Submitted To: Ateequr Rehman

Submitted by: Sidra Saleem

Course Code:8609
Roll no :by628031
Course: Philosophy of Education
Semester: Spring,2020
Level:B.Ed [1.5]
Assignment no .2
Unit [5-9]
 Question No.1

Analyze Plato's theory of education.?

Answer.

Analyze plato’s theory of Education

Education for Plato was one of the great things of life. Education was an attempt to touch the evil at its
source, and reform the wrong ways of living as well as one's outlook towards life. According to Barker, education
is an attempt to cure a mental illness by a medicine.
The object of education is to turn the soul towards light. Plato once stated that the main function of education is not
to put knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the latent talents in the soul by directing it : towards the right
objects. This explanation of Plato on education highlights his object of education and guides the readers in proper
direction to unfold the ramifications of his theory of education.
Plato was, in fact, the first ancient political philosopher either to establish a university or introduce a higher course
or to speak of education as such. This emphasis on education came to the forefront only due to the then prevailing
education system in Athens. Plato was against the practice of buying knowledge, which according to him was a
heinous crime than buying meat and drink. Plato strongly believed in a state control education system.
He held the view that without education, the individual would make no progress any more than a patient who
believed in curing himself by his own loving remedy without giving up his luxurious mode of living. Therefore,
Plato stated that education touches the evil at the grass root and changes the whole outlook on life.
It was through education that the principle of justice was properly maintained. Education was the positive measure
for the operation of justice in the ideal state. Plato was convinced that the root of the vice lay chiefly in ignorance,
and only by proper education can one be converted into a virtuous man. The main purpose of Plato's theory of
education was to ban individualism, abolish incompetence and immaturity, and establish the rule of the efficient.
Promotion of common good was the primary objective of platonic education.
Influence on Plato's System of Education:
Plato was greatly influenced by the Spartan system of education, though not completely. The education system in
Athens was privately controlled unlike in Sparta where the education was state-controlled. The Spartan youth were
induced to military spirit and the educational system was geared to this end. However, the system lacked the
literacy aspect. Intriguingly, many Spartans could neither read nor write. Therefore, it can be stated that the Spartan
system did not produce any kind of intellectual potentials in man, which made Plato discard the Spartan education
to an extent. The platonic system of education is, in fact, a blend of Athens and the organization of Sparta. This is
because Plato believed in the integrated development of human personality
State-controlled Education:
Plato believed in a strong state-controlled education for both men and women. He was of the opinion that every
citizen must be compulsorily trained to fit into any particular class, viz., ruling, fighting or the producing class.
Education, however, must be imparted to all in the early stages without any discrimination. Plato never stated out
rightly that education system was geared to those who want to become rulers of the ideal state and this particular
aspect attracted widespread criticism.
Plato's Scheme of Education:
Plato was of the opinion that education must begin at an early age. In order to make sure that children study well,
Plato insisted that children be brought up in a hale and healthy environment and that the atmosphere implant ideas
of truth and goodness. Plato believed that early education must be related to literature, as it would bring out the
best of the soul. The study must be mostly related to story-telling and then go on to poetry.

Secondly, music and thirdly arts were the subjects of early education. Plato believed in regulation of
necessary step towards conditioning the individual. For further convenience, Plato's system of education can be
broadly divided into two parts: elementary education and higher education.

Elementary Education:
Plato was of the opinion that for the first 10 years, there should be predominantly physical education. In other
words, every school must have a gymnasium and a playground in order to develop the physique and health of
children and make them resistant to any disease.
Apart from this physical education, Plato also recommended music to bring about certain refinement in their
character and lent grace and health to the soul and the body. Plato also prescribed subjects such as mathematics,
history and science.
However, these subjects must be taught by smoothing them into verse and songs and must not be forced on
children. This is because, according to Plato, knowledge acquired under compulsion has no hold on the mind.
Therefore, he believed that education must not be forced, but should be made a sort of amusement as it would
enable the teacher to understand the natural bent of mind of the child. Plato also emphasized on moral education
Higher Education:
According to Plato, a child must take an examination that would determine whether or not to pursue higher
education at the age of 20. Those who failed in the examination were asked to take up activities in communities
such as businessmen, clerks, workers, farmers and the like.
Those who passed the exam would receive another 10 years of education and training in body and mind. At this
stage, apart from physical and mathematical sciences, subjects like arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and
dialectics were taught. Again at the age of 30, students would take yet another examination, which served as an
elimination test, much severe than the first test.
Those who did not succeed would become executive assistants, auxiliaries and military officers of the state.
Plato stated that based on their capabilities, candidates would be assigned a particular field. Those who passed in
the examination would receive another 5 year advanced education in dialectics in order to find out as to who was
capable of freeing himself from sense perception. The education system did not end here. Candidates had to
study for another 15 years for practical experience in dialectics. Finally at the age of 50, those who withstood the
hard and fast process of education were introduced to the ultimate task of governing their country and the fellow
beings.

