the patient–ventilator synchrony, have been
proposed allowing the use of spontaneous mode i.e. pressure support [130]. Very small
high-speed turbines, used as pressure sources, are able to produce enough flow to face
the leaks observed during NIPPV. The use of microprocessors and screens allows the
setting of minimal or maximal functions concerning alarms and monitoring displays
reaching the level of sophistication used in the ICU.
It may, therefore, be anticipated that, in the future, most NIPPV would be delivered
by these small and portable ventilators able to deliver high quality ventilation in any
place leading to fewer places using the conventional ICU ventilators [121].
405
Modes and settings of NIPPV

Improved knowledge and major changes have occurred in recent years with regards to
choice of the settings according to the objectives of NIPPV in the various clinical
situations, such as acute or chronic failure, normal or obstructive or restrictive diseases
and asleep or awake patient. It is anticipated that concepts will continue to progress to
better improve such approaches.
The pressure targeted mode is definitely preferred to volume targeted mode in
NIPPV, since they are able to compensate for air leaks provided that the flow capability
is high enough [61, 131–134]. Many efforts have tried to improve triggering and cycling
in pressure support mode and recent studies report that this is frequently successful but
not in every case with every ventilator [135, 136]. Additionally, it appears that
algorithms could work differently in normal, obstructive or restrictive diseases or even
become counterproductive [130]. On the ICU ventilators and in the more-advanced bi-
level ventilators, the rise time of the pressure can be set in order to try to synchronise the
patient effort and the spontaneous demand of the patient [137, 138]. Such findings open
the place for specific research and proposition according to the disease submitted to
NIPPV. Trials using proportional assisted ventilation, which theoretically improves
synchrony and adapts the level of assistance to the spontaneous pattern of breathing,
have been performed. Nevertheless, at least in the original functioning in which the
compliance and resistance are needed, the variable air leakages (equivalent to variable
resistance), which characterise NIPPV are poorly compatible with the use of such a
mode [139]. Clinical trials did not report clear superiority of this mode [140, 141].
Pressure support ventilation brings variable tidal volumes according to complex
interactions between inspiratory effort, leaks, respiratory mechanics, sleep (which may
produce rapid changes from hypoventilation to normoventilation) or to hyperventila-
tion for the same patients [142]. Hypoventilation may be avoided by using dual modes,
which may ensure target tidal volumes considered either as minimal, letting the
possibility to ventilate more or the unique fixed objective, letting no possibility to
improve the ventilation [143, 144]. More research is necessary to determine the place of
such sophisticated modes. Hyperventilation, which may particularly occur during sleep,
may induce central apnoea in response to low arterial carbon dioxide tension (Pa,CO2)
and arousals before the resuming of breathing. In order to avoid such a risk setting of a
back up rate is more-frequently recommended and would become the rule [145]. In
addition, the back up rate may be useful when a cautious sedation is administered [146].
In summary, the present knowledge on the complex interactions between more- or
less-preserved physiological regulation and the ventilator clearly shows that much
progress is necessary in order to optimise NIPPV to improve its efficacy and avoid
invasive ventilation.
Interfaces
The quality of the different interfaces has continuously increased in order to combine
minimum leaks, to improve the ventilation, and comfort, to improve the tolerance and the
continuity of NIPPV when necessary. In acute situation naso-facial masks are recommended
as the first-line interface and full-face as the second line [7, 9, 147–149]. Nevertheless the place
of ‘‘full-head’’ interface as the helmet is not yet clearly known [150, 151]. Additional
physiological and clinical studies are necessary. In chronic failure and long-term ventilation
nasal mask is considered as better tolerated [152]. In case of inadequate ventilation, the place
of other interfaces like naso-facial, oral or nasal pillow is not clearly established [153].
Numerous studies combining comfort and efficacy criteria will be published in the future.
406
Conclusion
It is now evident that NPPV has a place as a major tool in treating chronic and acute
respiratory failure. Its application is still in progression and new important studies and
knowledge appear every year concerning clinical indications, the way to use NIPPV and
the quality of the ventilators and the interfaces. A main development concerning the
ventilators used in the intensive care unit will probably occur by using the progresses
made on the portable ventilators designed for home, which are smaller and cheaper.
Another development will further the possibility of applying NIPPV outside the
conventional ICU and thus save ICU resources and allow the use of NIPPV early in
respiratory failure. Nevertheless, NIPPV will always demand well-trained teams and
dedicated organisations in order to avoid accident and offer the whole efficacy of this
relatively new therapeutic approach.
Summary
Noninvasive ventilation using intermittent positive pressure (NIPPV) which appeared
in the 1980s for long-term home ventilation is now routinely used both at home and in
hospital for chronic and acute respiratory failure. New indications for NIPPV have
been validated but many remain to be better known with forthcoming studies. In the
long term, the role in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, in obesity-hypoventi-
lation syndrome and in periodic breathing due to severe cardiac insufficiency, will be
clarified. In acute situations, the place to apply NIPPV according to the severity is an
important issue for hospital organisations. Clinical indications will be established and/
or clarified, such as pneumonia occurring on normal lung, severe asthma, immune
compromised patients, weaning from invasive ventilation and NIPPV as the ceiling to
offer ventilatory assistance. Technical progress will also continue to appear
concerning the ventilators both for chronic and acute using. New ventilators will
provide a better synchronisation between patient and ventilator and would confirm
the predominant use of high speed turbine as the pressure and flow generator.
Keywords: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, noninvasive ventilation using

