FM 3-04.

240 (FM 1-240)

Instrument Flight for Army Aviators

April 2007

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is

unlimited.

Headquarters, Department of the Army

 This publication is available at

Army Knowledge Online (www.us.army.mil) and

General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine

Digital Library at (www.train.army.mil).

 *FM 3-04.240 (FM 1-240)

Field Manual Headquarters

No. 3-04.240 Department of the Army
Washington, DC,30 April 2007

Instrument Flight for Army Aviators

Contents
Page
PREFACE .............................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1 FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS ........................................................ 1-1

Section I – Pitot-Static Systems...................................................................... 1-1

Altimeter.............................................................................................................. 1-2

Airspeed Indicator............................................................................................... 1-7

Vertical Speed Indicator ..................................................................................... 1-8

Section II – Compass Systems ..................................................................... 1-10

Magnetic Compass........................................................................................... 1-10

Radio Magnetic Indicator.................................................................................. 1-15

Section III – Gyroscopic Systems ................................................................. 1-16

Gyroscope ........................................................................................................ 1-16

Attitude Indicator............................................................................................... 1-17

Turn-and-Slip Indicator/Turn Coordinator ........................................................ 1-18

Section IV – Flight Management System ..................................................... 1-20

Horizontal Situation Indicator ........................................................................... 1-20

Vertical Situation Indicator................................................................................ 1-21

Chapter 2 ROTARY WING INSTRUMENT FLIGHT MANEUVERS .................................. 2-1

Section I – Maneuver Performance................................................................. 2-1

Instruments......................................................................................................... 2-1

Performance ....................................................................................................... 2-2

Procedural Steps ................................................................................................ 2-3

Primary and Supporting Methods....................................................................... 2-3

Section II – Flight Management System......................................................... 2-5

Cross-Check....................................................................................................... 2-5

Instrument Interpretation .................................................................................... 2-7

Aircraft Control.................................................................................................... 2-8

Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

*This publication supersedes FM 1-240, 15 December 1984.

30 April 2007 i
Contents

Section III – Instrument Takeoff.......................................................................2-8

Preparing.............................................................................................................2-9

Performing From Hover/Ground .........................................................................2-9

Takeoff ................................................................................................................2-9

Common Errors.................................................................................................2-10

Section IV – Straight-and-Level Flight ..........................................................2-10

Pitch Attitude Control ........................................................................................2-10

Bank Control .....................................................................................................2-12

Power Control ...................................................................................................2-13

Common Errors.................................................................................................2-15

Section V – Straight Climbs and Descents ..................................................2-15

Climbs ...............................................................................................................2-15

Descents ...........................................................................................................2-17

Common Errors.................................................................................................2-18

Section VI – Turns...........................................................................................2-18

Predetermined Heading ....................................................................................2-19

Timed ................................................................................................................2-19

Changing Airspeed ...........................................................................................2-20

Compass ...........................................................................................................2-20

Thirty-Degree Bank...........................................................................................2-22

Climbing and Descending .................................................................................2-22

Common Errors.................................................................................................2-23

Section VII – Other Maneuvers ......................................................................2-23

Unusual Attitudes ..............................................................................................2-23

Autorotations .....................................................................................................2-23

Chapter 3 FIXED WING INSTUMENT FLIGHT MANEUVERS ..........................................3-1

Section I – Instrument Takeoff.........................................................................3-1

Takeoff ................................................................................................................3-1

Common Takeoff Errors and Resolutions...........................................................3-2

Section II – Straight-and-Level Flight .............................................................3-2

Pitch Control........................................................................................................3-2

Bank Control .......................................................................................................3-6

Power Control .....................................................................................................3-8

Trim Technique .................................................................................................3-12

Section III – Straight Climbs and Descents..................................................3-12

Climbs ...............................................................................................................3-12

Descents ...........................................................................................................3-16

Common Climb and Descent Errors and Resolutions ......................................3-18

Section IV – Turns...........................................................................................3-19

Standard-Rate Turns ........................................................................................3-19

Steep Turns.......................................................................................................3-20

Climbing and Descending Turns.......................................................................3-21

Change of Airspeed During Turns ....................................................................3-21

Common Turn Errors ........................................................................................3-22

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 Contents

Section V – Other Maneuvers........................................................................ 3-24

Approach to Stall .............................................................................................. 3-24

Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries ................................................................... 3-24

Chapter 4 AIR NAVIGATION CHARTS.............................................................................. 4-1

Section I – Air Navigation ................................................................................ 4-1

Measuring a Position Using Latitude and Longitude.......................................... 4-1

Measuring Direction ........................................................................................... 4-3

Navigation Charts ............................................................................................... 4-4

Departure Procedure Chart .............................................................................. 4-11

Standard Terminal Arrival Route Charts .......................................................... 4-11

Instrument Approach Procedure Chart ............................................................ 4-11

Inoperative Components .................................................................................. 4-24

Section II – Plotting and Measuring.............................................................. 4-24

Plotter ............................................................................................................... 4-24

Measurements and Course Lines .................................................................... 4-26

Chapter 5 AIR NAVIGATION HANDHELD COMPUTER................................................... 5-1

Section I – Calculator Side .............................................................................. 5-1

Values................................................................................................................. 5-1

Indexes ............................................................................................................... 5-2

Time and Distance.............................................................................................. 5-2

Short Time and Distance (Use of the 36 Index) ................................................. 5-3

Computing Time for Outbound Leg During Holding ........................................... 5-4

Fuel Consumption .............................................................................................. 5-6

True Airspeed ..................................................................................................... 5-8

Distance Conversion .......................................................................................... 5-9

True Altitude Calculation .................................................................................. 5-11

Multiplication and Division Calculations ........................................................... 5-11

Converting Distance to Time ............................................................................ 5-12

Section II – Wind Side .................................................................................... 5-13

Disk and Correction Scales .............................................................................. 5-13

Reversible Grid................................................................................................. 5-13

Determining Heading and Ground Speed ........................................................ 5-14

Determining Unknown Wind............................................................................. 5-15

Determining Altitude for Most Favorable Wind................................................. 5-16

Determining Radius of Action........................................................................... 5-17

Chapter 6 INSTRUMENT WEATHER................................................................................. 6-1

Effects of Wind ................................................................................................... 6-1

Turbulence.......................................................................................................... 6-3

Structural Icing.................................................................................................... 6-4

Fog...................................................................................................................... 6-5

Volcanic Ash....................................................................................................... 6-5

Thunderstorms ................................................................................................... 6-6

Wind Shear......................................................................................................... 6-6

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 iii

Contents

Chapter 7 NAVIGATION AIDS............................................................................................7-1

Section I – Basic Radio Principles ..................................................................7-1

Radio Wave Propagation ....................................................................................7-1

Types of Waves ..................................................................................................7-1

Radio Wave Reception Disturbances .................................................................7-2

Precautions .........................................................................................................7-3

Section II – Navigation Systems......................................................................7-3

NonDirectional Radio Beacon.............................................................................7-3

Very High Frequency OmniDirectional Range....................................................7-5

Tactical Air Navigation ........................................................................................7-8

Very High Frequency OmniDirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation.............7-10

Distance Measuring Equipment........................................................................7-10

Global Positioning System ................................................................................7-11

Inertial Navigation System ................................................................................7-14

Section III – Navigation Procedures..............................................................7-14

Application.........................................................................................................7-14

Homing to a Station ..........................................................................................7-16

Tracking to a Station .........................................................................................7-16

Course Intercept ...............................................................................................7-21

Arc Interceptions ...............................................................................................7-27

Area Navigation.................................................................................................7-30

Global Positioning System Navigation..............................................................7-32

Chapter 8 AIRSPACE..........................................................................................................8-1

Section I – National Airspace System.............................................................8-1

Airspace Classification........................................................................................8-1

Special-Use Airspace..........................................................................................8-3

Other Airspace ....................................................................................................8-4

Federal Airway ....................................................................................................8-5

Section II – International Civil Aviation Organization ...................................8-7

Safety ..................................................................................................................8-7

Applicability .........................................................................................................8-7

Current Information and Procedures ..................................................................8-7

Terminal Instrument Approach Procedures ........................................................8-7

Compliance .........................................................................................................8-8

Definitions ...........................................................................................................8-8

Departure Procedures.........................................................................................8-8

Approach Procedures .......................................................................................8-10

Holding ..............................................................................................................8-17

Altimeter Setting Procedures ............................................................................8-19

Transponder Operating Procedures .................................................................8-20

Chapter 9 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM...................................................................9-1

Communications .................................................................................................9-1

Control Sequence ...............................................................................................9-6

Letters of Agreement ..........................................................................................9-8

iv FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Contents

Chapter 10 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES INFORMATION AND PROCEDURES ........ 10-1

Section I – Sources of Flight Planning Information.................................... 10-1

Department of Defense Flight Information Publications................................... 10-1

Civil Publications .............................................................................................. 10-3

Section II – Instrument Flight Rules Flight Plan.......................................... 10-4

Filing ................................................................................................................. 10-4

Canceling.......................................................................................................... 10-8

Section III – Clearances ................................................................................. 10-8

Separations ...................................................................................................... 10-9

Visual Flight Rules-on-Top ............................................................................. 10-10

Visual Flight Rules Over-the-Top ................................................................... 10-11

Section IV – Notice to Airmen System ....................................................... 10-11

Notice to Airmen ............................................................................................. 10-11

Notices to Airmen Types ................................................................................ 10-12

Internet Distribution System ........................................................................... 10-13

Section V – Navigation Options in the National Airspace System.......... 10-15

On Airways ..................................................................................................... 10-15

Off Airways (Direct) ........................................................................................ 10-16

Section VI – Departures ............................................................................... 10-17

Departure Procedures .................................................................................... 10-17

Diverse Departure .......................................................................................... 10-17

Radar Controlled Departure ........................................................................... 10-19

Departure From Airports Without an Operating Control Tower...................... 10-19

Section VII – En Route ................................................................................. 10-19

Procedures ..................................................................................................... 10-19

Holding Procedures ........................................................................................ 10-22

Section VIII – Approaches ........................................................................... 10-29

Published Procedure Compliance .................................................................. 10-29

Approaches to Airports ................................................................................... 10-29

Low-Altitude Approaches ............................................................................... 10-32

High-Altitude Approach .................................................................................. 10-38

Final Approach ............................................................................................... 10-43

Other Approaches .......................................................................................... 10-52

Missed Approaches ........................................................................................ 10-55

Section IX – Landing .................................................................................... 10-56

Land and Hold Short Operations.................................................................... 10-56

Landing Fees.................................................................................................. 10-56

Chapter 11 EMERGENCY OPERATIONS ......................................................................... 11-1

Section I – Emergencies ................................................................................ 11-1

Unforecasted Adverse Weather ....................................................................... 11-1

Aircraft System Malfunctions............................................................................ 11-3

Communication/Navigation .............................................................................. 11-4

Loss of Situational Awareness ......................................................................... 11-4

Inadvertent Instrument Meteorological Condition............................................. 11-4

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 v

Contents

Section II – Air Traffic Control Requirements and Responsibilities..........11-6

Provide information ...........................................................................................11-6