Question No .2

Describe the Impact of John Dewery's Philosophy on Modern Education.?

Answer.
John Dewey is one of the most influential thinkers in the history of modern educational theory. In this video, we
will briefly explore his philosophical position and how his ideas have impacted education for decades.
John Dewey and Education
John Dewey is nothing less than a rock star of modern education. His ideas and approaches to schooling were
revolutionary ideas during his lifetime and remain fundamentally important to modern schooling today. In this
video, we will take a brief look at the background of John Dewey as well as a more in depth look at his
educational philosophies and ideals. When we're done, you should be able to describe Dewey, but more
importantly, you should be able to identify his philosophy in action.
Biography
John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, on October 20, 1859. He was a bright kid, attending college at
the University of Vermont at only 15 years old! At the University of Vermont, Dewey focused on the study of
philosophy. Dewey graduated with his bachelor's degree in 1879. He then began his teaching career. He taught
two years of high school in Oil City, PA, and one year of elementary school in Charlotte, Vermont.
In 1884, Dewey received his Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University and immediately began his university
teaching career at the University of Michigan. Dewey spent most of his early career there, except for a one year
stint at the University of Minnesota. In 1894, Dewey left for the University of Chicago, where he would become
the head of the philosophy department. At the University of Chicago, Dewey would work to develop much of his
viewpoints that have lasted far beyond his time. In 1904, Dewey would become a professor at Columbia
University, where he would retire in 1930.
The Views of John Dewey
John Dewey is probably most famous for his role in what is called progressive education.
Progressive education is essentially a view of education that emphasizes the need to learn by doing. Dewey bel
that human beings learn through a 'hands-on approach. This places Dewey in the educational philosophy of
pragmatism.
Pragmatists believe that reality must be experienced. From Dewey's educational point of view, this means that
students must interact with their environment in order to adapt and learn. Dewey felt the same idea was true for
teachers and that teachers and students must learn together. His view of the classroom was deeply rooted in
democratic ideals, which promoted equal voice among all participants in the learning experience.
How John Dewey Reformed Education
Dewey's pragmatic and democratic approach to schooling may not stand out as radical today, but in the early
and mid-1900s, his view of education was in contradiction to much of the then-present system of schooling
Dewey's approach was truly child-centered. A child-centered approach to education places the emphasis of
learning on the needs and interests of the child. In Dewey's view, children should be allowed to explore their
environments.
He believed in an interdisciplinary curriculum, or a curriculum that focuses on connecting multiple subjects,
where students are allowed to freely move in and out of classrooms as they pursue their interests and construct
their own paths for acquiring and applying knowledge. The role of the teacher in this setting would be to serve
more as a facilitator than an instructor In Dewey's view, the teacher should observe the interest of the students,
observe the directions they naturally take, and then serve as someone who helps develop problem-solving skills.
Traditionally, a teacher would stand in front of a group of students who are all sitting in rows. The teacher is
usually the deliverer of information and the job of the students is usually to receive this information and
regurgitate it in some form of a written test.
In contrast, in a classroom based on the ideas of John Dewey, you may see a teacher deliver background content
information, but you would also likely see students working in groups, with those groups exploring differing
concepts within the content. You would see lots of conversation and lots of collaboration. While you may see a
written test, you may also see student projects, presentations, or other differentiated techniques of evaluation.
It is probably fair to say that, around the world, Dewey remains as well know for his educational theories (see
entry on philosophy of education, section Rousseau, Dewey, and the progressive movement) as for his
philosophical ones. However, a closer look at Dewey s body of work shows how often these theories align.
Dewey recognized this, reflecting that his 1916 magnum opus in education, Democracy and Education (DE,
MW9) "was for many years that (work] in which my philosophy, such as it is, was most fully expounded”
(FAE, LW5: 156). DE argued that philosophy itself could be understood as "the general theory of education". In
lieu of philosophy's increasing tendencies to become hyper-specialized and technical, he urged a greater
investment in the problems affecting everyday life. In effect this was a call to see philosophy from the
standpoint of education. Dewey wrote,
Education offers a vantage ground from which to penetrate to the human, as distinct from the technical,
significance of philosophic discussions...The educational point of view enables one to envisage the philosophic
problems where they arise and thrive, where they are at home, and where acceptance or rejection makes a
