1. What is the difference between inductive and deductive approach in linguistics?

Inductive is more of a bottom-up approach, moving from the more specific to the
more general, in which we make specific observations, detect patterns, formulate
hypotheses and draw conclusions. Deductive is a top-down approach which moves from
the more general to the more specific. In other words, we start with a general theory,
which we then narrow down to specific hypotheses, which are then tested.
2. What is the difference between onomasiological and semasiological approaches in
lexicological studies?
The semasiological approach goes from the term to find a definition. and answers
the question “What does the word X mean? This approach is mostly used in the
preparation of dictionaries (lexicography) Polysemy (several meanings) goes hand in
hand with the semasiology principle.
Onomasiology is the study of designations. Its goal is to find the words that describe a
given concept, idea, or object. It answers the question “How do you express X? The point
of departure for an onomasiological approach is always a concept
The onomasiological approach goes hand in hand with synonymy.
3. Explain the difference between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of lexical
units.
Paradigmatic relations exist between units of the language system outside the
strings where they co-occur. They are based on the criteria of selection and distribution of
linguistic elements. Paradigmatic relations determining the vocabulary system are based
on the interdependence of words within the vocabulary: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy
Paradigm is a set of homogeneous forms opposed to each other according to their
semantic and formal features.
Syntagm is a structured syntactic sequence of linguistic elements formed by
segmentation which can consist of sounds, words, phrases, clauses, or entire sentences.
Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear links between the units in a segmental
sequence. Syntagmatic relations are horizontal since they are based on the linear
character of speech.
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are understood as basic linguistic relationships
describing the complex structure of a language system. This distinction is relevant to all
levels of description. It was introduced by the Swiss linguist Ferdinard de Saussure in
1916 as a generalisation of the traditional concepts of a paradigm and a syntagm.
4. What is the main goal of IC (Immediate Constituents) analysis?
IC-analysis divides up a sentence into major parts or immediate constituents, and these
constituents are in turn divided into further immediate constituents.[4] The process
continues until irreducible constituents are reached, i.e., until each constituent consists of
only a word or a meaningful part of a word. The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to
segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs thus revealing
the hierarchical structure of this set
5. What is the task of distributional analysis? Comment on the importance of studying
distributional patterns in lexicology.
By the term "distribution" we understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to
other lexical units of the same level (words relative to words \morphemes relative to
morphemes ,etc). In other words, by this term we understand the position which lexical
units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech The distributional
analysis is mainly applied by the linguist to find out sameness or difference of meaning.
6. What transformational procedures are used in lexicological studies?
Repatterning of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or
sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns.
The rules of transformation are rather strict and shouldn't be identified with
paraphrasing in the usual sense of the term There are many restrictions both on syntactic
and lexical levels
I.Permutation - the repatterning on condition that the basic subordinative relationships
between words and word-stems of the lexical units are not changed e. g. "His work is
excellent " may be transformed into " his excellent work , the excellence of his work , he
works excellently “ In the example given the relationships between lexical units and the
stems of the notional words are essentially the same .
II. Replacement - the substitution of a component of the distributional structure by a
member of a certain strictly defined set of lexical units. e. g. Replacement of a notional
verb by an auxiliary or link verb (he will make a bad mistake and he will make a good
teacher ). The sentences have identical distributional structure but only in the second one
the verb "to make " can be substituted by " become " or " be ". The fact of impossibility
of identical transformations of distributionally identical structures is a formal proof of the
difference in their meaning.
III. Addition (or expansion) may be illustrated by the application of the procedure of
addition to the classification of adjectives into two groups-adjectives denoting inherent
and non-inherent qualities. e. g. John is happy. John is tall. If we add a word-
group in Lviv, we shall see that "John is happy in Lviv” has meaning while the second
one is senseless . That is accounted by the difference in the meaning of adjectives
denoting inherent (tall) and non-inherent (happy) qualities .
IV. Deletion - a procedure which shows whether one of the words semantically
subordinated to the other, e. g. the word-group "red flowers " may be deleted and
transformed into "flowers " without making the sentence senseless : I like red flowers
or I like flowers. The other word-group "red tape " can't be deleted and transformed
either into " I hate tape " or "I hate red " because in both transformed sentences the
meaning of the phrase "red tape" means "bureaucracy" and it can't be divided into two
parts.
7. Describe the procedure of componential analysis.
an attempt to describe the meaning of words in terms of a universal inventory of
semantic components and their possible combinations.
In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the smallest units of
meaning are sememes or semes .
e. g. In the lexical item "woman" several sememes may be singled out , such as
human , not an animal, female , adult.
The analysis of the word "girl" will show the following sememes : human , female ,
young.
The last component of the two words differentiates them and makes impossible to
mix up the words in the process of communication. It is classical form of revealing the
work of componental analysis to apply them to the so called closed systems of
vocabulary , for example , colour terms .
Componental analysis is practically always combined with transformational
procedures or statistical analysis. The combination makes it possible to find out which of
the meanings should be represented first of all in the dictionaries of different types and
how the words should be combined in order to make your speech sensible
8. Provide some arguments to support the conviction that lexicology deserves the
status of a separate subdivision of linguistics.
All languages have means that enable their speakers to express any proposition that
the human mind can produce
in terms of this criterion all languages are absolutely equal as instruments of
communication and thought.
9. What is the object and the main tasks of lexicology?
Lexicology (from Greek lexis `word` and logos learning) is the part of linguistics
dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the characteristics of words as the main
units of language. Modern English lexicology investigates the problem of word structure
and word formation, the classification of vocabulary units, description of the relations
between different lexical layers of English vocabulary. The theoretical value of
Lexicology stems from the theory of meaning which was originally developed within the
philosophical science. The research carried out in the frames of Lexicology meets the
needs of many different sciences, such as lexicography, literary criticism, and foreign
languages teaching. Modern English Lexicology aims at giving a systematic description
of the Modern English word-stock. Modern English Lexicology investigates the problems
of word structure and word formation in Modern English, the semantic structure of
English words, the main principles underlying the classification of vocabulary units into
various groupings, the laws governing the replenishment of the vocabulary
10. What are the principal subdivisions of lexicology?
In Ukrainian linguistic tradition lexicology can be specified as historical lexicology
studying regularities of the formation, development and enrichment of language
vocabulary from ancient times and descriptive lexicology studying the lexical
composition of modern languages. Speaking about lexicology as a branch of linguistics,
I.Arnold and N.Rayevska mention that the general study of words and vocabulary,
irrespective of the specific features of any particular language is known as general
lexicology and the description of the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a
given language - as special lexicology.
11. How do we define the notion of linguistic unit and what types of linguistic units can
be singled out in English?