Request Assistance ..........................................................................................11-7

Responsibility ....................................................................................................11-8

Appendix A INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES OPERATIONS ............................................... A-1

Appendix B INSTRUMENT FLIGHT IN A THEATER OF OPERATIONS ............................ B-1

Appendix C WEATHER REPORTS AND RISK MANAGEMENT ........................................ C-1

Appendix D INTERNET ADDRESSES AND ACCESS......................................................... D-1

Appendix E AIRCREW COORDINATION AND INSTRUMENT FLIGHT............................. E-1

GLOSSARY .......................................................................................... Glossary-1

REFERENCES.................................................................................. References-1

INDEX ......................................................................................................... Index-1

vi FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Contents

Figures
Figure 1-1. Pitot-static head..................................................................................................... 1-2

Figure 1-2. Altimeter components............................................................................................ 1-2

Figure 1-3. Types of altitude .................................................................................................... 1-3

Figure 1-4. Altimeter error caused by nonstandard temperature ............................................ 1-4

Figure 1-5. Altimeter error caused by nonstandard atmospheric pressure ............................. 1-5

Figure 1-6. Temperature correction chart (height in feet)........................................................ 1-6

Figure 1-7. Encoding altimeter with a malfunction................................................................... 1-7

Figure 1-8. Mechanism of an airspeed indicator ..................................................................... 1-8

Figure 1-9. Vertical speed indicator ......................................................................................... 1-9

Figure 1-10. Instantaneous vertical speed indicator................................................................ 1-10

Figure 1-11. Magnetic compass .............................................................................................. 1-11

Figure 1-12. Lines of magnetic variation.................................................................................. 1-12

Figure 1-13. Pilot compass correction card ............................................................................. 1-13

Figure 1-14. Turning error........................................................................................................ 1-14

Figure 1-15. Acceleration error ................................................................................................ 1-15

Figure 1-16. Radio magnetic indicator..................................................................................... 1-16

Figure 1-17. Precession diagram............................................................................................. 1-17

Figure 1-18. Attitude indicator.................................................................................................. 1-18

Figure 1-19. Turn indicator....................................................................................................... 1-19

Figure 1-20. Horizontal situation indicator ............................................................................... 1-21

Figure 1-21. UH-60 vertical situation indicator......................................................................... 1-22

Figure 2-1. Control instruments of a UH-60............................................................................. 2-2

Figure 2-2. Performance instruments of a UH-60.................................................................... 2-2

Figure 2-3. Navigation instruments on a UH-60 ...................................................................... 2-3

Figure 2-4. Pitch control instruments ....................................................................................... 2-4

Figure 2-5. Bank control instruments....................................................................................... 2-4

Figure 2-6. Cross-check pattern .............................................................................................. 2-6

Figure 2-7. Instrument interpretation comparison.................................................................... 2-7

Figure 2-8. Instrument takeoff indications................................................................................ 2-10

Figure 2-9. Straight-and-level flight at normal cruise speed .................................................... 2-14

Figure 2-10. Straight-and-level flight with airspeed deceasing................................................ 2-14

Figure 2-11. Climb entry .......................................................................................................... 2-16

Figure 2-12. Stabilized constant airspeed climb ...................................................................... 2-16

Figure 2-13. Stabilized constant-rate climb ............................................................................. 2-17

Figure 2-14. Standard rate turn to the left................................................................................ 2-19

Figure 2-15. Compass turn correction diagram ....................................................................... 2-21

Figure 2-16. Stabilized left climbing turn, constant airspeed ................................................... 2-22

Figure 3-1. Pitch attitude and airspeed in level flight ............................................................... 3-3

Figure 3-2. Slip indication ........................................................................................................ 3-7

Figure 3-3. Skid indication ....................................................................................................... 3-7

Figure 3-4. Straight-and-level flight.......................................................................................... 3-9

Figure 3-5. Airspeed deceasing ............................................................................................... 3-10

Figure 3-6. Reduced airspeed stabilized ................................................................................. 3-10

Figure 3-7. Climb entry ............................................................................................................ 3-13

Figure 3-8. Stabilized constant airspeed climb ........................................................................ 3-14

Figure 3-9. Stabilized constant rate climb................................................................................ 3-15

Figure 3-10. Level-off............................................................................................................... 3-16

Figure 3-11. Constant airspeed descent, airspeed high—reduce power ................................ 3-17

Figure 3-12. Level-off at descent airspeed .............................................................................. 3-18

Figure 3-13. Standard rate turn................................................................................................ 3-19

Figure 3-14. Steep right turn .................................................................................................... 3-20

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 vii

Contents

Figure 3-15.Change of airspeed in turn....................................................................................3-21

Figure 3-16. Unusual attitude—nose high................................................................................3-25

Figure 3-17. Unusual attitude—nose low .................................................................................3-25

Figure 4-1. Longitude and latitude............................................................................................4-3

Figure 4-2. En route airport legend ..........................................................................................4-6

Figure 4-3. Navigational aid and communication boxes ..........................................................4-8

Figure 4-4. Air traffic services and airspace information ..........................................................4-9

Figure 4-5. Instrument approach chart .....................................................................................4-12

Figure 4-6. Procedures and notes............................................................................................4-13

Figure 4-7. Basic T design of terminal arrival area ..................................................................4-17

Figure 4-8. Profile view features...............................................................................................4-18

Figure 4-9. Landing minimums.................................................................................................4-20

Figure 4-10. Point in space approach ......................................................................................4-23

Figure 4-11. Remote altimeter settings ....................................................................................4-24

Figure 4-12. Inoperative components.......................................................................................4-25

Figure 4-13. East/west course reading, using outer/inner scale ..............................................4-26

Figure 4-14. North course reading, using inner scale ..............................................................4-27

Figure 4-15. Drawing a course line from a known point...........................................................4-28

Figure 5-1. CPU-26A/P calculator side ....................................................................................5-1

Figure 5-2. Calculator side of CPU-26A/P computer ...............................................................5-2

Figure 5-3. Computing time and distance ................................................................................5-3

Figure 5-4. Computing speed...................................................................................................5-3

Figure 5-5. Short time and distance .........................................................................................5-4

Figure 5-6. Estimated outbound time more than one minute ...................................................5-5

Figure 5-7. Estimated outbound time less than one minute.....................................................5-5

Figure 5-8. Gallons and pounds conversion ............................................................................5-6

Figure 5-9. Computing time for fuel consumption ....................................................................5-7

Figure 5-10. Fuel required ........................................................................................................5-7

Figure 5-11. Rate of fuel consumption .....................................................................................5-8

Figure 5-12. True airspeed computation ..................................................................................5-9

Figure 5-13. Nautical, statute, and kilometer correlation..........................................................5-10

Figure 5-14. Inner scale computation.......................................................................................5-10

Figure 5-15. True altitude calculation .......................................................................................5-11

Figure 5-16. Multiplication ........................................................................................................5-12

Figure 5-17. Division.................................................................................................................5-12

Figure 5-18. Converting feet per nautical mile to feet per minute ............................................5-13

Figure 5-19. Wind side of CPU-26A/P computer .....................................................................5-14

Figure 5-20. Heading and ground speed .................................................................................5-15

Figure 5-21. Determining unknown wind..................................................................................5-16

Figure 5-22. Determining altitude for most favorable wind.......................................................5-16

Figure 5-23. Determining radius of action, part I......................................................................5-17

Figure 5-24. Determining radius of action, part II.....................................................................5-18

Figure 5-25. Determining radius of action, part III....................................................................5-18

Figure 6-1. Wind effect and ground speed ...............................................................................6-2

Figure 6-2. Wind drift ................................................................................................................6-2

Figure 6-3. Wind drift angle ......................................................................................................6-3

Figure 6-4. Wind correction angle ............................................................................................6-3

Figure 6-5. Instrument scan in severe turbulence (blurry instrument panel) ...........................6-4

Figure 6-6. Glide-slope deviations in wind shear .....................................................................6-7

Figure 7-1. Surface, space, and sky wave propagation ...........................................................7-2

Figure 7-2. Very (high frequency) omnidirectional range radials .............................................7-6

Figure 7-3. Homing to a station ................................................................................................7-16

Figure 7-4. Push the head ........................................................................................................7-17

Figure 7-5. Pull the tail..............................................................................................................7-18

Figure 7-6. Tracking inbound ...................................................................................................7-19

viii FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Contents

Figure 7-7. Tracking outbound................................................................................................. 7-20

Figure 7-8. Inbound course intercept of less than 45 degrees ................................................ 7-23

Figure 7-9. Inbound course intercept....................................................................................... 7-24

Figure 7-10. Inbound course intercept of greater than 45 degrees ......................................... 7-25

Figure 7-11. Outbound course intercept immediately after station passage ........................... 7-26

Figure 7-12. Outbound course intercept away from station..................................................... 7-27

Figure 7-13. Arc interception from a radial .............................................................................. 7-28

Figure 7-14. Localizer interception from a distance measuring equipment arc....................... 7-29

Figure 7-15. Flying a distance measuring equipment arc........................................................ 7-30

Figure 7-16. Area navigation computation............................................................................... 7-31

Figure 7-17. Aircraft/very (high frequency) omnidirectional radio range tactical air navigation

aid/waypoint relationship ................................................................................................... 7-32

Figure 8-1. Airspace classification ........................................................................................... 8-2

Figure 8-2. Victor airways and charted information ................................................................. 8-6

Figure 8-3. The 45-degree/180-degree procedure turn........................................................... 8-11

Figure 8-4. The 80-degree/260-degree procedure turn........................................................... 8-12

Figure 8-5. Base turn ............................................................................................................... 8-12

Figure 8-6. Comparison of Federal Aviation Administration and International Civil Aviation

Organization protected airspace for a procedure turn ...................................................... 8-13

Figure 8-7. Procedure turn entry.............................................................................................. 8-14

Figure 8-8. Base turn entry ...................................................................................................... 8-14

Figure 8-9. Racetrack procedure ............................................................................................. 8-16

Figure 8-10. International Civil Aviation Organization holding pattern entry sectors............... 8-18

Figure 10-1. Types of aeronautical charts ............................................................................... 10-4

Figure 10-2. Department of Defense Form 175....................................................................... 10-5

Figure 10-3. Department of Defense Form 1801..................................................................... 10-6

Figure 10-4. Federal Aviation Administration Form 7233-1..................................................... 10-7

Figure 10-5. Departure procedure ........................................................................................... 10-18

Figure 10-6. Standard terminal arrival route ............................................................................ 10-23

Figure 10-7. Standard holding pattern—no wind ..................................................................... 10-24

Figure 10-8. Standard holding pattern with drift correction...................................................... 10-25

Figure 10-9. Holding pattern entry procedures ........................................................................ 10-27

Figure 10-10. Holding and outbound timing............................................................................. 10-28

Figure 10-11. Facilities with standard approach procedures................................................... 10-29

Figure 10-12. Approach procedure without an operating control tower .................................. 10-31

Figure 10-13. Instrument approach procedure chart with maximum air traffic control facilities

available............................................................................................................................. 10-33

Figure 10-14. Teardrop pattern................................................................................................ 10-35