intermittent positive pressure trends, obesity-hypoventilation syndrome, periodic
breathing, ventilator.
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Statements of interest.qxd 03/12/2008 10:52 Page 1
Statements of interest
N. Ambrosino received reimbursement, fee and/or funds from: AstraZeneca; GSK, Boehringer-
Ingelheim; Novartis; Pfizer; Menarini; Vivisol. (Author of Introduction, and Chapters 2 and 18)
N. Amiot. None declared. (Author of Chapter 4)
L. Arguad. None declared. (Author of Chapter 28)
G. Aubertin. None declared. (Author of Chapter 19)
J.C. Borel has received a research grant from Covidien for NIV in obesity hypoventilation syndrome.
In addition, J.C. Borel has also received a research grant from AIROX, a subsidiary of Covidien, for
NIV and exercise. (Author of Chapter 24)
L. Brochard has received research grants from: Drägen for studies on SmartCare®; from
Respironics for studies on NIV; from Genereal Electrics Healthcare Systems and from MAQUET for
clinical trials. (Author of Chapter 11)
N. Carpenè. None declared. (Author of Chapter 18)
E. Clini has received an unrestricted research grant (Project No 21 of the Research Program
2005/2006) from the Italian Association of Pulmonologist (AIPO). (Author of Chapter 26)
A. Corrado received a bursary from Vivisol in 2007 and 2008. (Author of Chapter 3)
E. Crisafulli. None declared. (Author of Chapter 26)
A. Cuvelier. None declared. (Author of Chapters 4 and 14)
N. Delvau received a fund from Brussels City for study physiotherapy in NIV application during
2005–2006. (Author of Chapter 9)
M. Dreher has received speaking fees from: Drager Medical (Germany); Weinmann Medical
(Germany); Vital Aire Medical (Germany); and Boehringer Ingelheim (Germany). M. Dreher has
been reimbursed from local provider of home ventilators Werner an Muller Medizintechnik
(Germany) for attending the annual German conferences on home mechanical ventilation in 2003,
2005, 2006 and 2007. M. Dreher states that none of the discussed issues in the submitted work was
dependent on or influenced by support funding. (Author of Chapter 16)
M.W. Elliott. None declared. (Author of Chapters 6 and 13)
J. Escarrabill. None declared. (Author of Chapter 25)
L.M. Fabbri. None declared. (Author of Chapter 26)
B. Fauroux. None declared. (Author of Chapter 19)