Linguistic unit - one of the natural units into which linguistic messages can be analyzed
1
. language unit
discourse - extended verbal expression in speech or writing
word - a unit of language that native speakers can identify; "words
are the blocks from which sentences are made"; "he hardly said ten words all morning"
syllable - a unit of spoken language larger than a phoneme; "the
word `pocket' has two syllables"
lexeme - a minimal unit (as a word or stem) in the lexicon of a language; `go' and `went' 
and `gone' and `going' are all members of the English lexeme `go'
morpheme - minimal meaningful language unit; it cannot be divided into smaller meani
ngful units
formative - minimal language unit that has a syntactic (or morphological) function
name - a language unit by which a person or thing is known; "his name really is George 
Washington"; "those are two names for the same thing"
string - a linear sequence of symbols (characters or words or phrases)
collocation - a grouping of words in a sentence
speech
sound, phone, sound - (phonetics) an individual sound unit of speech without concern as 
to whether or not it is a phoneme of some language
sign - a fundamental linguistic unit linking a signifier to that which is signified; "The bo
nd between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary"--de Saussure
component
part, part, portion, component, constituent - something determined in relation to somethi
ng that includes it; "he wanted to feel a part of something bigger than himself"; "I read a 
portion of the manuscript"; "the smaller component is hard to reach"; "the animal constit
uent of plankton"

12. Give examples to prove that forms and meanings of linguistic units are inseparably
connected.
Go – йти, gone – пішов. Go – йду, goes – йде.
13. Find at least three facts to confirm that Ferdinand de Saussure is rightly called “the
father” of modern linguistics.
Wrote “Memoir on the Original System of Vowels in the Indo-European Languages”. In
it he explained how the knottiest of vowel alternations in Indo-European, those of a, take
place.
His name is affixed to the  Course in General Linguistics, a reconstruction of his lectures
on the basis of notes by students carefully prepared by his junior colleagues Charles Bally
and Albert Séchehaye. The publication of his work is considered the starting point of
20th-century structural linguistics.
He also introduced two terms that have become common currency in linguistics
—“parole,” or the speech of the individual person, and “langue,” the system underlying
speech activity. 
Saussure contended that language must be considered as a social phenomenon, a
structured system that can be viewed synchronically (as it exists at any particular time)
and diachronically (as it changes in the course of time). 
14. What criteria can be applied for defining the word as a linguistic unit?
It contains semantic value, it has grammar category, phonetic form, it consists of
morphemes, combines with other words, bears a sense, can be used in tropes like
metaphors, can be of any style.
15. Provide the definition of the word and comment on the principal features of this
linguistic unit.
A unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written
representation, that functions as a principal carrier of meaning. Words are composed of
one or more morphemes and are either the smallest unit susceptible of independent use or
consist of two or three such units combined. Has a meaning, is composed of morphemes,
has semantic, category, number, phonological features.
16. How do we differentiate between free, bound and complex forms of words? Give
examples.
Morphemes that can stand alone to function as words are called free morphemes.
They comprise simple words (i.e. words made up of one free morpheme) and compound
words (i.e. words made up of two free morphemes).
Examples:
Simple words: the, run, on, well
Compound words: keyboard, greenhouse, bloodshed, smartphone
Morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot stand alone) are
called bound morphemes.
Examples:pre-, dis-, in-, un-, -ful, -able, -ment, -ly, -ise
pretest, discontent, intolerable, receive
Complex words are words that are made up of both free morpheme(s) and bound
morpheme(s), or two or more bound morphemes.
17. What are the characteristic features of morphemes in comparison with words?
Morphemes have four defining characteristics:
1. They cannot be subdivided.
2. They add meaning to a word.
3. They can appear in many different words.
4. They can have any number of syllables.
18. How are morphemes classified and what is the underlying principle of their
classification?
There are two types of morphemes-free morphemes and bound morphemes. "Free
morphemes" can stand alone with a specific meaning, for example, eat, date, weak.
"Bound morphemes" cannot stand alone with meaning. Morphemes are comprised of
two separate classes called (a) bases (or roots) and (b) affixes.
19. Comment on the types and combinability of stems. Give examples.
In linguistics, a stem is a part of a word used with slightly different meanings and would
depend on the morphology of the language in question. In one usage, a stem is a form to
which affixes can be attached.[2] Thus, in this usage, the English
word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is
attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached. In a
variant of this usage, the root of the word (in the example, friend) is not counted as a
stem.
In a slightly different usage, which is adopted in the remainder of this article, a word has
a single stem, namely the part of the word that is common to all its inflected variants.
[3]
 Thus, in this usage, all derivational affixes are part of the stem. For example, the stem
of friendships is friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached.
Stems may be a root, e.g. run, or they may be morphologically complex, as in compound
words (e.g. the compound nouns meat ball or bottle opener) or words
with derivational morphemes (e.g. the derived verbs black-en or standard-ize). Hence,
the stem of the complex English noun photographer is photo·graph·er, but not photo. For
another example, the root of the English verb form destabilized is stabil-, a form
of stable that does not occur alone; the stem is de·stabil·ize, which includes the
derivational affixes de- and -ize, but not the inflectional past tense suffix -(e)d. That is, a
stem is that part of a word that inflectional affixes attach to.
20. Define the notion of paradigm. Explain the difference between inflexional and
derivational paradigms of words.
A pattern, a way of doing something, especially (now
often derogatory) a pattern of thought, a system of beliefs, a conceptual framework.
21. What criteria can be suggested for distinguishing between inflexional and
derivational affixes?
 An affix is a bound morpheme that attaches to the stem of a word to form either a
new word or a new form of the same word.
The two types of affixes in English are prefixes and suffixes.
Affixes may be derivational or inflectional. Derivational affixes create new words.
Inflectional affixes create new forms of the same word.
Derivational
Derivational is an adjective that refers to the formation of a new word from another
word through derivational affixes.
In English, both prefixes and suffixes are derivational.
Inflectional
Inflectional is an adjective that refers to the formation of a new form of the same
word through inflectional affixes.
In English, only suffixes are inflectional
22. Define the field of word-formation. Does word-formation always treat composites?
The part of lexicology which studies the patterns on which a language forms new
lexical units i.e. words. word-formation is said to treat of composites which are
analyzable both formally and semantically.
23. Speak on the possible points of intersection between morphology and word-
formation.
Inflection produces from the stem (or stems) of a given language all the word-forms
of that lexeme, and derivation results in the formation of what is traditionally considered
to be a different word
24. How can research in the field of word-formation benefit from etymology? What are
the points of intersection? Give examples.
We can clearly see the basic root of a word. It can help us to understand how it was
created.
25. What principles of classification of the types of word-formation are recognized in
modern lexicology?
Productive types of word-formation include:
1. Affixation.
2. Composition.
3. Conversion.
4. Shortening.
5. Clipping.
26. What types of word-formation are distinguished proceeding from the semantic
structure of words?