Figure 10-15. 45/180 procedure turn ....................................................................................... 10-36

Figure 10-16. 80/260 procedure turn ....................................................................................... 10-36

Figure 10-17. Descent at the holding fix .................................................................................. 10-37

Figure 10-18. Descent on the inbound leg............................................................................... 10-37

Figure 10-19. Procedural track approach—arcing final ........................................................... 10-39

Figure 10-20. Procedural track approach—teardrop turn........................................................ 10-40

Figure 10-21. High-altitude instrument approach plate ........................................................... 10-41

Figure 10-22. Instrument landing system ................................................................................ 10-47

Figure 10-23. Parallel and simultaneous instrument landing system approaches .................. 10-53

Figure 10-24. Circling approach area radii .............................................................................. 10-54

Figure 10-25. Circling approaches........................................................................................... 10-55

Figure 11-1. Additional ATC information.................................................................................. 11-6

Figure C-1. Takeoff data .......................................................................................................... C-1

Figure C-2. En route and mission data .................................................................................... C-3

Figure C-3. Aerodrome forecasts ............................................................................................ C-5

Figure C-4. Comments/remarks .............................................................................................. C-6

Figure C-5. Briefing record....................................................................................................... C-6

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 ix

Contents

Figure C-6. Meteorological aviation report ...............................................................................C-8

Figure C-7. Terminal area forecast ..........................................................................................C-16

x FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

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Tables

Table 2-1. Maneuver instrum ........................................................................................................2-4

Table 2-2. Compass turn computation........................................................................................2-22

Table 4-1. Distance conversions ..................................................................................................4-3

Table 4-2. Aircraft approach categories and circling limits .........................................................4-21

Table 4-3. Runway visual range conversion table......................................................................4-21

Table 5-1. Gallons and pounds conversion ..................................................................................5-6

Table 6-1. Temperature ranges for ice formation .........................................................................6-5

Table 7-1. Standard wind drift correction....................................................................................7-21

Table 8-1. Aircraft category and maximum airspeed..................................................................8-10

Table 8-2. Aircraft category and airspeed...................................................................................8-15

Table 8-3. Airspeeds...................................................................................................................8-18

Table 9-1. Air traffic control facilities, services, and radio call signs ............................................9-6

Table 10-1. Air traffic control separation parameters ...............................................................10-10

Table 10-2. Attention notice groups ..........................................................................................10-12

Table 10-3. Holding altitudes and airspeeds ............................................................................10-26

Table 10-4. Course reversal steps............................................................................................10-35

Table A-1. Sample instrument flight rules planning requirements ............................................... A-5

Table B-1. Initial air traffic control capabilities ............................................................................. B-2

Table B-2. Transition to sustained air traffic control operations .................................................. B-3

Table B-3. Service capabilities and references ........................................................................... B-4

Table C-1. Takeoff data block explanation .................................................................................. C-2

Table C-2. En route and mission data block explanation ............................................................ C-3

Table C-3. Aerodrome forecasts block explanation..................................................................... C-5

Table C-4. Comments/remarks block explanation....................................................................... C-6

Table C-5. Briefing record block explanation............................................................................... C-7

Table C-6. Special weather report criteria ................................................................................... C-8

Table C-7. Descriptor qualifiers ................................................................................................. C-11

Table C-8. Precipitation types.................................................................................................... C-12

Table C-9. Obscuration types .................................................................................................... C-12

Table C-10. Other types of weather phenomena ...................................................................... C-12

Table C-11. Reportable descriptions for sky cover.................................................................... C-13

Table C-12. Automated, manual, and plain language remarks ................................................. C-15

Table C-13. Automated weather observing system models ...................................................... C-21

Table C-14. Weather briefing..................................................................................................... C-24

Table C-15. Derived mission information................................................................................... C-25

Table C-16. Radar system precipitation intensity levels............................................................ C-29

Table D-1. Internet resources for flight operation planning ......................................................... D-1

Table E-1. Examples of standard words and phrases................................................................. E-8

Table E-2. Rotary and fixed wing instrument takeoff callouts...................................................... E-9

Table E-3. Climb/cruise/descent callouts................................................................................... E-10

Table E-4. Examples of calls/responses for all phases of flight ................................................ E-10

Table E-5. Examples of instrument approach calls/responses ................................................. E-10

Table E-6. Examples of missed approach calls/responses ....................................................... E-11

Table E-7. Examples of calls/responses for instrument reference to visual.............................. E-11

Table E-8. Examples of calls/responses for approach deviations............................................. E-12

Table E-9. Examples of emergency calls/responses................................................................. E-12

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 xi

 Preface

Field manual (FM) 3-04.240 is specifically prepared for aviators authorized to fly Army aircraft. This manual
presents the fundamentals, procedures, and techniques for instrument flying and air navigation.
FM 3-04.240 facilitates adherence to Army regulation (AR) 95-1 by providing guidance and procedures for
standard Army instrument flying. Aircraft flight instrumentation and mission objectives are varied, making
instruction general for equipment and detailed for accomplishment of maneuvers. Guidance found in this
manual is both technique and procedure oriented. Aircraft operator manuals provide the detailed instructions
required for particular aircraft instrumentation or characteristics. When used with related flight directives and
publications, this publication provides adequate guidance for instrument flight under most circumstances but is
not a substitute for sound judgment; circumstances may require modification of prescribed procedures. Aircrew
members charged with the safe operation of United States Army, Army National Guard (ARNG), or United
States Army Reserve (USAR) aircraft must be knowledgeable of the guidance contained herein. This manual
applies to all military, civilian, and/or contractor personnel who operate Army aircraft, and adherence to its
general practices is mandatory.
The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) published by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is not
regulatory; however, the AIM provides information that reflects examples of operating techniques and
procedures required in other regulations. AIM is not binding on Army aircrews. Furthermore, the AIM contains
some techniques and procedures not consistent with Army mission requirements, regulatory guidance, waivers,
exemptions, and accepted techniques and procedures. However, AIM is the accepted standard for civil aviation
and reflects general techniques and procedures used by other pilots. Much of the information contained in this
manual is reproduced from AIM and adapted for Army use. If a subject is not covered in this manual or other
Army regulations, follow guidance in the AIM unless mission requirements dictate otherwise.
All figures and tables that display partial or complete navigational excerpts from other publications (such as
instrument approach charts, legends, and low-altitude en route charts) are provided for reference only and
should not be used in planning for or the conduct of any flight.
This publication applies to the Active Army, the Army National Guard/Army National Guard of the United
States, and the United States Army Reserve unless otherwise stated.
The proponent of this publication is Headquarters, United States Army Training and Doctrine Command
(TRADOC). Send comments and recommended changes, using Department of the Army (DA) Form 2028
(Recommended Changes to publications and Blank Forms) or automated link
(http://www.usapa.army.mil/da2028/daform2028.asp), directly to Commander, U.S. Army Aviation
Warfighting Center (USAAWC), ATTN: ATZQ-TD-D, Fort Rucker, AL 36362-5000; or e-mail the Directorate
of Training and Doctrine (DOTD) at [email protected]. Other doctrinal information can be found on the
Internet through Army Knowledge Online (AKO) or by calling the defense switched network (DSN) 558-3551
or commercial (334) 255-3551.

Note. For immediate assistance on issues affecting this FM, contact the Directorate of Training
and Doctrine (DOTD), Doctrine Division, at DSN 558-3551, commercial 334-255-3551, or via
e-mail at the following address: [email protected].

This publication has been reviewed for operations security considerations.

xii FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Chapter 1
Flight Instruments and Systems

The efficiency and utility of Army aircraft depend largely on flight instruments and
systems accurately depicting what the aircraft is doing in flight and how well its
power plants and components are functioning. Important navigation instruments are
the magnetic compass, slaved gyro compass system, heading indicator, airspeed
indicator, and altimeter. These instruments provide information concerning direction,
airspeed, and altitude. The attitude indicator allows the aviator to control the aircraft
by showing the attitude of the aircraft in relation to the natural horizon. The
performance of an aircraft in a given attitude and with a certain power setting is
indicated by the airspeed indicator, heading indicator, altimeter, vertical speed
indicator/vertical velocity indicator, and turn-and-slip indicator. Flight instruments
are grouped into three systems: pitot-static, compass, and gyroscopic.

SECTION I – PITOT-STATIC SYSTEMS

1-1.
Most aircraft instrument panels have three basic pressure-operated instruments: the altimeter,
airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator
(VSI). All three receive the pressures that they Contents
measure from the aircraft pitot-static system. Flight
Section I – Pitot-Static Systems ................... 1-1
instruments depend on accurate sampling of ambient
atmospheric pressure to determine the height and Section II – Compass Systems................... 1-10
speed of aircraft movement through the air, both Section III – Gyroscopic Systems .............. 1-16
horizontally and vertically. Ambient atmospheric
Section IV – Flight Management System ... 1-20
pressure is sampled at two or more locations outside
of the aircraft by the pitot-static system.
1-2. Static pressure, or still air, is measured at a flush port where air is not disturbed. On some aircraft,
this air is sampled by static ports on the side of the fuselage (Figure 1-1). A pitot-static head is a
combination pickup used to sample pitot and static air pressures. Other aircraft pick up the static pressure
through flush ports on the side of the electrically heated pitot-static head. These ports are in locations
proven by flight tests to be in undisturbed air, and they are normally paired, one on either side of the
aircraft. This dual location prevents lateral movement of the aircraft from giving erroneous static pressure
indications. The areas around the static ports may be heated with electric heater elements to prevent ice
forming over the port and blocking the entry of static air.
1-3. Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is taken in through an open-end tube pointed directly into the
relative wind flowing around the aircraft. The pitot tube connects to the airspeed indicator, and the static
ports deliver pressure to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and VSI (Figure 1-1, page 1-2).

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Figure 1-1. Pitot-static head

ALTIMETER
1-4. An altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of ambient air and displays
that absolute pressure in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level. The sensitive element in an
altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze wafers (Figure 1-2). The air pressure tries to compress
the wafers against their natural springiness, which works to expand them. As a result, their thickness
changes as air pressure changes.

Figure 1-2. Altimeter components

1-5. An altimeter has an adjustable barometric scale that allows the aviator to set the reference pressure
from which the altitude is measured. This scale is visible in the Kollsman window (altimeter setting
window) and adjusted by a knob on the instrument. The range of the scale is from 28.00 to 31.00 inches of
mercury (Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars.
1-6. Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and altimeter pointers in such a way that a
change in the barometric scale of 1 inch Hg changes the pointer indication by 1,000 feet. This is the

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 Flight Instruments and Systems

standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000 feet. When the barometric scale is adjusted to 29.92 inches Hg, or
1,013.2 millibars, the pointers indicate the pressure altitude. To display indicated altitude, adjust the
barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The instrument then indicates the height above the existing
sea-level pressure.

TYPES OF ALTITUDE
1-7. The five types of altitude are indicated, absolute, true, pressure, and density. Figure 1-3 compares
pressure, true, and absolute altitudes. Indicated altitude is altitude as read on the dial with a current
altimeter setting (sea-level pressure) set in the Kollsman window. Absolute altitude is the altitude above the
surface or terrain where the aircraft is flying, also called above ground level (AGL). True altitude is the
altitude above mean sea level (MSL).