M. Ferrer. None declared. (Author of Chapter 5)
P. Frigerio. None declared. (Author of Chapter 23)
D. Georgopoulos. None declared. (Author of Chapter 2)
M. Gherardi. None declared. (Author of Chapter 18)
C. Girault received a reimbursement for attending a symposium, received fees for a workshop and
logistics support for clinical research from Respironics (France). (Author of Chapter 10)
J. Goldring. None declared. (Author of Chapter 27)
M. Gonçalves. None declared. (Author of Chapter 4)
A. Gray. None declared. (Author of Chapter 6)
C. Gregoretti has received a consultant fee from Koo Company and travel reimbursment to the ERS
congress was funded by Vivisol. (Author of Chapter 23)
Y.F. Guo. None declared. (Author of Chapter 17)
G. Hilbert. None declared. (Author of Chapter 7)
J-P. Janssens. None declared. (Author of Chapters 17, 21 and 24)
P. Jolliet has received funding for research projects in the form of unrestricted grants over the past
three years from ResMed and Draeger. (Author of Chapter 21)
M. Klimathianaki. None declared. (Author of Chapter 1)
B. Lamia. None declared. (Author of Chapter 4)
M. Latham. None declared. (Author of Chapter 13)
P. Lévy has received consulting fees from Covidien for obesity hypoventilation syndrome. In addi-
tion, travel expenses have been reimbursed by Weinmann, ResMed, Respironics and Covidien.
(Author of Chapter 24)
F. Lofaso. None declared. (Author of Chapter 19)
A. Lyazidi. None declared. (Author of Chapter 11)
S. Maggiore. None declared. (Author of Chapter 12)
G. Mercurio. None declared. (Author of Chapter 12)
S.D.W. Miller. None declared. (Author of Chapter 13)

L.C. Molano. None declared. (Author of Chapters 4 and 14)
M. Moretti. None declared. (Author of Chapter 26)
J-F Muir. None declared (Author of Introduction, and Chapters 4 and 14)
S. Nava has received reimbursement for symposiums from: Draefer-Fiscker; Paykel; Respironics;
BREAS; and ResSMed. He has received speaking fees from: ReSMed and Respironics. He also
received funds for research from Fyscrer, Payrel, ReSMed and Respironics and received funds for a
member of staff from Actelion. (Author of Chapter 20)
P. Navalesi has received a fee for lectures from Airliquide and ResMED, and a travel grant for an
ERS Congress from Vivisol. In addition, the author has received: one ICU ventilator, PC, data acqui-
sition software for research purposes from Maquet Critical Care; one ICU ventilator for research pur-
poses from General Electrics; other equipment from Vivisol; one PhD student financed by Covidien
and a second PhD student funded by General Electrics. (Author of Chapter 23)
O. Nørregaard. None declared. (Author of Chapter 8)
J-L. Pépin received research grants from Respironics for NIV for COPD patients, and from ResMed
for NIV in obesity hypoventilation syndrome. J-L. Pépin
has also received a consulting fee from COVIDEN for obesity hypoventilation syndrome. In addi-
tion, the author has received speaking fees from Respironics for NIV in COPD patients. Travel
expenses have also been reimbursed by ResMed, Respironics and COVIDIEN. (Author of Chapter
17 and 24)
G. Prinianakis. None declared. (Author of Chapter 1)
D. Robert. None declared. (Author of Chapter 28)
J. Roeseler. None declared. (Author of Chapter 9)
R. Scala. None declared. (Author of Chapter 20)
D. Schlosshan. None declared. (Author of Chapter 6)
B. Schonhofer. None declared. (Author of Chapter 22)
A.K. Simonds has received research grants from ResMed Co. and Breas Medical. (Author of
Introduction and Chapter 15)
S. Spencer. None declared. (Author of Chapter 9)
J.H. Storre has received speaking fees by Werner Müller Medizintechnik. Travel funding for
international research congresses was supplied from Respironics International, Respironics
(Germany) and Werner und Muller Medizintechnik. The author states that none of the discussed
issues in the submitted manuscript were dependent on or influenced by support and funding. (Author
of Chapter 22)
R. Tamisier. None declared. (Author of Chapter 24)
F. Templier. None declared. (Author of Chapter 9)
A. Thille. None declared. (Author of Chapter 11)
F. Thys. None declared. (Author of Chapter 9)
A. Torres. None declared. (Author of Chapter 5)
F. Vargas. None declared. (Author of Chapter 11)
F. Verschuren. None declared. (Author of Chapter 9)
L. Vignaux. None declared. (Author of Chapter 21)
C. Volpe. None declared. (Author of Chapter 12)
W. Wedzicha. None declared. (Author of Chapter 27)
J.C. Winck has received: a reimbursment for attending a sleep congress, a fee for speaking at an NIV
meeting, and a fee for organising a postgraduate course on NIV, all from Respironics. (Author of
Chapter 3)
W. Windisch was reimbursed by BREAS Medical AB (Sweden) for attending the annual ERS con-
ferences between 2003 and 2005. W. Windisch has also been reimbursed from the local provider of
home ventilators Werner and Muller Medizintechnik (Germany) for attending the annual German
conferences on home mechanical ventilation between 2003 and 2007. W. Windisch received speak-
ing fees from Dräger Medical (Germany); Heinen und Lowenstein (Germany); Werner und Müller
Modizintechnik (Germany); VitalAire (Germany) Respironics Inc., (US); and Weinmann (Germany).
W. Windisch is the leader of a research group, which has received open research grants from
Respironics Inc. (US), Heinen and Lowenstein (Germany), SenTec AG (Switzerland), Werner und
Müller Medizintechnik (Germany), and BREAS medical AB (Sweden). (Author of Chapter 16)
monograph list.qxd 02/12/2008 15:28 Page 1
Previously published in the European Respiratory