Based upon the semantic structure of word or words. Proceding from this principle
we may distinguish:
A.Derivation - the type where the word has only one semantic centre, the other
morphemes being affixes, e.g. brotherhood.
B. Compounding - the type where the word has at least two semantic centres,e.g.
red-hot, navy-blue walking-stick, newspaper, to whitewash.
27. What types of word-formation are distinguished proceeding from the relation of
word components and the new word?
Based on the relationship of components to the new word. According to this
principle we have the following types:
A.Morphological word-building - creating new words using morphemes and
changing the structure of the existing words after certain linguistic patterns:
- derivation - suffixation and prefixation, zero-derivation,
- compounding
- shortening
- sound-interchange
- stress-interchange
- back – formation
- lexicalization of grammatical form
28. Comment on the difference between morphological, morphological-syntactic and
lexico-syntactic word-building.
Morphological deals with the morphemes and changing the structure of existing
words. Morphological-syntactic formation implies that new words appear through
transference from one part of speech into another which implies both a change in
morphological and syntactic peculiarities of a word. And last but not least, lexico-
suntactic word-building is the formation of new units by the process of isolation from
free word-combinations.
29. Word-formation rules versus grammar rules: similarities and differences.
usually differ from a syntactic rules in one important respect: they are of limited
productivity: not all words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable.
new words are freely acceptable only when they have gained an institutional
currency in the language
there is a line to be drawn between “actual words” (sandstone, unwise), and
“potential words” (*lemonstone, *unexcellent)
both of these being distinct from “non-English words”:
*selfishless - the suffix -less added to an adjective and not to a noun, does not obey the
rules of word-formation
on a larger scale, the rules themselves (like grammatical rules) undergo change: affixes
and compounding processes can become productive or lose their productivity; can
increase or decrease their range of meaning or grammatical applicability
30. Explain the notion of nonce formation and give examples in English and in
Ukrainian.
New formations, invented casually for a particular occasion
E.g. She needs guidance, and the poor child is as guidanceless as she is parentless
normally comprehensible, but used at a certain cost to acceptability
referred to as nonce formations and are liable to be criticized if too many are used
Fluddle, a word reported by David Crystal which he understood to mean a water spillage
between a puddle and a flood, invented by the speaker because no suitable word
existed. Іліада, тудисюдність.
31. Comment on the notion of productivity in the field of word-formation. What types
of word-formation are most productive in modern English and in modern Ukrainian?
Any description of word-formation should obviously be concerned with processes
that are productive at the present time.
The fact that words have resulted from the past operation of word-formation
processes is in itself irrelevant from a synchronic point of view
 E.g. the word gospel cannot be seen as a modern English word-formation, though
formed in earlier English from the words good and spell (in the obsolete sense
“news”) . Nor, as an English word, can karate be seen as a ‘formation’, though in
Japanese it is clearly a junction of cara ‘empty’ and te ‘hand’.
Morphological – affixation.
32. Comment on derivation as the productive type of word-formation and enumerate
types of derivational affixes. Give examples.
Morphological derivation, in linguistics, is the process of forming a new word from an
existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as un- or -ness. For
example, unhappy and happiness derive from the root word happy.
It is differentiated from inflection, which is the modification of a word to form
different grammatical categories without changing its core
meaning: determines, determining, and determined are from the root determine.[1]
Prefixes and suffixes differ significantly in their linguistic status. Prefixes primarily
effect a semantic modification of the stem
Primary function of suffixes being, by contrast, to change the grammatical function
(for example the word class) of the stem.
The characteristic feature of suffixation is its ability to combine with other means of
word-building:
 prefixation, e.g. un-predict-able, по-дорож-ник;
 compounding, e.g. blue-eye-ed, ясновид-ець,
 postfixation, e.g. гурт-ув-а-ти-ся
33. Comment on shortening as the productive type of word-formation and enumerate
types of shortenings. Give examples.
Shortening is the process of substracting phonemes and / or morhemes from words and
word-groups without changing their lexico-grammatical meaning.
Abbreviation is a process of shortening the result of which is a word made up of the
initial letters or syllables of the components of a word-group or a compound word.
Graphical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a word or a word-group only in
written speech (for the economy of space and effort in writing), while orally the
corresponding full form is used:
days of the week and months, e.g. Sun., Tue., Feb., Oct., Dec.;
states in the USA, e.g. Alas., CA, TX;
forms of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Dr.;
Lexical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a word or a word-group both in
written and oral speech.
alphabetical abbreviation (initialism) is a shortening which is read as a succession of
the alphabetical readings of the constituent letters, e.g. BBC (British Broadcasting
Corporation), MTV (Music Television), EU (European Union), MP (Member of
Parliament), WHO (World Health Organisation), AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome), GMO (Genetically Modified Organisms) etc.;
acronymic abbreviation (acronym) is a shortening which is read as a succession of the
sounds denoted by the constituent letters, i.e. as if they were an ordinary word, e.g.
UNESCO (United Nations Scientific, and Cultural Organisation), NATO (North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation), UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency
Fund) etc.;
anacronym is an acronym which is longer perceived by speakers as a shortening: very
few people remember what each letter stands for, e.g. laser (light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation), radar (radio detecting and ranging), scuba (self-
contained underwater breathing apparatus), yuppie (young urban professional).
homoacronym is an acronym which coincides with an English word semantically
connected with the thing, person or phenomenon, e.g. PAWS (Public for Animal Welfare
Society), NOW (National Organisation for Women), ASH (Action on Smoking and
Health) etc.;
Clipping is the process of cutting off one or several syllables of a word.
apocope (back-clipping) is a final clipping, e.g. prof < professor, disco <
discotheque, ad < advertisement, coke < coca-cola;
aphaeresis (fore-clipping) is an initial clipping, e.g. phone < telephone, Bella <
Isabella, cello < violoncello;
syncope is a medial clipping, e.g. maths < mathematics, specs < spectacles; ma’m <
madam;
fore-and-aft clipping is an initial and final clipping, e.g. flu < influenza, fridge <
refrigerator, tec < detective, Liza < Elizabeth;
34. Characterize conversion as a type of word formation. What are the divergent
features of conversion in English and in Ukrainian?
In linguistics, conversion, also called zero derivation or null derivation, is a kind
of word formation involving the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an
existing word (of a different word class) without any change in form,[1] which is to
say, derivation using only zero. For example, the noun green in golf (referring to a
putting-green) is derived ultimately from the adjective green.
Conversions from adjectives to nouns and vice versa are both very common and
unnotable in English; much more remarked upon is the creation of a verb by converting a
noun or other word (e.g., the adjective clean becomes the verb to clean).
 access – to access
 bottle – to bottle
 can – to can
 closet – to closet
 email – to email
 eye – to eye
 fiddle – to fiddle
 fool – to fool
 Google – to google
 host – to host
 knife – to knife
відприкметникові іменники: молода, молодий, бідний, багатий, ситий,  голодний,
мудрий, майбутнє, учительська, набережна, черговий
відприкметникові прізвища на -ів, -ин: прикметник Сенів
віддієприкметникові іменники: наречена, наречений, придане
відіменникові вигуки: Боже!, Господи!, жах!, горе!, лихо!, матінко!