Figure 1-3. Types of altitude

1-8. Pressure altitude is the height measured above the 29.92-inches-of-mercury pressure level (standard
datum plane). If the Kollsman window is set to 29.92 Hg, the hands of the dial indicate pressure altitude.
This setting is called the standard altimeter setting. In the United States, the use of pressure altitudes
(standard altimeter setting) begins at 18,000 feet. These altitudes are referred to as flight levels (FLs). The
following are examples of conversions of altitude in feet to flight levels.

Examples of Conversions to Flight Levels

18,000 feet equals FL180; 35,000 feet equals FL350.

1-9. Density altitude is the altitude for which a given air density exists in the standard atmosphere. If the
barometric pressure is lower or the temperature is higher than standard, then density altitude of the field is
higher than its actual elevation such as in the following example. Density altitudes can be obtained from
many airfield towers or may be computed on the dead reckoning computer (CPU-26A/P).

WARNING

Because higher density altitude requires a greater takeoff

distance and reduces aircraft performance, failure to calculate
density altitude could be fatal.

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Example of Density Exceeding Actual Elevation

For Denver, Colorado, with an elevation of 5,500 feet, at a temperature of 100º Fahrenheit (F) and a
barometer reading (corrected to MSL) of 29.55 inches of mercury, density altitude is about 10,000 feet.

ALTIMETER ERROR
1-10. An altimeter indicates standard changes from standard conditions; most flying, however, involves
errors caused by nonstandard conditions, where the aviator must modify the indications to correct for these
errors. Two types of errors are mechanical and inherent.
1-11. A preflight check to determine the condition of an altimeter consists of setting the altimeter pointer
to the airport elevation or actual aircraft location altitude, if known, and noting the Kollsman window
setting. After obtaining the local altimeter setting, compute altimeter error as described in the following
example.

Example Illustrating Difference of Actual and Displayed Altitudes

Set 29.95 with pointer on field elevation; the local altimeter setting is 29.98. This setting causes a difference of
30 feet between actual and displayed altitudes (29.98 – 29.95 = .03, 10 feet for every .01).

1-12. According to the FAA, if the indication is off more than 75 feet from the surveyed elevation, the
instrument must be referred to a certified instrument repair station for recalibration. According to current
Army operator manuals, aircraft are allowed up to 70 feet from the surveyed elevation. The appropriate
operator or maintenance manual should be referenced to confirm which limit is accurate. Differences
between ambient temperature and pressure will cause an erroneous indication on the altimeter. Figure 1-4
shows the way that nonstandard temperature affects an altimeter. When the aircraft is flying in air warmer
than standard, the air is less dense and pressure levels are farther apart. When the aircraft is flying at an
indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, the pressure level for that altitude is higher than in air at standard
temperature, and the aircraft flies higher than if the air were cooler. If the air is colder than standard, air is
denser and pressure levels are closer together. When the aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 5,000
feet, its true altitude is lower than if the air were warmer.

Figure 1-4. Altimeter error caused by nonstandard temperature

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 Flight Instruments and Systems

1-13. Any time that the barometric pressure lapse rate differs from the standard of inches of Hg per
thousand feet in lower elevations, the indicated altitude will be different from the true altitude. Figure 1-5
shows a helicopter at point A flying in air in which conditions are standard; the altimeter setting is 29.92
inches Hg. When the altimeter indicates 5,000 feet, the true altitude is also 5,000 feet. The helicopter flies
to point B, where pressure is lower than standard, and the altimeter setting is 28.36 inches Hg; however,
the aviator does not change the altimeter to this new altimeter setting. When the altimeter shows an
indicated altitude of 5,000 feet, the true altitude, or height above MSL, is 3,500 feet.

Figure 1-5. Altimeter error caused by nonstandard atmospheric pressure

COLD-WEATHER ALTIMETER CORRECTION

1-14. Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under international standard atmospheric
(ISA) conditions. Any deviation from these standard conditions results in an erroneous reading on the
altimeter. This error becomes important when the aviator considers obstacle clearances in temperatures
lower than standard because the aircraft’s altitude is below the figure indicated by the altimeter. The error
is proportional to the difference between actual and ISA temperature and the height of the aircraft above
the altimeter setting source. The amount of error is about 4 feet per 1,000 feet for each degree Celsius (°C)
of difference. Corrections are only made for decision altitudes (DAs)/decision heights (DHs), minimum
descent altitudes (MDAs), and other altitudes inside, but not including, the final approach fix (FAF). The
same correction made to DAs/DHs and MDAs is applied to other altitudes inside the FAF. For current
cold-weather altimeter correction procedures, refer to the Flight Information Handbook (FIH), section D.
An example of cold-weather altimeter correction follows Figure 1-6, page 1-6. The following guidance is
an example of how to accomplish the procedure found in the FIH. To ensure adequate obstacle clearance,
the values in the chart in Figure 1-6 are—
• Added to the published decision altitude (DA)/DH or MDA and step-down fixes inside the FAF
whenever outside air temperature is less than 0 degree C.

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Chapter 1

• Added to all altitudes in the procedure in designated mountainous regions whenever outside air
temperature is 0 degree C or less.
• Added to all altitudes in the procedure whenever outside air temperature is –30 degrees C or
less.
• Added to procedure turn, intermediate approach altitude, and height above touchdown
(HAT)/height above airport (HAA) when they are 3,000 feet or more above the altimeter setting
source.

Figure 1-6. Temperature correction chart (height in feet)

Example of Cold-Weather Altimeter Correction

Published MDA 1,180 feet MSL
HAT 402 (feet)
Temp –30ºC
Correction 80 feet
MDA to use: 1,180 + 80 = 1,260 feet MSL

ENCODING ALTIMETER
1-15. An encoding altimeter is also known as an AIMS altimeter. In the term AIMS, A stands for Air
Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS), I stands for identification friend or foe (IFF), M
represents the Mark XII identification system, and S means system.
1-16. When the air traffic control (ATC) transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding altimeter supplies the
transponder with a series of pulses identifying the flight level (in increments of 100 feet) at which the
aircraft is flying. This series of pulses is transmitted to ground radar and appears on the controller’s scope
as an alphanumeric display around the return for the aircraft. The transponder allows the ground controller
to identify the aircraft under his or her control and determine the pressure altitude that the aircraft is flying.
1-17. A computer inside the encoding altimeter measures the pressure referenced from 29.92 inches Hg
and delivers this data to the transponder. When the aviator adjusts the barometric scale to the local
altimeter setting, the data sent to the transponder is not affected. Figure 1-7, page 1-7, shows an altimeter
with a failed encoder displayed by a red blocked code off between the 8 and 9 on the altimeter.

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 Flight Instruments and Systems

Figure 1-7. Encoding altimeter with a malfunction

RADAR ALTIMETER
1-18. The radar altimeter, also known as an absolute altimeter, measures the height of the aircraft above
terrain by transmitting a radio signal, either a frequency-modulated (FM) continuous-wave or a pulse to the
ground, and accurately measuring the time used by the signal in traveling from the aircraft to the ground
and returning. This transit time is modified with a time delay and converted inside the indicator to distance
in feet.
1-19. Most absolute altimeters have a provision for setting a low/high altitude. When the aircraft reaches
this height above ground, a light illuminates and/or an aural warning sounds. Aircraft with a flight
management system may have a provision for setting a DA/DH or a MDA; when the aircraft reaches this
height, a light illuminates and/or an aural warning sounds. For example, the utility helicopter (UH)-60
vertical situation indicator has a DH advisory light that illuminates whenever the radar altimeter is
operating and the altitude indicator is at or below the set altitude on the radar altimeter. See the operator’s
manual for operation of the radar altimeter. A radar altimeter has three main functions:
• Serves as a ground proximity warning device.
• Is an accurate cross-check for the barometric altimeter.
• Indicates absolute height above terrain.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
1-20. An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air
through which the aircraft is flying. Dynamic pressure is the difference in ambient static air pressure and
total, or ram, pressure caused by motion of the aircraft through the air. These two pressures are taken from
the pitot-static system.
1-21. The mechanism of the airspeed indicator in Figure 1-8, page 1-8, consists of a thin, corrugated
phosphor-bronze aneroid, or diaphragm, that receives its pressure from the pitot tube. The instrument case
is sealed and connected to the static ports. As pitot pressure increases or static pressure decreases, the
diaphragm expands. This dimensional change is measured by a rocking shaft and gears driving a pointer
across the instrument dial. Most airspeed indicators are calibrated in knots, or nautical miles per hour;
some instruments show statute miles per hour, and some instruments show both.

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Chapter 1

Figure 1-8. Mechanism of an airspeed indicator

1-22. There are four types of airspeed. The four types are indicated, calibrated, equivalent, and true.
• Indicated airspeed (IAS) is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for instrument or
system errors.
• Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the speed that the aircraft is moving through the air, which is found
by correcting IAS for instrument and position errors; the aircraft operator’s manual has a chart
or graph to correct IAS for these errors and provide correct CAS for various aircraft
configurations.
• Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is CAS corrected for compression of air inside the pitot tube; EAS is
the same as CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As airspeed and pressure altitude increase,
the CAS becomes higher and a correction for compression must be subtracted from CAS.
• True airspeed (TAS) is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature; TAS and CAS
are the same in standard atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions, TAS is found
by applying a correction for pressure altitude and temperature to CAS. Aircraft equipped with
TAS indicators have a temperature-compensated aneroid bellows inside the instrument case. The
bellows modifies the movement of the rocking shaft inside the instrument case so that the
pointer shows actual TAS; the TAS indicator provides TAS and IAS. These instruments have a
conventional airspeed mechanism with an added subdial visible through cutouts in the regular
dial. A knob on the instrument allows rotation of the subdial and alignment of an indication of
the outside air temperature with the pressure altitude being flown; this alignment causes the
instrument pointer to indicate TAS on the subdial.
1-23. In addition to the four airspeeds above, aviators must also consider and calculate ground speed.
Ground speed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the surface of the earth. Ground speed is TAS corrected
for wind.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

1-24. The VSI (Figure 1-9, page 1-9) is also called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI) and was formerly
known as a rate-of-climb indicator. The VSI/VVI is a rate-of-pressure change instrument that indicates any
deviation from a constant pressure level.

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 Flight Instruments and Systems

Figure 1-9. Vertical speed indicator

1-25. Inside of the instrument case is an aneroid (also called a diaphragm) much like the one in an airspeed
indicator. Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static
system. The case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes pressure inside the case to change more
slowly than pressure inside the aneroid. As the aircraft ascends, static pressure becomes lower and pressure
inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward—showing a climb and indicating the
number of feet per minute (FPM) that the aircraft is ascending.
1-26. When the aircraft levels off and static pressure is no longer changing, pressure inside the case
becomes the same as that inside the aneroid and the pointer returns to the horizontal, or zero, position.
When the aircraft descends, static pressure increases and the aneroids expand, moving the pointer
downward, indicating a descent. The pointer indication in a VSI lags a few seconds behind the actual
change in pressure. The VSI is more sensitive than an altimeter and useful in alerting the aviator of an
upward or downward trend, thereby helping maintain a constant altitude.

INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

1-27. Instantaneous vertical speed indicators (IVSIs) (Figure 1-10, page 1-10) differ from VSI
construction by having two accelerometer-actuated air pumps that sense an upward or downward pitch of
the aircraft and instantaneously creating a pressure differential. By the time that pressure caused by the
pitch acceleration dissipates, the altitude pressure change is effective.
1-28. Because accelerometers are not vertically stabilized, some error is generated in turns. If a zero
indication is maintained on the IVSI when the aircraft is entering a turn, some loss in altitude will be
encountered. A corresponding gain in altitude results when the aircraft is recovering from a turn. The IVSI
should not be used for directly controlling vertical speed when the aircraft is rapidly banking in excess of
40 degrees. The indicator is not affected once the aircraft is in a steady turn.
1-29. The fade-out of acceleration in a steady turn happens when a turn has been started and the
accompanying change in normal acceleration has been completed. Fade-out occurs because the accelerator
masses settle to new balance points corresponding to the normal acceleration maintained in the turn. When
a 30-degree bank is being established, altitude deviation should not exceed 90 feet while the IVSI is
maintained at zero. In more steeply banked turns, turn error rapidly increases with bank angle.

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Chapter 1

Figure 1-10. Instantaneous vertical speed indicator

SECTION II – COMPASS SYSTEMS

1-30. The Earth is a huge magnet surrounded by a magnetic field made up of invisible lines of flux. These
lines leave the surface at the magnetic north pole and reenter at the magnetic South Pole. Lines of magnetic
flux have two important characteristics: any magnet free to rotate aligns with them, and an electrical
current is induced into any conductor that cuts across them. Most direction indicators installed in aircraft
make use of one of these two characteristics.

MAGNETIC COMPASS
1-31. A magnet is a piece of material, usually a metal containing iron, which attracts and holds lines of
magnetic flux. Every magnet, regardless of size, has two poles: north and south. When one magnet is
placed in the field of another, the unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel.
1-32. The magnetic compass (Figure 1-11, page 1-11) is one of the oldest, simplest, and most basic
instruments. AR 95-1 requires a magnetic compass for all flights. The compass bowl is the interior portion
of the compass card that supports the dial and float. The bowl is filled with liquid that has minimum
volume and viscosity changes with temperature variations. Some compasses have an expansion bellows to
allow for fluid expansion. The bowl supports a metal float that has two small magnets attached to it. A
graduated scale, called a card, is wrapped around the float and viewed through a glass window with a
lubber line across the center of the glass. The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its
center that rides inside a special, spring-loaded, hard-glass jewel cup. The buoyancy of the float takes most
of the weight off the pivot, and the fluid dampens the oscillation of the float and card. This jewel-and-pivot
type of mounting allows the float to freely rotate and tilt about 18 degrees. Compass indications are erratic
and unreliable at steeper bank angles.
1-33. The compass card is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions—north, east, south, and
west—and a number for each 30 degrees between these letters. The final “0” is omitted from these
directions as in the following examples.

Examples of Compass Card Degree Equivalents

3 equals 30 degrees 6 equals 60 degrees 33 equals 330 degrees

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 Flight Instruments and Systems

Figure 1-11. Magnetic compass

1-34. There are long and short graduation marks between the letters and numbers, with each long mark
representing 10 degrees and each short mark representing 5 degrees. The numbers and letters on the
graduated scale are marked to allow the aviator to view the direction being flown. The markings appear
backward from conventional compasses that are viewed from above.

COMPASS ERROR

Variation
1-35. The Earth rotates about its geographic axis, and maps and charts are drawn using meridians of
longitude that pass through the geographic poles. Directions measured from the geographic poles are called
true directions. The north magnetic pole, to which the magnetic compass points, is not collocated with the
north geographic pole but is some 1,300 miles away. Directions measured from the magnetic poles are
called magnetic directions. In aerial navigation, the difference between true and magnetic directions is
called variation. In surveying and land navigation, the difference is called declination.
1-36. Figure 1-12, page 1-12, shows the isogonic lines that identify the number of degrees of variation in
their area. The line that passes near Chicago is called the agonic line, and anywhere along this agonic line,
the two poles are aligned and there is no variation.

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Chapter 1

Figure 1-12. Lines of magnetic variation

1-37. Variation values to the east of the agonic line are called westerly variation; the magnetic north pole is
west of true north (TN). Likewise, the variation values west of the agonic line are known as easterly
variation; the magnetic north pole is east of true north. Variation error does not change with the aircraft’s
heading and is the same anywhere along that particular isogonic line.
1-38. Magnetic north (MN) changes in small amounts each year. Aeronautical charts are updated
periodically to correct for this yearly change. On instrument flight rules (IFR) en route low- and
high-altitude charts, all radials and bearings are displayed as magnetic and, therefore, do not require the use
of the compass correction formula.
1-39. When aviators plot a course on an aeronautical chart, they measure the degrees of heading against
latitude and longitude lines. This measure is called a true heading (TH) because it is being measured
relative to the true north pole. Because the aviator relies on the magnetic compass for direction, the aviator
will be steering the aircraft relative to the magnetic north pole. Therefore, the aviator must convert the TH,
as plotted on the navigation chart, to a magnetic heading (MH) by which to steer, using the compass. A
method for remembering magnetic variation is to add westerly variation and subtract easterly variation by
using the phrase “west is best/east is least.” The following example demonstrates how to convert the true
heading to a magnetic heading.

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Example of Compass Correction

To convert TH to MH, add westerly variation to TH to get MH (see right-hand example Figure 1-12). In other

words, the aviator must steer 065 degrees magnetic to fly over a true heading of 055 degrees.

055 degrees (TH) + 10 degrees west (variation) = 065 degrees (MH).

Likewise, subtract easterly variation from TH to get MH (see left hand example Figure 1-12). In other words,

the aviator must steer 040 degrees magnetic to fly over a true heading of 055 degrees.

055 degrees (TH) - 15 degrees east (variation) = 040 degrees (MH).

1-40. To find true heading when magnetic heading is known, the equation in the previous example is
written in reverse. This procedure is shown in the following example.

Example of Reversing the Equation for Compass Correction

Convert MH to TH by adding easterly variation and subtracting westerly variation. This is the reverse of
changing from TH to MH. The 10 degrees west is subtracted from the MH (065 degrees), and this figure (055
degrees) is the TH. Likewise, the 15 degrees east is added to the MH (040 degrees), and this figure (055
degrees) is the TH.
065 degrees (MH) - 10 degrees west (variation) = 055 degrees (TH).
040 degrees (MH) + 15 degrees east (variation) = 055 degrees (TH).

Deviation
1-41. Magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field. Local magnetic fields in an aircraft caused by
electrical current flowing in the structure, in nearby wiring, or in any magnetized part of the structure will
conflict with the Earth’s magnetic field and cause a compass error called deviation. To reduce deviation,
the compensating assembly is adjusted as much as possible. A Department of Defense (DD) Form 1613
(Pilot’s Compass Correction Card) (Figure 1-13) is prepared and mounted near the compass. Figures from
this card are applied to the indications of the compass so that a desired heading may be flown.

Figure 1-13. Pilot compass correction card

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Chapter 1

Dip Error
1-42. The lines of magnetic flux are considered to leave the Earth at the magnetic north pole and enter at
the magnetic south pole. At both locations, the lines are perpendicular to the Earth’s surface. At the
magnetic equator, which is halfway between the poles, the lines are parallel with the surface. Magnets in
the compass align with this field, and near the poles they dip, or tilt, the float and card. The float is
balanced with a small dip-compensating weight and stays relatively level when operating in the middle
latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The dip, along with this weight, causes two very noticeable errors:
turning error and acceleration error.

Turning Error
1-43. Pull of the vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field causes northerly turning error, which is
apparent on a heading of north or south. If an aircraft flying a heading of north makes a turn east, the
aircraft banks to the right and the compass card tilts to the right. The vertical component of the Earth’s
magnetic field pulls the north-seeking end of the magnet to the right, and the float rotates, causing the card
to rotate toward the west, the direction opposite the direction of the turn (Figure 1-14).

Figure 1-14. Turning error

1-44. If the turn is made from north to west, the aircraft banks to the left and the card tilts to the left. The
magnetic field pulls on the end of the magnet, causing the card to rotate toward the east. This indication is,
again, opposite to the direction in which the turn is being made. The rule for this error is the following:
when the aircraft starts a turn from a northerly heading, compass indication lags behind the turn.
1-45. When an aircraft is flying on a heading of south and begins a turn east, the magnetic field of the
earth pulls on the end of the magnet, rotating the card toward the east, the same direction in which the turn
is being made. If the turn is made from the south toward the west, magnetic pull starts the card rotating
toward the west, again; in the same direction in which the turn is being made. The rule for this error is the
following: when the aircraft starts a turn from a southerly heading, compass indication leads the turn.

Acceleration Error
1-46. In acceleration error, dip-correction weight causes the end of the float and card marked “N” (this is
the south-seeking end) to be heavier than the opposite end. When the aircraft is flying at a constant speed
on a heading of either east or west, the float and card are level. Effects of magnetic dip and weight are

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 Flight Instruments and Systems

about equal. If the aircraft accelerates on a heading of east (Figure 1-15), inertia of the weight holds its end
of the float back and the card rotates toward north. The card swings back to its east indication as soon as
the speed of the aircraft stabilizes.

Figure 1-15. Acceleration error

1-47. If, while flying on this easterly heading, the aircraft decelerates, inertia causes the weight to move
ahead and the card rotates toward the south until the speed again stabilizes. While the aircraft is flying on a
heading of west, inertia from acceleration causes the weight to lag and the card rotates toward the north.
When the aircraft decelerates on a heading of west, inertia causes the weight to move ahead and the card
rotates toward the south. A helpful way to remember acceleration error is the acronym ANDS:
acceleration-north/deceleration-south.

Oscillation Error
1-48. Oscillation is a combination of all other errors, including rough air or poor control technique, and
results in the compass card swinging back and forth around the heading being flown. When setting the
gyroscopic heading indicator to agree with the magnetic compass, use the average indication between the
swings.

RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR

1-49. The radio magnetic indicator (RMI) (Figure 1-16, page 1-16) is a navigational aid providing aircraft
magnetic or directional gyro heading and very (high frequency) omnidirectional range (VOR) or automatic
direction finder (ADF) bearing information. Remote indicating compasses were developed to compensate
for errors in and limitations of older types of heading indicators.
1-50. The slaving control and compensator unit has a push button, providing a means of selecting either
the slaved gyro or free gyro mode. This unit also has a slaving meter and two manual heading-drive
buttons. The slaving meter indicates the difference between displayed heading and magnetic heading. A
right deflection indicates a clockwise error of the compass card; a left deflection indicates a
counterclockwise error. When the aircraft is in a turn and the card rotates, the slaving meter shows a full
deflection to one side or the other. When the system is in free gyro mode, the compass card may be
adjusted by depressing the appropriate heading-drive button.