difference in practice. If we are willing to conceive education as the process of forming fundamental
dispositions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow-men, philosophy may even be defined as the
general theory of education. (DE, MW9: 338)
Dewey was active in education his entire life. Besides high school and college teaching, he devised curricula,
established, reviewed and administered schools and departments of education, participated in collective
organizing, consulted and lectured internationally, and wrote extensively on many facets of education. He
established the University of Chicago's Laboratory School as an experimental site for theories in instrumental
logic and psychological functionalism. This school also became a site for democratic expression by the local
community.
Dewey's “Reflex Arc" paper applied functionalism to education. “Reflex” argued that human experience is not
a disjointed sequence of fits and starts, but a developing circuit of activities. Learning deserves to be framed in
this way: as a cumulative, progressive process where inquirers move from the dissatisfying phase of doubt
toward another marked by the satisfying resolution of a problem. "Reflex” also shows that the subject of a
stimulus (e.g., the pupil) is not a passive recipient of, say, a sensation but an agent who takes it amidst other
ongoing activities in a larger environmental field.
Cognizance of such fundamental facts entailed, Dewey argued, that educators discard pedagogies based on the
"blank slate" model of curriculum. Rather, in The School and Society, Dewey wrote, "the question of education
is the question of taking hold of children's] activities, of giving them direction" (MW1: 25). Dewey's How We
Think (1910c, MW6) was intended, primarily, to instruct teachers how to apply instrumentalism; education's
intellectual goals could be advanced by acquainting children with the general intellectual habits of scientific
inquiry.
The native and unspoiled attitude of childhood, marked by ardent curiosity, fertile imagination, and love of
experimental inquiry, is near, very near, to the attitude of the scientific mind. (HWT, MW6: 179 Given Dewey's
different approach to psychology, teaching roles would need revision. While teachers still had to know their
subject matter, they also needed to understand the student's cultural and personal backgrounds. Learning as an
activity which incorporated actual problems necessitated a careful integration of lessons with specific learners.
Traditional motivational strategies, too, had to change; rather than relying on rewards or punishments, Deweyan
teachers were called to reimagine the whole learning environment; they must merge the school's preexisting
curricular goals with their pupils' present interests. One way to do this was by identifying specific problems able
to bridge curriculum and student and then create situations in which students have to work them out. The
problem-centered approach demanded a lot from teachers, as it required training in subject matters, child
psychology, and various pedagogies capable of interweaving these together.
Dewey's educational philosophy emerged amidst a fierce 1890's debate between educational "romantics" and
traditionalists". Romantics (also called "New" or "Progressive" education by Dewey), urged a "child centered”
approach; they claimed that the child's natural impulses provided education's proper starting point. As active
and creative beings, education should not fetter growth even instruction should be subordinated to content if
necessary. Traditionalists (called "Old" education by Dewey) pressed for a "curriculum-centered" approach.
Children were empty cabinets which curriculum fills with civilization's lessons. Content was supreme, and
instruction should discipline children to ensure they are receptive. In many articles and books (“My Pedagogic
Creed", 1897b, EW5; The School and Society, 1899, MW1; Democracy and Education, 1916b, MW9;
Experience and Education, 1938b, LW13, etc.) Dewey developed an interactional model to move beyond that
debate. He refused to privilege either child or society. While Romantics correctly identified the child (replete
with instincts, powers, habits, and histories) as an indispensable starting point for pedagogy, Dewey argued that
the child cannot be the only starting point. Larger social groups (family, community, nation) also have a
legitimate stake in passing along extant interests, needs, and values as part of an educational synthesis.
Still, of these two approaches, Dewey tilted more strongly against the high value placed by traditionalists on
discipline and memorization. While recognizing the legitimacy of conveying content (facts, values), Dewey
thought it paramount for schools to eschew indoctrination. Educating meant incorporating, with a wide berth for
personal freedom, unique individuals into a changing society which—this had to remain clear—would soon be
under their dominion This is why who the child was mattered so very much. Following colleague d G.H. Mead,
Dewey argued that any child's "self" was an emerging construct of social and personal experiences, so no child's
deeds, words, or interests could be isolated from their social context. Insofar as these were facts of social
psychology, schools had to become micro-communities to best reflect children's growing interests and needs.
"The school cannot be a preparation for social life excepting as it reproduces, within itself, the typical
conditions of social life".