35. Speak on the minor and non-productive types of word-formation in modern
English.
History provides quite a number of examples where a derived form has preceded the
word from which (formally speaking) it is derived.
Thus editor entered the language before edit, lazy before laze, and television before
televize. The process by which the shorter word is created by the deletion of a supposed
affix is known as back-formation, since it reverses the normal trend of word-formation,
which is to add rather than to subtract constituents.
is a purely historical concept, however of little relevance to the contemporary study
of word-formation.
To the present-day speaker of English, the relationship between laze and lazy need
be no different from that between sleep and sleepy.
The process is particularly fruitful in creating denominal verbs.
Lexicalization of grammatical forms
 a term used to denote the creation of an independent word from one of word-forms
 a number of English nouns in the plural form underwent lexicalization and
acquired independent forms and meaning:
 bead - коралик, beads - вервечка;
 colour - колiр, colours – прапор
 Synchronically -s in such words is regarded not as a grammatical inflexion
expressing plurality but as a special case of affixation. It is not used in modern
English to coin new words.
Sound interchange
 includes vowel and consonant inerchange. Both are nonproductive and offer no
model to form new words after, e.g.:
 food - to feed a house - to house
 gold - to gild to speak - speech
 blood - to bleed defence - defend
 present – presence
Stress-interchange formally served as word-formation means and produced pairs like
conflict - to conflict.
36. Give the definition and indicate the main characteristic features of the compound.
A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both
grammatically and semantically as a single word.
37. What are the structural types of compounds?
In English grammars three structural types are distinguished:
neutral,
morphological
syntactic
the process of compounding is realized without any linking element (juxtaposion
of two stems).
 E.g. shop-window, sunflower, bedroom.
 There are three types of neutral compounds:
 a) simple neutral compounds: they consist of affixless stems;
 b) derivational compounds: contain affixes, e.g. absent-mindedness, golden-
haired, honey-mooner;
 c) contracted compounds: have a shortened stem in their structure: TV-set, H-bag,
T-shirt
 Morphological
 few in number
 non-productive
 two stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant: Anglo-Saxon,
handiwork, spokesman
Syntactic
 formed from segments of speech preserving in their structure numerous traces of
syntagmatic relations typical of speech:
 lily-of the valley, Jack-of-all-trades, mother-in-law
38. Can the meaning of a compound word be regarded as the sum of its constituent
meanings?
Classroom, bedroom, dining-room, sleeping-car, reading-room, dancing-hall.
This group seems to represent compounds whose meanings can really be described as the
sum of their constituent meanings. Yet, in the last four words we can distinctly detect a
slight shift of meaning. The first component in these words, if taken as a free form,
denotes an action or state of whatever or whoever is characterized by the word. Yet, a
sleeping-car is not a car that sleeps (cf. a sleeping child), nor is a dancing-hall actually
dancing (cf. dancing pairs).
The shift of meaning becomes much more pronounced in the second group of examples.
(2) Blackboard, blackbird, football, chatterbox (болтун), lady-killer, good-for-nothing
(бездельник).
In this compounds one of the components (or both) has changed its meaning: a
blackboard is neither a board nor necessarily black, football is not a ball but a game, a
chatterbox not a box but a person, and a lady-killer kills no one but is merely a man who
fascinates women. In all these compounds the meaning of the whole word cannot be
defined as the sum of the constituent meanings.
Yet, despite a certain readjustment in the semantic structure of the word, the meanings of
the constituents of the compounds of this second group are still transparent: you can see
through them the meaning of the whole complex. At least, it is clear that a blackbird is
some kind of bird and that a good-for-nothing is not meant as a compliment.
(3) In the third group of compounds the process of deducing the meaning of the
whole from those of the constituents is impossible. The key to the meaning seems to have
been lost: ladybird (божья коровка) is not a bird but an insect, tallboy not a boy but a
piece of furniture.
The compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their
constituent parts (2nd and 3rd group) are called idiomatic compounds,in contrast to the
first group known as non-idiomatic compounds.
The suggested subdivision into three groups is based on the degree of semantic cohesion
of the constituent parts, the third group representing the extreme case of cohesion where
the constituent meanings blend to produce an entirely new meaning.
39. Why do you think the number of stems involved in compounding is usually only
two?
The meaning would be too overloaded, it would be hard to understand the main purpose
of the word.
40. What types of compounds are most commonly encountered in English? In
Ukrainian?
Ukrainian:
1. stem-combining with the help of interfixes о, е (доброзичливий, працездатний) or
without them (триповерховий, всюдихiд);
2. Word-combining or juxtaposition (Lat. juxta - near, positio - place) - combining
several words or word-forms in one complex word (хата-лабораторiя, салон-
перукарня)
English:
noun (object) + agent noun
In English this is a very productive type and designates concrete (usually human) agents:
mathmaker, stockholder, hairsplitter. Note, however, dishwasher, lawn-mover. All
compounds of this type in English are nouns with –er suffix. As in Ukrainian there is a
wide range of suffixes forming agent nouns, so examples of compounds reflect this
diversity: м’ясорубка, законодавець, користолюбець,квартиронаймач,
містобудівник.
The most common type of English compounds consists of two morphologically simple
nouns.
41. What does the structural cohesion and integrity of a compound depend upon?
The structural cohesion and integrity of a compound may depend upon unity of stress,
solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntactic
functioning or, more often, upon the combined effect of several of these or similar
phonetic, graphic, semantic, morphological or syntactic factors. The integrity of a
compound is manifested in its indivisibility, i.e. the impossibility of inserting another
word or word group between its elements. 
42. Comment on the semantic integrity in bahuvrihi compounds.
The bahuvrihi compounds (Sanskrit ‘much riced’) are idomatic formations in which a
person, animal or thing is metonymically named after some striking feature (mainly in
their appearance) they possess; their word-building pattern is an adjectival stem + a noun
stem, e.g. bigwig, fathead, highbrow, lowbrow, lazy-bones.
A bahuvrihi compound (from Sanskrit: बहुव्रीहि, literally meaning "much rice" or "having
much rice", but denoting a rich man) is a type of compound that denotes a referent by
specifying a certain characteristic or quality the referent possesses. A bahuvrihi
is exocentric, so that the compound is not a hyponym of its head.
In Sanskrit bahuvrihis, the last constituent is a noun—more strictly, a nominal stem—
while the whole compound is an adjective. In Vedic Sanskrit the accent is regularly on
the first member with the exception of a number of non-nominal prefixes such as
the privative a; the word bahuvrīhí is itself likewise an exception to this rule.