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Figure 1-16. Radio magnetic indicator

1-51. The remote compass transmitter is a separate unit and is usually mounted in a wingtip to eliminate
the possibility of magnetic interference. The remote compass transmitter contains the flux valve, which is
the direction-sensing device of the system. A concentration of lines of magnetic force, after being
amplified, becomes a signal relayed to the heading indicator unit, which is remotely mounted. This signal
operates a torque motor in the heading indicator unit, which precesses the gyro unit until aligned with the
transmitter signal. The remote compass transmitter is connected electrically to the RMI. The two pointers
are driven by any two combinations of a global positioning system (GPS), an ADF, and/or a VOR.

SECTION III – GYROSCOPIC SYSTEMS

GYROSCOPE
1-52. A gyroscope is a wheel or rotor mounted to spin rapidly around an axis. The gyroscope is free to
rotate about one axis or both axes that are perpendicular to each other and the axis of spin. A spinning
gyroscope offers resistance (inertia) to any force that tends to change the direction of the axis of spin. The
rotor has great weight (high density) for its size and is rotated at high speeds; therefore, it offers high
resistance to any applied force.

PROPERTIES

Rigidity
1-53. When spinning, the rotor remains in its original plane of rotation regardless of how the base is
moved and the aircraft rotates about the rotor. Attitude and heading instruments operate on the principle of
rigidity.

Precession
1-54. Precession is the resultant action or deflection of a spinning rotor when a deflective force is applied
to its rim. Precession causes a force applied to a spinning wheel to be felt 90 degrees from the point of
application in the direction of rotation (Figure 1-17, page 1-17). Rate indicators, such as the turn-and-slip
indicator and turn coordinator, operate on the principle of precession.

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Figure 1-17. Precession diagram

Instrument Power Sources

1-55. Army aircraft use electrical power to keep rotors of gyroscopic instruments rotating continuously. At
higher altitudes and lower temperatures, electrically-operated gyroscopes have proven more reliable than
vacuum-driven gyroscopes. In electrically-driven gyroscopes, the rotor and stator of an electric motor are
enclosed in a gyroscopic housing and become, in effect, the gyro. The gyro, or rotor, is operated on current
supplied from the electrical system of the aircraft. An advantage of this system is that the instrument case
can be hermetically sealed, eliminating the danger of moisture condensation while blocking foreign
material. When the gyro reaches operating speed, enough heat is generated to ensure effective lubrication
at altitudes where the outside air temperature is extremely low.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR
1-56. The attitude indicator was originally referred to as an artificial horizon and later as a gyro horizon.
Its operating mechanism is a small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis, spun at a high speed by an electric
motor (Figure 1-18, page 1-18). The gyro is mounted in a double gimbal, allowing the aircraft to pitch and
roll about the gyro, which remains fixed in space.
1-57. A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals, which keeps the horizon disk in the same plane as the gyro
while the aircraft pitches and rolls. On early instruments, a bar represented the horizon, but now a disc with
a line represents the horizon, both pitch marks, and bank-angle lines. The top half of the instrument dial
and horizon disc is blue or white, representing sky; the bottom half is brown or black, representing ground.
A bank index at the top or bottom of the instrument shows the bank angle marked on the banking scale
with any possible variation of lines representing 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, or 90 degrees based on manufacturer
criteria.
1-58. Mounted in the instrument case is a small symbolic aircraft, which appears to fly relative to the
horizon. A knob at the bottom center of the instrument case raises or lowers the aircraft to compensate for
pitch trim changes as airspeed changes. The width of wings of the symbolic aircraft and the dot in the
center of the wings represent a pitch change of about 1 to 2 degrees.
1-59. When an aircraft engine is first started and electric power is supplied to the instruments, the gyro is
not erect. A self-erecting mechanism inside the instrument, actuated by the force of gravity, applies a
precessive force, causing the gyro to rise to its vertical position. This erection can take as long as five
minutes but is normally complete within two to three minutes.

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Figure 1-18. Attitude indicator

1-60. Attitude indicators are free from most errors, but depending upon the speed with which the erection
system functions, there may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and a nose-down
indication during a rapid deceleration. A small bank angle and pitch error may occur after a 180-degree
turn. These inherent errors are small and correct themselves quickly after the aircraft returns to
straight-and-level flight.

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR/TURN COORDINATOR

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR
1-61. The first gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the turn-and-bank indicator. More recently, it has been
called a turn-and-slip indicator (Figure 1-19, page 1-19).
1-62. The inclinometer in the instrument is a black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube partially
filled with a liquid, much like compass fluid. This ball measures relative strength of the force of gravity
and force of inertia caused by a turn. When the aircraft is flying straight-and-level, no inertia is acting on
the ball, and the ball remains in the center of the tube between two wires. In a turn made with too steep a
bank angle, the force of gravity is greater than inertia and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the
turn is made with too shallow a bank angle, inertia is greater than gravity and the ball rolls upward to the
outside of the turn. The inclinometer only indicates the relationship between bank angle and rate of yaw.
1-63. A small gyro, located in either device, is spun either by air or by an electric motor (Figure 1-19). The
gyro is mounted in a single gimbal with its spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft and axis of the
gimbal parallel with the longitudinal axis.

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Figure 1-19. Turn indicator

1-64. When the aircraft yaws, or rotates about its vertical axis, a force is produced in the horizontal plane
that, because of precession, causes the gyro and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbal axis. The gyro is
restrained in this rotation plane by a calibration spring—rolling over just enough to cause the pointer to
deflect until aligned with one of the doghouse-shaped marks on the dial when the aircraft is making a
standard-rate turn.
1-65. The dial of these instruments is marked 2 MIN TURN. Some turn-and-slip indicators used in faster
aircraft are marked 4 MIN TURN. In either instrument, a standard-rate turn is being made whenever the
needle aligns with a doghouse-shaped mark.

TURN COORDINATOR
1-66. The major limitation of the older turn-and-slip indicator is the sensing of rotation only about the
vertical axis of the aircraft, telling nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which in normal
flight, occurs before the aircraft begins to turn.
1-67. A turn coordinator operates on precession, the same as the turn indicator, but its gimbal frame is
angled upward about 30 degrees from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, allowing a sense of roll and yaw.
Some turn coordinator gyros are dual-powered and can be driven by air or electricity. Rather than using a
needle as an indicator, the gimbal moves a dial in which the rear view is of a symbolic aircraft. The bezel
of the instrument is marked to show wings-level flight and bank angles for a standard-rate turn (Figure 1­
19).
1-68. The inclinometer, similar to the one in a turn-and-slip indicator, is called a coordination ball. It
shows the relationship between bank angle and rate of yaw. The turn is coordinated when the ball is in the
center between the marks. The aircraft is skidding when the ball rolls toward the outside of the turn and is
slipping when it is moving toward the inside of the turn.

Note. A turn coordinator does not sense changing pitch attitudes of the aircraft. Some
instruments are labeled NO PITCH INFORMATION.

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SECTION IV – FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

1-69. Many newer aircraft are equipped with a flight management system (FMS) consisting of a flight
management computer (FMC), one or more control display units (CDUs), an internal navigation database,
and various displays and annunciators (electrically powered indicators). The FMS uses aircraft sensors and
navigation database information to compute and display aircraft position, performance data, and navigation
information during all phases of flight. The FMS may interface and provide data and signals to autopilot,
flight director, and engine fuel control systems.
1-70. The FMC is a sophisticated computer system that gathers aircraft position information from multiple
onboard sensors and navigation aids including VOR, distance measuring equipment (DME), tactical air
navigation (TACAN), inertial navigation system (INS), GPS, and air data computers. From this sensor
data, the FMC computes and continually updates the aircraft present position throughout the flight. Using
this aircraft position information, navigation functions—such as course and distance to a waypoint, desired
track, ground speed, and estimated time of arrival—are computed and displayed on the CDU and other
aircraft instruments. Navigation information may also be provided in the form of steering commands to
autopilot and flight director systems. In addition, fuel-flow information may be used by the FMC to
calculate and update fuel consumption and specific range.
1-71. The CDU serves as the aircrew’s interface to the FMC and associated navigation sensors. The CDU
normally consists of a display screen, data-entry pad, and function and line select keys. The CDU allows
menu-driven selection of various FMS modes such as initialization, fuel planning, performance, and
navigation. The aviator may input a flight-plan route, vertical profile and speed information, aircraft weight
and fuel parameters, and certain waypoint data into the FMC. Data from the navigation database may be
displayed and reviewed by the aviator on the CDU.
1-72. An FMS normally contains an internal navigation database with either regional or worldwide
coverage. The database typically includes information on navigation aids, airports, runways, waypoints,
routes, airways, intersections, departures, arrivals, and instrument approaches. Aircrews may also store
defined routes and waypoints in the database. Navigation databases require periodic updates, normally on a
28-day cycle, to ensure that data are current. Refer to the appropriate operator’s manual for the specific
capabilities of the system installed in the aircraft.

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

1-73. The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) is a direction indicator that uses the output from a flux valve
to drive the dial, which acts as the compass card. This instrument (Figure 1-20) combines the magnetic
compass with navigation signals and a glide slope. The HSI gives the aviator an indication of the location
of the aircraft with relationship to the chosen course.
1-74. In Figure 1-20, page 1-21, the aircraft heading displayed on the rotating azimuth card under the
upper lubber line is 184 degrees. The course-indicating arrowhead shown is set to 295 degrees; the tail
indicates the reciprocal, 115 degrees. The course deviation bar operates with a VOR/Localizer (VOR/LOC)
navigation receiver to indicate left or right deviations from the course selected with the course-indicating
arrow; operating in the same manner, the angular movement of a conventional VOR/LOC needle indicates
deviation from course.

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Figure 1-20. Horizontal situation indicator

1-75. The desired course is selected by rotating the course select pointer, in relation to the azimuth card, by
means of the course select knob. The HSI shows the fixed aircraft symbol and course deviation bar to
display relative position to the selected course. The TO/FROM indicator is a triangular-shaped pointer.
When the indicator points to the head of the course, the arrow shows the course selected, if properly
intercepted and flown, will take the aircraft to the chosen facility. When the indicator points to the tail of
the course, the arrow shows that the course selected, if properly intercepted and flown, will take the aircraft
directly away from the chosen facility.
1-76. The glide-slope pointer indicates the relation of the aircraft to the glide slope. When the pointer is
below the center position, the aircraft is above the glide slope and an increased rate of descent is required.
In some installations, the azimuth card is a remote indicating compass; however, in others the heading must
be checked occasionally against the magnetic compass and reset.

VERTICAL SITUATION INDICATOR

1-77. The vertical situation indicator provides a cockpit display of the helicopter’s pitch, roll attitude, turn
rate, slip or skid, and certain navigational information. The vertical situation indicator accepts command
instrument system processor signals and displays the flight command information needed to arrive at a
predetermined point. The system also monitors and displays warnings when selected navigation instrument
readings lack reliability.
1-78. The vertical situation indicator is typically composed of a miniature airplane, navigation warning
indicator flags, trim knobs for pitch and roll, a bank angle scale and an index, a turn rate indicator, an
inclinometer, and a course/glide slope deviation pointer. An example of a vertical situation indicator is the

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one installed in a UH-60 (Figure 1-21), which in addition to the typical items listed above, has pitch and
roll command bars and a collective position pointer.