Question No.3

Develop a teaching method based on Muslim philosophy of education .?

Answer.
The book Tahdhib al-akhlaq is considered the most famous book of Miskawayh; so this is the work of which we
shall examine the contents quite carefully, so as to base on it our presentation of Miskawayh's remarks on the
education of young boys, only. For the work contains, in general, the majority of opinions which he introduced
in this subject, although he did aim for a basis to acquaint the reader with the way to reach the supreme
happiness. Maybe this tendency of his can be considered an effective translation, or a practical application, of
the views he embraced, such as seeing comes before action' [10] i.e. knowledge precedes action. For if the reader
knows moral happiness, and is influenced by the contents of the book, all his actions will be fine, according to
his interpretation. Hence it can be said that Miskawayh's book prepares the way for anyone who examines its
contents to reach supreme happiness. So it is not possible to separate the learner's personality and character from
the science he learns, and the aim and objective for which he is striving to learn it [11].
The second maqala (section) of the seven in the book discusses character, humanity, and the method of training
young men and boys. This is preceded in the first maqala by a discussion of the soul and its virtues. This all
amounts to a general introduction, which needed to be presented because of the prevailing opinion in
Miskawayh's day, where psychological studies took precedence over any other philosophical subject. This was
like an obligatory introduction to every philosophical study.
This ‘moral happiness' was the happiness enabling the human being to live happily, in accordance with the
requirements of virtue. Thus it was a personal happiness which the human being could reach through intellectual
effort, and striving to acquire the sciences which would make his thought inclusive of all the areas and all
existent beings, and make him free himself from material things so as to reach the degree of wisdom whereby to
grasp human perfection.
The knowledgeable one who reaches this degree of supreme happiness is, in Miskawayh's opinion, called "the
one completely happy', and the pleasure he attains, in this case, is an intellectual pleasure [12]. Miskawayh
mentions supreme happiness in the third maqala of Tahdhib al-akhlaq, and gives a detailed account of it in order
to attract the attention of one who does not know it, so that he will seek it and will be seized by the desire to
reach it [13]. After this Miskawayh sets out to clarify the various kinds of happiness and its virtues, which the
human being is able to approach, and to live happily in this world following the requirements of virtue, in his
view. To realize this, he cites a number of conditions, some internal and some external. Among internal
conditions, which influence the rational state of the human being and his moral direction towards good or bad,
are conditions within his own body, in respect of his enjoyment of health and moderate temperament. Other
conditions are external to the human body, and help him to rise above shortcomings, and to love good for others,
to include friends, children, and wealth. For love of others, and affection towards them, can play a part in the
progress and upward movement of all people; that is because these are a sphere for fulfilling the different
virtues. In addition, there are conditions in the environment surrounding the human being, inasmuch as human
society is one of the basic conditions of reaching supreme happiness. The human being can only fulfil his
perfection if it is affirined that he is a social being, as well as being rational.
As a result of human beings living together with others, and being in contact with them, their experience is
enriched and virtues are rooted in their soul by way of putting these virtues into practice. The importance of
transactions with people, as Miskawayh says, refers to the fact that transactions lead to the appearance of virtues
which only do so in company and in dealings and interaction with others, such as integrity, courage, and
generosity. If the person did not live in this human milieu, these virtues would not be apparent, and the human
being would become just like people frozen or dead Miskawayh repeats in several places that it is for this reason
the wise men said that man is civil by nature, meaning that he needs a city, containing many people, for his
human happiness to be complete. This being so, it is easy to refer the idea back to its original source, since
Aristotle presented it in his book the Nicomachean Ethics (14)
Besides all this, the basic conditions for reaching happiness are psychological conditions and factors, this is
because training the soul, cleansing it, teaching it, making it profit from general and particular experiences, are
centred on the human's will and his ability to raise his inclinations, so as to attain the degree of happiness
appropriate for him. The sixth maqala entitled 'Medicine for souls', clarifies the importance for man to know his
own defects. The seventh, entitled Restoring health to the soul', clarifies the method of treating the illnesses of
souls. In this maqala, Miskawayh does not distinguish between evil and illness, and the psychological evils or
illnesses he lists are rashness, cowardice, pride, boasting, frivolity, haughtiness, scorn, treachery, accepting
injustice, and fear. Miskawayh is concerned with talking about the fear of death, also grief. For he considers that
it is not difficult for the rational man who desires to free his soul from its pains and save it from its dangers to
examine the illnesses and treat them so as to be set free from them. This must be by success from God and by the
man's own personal striving; both are required, one completing the other [15]
The above may serve to explain that, for Miskawayh, ethics are very closely bound up with the objective of the
human being's education, for he stresses continually that it is not possible to distinguish between the learner's
personality and character, on the one hand, and on the other the science he learns and the aim and objective for
which he is striving to learn it. This is what he stresses very clearly in the introduction to his book, stating: Our
aim in this book is that we should acquire for our souls a character, whereby we shall give rise to deeds which are
all fine and good, yet will be easy for us, with no trouble nor hardship. This will be by craft and educational
organization, and the way here is that we should firstly know our own souls, what they are, and what kind of thing
they are, and for what reason they were created within us - I mean, their perfection and their aim - and what are
their faculties and abilities, which, if we use them as is needful, will bring us to this high rank; and what are the