In English bahuvrihis can be identified and the last constituent is usually a noun, while
the whole compound is a noun or an adjective. The accent is on the first constituent.
English bahuvrihis often describe people using synecdoche: flatfoot, half-
wit, highbrow, lowlife, redhead, tenderfoot, long-legs, and white-collar.
"Bluestocking", an educated, intellectual, or artistically accomplished woman.
 The term “bahuvrihi” refers not to the pattern of formation but to the relation such
compounds have with their referents.
 Neither constituent refers to the entity named but, the whole refers to a separate
entity (usually a person) that is claimed to be characterized by the compound, in its
literal or figurative meaning.
43. How can semantic relations of the components of compounds be treated in terms of
syntactic relations?
The plurals of compound nouns are generally formed by adding 's' to the principal word
(i.e. the most significant word in the compound), also called the head of the compound.
The head informs us about what the compound refers to. The other elements of the
compound modify the head and are called the head's dependents.
When the compound is formed with a noun and a preposition, (e.g. passer-by), the plural
is formed by adding an 's' to the noun.
When neither element of a compound is a noun, the plural is formed by adding 's' to the
last word. For example, the compound noun 'grown-up' is made of the word 'grown',
which is the past participle of the verb 'grow', and the preposition 'up'. The plural of
'grown-up' is formed by adding 's' to 'up' (i.e. 'grown-ups).
44. Explain the difference between endocentric and exocentric compounds.
Compounds express a wide range of meaning relationships. Leonard Bloomfield offers a
classification based on the “relation of the compound as a whole to its members” (1935,
p.235). He makes the distinction between “endocentric and exocentric compounds” (p.235). He
borrows these terms from syntax and applies them to compounds. Most of the compounds are
endocentric. A compound denotes a subtype of concept derived from its head, which is usually
the last element of the compound; for example, steamboat means a boat driven by
steampower. “Headedness is shown most clearly by hyponymy: the compound as a whole is a
hyponym of its head” (Bauer, 1983). A compound word in which one member identifies the
general class to which the meaning of the entire word belongs is called an endocentric
compound (O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, & Rees-Miller, 2001, p.713). An exocentric
compound does not have a head. A compound whose meaning does not follow from the
meaning of its parts (e.g., redneck) is called an exocentric compound. Bloomfield argues that
there are some compounds which can be endocentric and exocentric, depending on the
meaning realized in the sentence. A good example is bittersweet. This compound is formed of
two adjectives; therefore, it functions as an adjective endocentric compound, but it may not be
a case if bittersweet is used to denote a poisonous Eurasian woody vine (Solanum dulcamara)
or a North American poisonous woody vine (Celastrus scandens). In this
instance, bittersweet functions as a noun; therefore, it is exocentric because “as a noun, it
differs in grammatical function from the two adjective members” (Bloomfield, 1935, p. 135).
Another example is bluebonnet. It is an endocentric compound if it denotes a wide flat round
cap of blue wool formerly worn in Scotland. However, when it denotes the official Texas state
flower, then it is exocentric. As these examples show, when a compound functions the same
as the head member, it is still considered an exocentric compound because it is not a hyponym
of its head. In the example of redneck, neck is the head component; however, in the modern
usage, redneck is not a type of neck but a stereotyped person with rural, right-wing
associations.
45. Semantics as a subdivision of linguistics and its tasks in the field of lexicology
 as a term semantics is widely accepted by a lot of linguists
 It is used to denote:
 the branch of linguistics which specializes in
the study of meaning;
 the expressive aspect of language in general;
 the meaning of one particular word in all its
varied aspects and nuances.
46. What are the main principles of the description of lexical meaning?
The meaning is a system of components (semes) constituting a structure (sememe);
Components of meaning are arranged into one functional language unit – sememe;
The structure of meaning includes three macrocomponents: connotative, denotative and
grammatical
there are semantic components belonging to nucleus and periphery;
the nucleus is constituted by constant and essential semantic components;
the semes of periphery add to the nucleus and stipulate the semantic development of the
word (polysemy)
the border between the semes of nucleus and periphery is indistinct
the semes that constitute one sememe can be repeated in other sememes, the semes of
nucleus in one sememe can be those of periphery in a different one
meaning can differ in some semes and coincide in others (synonyms, antonyms etc.)
47. What ideas is the referential approach to meaning based on?
Some scholars point out that the meaning of the linguistic sign is the concept
underlying it and thus substitute meaning for concept.
Others identify meaning with the referent.
The most convincing approach: meaning is the interrelation of the sound-form,
concept and referent of the linguistic unit
Referential approach to meaning. The common feature of any referential approach is that
meaning is in some form or other connected with the referent (object of reality denoted
by the word). The meaning is formulated by establishing the interdependence between
words and objects of reality they denote. So, meaning is often understood as an object or
phenomenon in the outside world that is referred to by a word.
48. Define the notion of polysemy.
Is the capacity for a word or phrase to have multiple meanings, usually related by
contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Polysemy is thus distinct from homonymy
—or homophony—which is an accidental similarity between two words (such as bear the
animal, and the verb to bear); while homonymy is often a mere linguistic coincidence,
polysemy is not. Both in English and in Ukrainian polysemy is widespread but is more
characteristic of English due to the predominance of root words. The greater the relative
frequency of the word, the greater the number of elements that constitute its semantic
structure, i.e. the more polysemantic it is.
49. Explain the difference between different macro components of meaning.
The notional content of the word is expressed by the denotative meaning (also
called referential or extensional ). To denote is to serve as linguistic expression for a
notion or as a name for an actually existing object referred to by a word. The term
denotatum (Lat. denotatum, pl. denotata - означуване) is used in different meanings.
When we speak about denotative meaning we consider it to be the notional nucleus of
meaning abstracted from stylistic, pragmatic, modal, emotional, subjective,
communicative and other shades. Quite often the terms denotatum and referent are being
used indiscriminatedly as synonyms.
The emotional content of the word i.e. its capacity to evoke or directly express
emotions is rendered by connotative component of meaning (also called emotive charge
or intentional connotations) . Connotation (Lat. connotation from connoto - маю
додаткове значення) is an emotional , evaluative or stylistic component of a linguistic
unit of regular or occasional character. Within the connotations of a word we distinguish
its capacity to evoke or express: a) emotion (daddy - father); b) evaluation (clique -
group); c) intensity (adore - love); d)stylistic colouring (slay - kill) etc. In a broad sense
connotation is any component which adds to to the denotative meaning.
 The complexity of the word-meaning is manifold. Apart from the lexical meaning
including denotative and connotative meaning it is always combined with the
grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech of
relationship between words based on contrastive features of arrangements in which they
occur.
50. Explain the notion of the semantic structure of the word. Give the definition of the
seme.