Figure 1-21. UH-60 vertical situation indicator

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Rotary Wing Instrument Flight Maneuvers

Instrument flying in helicopters is essentially visual flying with the flight instruments
substituted for various reference points on the helicopter and natural horizon. Control
changes, required to produce a given attitude by reference to instruments, are
identical to those used in helicopter visual flight rules (VFR) flight; therefore, the
thought processes remain the same.

SECTION I – MANEUVER PERFORMANCE

2-1. Proper instrument interpretation is the basis

for aircraft control during instrument flying. Pilot

Contents
skill, in part, depends on an understanding of how a

particular instrument or system functions, including

Section I – Maneuver Performance .............. 2-1
its indications and limitations. With this knowledge,
Section II – Flight Management System ...... 2-5
an aviator can quickly scan an instrument and
Section III – Instrument Takeoff ................... 2-8
translate information into a control response.
Section IV – Straight-and-Level Flight ....... 2-10
2-2. Aircraft attitude is the relationship of its Section V – Straight Climbs and
longitudinal and lateral axes to the horizon of the Descents ................................................... 2-15
Earth. An aircraft is flown in instrument flight by Section VI – Turns ....................................... 2-18
controlling attitude and power, as necessary, to Section VII – Other Maneuvers ................... 2-23
produce desired performance. All basic instrument
maneuvers require correct attitude and power settings. Flight instruments used for instrument flight are
categorized as control, performance, and/or navigation.

INSTRUMENTS
CONTROL
2-3. Control instruments display immediate attitude and power indications and are calibrated to permit
attitude and power adjustments in precise amounts. Control is determined by reference to the power and
attitude indicators (figure 2-1, page 2-2, bold dashed boxes). These power indicators vary with aircraft and
may include tachometers and torque.

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Figure 2-1. Control instruments of a UH-60

PERFORMANCE
2-4. Performance instruments indicate the aircraft’s actual performance. Performance is determined by
referencing the airspeed indicator, turn-and-slip indicator, heading indicator, altimeter, and VSI (Figure
2-2, bold dashed boxes).

Figure 2-2. Performance instruments of a UH-60

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NAVIGATION
2-5. Navigation instruments indicate aircraft position in relation to a selected navigation facility or fix.
This group of instruments includes various types of course, range, and glide-slope indicators and bearing
pointers usually found on the GPS, HSI, and/or RMI (figure 2-3, bold dashed boxes). Some aircraft have
navigation instrument indications combined with the attitude indicator and other instruments.

Figure 2-3. Navigation instruments on a UH-60

PROCEDURAL STEPS
2-6. Procedural steps are provided to guide the aviator to successfully react and apply the appropriate
flight control inputs based on indications derived from control, performance, and navigation instruments.
When following the procedural steps, aviators—
• Establish an attitude and power setting on the control instruments resulting in desired
performance; known or computed attitude changes and approximate power settings reduce
aviator workload.
• Maintain trim in rotary wing aircraft by cross-checking the instruments and using the cyclic
centering button and/or pedals.
• Cross-check performance instruments to determine if the established attitude or power setting
provides desired performance; cross-checking involves both seeing and interpreting. When
noting a deviation, determine the magnitude and direction of adjustment required to achieve
desired performance.
• Adjust the attitude or power setting on control instruments as necessary.

PRIMARY AND SUPPORTING METHODS

2-7. Another basic method for presenting attitude instrument flying classifies instruments as they relate to
control function and aircraft performance (table 2-1, page 2-4). All maneuvers involve some degree of
motion about the lateral (pitch), longitudinal (bank/roll), and vertical (yaw) axes. Attitude control is
stressed in terms of pitch (figure 2-4, page 2-4), bank (figure 2-5, page 2-4), power, and trim.

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Table 2-1. Maneuver instruments

Pitch Bank Power

Airspeed indicator Attitude indicator Airspeed indicator
Attitude indicator Heading indicator Torque indicator
Altimeter Magnetic compass
Vertical speed indicator Turn-and-slip indicator

Figure 2-4. Pitch control instruments

Figure 2-5. Bank control instruments

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2-8. For any maneuver or condition of flight, the pitch, bank, and power control requirements are most
clearly indicated by specific maneuver instruments (table 2-1). The instruments that provide the most
pertinent and essential information are referred to as primary instruments. Supporting instruments back up
and supplement information shown on primary instruments. Straight-and-level flight at a constant airspeed,
for example, means an exact altitude is to be maintained with no bank (constant heading). The pitch, bank,
and power instruments that provide data related to maintaining this flight condition are the following:
• Altimeter, which supplies the most pertinent altitude information and is primary for pitch.
• Heading indicator, which supplies the most pertinent bank or heading information and is
primary for bank.
• Airspeed indicator, which supplies the most pertinent information concerning performance in
level flight in terms of power output and is primary for power.
2-9. Although the attitude indicator is the basic attitude reference, this concept of primary and supporting
instruments does not devalue any particular flight instrument. The attitude indicator is the only instrument
that portrays instantly and directly the actual flight attitude. Always use the attitude indicator, when
available, in establishing and maintaining pitch-and-bank attitudes. Instrument maneuvers presented, in
detail, in later sections of this chapter identify the specific use of primary and supporting instruments.

SECTION II – FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

2-10. Three fundamental skills needed to achieve smooth, positive control of the helicopter during
instrument flight are instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control.

CROSS-CHECK
2-11. A major factor influencing a cross-check, or scanning technique, is the way in which instruments
respond to attitude and power changes. The control instruments provide a direct and immediate indication
of attitude and power changes, but indications on the performance instruments will lag. Lag will not
appreciably affect the tolerances within which the aviator controls the aircraft; however, at times, a slight,
unavoidable delay in knowing the results of attitude/power changes will occur.
2-12. When the attitude and power are smoothly controlled, the lag factor is negligible and the indications
on the performance instruments will stabilize or change smoothly. Do not make abrupt control movements
in response to the lagging indications on the performance instruments without first checking the control
instruments. Failure to do so leads to erratic aircraft maneuvers, which will cause additional fluctuations
and lag in the performance instruments. Frequent scanning of the control instruments assists in maintaining
smooth aircraft control.
2-13. The attitude indicator is the instrument that should be used to develop all maneuvering attitudes and
be scanned most frequently. A description of a typical scan is as follows: an aviator glances from the
attitude indicator, taking only a brief glance at one of the flight instruments (for this discussion, the
instruments surrounding the attitude indicator are called the flight instruments), back to the attitude
indicator, then glancing at another flight instrument, back to the attitude indicator, and so on (Figure 2-6,
page 2-6).

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Figure 2-6. Cross-check pattern

COMMON ERRORS
2-14. New aviators will typically perform cross-checks by rapidly looking at each instrument without
knowing exactly what to look for. With increasing experience and familiarity in basic instrument
maneuvers and the indications associated with them, aviators learn what to look for, when to look, and
what response to make. As proficiency increases, cross-checking occurs primarily from habit, with the
aviator suiting scanning rate and sequence to the flight situation demands. If an aviator fails to maintain
basic instrument proficiency through practice, many of the following common scanning errors are
expected. An aid to remembering cross-check errors is the acronym FOE: fixation, omission, and
emphasis.

Fixation
2-15. Fixation, staring at a single instrument, usually occurs for a good reason but has poor results. For
instance, an aviator staring at an altimeter reading 200 feet below the assigned altitude may wonder how
the needle came to rest there. While the aviator is gazing at the instrument, perhaps with increasing tension
on the controls, a heading change occurs unnoticed and more errors accumulate. The following example
describes how fixation can occur.

Example of Fixation
An aviator may establish a shallow bank for a 90º turn and stare at the heading indicator throughout the turn
instead of maintaining a cross-check of other pertinent instruments. Although the aircraft is turning and the
aviator does not need to recheck the heading indicator for about 25 seconds after turn entry, his or her eyes
are fixated on the instrument.

2-16. This problem may not be entirely due to cross-check error but may relate to difficulties with the
uncertainty of reading the heading indicator (interpretation) or inconsistency in rolling out of turns
(control).

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Omission
2-17. Omission of an instrument from a cross-check is caused by failure to anticipate significant
instrument indications following attitude changes. The following example illustrates how this situation
could occur.

Example of Omission
During a roll-out from a 180º steep turn, the aviator may establish straight-and-level flight with reference to the
attitude indicator alone, neglecting to check the heading indicator for constant heading information.

2-18. Because of precession error, the attitude indicator temporarily shows a slight error, correctable by
quick reference to the other flight instruments.

Emphasis
2-19. Emphasis on a single instrument, instead of all instruments necessary for attitude information, is an
understandable fault during initial stages of training. An individual naturally tends to rely on the instrument
most readily understood, even when that instrument provides erroneous or inadequate information.
Reliance on a single instrument is poor technique. An aviator can maintain reasonably close altitude
control with the attitude indicator but cannot hold altitude with precision without including the altimeter in
the cross-check.

INSTRUMENT INTERPRETATION
2-20. Instrument interpretation requires aviators to learn and understand the purpose and use of all flight
instruments. They must also understand the performance capabilities of the aircraft. The aviator’s
knowledge and the use of a cross-check enable him or her to perform maneuvers and apply techniques
applicable to that aircraft across different flight conditions.
2-21. Figure 2-7 illustrates the difference between two different aircraft, both performing a five-minute
climb, with the same attitude indicator setting and the same power setting. The TH-67 is climbing at 500
FPM, as shown on the VSI, and 90 knots, while the CH-47 is climbing at 2,000 FPM and 120 knots. The
CH-47 is able to climb higher and faster and fly further in five minutes because it has better performance
than the TH-67.

Figure 2-7. Instrument interpretation comparison

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Chapter 2

2-22. Aircraft attitude is the key to instrument interpretation as aviators learn the performance capabilities
of the aircraft. When the aviator determines pitch attitude, the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and
attitude indicator provide necessary information. When the aviator determines bank attitude, the heading
indicator, turn-and-slip indicator, and attitude indicator are interpreted. For each maneuver, learn the
performance expectations and the combination of instruments to be interpreted to control aircraft attitude.

AIRCRAFT CONTROL
2-23. Helicopter control is the result of accurately interpreting and translating flight instrument readings
into correct control responses. Aircraft control involves adjustments to pitch, bank, power, and trim to
achieve a desired flight path.

PITCH
2-24. Pitch attitude control is controlling movement of the helicopter about its lateral axis. After
interpreting pitch attitude by reference to the pitch instruments (attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed
indicator, and vertical speed indicator), cyclic control adjustments are made to affect the desired pitch
attitude.

BANK
2-25. Bank attitude control is controlling the angle made by the lateral tilt of the rotor and natural horizon,
or movement of the helicopter about its longitudinal axis. Cyclic control adjustments are made to attain the
desired attitude based on proper interpretation of bank instruments (attitude indicator, heading indicator,
and turn indicator). Use a bank angle that approximates the degree to turn up to a standard rate turn (try not
to exceed 30 degrees).