things holding us back from it, and what will purify them so they prosper, and what will come upon them so that
they fail [16].
Ethics as a philosophical study is considered a practical philosophy, which strives to decide what should be; so
examining this field of study does not lead to philosophical reflection as a final aim, but rather it is used in practical
life. Maybe Miskawayh himself emphasizes this in his looking at philosophy and its divisions, for he sees that it
is divided into two parts: a theoretical part and a practical part, each completing the other [17]
It should be pointed out that when Miskawayh set out to talk of the training of young boys, he only approached
this subject as his serious intellectual concern with the final end to which the human being is heading, or should
be heading; and his moral philosophy, as a whole, brings the human being to reach supreme happiness, for there
is no paradise nor fire, no reward nor punishment, since he distinguishes between philosophy and religion. He
considers that religion retains man in his state of childhood and boyhood, where the faculty of the intellect is weak,
while philosophy and supreme happiness remain for the human being's youth and manhood, where his intellect is
mature and he knows how to use it towards the highest virtues and most perfect aims [18].
The foregoing clarifies, to a great extent, how Miskawayh remained one of the Muslim thinkers most devoted to
Greek philosophy. For he distinguishes between reason and faith, or between philosophy and religion, since the
supreme happiness is a human happiness, one which is neither imposed on man nor withheld from him by
anything outside the scope of his will, and issuing from an intellect greater and stronger than his [19]. Within
this framework Miskawayh's discussion of the training of young men and boys is placed, and within this
framework also his viewpoint must be understood and read, in what concerns the choice of this age-group rather
than another to talk about, and to present some opinions and viewpoints on the matter of their training.
In his writings Miskawayh did not use the word 'education' (tarbiya) since it was not a word widely used in his
day and his milieu with the technical meaning it has today. It may also be well known that the word education'
was only quite recently used in modern European languages with the meaning now intended. The tendency here
has been to use the very same word which Miskawayh used in his writings, 'training (ta'dib) so as not to impose
on it more than was actually said, and in order to present his thoughts in connection with this important human
process without encroaching on his rights [20]. The opinion here is that reading the text in accordance with the
language of his age, and the meanings it carries which the writer himself intended to express, is more precise and
closer to scientific integrity.
It is also useful to point out that the word 'teaching (ta'lim) was the word in widest circulation and most used in
Islamic civilization to express what we mean today by the word "education' in many of its aspects. So the words
'teaching' and learning (ta allum) are also very close to words like 'training and culture (adab), where they
express the meaning intended. Their use was widespread also in the 3rd and 4th centuries H, likewise the word
'education now some consider that the Qur'an's use of them restricts them to what we today call the period of
early childhood. This can be attested by reference to the Qur'anic words, for instance: 'Say, Lord, have mercy on
them, as they nurtured (rabba) me when young' (17:24).
This being so, education indicates a task, of an obligatory nature, which is undertaken by adults, particularly
parents, for the young [21]. If so, it can be said that the meaning of training primarily indicates the effort
expended and directed by adults, to impart to the young desirable knowledge, morality, customs, and behaviour,
to prepare them in the manner which makes them the acceptable human model within their society, i.e. the
Muslim community of that time.
Miskawayh aimed to discuss "refinement of character and realizing this, he reflected, and based this on what was
said by Aristotle in his book of Ethics, and in the book of Discourses also, that evil may be transmitted through
training, even to the best; but not in all circumstances. For he sees that repeated warnings, and training, and
people's adopting good virtuous policies, must have some sort of influence among the kinds of people; there are
some who accept training and move swiftly towards virtue, and others who approach it, and move towards virtue
slowly [22].
Miskawayh ends his discussion of this opinion by explaining his view that every person can be changed; having
done this, he indicates its influence on young men and boys, and the necessity to train them. Miskawayh does
not confine himself to this view of Aristotle, but deduces it also from the reliable laws that are the way God
deals with His creation [23]. So Miskawayh held that what the boy has been accustomed to since youth will be
of influence when he grows up; hence, he discussed the training of young boys, to which subject he devoted
some pages of his book. This was one part of his thinking to realize his aim; consequently he made use of one of
the books available and well known in his academic environment, and indicated it with exceptional confidence.
Maybe this was a result of his trusting that what he did not write about his original aim, despite its importance,
the Greek author, well known in his day, achieved the very same objective. So he borrowed from him, and thus
in the second maqala of Tahdhib al-akhlaq there is the following heading: Section on training young men and
boys, the ideas taken from the book of Brusun'.
Certain Orientalists came across some copies of this book, including a copy in the Egyptian National Library
(Dar al-kutub al-misriyya), with the title "the book of Brisis on a man's management of his household (domestic
economy)' (Kitab Brisis fi tadbir al-rajul li-manzilihi). However, the name was also written on an inside page of
the book, as 'Brusun': which the German Orientalist Paul Kraus corrected to Bryson [24]. Whatever the opinion,
this book, or manuscript, turned his attention to treating the method of domestic economy, through the
discussion of four points: a money, b. servants, c. women; d. children. Miskawayh took from this Greek author
only what he said about children, which emphasizes what was already indicated, and it could almost be a literal
transmission in many places; however, he sometimes added certain personal experiments and observations
resulting from his own life experience [25]. So it is useful to extract from this discussion some detail on: The
aims of training young boys, according to Miskawayh.