The levels of the analysis of the word:
Sememic (on the level of sememe – a separate sense of a polysemantic word)
Semic (on the level of semes – separate components of meaning)
Seme, the smallest unit of meaning recognized in semantics, refers to a single
characteristic of a sememe.
51. What are the fundamental ideas of the differential approach to lexical meaning?
According to differential approach meaning is constituted by a certain amount of
semes on the basis of which words are opposed to each other in lexical semantic groups.
52. Comment of the notions of nucleus and periphery in the description of the semantic
structure of words.
The nucleus is constituted by constant and essential semantic components;
The semes of periphery add to the nucleus and stipulate the semantic development of the
word (polysemy)
53. Define the notion of the linguistic metaphor. What makes the basis of the process of
metaphorization and what does it result in?
Metaphor (from Greek μεταφορά – transposition) is the result of the semantic
process when a form of a linguistic unit or expressing of a linguistic category is
transposed from one object of designation to another on the basis of a certain similarity
between these objects as reflected in the speaker’s mind. Metaphor is actually based on
comparison. Metaphorization is most vividly represented on the lexical level and we can
discover a lot of common features while analyzing linguistic metaphors in English and
Ukrainian. Thus, the character of similarity making the basis of metaphors is basically the
same.
1) Similarity by physical features:
a. form and sight, for example, Ukr.: стріла крана, гірський хребет,
сонечко – комаха, Eng.: web
b. position, for example, Ukr.: голова колони, Eng.: foot of the mountain, a
page, back of the sofa
c. sounding, for example, Ukr.: барабанити у двері, Eng.: drum fingers
d. peculiarities of movement, for example, Ukr.: коник – комаха, супутник
– небесне тіло, Eng.:
 e. peculiarities of functioning, for example, Ukr.: повітряний флот,
English: leg of the chair, a bookworm
2) Similarity by physiological and psychological impressions
Synesthetic. Synesthesia (from Greek συναίσΰησις – simultaneous perception) is
treated in linguistics as the reflection of the semantic structure of physiological
associations between different types of senses. Synesthetic metaphors can be based on the
perception of hearing, sight, touch, taste, for example, Ukr.: крикливий (одяг),
високий/низький (звук), солодкий (запах, голос, обійми),Eng.: soft (voice)
Transference from the sphere of the physical world to psychological and social
spheres, to some abstract relations, for example, Ukr.:горіти (завзяттям), гострий
(розум), дрібний (урядовець), Eng.: , in particular, from space to time, for example,
довгий(день)
Transference through actualization of a relatively indistinctive semantic feature,
often of emotional-evaluative character, for example, горить (взуття), прірва (безліч)
3) Similarity which exists only in the imagination of the speaker and is only
desirable for him, for example, to give intimate colouring to communication one can
address a person, who is not a good acquaintance or a relative, as друже - брате.
S.Ullmann suggests the following types of transference:
 a) anthropomorphic,
 b) zoomorphic,
 c) from concrete to abstract,
 d) synesthetic,
 e) from lexical units that attract a special attention of the society in that or other
period.
The last type reflects the position of some lexical units on the scale of the social
values of the society. E.g. “religious” and “agricultural” metaphors used to be quite
popular in Ukrainian (чорт, ірод, бусурман; нива, галузь, сіяти добро), but now the
accent is mostly on sports, technologies, space investigation, medical science (цейтнот,
хід конем, орбіта інтересів, запрограмуватися на що-небудь, больові точки).
54. Explain the semantic phenomenon of synesthesia.
Synesthesia (from Greek συναίσΰησις – simultaneous perception) is treated in
linguistics as the reflection of the semantic structure of physiological associations
between different types of senses. Synesthetic metaphors can be based on the perception
of hearing, sight, touch, taste, for example, Ukr.: крикливий (одяг), високий/низький
(звук), солодкий (запах, голос, обійми),Eng.: soft (voice)
 most often such metaphors reflect the feeling of touch, for example,
 Ukr.: гострий (запах, блиск), м’який (голос, світло, рух),
  Eng.: soft (voice, colour), least often – smell
 most productive directions of their development are spheres of sight and hearing
55. Define the notion of the linguistic metonymy. What makes the basis of the process of
metonymization and what does it result in?
(from Greek μετωνυμία – renaming ) is the result of the semantic process when a form of
a linguistic unit or expressing of a linguistic category is transfered from one object of
designation to another on the basis of a certain contiguity of these objects conditioned by
spatial, temporal, causal, symbolic, instrumental, functional and other relations as
reflected in the speaker’s mind.
1. Semasiological approach. It is considered to be one of the principal ways of the
semantic change of linguistic units.
2. Onomasiological approach. It is treated as the general principle of nomination, for
example naming of psychological phenomena on the basis of their external physiological
expression, mimic, jests, for example, тремтіти – to be afraid, червоніти – to be
ashamed, рвати на собі волосся – to be in despair
3. Stylistic approach. Metonymy is considered to be one of the tropes
Metonymy occurs quite regularly, in comparison to other types of semantic change,
within some semantic groups.
56. Explain the notion of synonymy. What types of synonyms do lexicologists single out?
Give examples of each type.
Synonyms (from Greek syn – plus and onoma – name) are words whose meaning
coincide either fully or partially. Synonyms can also be described as words and word-
combinations that have the same meaning in some or in any contexts.
e.g. Beautiful, Attractive, Pretty, Lovely, Stunning
Full synonyms - semantic contents coincide completely. E.g. cat, feline, шофер,
водій.
Partial synonyms – only some meanings coincide, they become synonyms when used in
one of their meanings or in certain combinations. For instance, the words student and
pupil are synonyms only in the meaning a person who is being taught.
Semantic (ideographic) synonyms
Describe different quality of the object denoted (mistake, error, slip, lapse;
помилка, хиба, провина, похибка, неточність, блуд, недогляд). Show different degree
of the same quality or phenomena (ex. mistake - blunder).
Stylistic synonyms - are used in different communicative styles: insane (formal) and
loony (informal); salt (everyday speech) and sodium chloride (technical)
may have different evaluative quality (compare horse and steed).
differ in both semantic content and stylistic colouring, like to eat and to pig (i.e. to eat
greedily)
collocational difference: rancid (is used only of butter) and rotten (of bacon)
differences in connotation: youth (less pleasant) and youngster.
57. Speak on the notion of homonymy. Specify sources and types of homonyms.
A homonym is a word that has the same pronunciation and spelling as another
word, but a different meaning
For example:
ray 1) narrow beam of light;
2) a sea fish with a large flat body;
3) in music the second note of a major scale.
 Result of a coincidence of phonetic change in two semantically unrelated words
(sea and see);
 Borrowings:
Mail (the system of delivery) was borrowed from Old French mail (bag)
 Onomatopoeic origin or exclamation:
Hey (an exclamation used to draw attention);
Hey (a kind of country dance).