Monograph Series:
Clinical Exercise Testing 40 Lung Transplantation, Monograph 26
Edited by S.A. Ward, P. Palange (2007) Edited by J Boe, M Estenne, W Weder (2003)
Pathology of the Lung, Monograph 39 Respiratory Diseases in Women, Monograph 25
Edited by W Timens, H H Popper (2007) Edited by C Mapp, S Buist (2003)
Management of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Nutrition and Metabolism in Respiratory
Disease, Monograph 38 Disease, Monograph 24
Edited by N M Siafakas (2006) Edited by J Boe, M Estenne, W Weder (2003)
Respiratory Diseases in Infants and Children, Asthma, Monograph 23
Monograph 37 Edited by F Chung, L M Fabbri (2003)
Edited by U Frey, J Gerritsen (2006)
Pleural Diseases, Monograph 22
Respiratory Emergencies, Monograph 36 Edited by R Loddenkemper, V B Antony (2002)
Edited by S Nava, T Welte (2006)
The Impact of Air Pollution on Respiratory
Cystic Fibrosis, Monograph 35
Health, Monograph 21
Edited by A K Webb, F A Ratjen (2006)
Edited by G D'Amato, S T Holgate (2002)
Pulmonary Manifestations of Systemic Diseases,
Monograph 34 ARDS, Monograph 20
Edited by G M Verleden, M G Demedts, Edited by T W Evans, M J D Griffiths, B F Keogh
R Westhovens, M Thomer (2005) (2002)
Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment of Growing up with Lung Disease: The Lung in
Exercise-Related Asthma, Respiratory and Transition to Adult Life, Monograph 19
Allergic Disorders in Sports, Monograph 33 Edited by A Bush, K-H Carlsen, M S Zach (2002)
Edited by K-H Carlsen, L Delgado, S Del Giacco
The Nose and Lung Diseases, Monograph 18
(2005)
Edited by B Wallaërt, P Chanex, P Godard (2001)
Sarcoidosis, Monograph 32
Edited by M Drent, U Costabel (2005) Lung Cancer, Monograph 17
Edited by S G Spiro (2001)
Lung Function Testing, Monograph 31
Edited by R Gosselink, H Stam (2005) Noninvasive Mechanical Ventilation,
Monograph 16
Imaging, Monograph 30
Edited by J-F Muir, N Ambrosino, A K Simonds
Edited by A Bankier, P A Gevenosis (2004)
(2001)
Surgery for Non-Neoplastic Disorders of the
Chest: a Clinical Update, Monograph 29 Interstitial Lung Diseases, Monograph 14
Edited by G M Verleden, D Van Raemdonck, Edited by D Olivieri, R M du Bois (2000)
T Lerut, M Demedts (2004) Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Monograph 13
Antibiotics and the Lung, Monograph 28 Edited by C F Donner, M Decramer (2000)
Edited by M Cazzola, F Blasi, S Ewig (2004) Respiratory Mechanics, Monograph 12
Pulmonary Vascular Pathology: A Clinical Edited by J Milic-Emili (1999)
Update, Monograph 27
Edited by M Demedts, M Delcroix, R Verhaeghe, Occupational Lung Disorders, Monograph 11
G M Verleden (2004) Edited by C E Mapp (1999)
Monographs may be purchased from:
Publications Sales Department, Maney Publishing, Suite 1C, Joseph’s Well, Hanover Walk, Leeds,
LS3 1AB, UK.
Tel: 44 (0)113 2432800; Fax: 44 (0)113 3868178; E-mail: [email protected]; www.maney.co.uk
Customers in the Americas should contact: Old City Publishing Inc., 628 North 2nd Street, Philadelphia
PA 19123, USA. Tel: 1 215 925 4390; Fax: 1 215 925 4371; E-mail: [email protected]