Question No.4

Compare curriculums developed on the bases of modern philosophies of

education.?

Answer.
Foundations are the basis for curriculum developing process. Philosophical foundation provides teachers,
educators, and curriculum makers a framework for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in
schools. It facilitates in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn
and what materials and methods should be used? Philosophy provides the starting point in decision making, and
is used for the succeeding decision-making Educational Philosophies lays the strong foundation of any
curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school heads, evaluator anchors
his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy. Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior
of the students and philosophy helps in the process of finding new ways and basis for teachers and curriculum
planner to modify their behavior. Philosophy also helps in the exploring new methods of teaching and how to
apply in the classroom situation for better achievement of the teaching learning process. It also provides new
ways and methods for the evaluation of student's achievement and evaluation of curriculum. Philosophers of the
past have made major influence in clarifying the association in the nature of knowledge and curriculum
development process and also provide a foundation for curriculum. Today the world economics and societies are
changing very rapidly Therefore, the emphasis on finding new ways through which man develops new concepts
of reality and knowledge and to form a new structure of knowledge in this dynamic and changing time therefore
a high value is given to discovery, invention and restructuring of knowledge and curriculum in new patterns.
Now the new curriculum is open to new experiences, logical and critical thinking, and to bring about the concept
of knowledge out of interpreted experience. Philosophy and ideology of education provide rules and principles
which lead decision-making regarding educational practices and polices planning. It Guides the curriculum
planner on the basses of the philosophical and ideological belief of the society in the constructing of subject
matter keeping in view the future demands and needs of the schools and help in the promoting of human life
through social change in the the students. The contemporary philosophies support social theory for a philosophy
of education, training students to be independent and critical thinkers. The contemporary philosophies lay stress
on schools to play a central role in the life of students and the community. Educational institutions must function
as a bridge between teachers, students, parents, the business community, and politicians. The contemporary
philosophies emphasize that curriculum must address the emotional and physical needs of students, providing
them with a balance of social and technical skills. Therefore curriculum planner must introduce such curriculum
in education system, which inculcate true knowledge and preserve the culture of society in new generation.

PERENNIALISM
Adler (1902- 2001) was an American philosopher and educator, and a proponent of Educational
Perennialism. He believed that one should teach the things that one deems to be of perpetual
importance. He proposed that one should teach principles, not facts, since details of facts change
constantly. And since people are humans, one should teach them about humans also, not about
machines, or theories. He argues that one should validate the reasoning with the primary
descriptions of popular experiments. This provides students with a human side to the scientific
discipline, and demonstrates the reasoning in deed.
Progressivism In progressivism, the focus of crriculum is based on students interests, involves
the application of human problems and affairs; interdisciplinary subject matter; activities and
projects. Progressivism placed heavy emphasis on activity-based curriculum relevant curriculum,
humanistic curriculum and radical school reform or romantic curriculum. Very few schools
adopt a single philosophy, in practice, most schools combine various philosophies. Curriculum
workers need to provide assistance in developing and designing school practices that coincide
 with the philosophy of the school and community. Teaching, learning, and curriculum are all
interwoven in our school practices and should reflect a school philosophy. It is important, then,
for school people, especially curriculum, to make decisions and take action in relation to the
philosophy of their school and community.

Essentialism

Essentialism emphasizes academic subject-centred curriculum consisting of essential skills (three R 's.)
and essential subjects (English, science, history, math). Essentialism advocates fundamentals or mastery of
essential skills and math)essentialism advocates fundamentals or mastery of essential skills and facts that form
the basis of the subject matter.

DECONSTRUCTIONISM

That word can only refer to other words, and attempts to demonstrate how statements about any text weaken
their own meanings. Derrida's thinking was influenced by the Phenomenologist's Edmund Husserl and Martin
Heidegger. Although the early work of Derrida's was mainly an elaborate critique of the limitations of
Phenomenology. He also claimed that Friedrich Nietzsche was a forerunner of Deconstruction in form and
substance. The term “Deconstructionism” has been used by others to describe Derrida's particular methods of
"textual criticism", which involve discovering, recognizing and understanding the underlying assumptions
(unspoken and implicit), ideas and frameworks that form the basis for belief and thought. Deconstructionism is
not destructive at all, but rather simply a question of being alert to the implications, historical deposits of the
language we use. In other words, deconstruction seeks to peel away the multiple, layered connotations and
meanings of language and thought to get at the meanings underneath the shallow interpretations of normal
analysis. Without deconstruction, we cannot make way for new and different ways of thinking. The English
Departments in US higher education included deconstruction as a major literary theory. Deconstruction
subsequently affected literary interpretation and analytical philosophy. The result was a profound change in
understanding. While language itself may be endlessly self-referential, it is still possible to continue thinking
linguistically, grammatalogically but only with uncertainty. Thereby, all meanings are destabilised and better
understandings are those which acknowledge this instability in meaning. In other words, deconstruction aims at
revealing the differences in concepts. Deconstruction is an effort to crack open the nut, to go beyond the
boundary, to disrupt the presence and allow the other as difference to come about. Deconstruction aims at
exposing the fallacy of any metaphysics of presence and identity. Deconstruction, therefore, according to Derrida
is to put a concept "under erasure" (sous rature). It is to write a word, cross it out, and then print both the word
and the deletion. It is so, because the word or signifier does not contain the full meaning. The full meaning is not
present. Hence, the word is inadequate. To place a word under erasure, therefore, is to say that the meaning
signified by the words which we use cannot easily be pinned down. Meaning and essence can never be fully
present in any one sign. This implies that meanings have histories of textual relations. All meanings are
necessarily occupied by residual traces of other meanings. No meaning is ever simply present or present; every
meaning is derived from and owes its significance to meanings that exceed the immediacy of any setting. With
the question of meaning there is, therefore, always a difference, an occurrence of difference. The basic
assumptions of deconstruction can, therefore, be said to be the following: • That language is ineradicably marked
by instability and indeterminacy of meaning;. That given such instability and indeterminacy, no method of
analysis can have any special claim to authority as regards textual interpretation; . That interpretation is,
therefore, a free-ranging activity more akin to game-playing than to analysis.