Semantic cleft: check – bank+verification
 FULL homonyms coincide in spelling and pronunciation in all grammatical forms
(farmer’s bull and a papal bull)
 PARTIAL homonyms coincide only in separate forms: saw – the Past Simple form
of the verb to see,
saw – a tool that has a long blade with sharp points used for cutting wood or metal.
 A homograph – word that has the same spelling, but a different meaning and
pronunciation (lead – [led] heavy soft grey metal and [li:d] – to go with showing
the way )
 A homophone is a word that has the same pronunciation as another word, but those
meaning and spelling are different:
e.g. to, too, two; there and their;
week and weak.
 Capytonyms are words that are spelled in the same way but have different
meanings when capitalised:
e.g. polish (to make shiny) - Polish (from Poland)
In the Ukrainian language we have such groups of homonyms:
 Homophones (стати по три – потри, вгорі – в горі);
 Homographs (по́тяг - потя́г; за́мок - замо́к; 
бра́ти - брати);
 Homoforms (покласти на віз - віз дрова; жовте поле - поле город);
 Homomorphemes (чистий став(ок) - став, як вкопаний).
58. Comment on hyperbole and litotes as types of the semantic change
Hyperbole (from Greek ύπερβολή – overexaggeration) is based on intentional
exaggeration of the quantity and size of objects, intensity of a feature or an act aimed at
making the image of an object more distinct and thus, the utterance- more convincing.
For example, Ukr.: півтора чоловіка (дуже мало людей), скажу два слова, море
крові, черепашача швидкість; Eng.: haven’t seen you for ages, I hate troubling you, a
thousand thanks.
Litotes (from Greek λιτότης – simplicity) is aimed at making the statement less
categorical through the use of indirect designation of a certain notion, namely through the
negation of the notion that is opposite to the given. Litotes can be based on
negation, for example, Ukr.: не заперечую (погоджуюсь), неважко (легко); Eng.:
no coward, not bad;
double negation, for example, Ukr.: така подія не видається неможливою. Not
characteristic of English.;
without negation, for example, Eng.: I could do with a cup of coffee. Not
characteristic of Ukrainian.
59. What is a paronym?... a hyponym?... a meronym?
Paronyms - words that have slight differences in spelling or pronunciation and have
different meaning. They can be divided in two groups:
 With the same root but diff. derivational affixes: affect – effect, alnernately –
alternatively, земляний – землистий,
 That derive from different roots:
farther – further, complement – compliment, excise – exercise, компанія – кампанія,
талан – талант.
Hyponyms - words that have lexical representation and features that indicate the
class to which those words belong.
e.g. lion, tiger, leopard have a feature [ feline];
white, rose, blue [colour];
guitar, piano, violin [musical instrument].
Meronyms - denotes a constituent part of, or a member of something:
frame, wheels, brake, pedals –bicycle;
petal is meronym of flower; flower, root, stem, etc. are meronyms of plant.
Двигун — меронім для автомобіля.
60. Comment on the notion of antonymy. What types of antonyms are singled out in
modern lexicology?
Antonyms (from Greek anti – opposite and onama - name) are word pairs that are
opposite in meaning, such as young and old, up and down. The meaning of the word may
be partially defined by saying what it is not.
Male means not female.
Dead means not alive.
GRADABLE ANTONYMS - two ends of the spectrum (slow and fast)
Implicit comparison
e.g. big and little;
 tall and short;
hot and cold describe opposite
ends of the scale of the temperature.
 Committedness involves an adjective’s behavior in question
«How tall is Sara?» The question is neutral and is used to know Sara’s approximate
height and whether she is tall, short or of average height.
In the sentence «How short is Sara?» there is some reason to believe that Sara is
shorter than average height.
 Markedness – cover term for several related phenomena which distinguish the
marked member of an antonym pair from unmarked member. In pairs in which
antonym is derived from the other, the derived member is said to be marked, so
happy is unmarked and unhappy is marked.
The name of the scale of length is related to unmarked long rather than the marked short.
Complementory antonyms
 pairs that describe absolute opposites, like alive and dead,
If you lose the contest, than you have not won it;
If a switch is on, then it is not off.
Reverse antonyms
 comprise adjectives or adverbs which signify a quality of verbs or nouns which
signify an act or state that reverse the quality, act or state of the other
e.g. enter/leave, appear/disappear, student/teacher, одружений/розлучений,
лікар/пацієнт;
He spoke and spoke but nobody listened;
Габріель – лікар Джона. Джон – пацієнт Габріель;
The shed is behind the house. The house is in the front of the shed.
61. What are the principal stylistic layers of the English vocabulary?
In accordance with the sphere of their usage English words can be divided into 3 main
layers: literary, neutral and colloquial. 
The literary and colloquial layers contain a number of sub-groups. Each of these groups
has an aspect (a property, a common feature) it shares with all the subgroups within the
layer. The common property of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character, which
makes the layer more or less stable. The common property of the colloquial layer of
words is its lively spoken character, which makes it unstable, fleeting.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character, which means that words
belonging to this layer are not restricted in use and can be employed in all styles and all
spheres of human communication, which makes this layer the most stable of all.
62. What words belong to the stylistically neutral layer?
- consists of words mostly of native origin
- comprises fully assimilated borrowings
 - such words are devoid of any emotive colouring and are used in their denotative
meaning, e.g. table, street, sky, go, speak, long, easy, never, often, etc. 
- are not fixed to style. They can be used and dominate in texts of any style
- can name concrete objects, phenomena, abstract notions, features of objects, action
- In groups of synonyms neutral words fulfil the function of the synonymic dominant.
- Neutral words constitute the basis of both English and Ukrainian languages vocabulary.  
63. What groups of words make up the stylistically marked layer?
Stylistically marked layer
2 groups of words: Literary bookish words->Special literary learned words->General-
literary learned words.
Literary-bookish words (“learned” words):
-belong to the formal style, to the formal category of communication.
-are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech
-are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and television
announcements, official talks and documents, business correspondence, etc.
-mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech (most commonbly), but
when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect
are mostly of foreign origin and have polymorphemic structure, e.g. solitude, fascination,
cordial, paternal, divergent, commence, assist, comprise, endeavor, exclude,
heterogeneous, miscellaneous, hereby, thereby, herewith, wherein, etc. 
-are not stylistically homogeneous.
64. Specify the difference between general-literary and special-literary bookish words.
General-literary learned words are used in public speeches, official negotiations and
are formal, official and can be used in any types of formal occasions. Special-literary
learned words include terms, barbarisms, archaisms, poetic words, realia and neologisms
and are not considered formal and can be used in literature, in conversation, to create
comic effect.
65. What words are called colloquial and what classes of colloquialisms can be singled
out?