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Noninvasive Ventilation Second Edition

EUROPEAN RESPIRATORY MONOGRAPH

The European Respiratory Monograph 41

Published November 2008

European Respiratory Monograph 41

Published by European Respiratory Society Journals Ltd ©2008

The European Respiratory Monograph

Number 41 November 2008

Part 1 Acute respiratory failure and NIV

1. Physiological rationale of noninvasive mechanical ventilation use in acute 3

2. NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory failure in obstructive pulmonary 24

3. Management of acute respiratory failure in restrictive disorders 37

4. NIV for acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in obese patients 47

5. NIV: indication in case of acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure 60

6. NIV for cardiogenic pulmonary oedema 72

7. NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory failure and immunosuppression 94

8. NIV: indication in case of acute respiratory failure in children 110

13. Where to perform NIV 189

Part II Chronic respiratory failure and noninvasive ventilation

14. NIV and obstructive lung diseases 203

15. NIV and neuromuscular disease 224

17. NIV and chronic respiratory failure secondary to obesity 251

18. NIV and pulmonary rehabilitation 265

19. NIV and chronic respiratory failure in children 272

20. NIV and palliative care 287

21. Domiciliary ventilators: from bench to bedside 307

22. Noninvasive mechanical ventilation in chronic respiratory failure: 319

23. Interfaces and humidification in the home setting 338

25. NIV: discharging the ventilator-dependent patient 367

26. Cost-effectiveness of NIV applied to chronic respiratory failure 377

28. Future trends in noninvasive mechanical ventilation in adults 400

Statements of interest 415

The Guest Editors

J-F. Muir N. Ambrosino A.K. Simonds

The Guest Editors

J-F. Muir*, N. Ambrosino#,", A.K. Simonds+

In August 2001, the first edition of a European Respiratory Monograph (ERM)

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Acute respiratory failure

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Physiological rationale of noninvasive

G. Prinianakis, M. Klimathianaki, D. Georgopoulos

Correspondence: D. Georgopoulos, Dept of Intensive Care, University Hospital of Heraklion, University of

Effect of NIMV on respiratory mechanics

Effect of continuous positive airway pressure/PEEP

FRC increase. When CPAP/PEEP is applied, passive FRC is increased by a volume DV

Decrease of elastic workload due to DH. When DH is present, the disadvantaged

Effect of positive inspiratory pressure

Pressure support. In this mode, inspiratory pressure delivered by the ventilator is

Ventilators with mixed volume and pressure-targeted modes. In an effort to combine

which responds by instantaneously increasing Paw(t) proportionally to the sensed increase

Cardiovascular effects of NIMV

Positive pressure during acute cardiogenic pulmonary oedema

Gradient of Gradient between the Abolition of negative

Right ventricular Left-ventricular

Intrathoracic blood volume

Decreased VR (RV and LV preload)

Decreased WOB and oxygen consumption by respiratory muscles