PRAGMATISM

The word Pragmatism has Greek roots (pragma, matos = deed, from prassein = to do).Pragmatism means action,
from which the words practical and practice have come. In late 19th century American philosophy, the focus is
on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly
changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The
universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth,
but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914),
who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.

It is the product of practical experiences of life. It arises out of actual living. It does not believe in fixed and
eternal values. It is dynamic and ever-changing. It is a revolt against Absolutism. Reality is still in the
making never complete.

For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. John Dewey (1859-1952) applied
pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to
their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent
on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively
and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character
development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences. For Pragmatists, teaching methods
focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups.
Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way.
Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners
should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for
citizenship daily living, and future careers. The key characteristics of pragmatism in education are to apply
personal or realistic experiences to a subject to make it more relatable. The curriculum should incorporate the
necessary activities, vocation and experiences. Preparing students for adult life through group activities centered
around hands on exploration. The pragmatist lays down standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical
people. The emphasis of pragmatism is on action rather than on thought. Thought is subordinated to action. It is
made an instrument to find suitable means for action. That is why pragmatism is also called Instrumentalism.
Ideas are tools. Thought enlarges its scope and usefulness by testing itself on practical issues. Since pragmatism
advocates the experimental method of science, it is also called Experimentalism thus stressing the practical
significance of thought. Experimentalism involves the belief that thoughtful action is in its nature always a kind
of testing of provisional conclusions and hypotheses. In the present world pragmatism has influenced education
tremendously. It is a practical and utilitarian philosophy. It makes activity the basis of all teaching and learning.
It is activity around which an educational process revolves.

It makes learning purposeful and infuses a sense of reality in education. It makes schools into workshops and
laboratories. It gives an experimental character to education. Pragmatism makes man optimistic, energetic and
active. It gives him self-confidence. The child creates values through his own activities. According to
pragmatism, education is not the dynamic side of philosophy as advocated by the idealists. It is philosophy
which emerges from educational practice. Education creates values and formulates ideas which
constitute pragmatic philosophy Pragmatism is based on the psychology of individual differences, Pragmatists
want education according to aptitudes and abilities of the individual. Individual must be respected and education
planned to cater to his inclinations and capacities. But individual development must take place in social context.
Every individual has a social self and individuality can best be developed in and through society. Thus
pragmatism has brought democracy in education. That is why it has advocated self-government in school. The
children must learn the technique of managing their own affairs in the school and that would
be good preparation for life. Education is preparation for life. Pragmatism makes a man socially efficient. The
pragmatists are of the opinion that the children should-not be asked to work according to predetermined goals.
They should determine their goals according to their needs and interests. Teaching-learning process is a social
and bi-polar process. Learning takes place as an interaction between the teacher and the taught. While idealism
gives first place to the teacher, pragmatism gives the first place to the taught. Similarly, between thought and
action, they give first place to action. The pragmatists decrverbalism and encourage action. Today pragmatism
occupies the most dominant place in the United States America. According to pragmatism the theory and
practice of education is based on two main principles,