Colloquialism can be confused with slang and jargon, since these are two other
ways of conversing in informal ways. The difference is that slang words are used in
specific social groups, like teenagers, whereas colloquialisms can generally be
understood across age and socioeconomic barriers as long as the speakers are all from the
same geographic region. Colloquialisms may use slang within them, but this is not
always the case. Similar to slang, jargon is used only by certain groups, but it often refers
to words used in a particular profession. For example, the way in which lawyers speak is
so specific to their profession that it is often known as “legalese.” Other professions that
rely on exchanging complex information also use jargon, such as scientists, doctors, and
businesspeople. There are three different types of colloquialisms that we can distinguish:
words, phrases, and aphorisms. Soda, pop, soft drink, Coke, I wasn’t born yesterday,
phrasal words.
66. What types of words belong to literary-bookish words?
Literary-bookish words are divided into general-literary learned terms and special-literary
learned terms. General-literary learned words are used in public speeches, official
negotiations and are formal. Special-literary learned words include terms, barbarisms,
archaisms, poetic words, realia and neologisms and are not considered formal.
67. What is the difference between slangism and jargonism?
Both jargon and slang are two special types of language varieties. The main
difference between Jargon and Slang is: Jargon is terminology that is used in relation to a
specific activity, profession, group, or event whereas slang is the use of informal words
and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language.
Business Jargon:
Bang for the buck – to get the most for your money
Open the kimono – to share information with an outside party
Sweat equity – to get a stake in the business instead of money
Over time, some jargons can become accepted words and understood by a larger
group of people. For example, words like RAM, byte, hexadecimal, which were jargons
in the computing science, are known by everyone.
Jargon is a particular type of language that is used by those engaged in a specific
profession or activity.
Slang is a type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as
very informal.
Jargon can be used in both written and spoken context.
Slang is only used in spoken language.
Jargon is not informal and can be used in a professional context.
Slang is informal and cannot be used in a professional context.
68. Characterize neologisms as a stylistic class of words. Provide examples.
Newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense.
Neologism is any word which is formed according to the productive structural patterns or
borrowed from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.
Examples: tape-recorder, supermarket, V-day (Victory day). The research of cosmic
space by the Soviet people gave birth to new words: Sputnik, spaceship, space rocket that
used to be new. May be divided into:
1) Root words: Ex: jeep – a small light motor vehicle, zebra – street crossing place etc;
2) Derived words: Ex: collaborationist – one in occupied territory works helpfully with
the enemy, to accessorize – to provide with dress accessories;
3) Compound: Ex: air-drop, microfilm-reader. 
New words are as a rule monosemantic. Terms, used in various fields of science and
technology make the greater part of neologisms. New words belong only to the notional
parts of speech: to nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. 
69. Speak on barbarisms as a stylistically marked class of words.
The word barbarism was originally used by the Greeks for foreign terms used in
their language. It belongs to special literary vocabulary. These are words of foreign origin
not entirely assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a
borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue. Most of them have
corresponding English synonyms; e.g. chic [ʃiːk] – ‘stylish’; bon mot [bɒn 'məʊ] – ‘a
clever witty saying’; en passant [ɒn pæˈsɑːnt; French ɑ̃ pasɑ̃] – ‘in passing’; ad
infinitum - ‘to infinity’ and many other words and phrases.
70. Characterize terms as a class of words.
Words or nominal groups which convey specialized concepts used in science,
technology, art, etc., e.g. gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint, common denominator,
periodic table, still life, choreography, etc. The sphere of application of terms is scientific
discourse but they can occur in artistic discourse to contribute to characters’ description
or create a special background. Terms belong to special literary learned words, so they
are stylistically marked and belong to literary-bookish words.
71. What is an archaism and why are archaisms kept alive?
It is the deliberate use of an older form that has fallen out of current use. Are most
frequently encountered in poetry, law and ritual writing and speech. Their deliberate use
can be subdivided into:
1) literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke the style of older speech and writing;
2) lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use.
Archaisms are kept alive by ritual and literary uses and by the study of older
literature. Should they remain recognised, they can be revived, as the word anent was in
this past century. Ironically, the word thou fell out of English speech because it was
thought abruptly colloquial, like French tu. Thou is now seen in current English usage
only in literature that deliberately seeks to evoke an older style, though there are also
some still-read works that use thou, especially religious texts.
72. Explain the difference between barbarisms and foreign words.
Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language.
They are, as it were, part and parcel of the English word-stock, though they remain on the
outskirts of the literary vocabulary. Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic
purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English
dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words
most frequently used in literary English. Barbarisms are generally given in the body of
the dictionary.
In printed works foreign words and phrases, are generally italicized to indicate their alien
nature or their stylistic value Barbarisms, on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in
the text unless they bear a special load of stylistic information.
73. Can we treat realia as words belonging to special literary vocabulary? Why yes or
why not?
We can treat it as special literary vocabulary, but only if it doesn’t belong to the
language the speaker speaks. But if it is the same language, it is considered to be general-
literary vocabulary.
74. Define vulgarisms as a class of words.
Vulgarisms:
derives from Latin vulgus, the "common folk", and has carried into English its original
connotations linking it with the low and coarse motivations that were supposed to be
natural to the commons, who were not moved by higher motives like fame for posterity
and honor among peers — motives that were alleged to move the literate classes. Thus
the concept of vulgarism carries cultural freight from the outset, and from some social
perspectives it does not genuinely exist, or — ought not to exist.
Although most dictionaries offer "obscene word or language" as a definition for
vulgarism, others have insisted that a vulgarism in English usage is different from
obscenity or profanity, cultural concepts which connote offenses against the community.
One kind of vulgarism, defined by the OED as "a colloquialism of a low or unrefined
character," substitutes a coarse word where the context might lead the reader to expect a
more refined expression: "the tits on Botticelli's Venus" is a vulgarism.
Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without any thought of what
they mean, or in'imitation of those who use them in order not to seem old-fashioned or
prudish. Unfortunately, in modern fiction these words have gained legitimacy. The most
vulgar of them are now to be found even in good novels. This lifting of the taboo has
given rise to the almost unrestrained employment of words which soil the literary
language. However, they will never acquire the status of standard English vocabulary and
will always remain on the outskirts.
75. Speak on the possible points of intersection between stylistics and lexicology.
While the lexicologist is mainly concerned with the meaning and the formation of
words, the stylistician endeavours to reach beyond linguistic analysis to the various
connotations and shades of meaning produced. The lexicologist is sometimes prone,
however, to tackle stylistic issues just as the stylistician is not always averse to coming to
grips with lexical matters. Whatever their apparently different, even contrasting, modes
of investigation and aims, these two domains do meet on common ground.
When we need to choose one of the synonyms, when dealing with texts of different
styles, different audiences, when there is a need to speak about some specific facts, when
choosing if a neologism is accepted in some situations.