1 Education should have a social function, and

2 Education should provide real-life experience to the child. Pragmatism does not lay down any aims of
education in advance. It believes that there can be no fixed aims of education. Life is dynamic and subject to
constant change, andhence the aims of education are bound to be dynamic. Education deals with human life. It
must help the children to fulfill their biological and social needs.
The only aim of education, according to pragmatism, is to enable the child to create values in his life. In
the words of Ross, education must create new values: "the main task of educator is to put the educated into a
position to develop values for himself The pragmatist educator aims at the harmonious development of the
educand physical, intellectual, social and aesthetic. The aim of education, therefore, is to direct "the impulses,
interests, desires and abilities towards the satisfaction of the felt wants of the child in his environment." Since the
pragmatists believe that man is primarily a biological and social organism, education should aim at the
development of social efficiency in man. Every child should be an effective member of the society. Education
must fulfill his own needs as well as the needs of the society. The children should be so trained that they may be
able to solve their present-day problems efficiency and to adjust themselves to their social environment. They
should be creative and effective members of the society. should be so dynamic that they can change with the
changing situations. What pragmatism wants to achieve through education is the cultivation of a dynamic,
adaptable mind which will be resourceful and enterprising in all situations, the mind which will have powers to
create values in an unknown future. Education must foster competence in the children that they may be able to
tackle the problems of future life
EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism in the broader sense is a 20th century philosophy that is centered upon the analysis of existence
and of the way humans find themselves existing in the world. The notion is that humans exist first and then each
individual spends a lifetime changing their essence or nature. The philosophical base of
existentialism is idealism and realism". In simpler terms, existentialism is a philosophy concerned with finding
self and the meaning of life through free will, choice, and personal responsibility. The belief is that people are
searching to find out who and what they are throughout life as they make choices based on their experiences,
beliefs, and outlook. And personal choices become unique without the necessity of an objective form of truth.
An existentialist believes that a person should be forced to choose and be responsible without the help of laws,
ethnic rules, or traditions. The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual.
The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual
standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We
define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else's
predetermined philosophical system, rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is
on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives. There are several
different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister
and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. Another group of existentialists, largely
European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than
believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an afterlife, so there is tension about life
and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches where the universe
is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have
focused more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of
this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre,
suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when young person's realize for the first time that choice
is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Existentialism takes into consideration the underlying concepts:
Human free will Human nature chosen through life choices a person is best when
struggling against their individual nature, fighting for life Decisions are not
without stress and consequences There are things that are not rational Personal
responsibility and discipline is crucial
• Society is unnatural and its traditional religious and secular rules are arbitrary Worldly desire is utile
Existentialism is broadly defined in a variety of concepts and there can be no one answers as to what it is,does
not support any of the following: Wealth, pleasure, or honor make the good life Social values structure
control individual
Accept what and that enough in life Science can and will make everything better .
People are basically good but ruined by society or external forces . “I want my way, now!" or "It is not my
fault!” mentality There is a wide variety of philosophical, religious, and political ideologies that make up
existentialism so there is no universal agreement in an arbitrary set of ideals and beliefs. Politics vary, but each
seeks the most individual freedom for people within a society. One of the greatest criticism of Essentialism in
Education is the fact that this idea stresses solely on teaching the traditional basic subjects to the maximum
level, meaning there is less capacity to teach more contemporary and creative education and "manufacturing"
students that do not think by themselves. Contribution of essentialism to primary education has been greatly
considered. It pinpoints the key importance of early childhood learning and how it is positively affected by
essentialism. Essentialism states that a sound body of basic knowledge has to be attained before further learning
can take place. Young students who develop a strong educational foundation can learn better at higher levels of
school and college.

Question No.5

Describe the Montessori system of early childhood education.?

Answer.
Montessori is a method of education named after Dr. Maria Montessori. She was the first woman in Italy to
obtain the degree of Doctor of Medicine. Because she was a doctor, Maria Montessori looked at education from
a scientific level. She believed that education should prepare a person for all aspects of life. She designed
materials and techniques that would promote a natural growth of learning in students. They are common to all
Montessori classrooms. Working with these materials and techniques forms a pattern that children carry over
naturally to reading, writing, and mathematics. Each skill is developed to interlock with another.
From The American Montessori Society: The Montessori Method of education, developed by Dr. Maria
Montessori, is a child-centered educational approach based on scientific observations of children from birth to
adulthood. Dr. Montessori's Method has been time tested, with over 100 years of success in diverse cultures
throughout the world. It is a view of the child as one who is naturally eager for knowledge and capable of
initiating learning in a supportive, thoughtfully prepared learning environment. It is an approach that values the
human spirit and the development of the whole child physical, social, emotional, cognitive. Montessori
education offers our children opportunities to develop their potential as they step out into the world as engaged,
competent, responsible, and respectful citizens with an understanding and appreciation that learning is for life.
Each child is valued as a unique individual.
Montessori education recognizes that children learn in different ways, and accommodates all learning styles.
Students are also free to learn at their own pace, each advancing through the curriculum as he is ready, guided
by the teacher and an individualized learning plan.
Beginning at an early age, Montessori students develop order, coordination, concentration, and
independence. Classroom design, materials, and daily routines support the individual's emerging "self-
regulation" (ability to educate one's self, and to think about what one is learning), toddlers through adolescents.
Students are part of a close, caring community
. The multi-age classroom—typically spanning 3 years—re-creates a family structure. Older students enjoy
stature as mentors and role models, younger children feel supported and gain confidence about the challenges
ahead. Teachers model respect, loving kindness, and a belief in peaceful conflict resolution.
Montessori students enjoy freedom within limits. Working within parameters set by their teachers, students
are active participants in deciding what their focus of learning will be. Montessorians understand that internal
satisfaction drives the child's curiosity and interest and results in joyous learning that is sustainable over a
lifetime.
Students are supported in becoming active seekers of knowledge. Teachers provide environments where
students have the freedom and the tools to pursue answers to their own questions
Self-correction and self-assessment are an integral part of the Montessori classroom approach. As they
mature, students learn to look critically at their work, and become adept at recognizing, correcting, and learning
from their errors. Given the freedom and support to question, to probe deeply, and to make connections,
Montessori students become confident, enthusiastic, self-directed learners. They are able to think critically, work
collaboratively, and act boldly—a skill set for the 21st century.