POWER
2-26. Power control is the application of collective pitch. In straight-and-level flight, changes of collective
pitch are made to correct for altitude deviations if the error is more than 100 feet or the airspeed deviates
by more than 10 knots. If the error is less than that amount, use a slight cyclic climb or descent. To fly a
helicopter by instrument reference, knowledge of the approximate power settings is required for that
particular helicopter in various load configurations and flight conditions.

TRIM
2-27. Trim refers to the use of the cyclic centering button, if the helicopter is so equipped, to relieve
possible cyclic pressures. Trim also refers to the use of pedal adjustment to center the ball of the turn
indicator. Pedal trim is required during all power changes.

FRICTION
2-28. Proper adjustment of collective pitch and cyclic friction assists an aviator in relaxing during
instrument flight. Friction is adjusted to minimize overcontrolling and to prevent creeping but not applied
to such a degree that control movement is limited. Many helicopters equipped for instrument flight contain
stability augmentation systems or an autopilot to help relieve aviator workload.

SECTION III – INSTRUMENT TAKEOFF

2-29. Instrument takeoff (ITO) is accomplished by referring to outside visual references and flight
instruments. The amount of attention given to each reference varies with the individual, aircraft type, and
existing weather conditions. ITO is a composite visual and instrument takeoff when conditions permit and
is not be confused with a hooded takeoff. ITO procedures and techniques are invaluable aids during
takeoffs at night, toward and over water or desert areas and during reduced visibility. Immediate transition

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 Rotary Wing Instrument Flight Maneuvers

to instrument references is necessary any time that disorientation occurs or when outside visual references
become unreliable. Procedures and techniques described here are modified, as necessary, to conform to the
appropriate aircrew training manual (ATM).

PREPARING
2-30. Before performing an ITO, an aviator performs a before-takeoff check of flight and navigation
instruments as well as flight publications. Select appropriate navigational aids (NAVAIDs) to be used for
the departure, and set navigation instruments and switches as required; ATC clearance and departure
procedures (DPs) must be thoroughly understood. Review of an emergency return approach should include
frequencies; final approach course; DA/DH or MDA and minimum safe, sector, or emergency safe
altitudes; and specific duties briefed to all crew members.
2-31. Adjust the attitude indicator, as appropriate. After aligning the helicopter with the runway or takeoff
pad, prevent forward movement by setting the parking brake, if the aircraft is equipped with a wheel-type
landing gear. Apply sufficient friction to the collective pitch control to minimize overcontrolling and
prevent creeping. Avoid excessive friction because it limits collective pitch movement.

PERFORMING FROM HOVER/GROUND

2-32. An ITO may be accomplished from a hover or the ground as visibility restrictions permit. A
composite takeoff is accomplished using normal visual meteorological conditions (VMC) procedures while
combining reference to flight instruments with outside visual references, providing the aviator with a
smooth transition to instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) flight. ITOs may be accomplished
entirely on instruments because of visibility restrictions induced by rotor downwash on dust, sand, or
snow. Helicopters often operate from unprepared or remote locations in the presence of loose dirt or snow;
this debris within the downwash can affect pitot-static instrumentation. Aircrew manuals warn that
airspeed indications should be considered unreliable when forward airspeed is less than 25 to 40 knots
depending upon aircraft size and weight. In addition, altimeters and VSIs actually indicate a loss of altitude
as power is applied for takeoff.

TAKEOFF
2-33. After rechecking instruments for proper operation, commence takeoff (Figure 2-8, page 2-10) by
applying collective pitch of a predetermined power setting. Add power smoothly and steadily to gain
airspeed and altitude simultaneously and prevent settling to the ground. Helicopters with wheel-type
landing gear may elect to make running takeoffs if operating from smooth surfaces. As power is applied
and the helicopter becomes airborne, maintain desired heading with the pedals and use cyclic to maintain
desired ITO pitch attitude. When obtaining a positive climb indication, adjust the pitch attitude as specified
in the ATM. When takeoff attitude is established, cross-check the VSI and altimeter to ensure that the
helicopter is still climbing. While the aircraft is below airspeeds required for accurate altitude or VSI
readings, predetermined power settings and pitch attitudes provide the most reliable source of climb
information. A cross-check is started at the time that the aircraft leaves the ground and should include all
available instruments to provide a smooth transition to coordinated flight.

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Chapter 2

Figure 2-8. Instrument takeoff indications

COMMON ERRORS
2-34. Common errors during ITOs include the following:
• Failure to maintain heading.
• Overcontrolling pedals.
• Failure to use required power.
• Failure to adjust pitch attitude as climbing airspeed is reached.

SECTION IV – STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT

2-35. Straight-and-level flight consists of maintaining the desired altitude, heading, airspeed, and pedal
trim. Use pitch attitude to maintain or adjust airspeed, bank control to maintain or adjust heading, and
power control to maintain or adjust altitude.

PITCH ATTITUDE CONTROL

2-36. Pitch attitude is the angular relation of the helicopter’s longitudinal axis and natural horizon. If
available, the attitude indicator establishes desired pitch attitude. In level flight, pitch attitude varies with
airspeed and center of gravity. At a constant altitude and stabilized airspeed, pitch attitude is approximately
level (Figure 2-4, page 2-4).

ATTITUDE INDICATOR
2-37. The attitude indicator provides a direct indication of the helicopter’s pitch attitude. In visual flight,
the cyclic is used to raise and lower the nose of the helicopter in relation to the natural horizon to attain
desired pitch attitude. During instrument flight, follow the same procedure in raising or lowering the
miniature aircraft in relation to the horizon bar.
2-38. The attitude indicator may show small misrepresentations of pitch attitude during maneuvers
involving acceleration, deceleration, or turns. These misrepresentations are caused by delays following
flight control inputs, known as control lag, and delays in instrument readings, known as instrument lag.
Precession errors can be detected quickly by cross-checking other pitch instruments.

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2-39. The miniature aircraft, properly adjusted on the attitude indicator while on the ground, does not
generally require readjustment in flight. If the miniature aircraft is not located on the horizon bar after
leveling off at cruising airspeed, adjust the miniature aircraft while maintaining level flight with other pitch
instruments. Once the miniature aircraft is properly adjusted, the aviator is now provided with an accurate
pitch attitude. When making initial pitch attitude corrections to maintain altitude, changes are small and
smoothly applied. The initial movement of the horizon bar should not exceed one bar width high or low. If
further change is required, an additional correction of one-half bar normally corrects any deviation from
desired altitude. This one-and-one-half bar correction is normally the maximum pitch attitude correction
from level flight attitude. Cross-check other pitch-related instruments to determine whether a correction to
the pitch attitude is sufficient. If more correction is required or if the airspeed varies more than 10 knots
from that desired, the pilot must make the appropriate power setting.

ALTIMETER
2-40. The altimeter indirectly indicates pitch attitude in straight-and-level flight. Because the altitude
should remain constant, deviation from the desired altitude shows a need for a change in pitch attitude and,
if necessary, power. When losing altitude, raise the pitch attitude and, if necessary, add power; conversely,
when gaining altitude, lower the pitch attitude and, if necessary, reduce power.
2-41. The rate at which the altimeter moves helps in determining pitch attitude. A very slow movement
indicates a small deviation from the desired pitch attitude, while fast movement indicates a large deviation.
Make corrective action promptly with small control changes. Movement of the altimeter is always
corrected by two distinct changes: a change of attitude to stop the altimeter and then a change of attitude to
return smoothly to the desired altitude. If the altitude and airspeed are 100 feet and 10 knots below that
desired, respectively, apply power along with an increase of pitch attitude. If the altitude and airspeed are
100 feet and 10 knots above that desired, reduce power and lower the pitch attitude. A small lag in the
movement of the altimeter is customary; however, for practical purposes, consider the altimeter as
providing an immediate indication of a change or a need for change in pitch attitude.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

2-42. The initial movement of the vertical speed needle is nearly instantaneous and indicates vertical
movement of the helicopter. Use the VSI with the altimeter to maintain level flight. If a movement on the
VSI is detected, use corrective measures to return to a zero indication. If corrections are made promptly,
there is usually little or no change in altitude. If the pilot does not zero the needle of the VSI immediately,
results on the altimeter reflect as a gain or loss of altitude. Reduce overcontrolling by neutralizing the
controls to allow the pitch attitude to stabilize; readjust the pitch attitude by noting indications of other
pitch instruments such as the attitude indicator.
2-43. Occasionally, the VSI may be slightly out of calibration, erroneously indicating a slight climb or
descent when the helicopter is actually in level flight. The aviator should compensate for this error when
the VSI for pitch control has not been properly adjusted by maintenance personnel such as in the following
example: if the VSI shows a descent of 100 FPM when the helicopter is in level flight, use that indication
as level flight; any deviation from that reading indicates a change in attitude.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
2-44. In addition to indicating airspeed, the airspeed indicator indirectly indicates helicopter pitch attitude.
With a given power setting and pitch attitude, airspeed remains constant. If airspeed increases, the nose is
too low and should be raised; if airspeed decreases, the nose is too high and should be lowered. A rapid
airspeed change indicates a large change in pitch attitude; a slow airspeed change indicates a small change
in pitch attitude. Little lag accompanies indications of the airspeed indicator. If, while the aviator is making
attitude changes, some lag exists between control application and change of airspeed, this most likely
occurs because of cyclic control lag. Departure from desired airspeed because of an inadvertent pitch
attitude change also results in altitude change. An airspeed increase because of a low pitch attitude results
in a decrease in altitude. Correction in pitch attitude regains airspeed and altitude.

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BANK CONTROL
2-45. A helicopter’s bank attitude is the angular relation of its lateral axis and natural horizon. To maintain
a straight course in visual flight, keep the helicopter’s lateral axis level with the natural horizon. Assuming
that the helicopter is in coordinated flight, any deviation from a laterally level attitude produces a turn
(Figure 2-5, page 2-4).

ATTITUDE INDICATOR
2-46. The attitude indicator directly indicates the helicopter’s bank attitude. For instrument flight, the
miniature aircraft and horizon bar of the attitude indicator are substituted for the actual helicopter and
natural horizon. Any change in the helicopter’s bank attitude is indicated instantly by the miniature aircraft.
If the helicopter is properly trimmed and the rotor tilts, a turn begins. The turn can be stopped by leveling
the miniature aircraft with the horizon bar. The ball in the turn-and-slip indicator is always kept centered
through proper pedal trim.
2-47. Bank angle is indicated by the pointer on the banking scale at the top of the instrument. Small bank
angles, which may not be seen by observing the miniature aircraft, can easily be determined by referring to
the banking scale pointer. Pitch-and-bank attitudes can be determined simultaneously on the attitude
indicator. Even if the miniature aircraft is not level with the horizon bar, pitch attitude can be established
by observing the relative position of the miniature aircraft and horizon bar.
2-48. The attitude indicator may show small misrepresentations of bank attitude during maneuvers
involving turns. This precession error can be immediately detected by closely cross-checking other bank
instruments. The aviator normally notices precession when the aircraft rolls out of a turn. If, on the
completion of a turn, the miniature aircraft is level and helicopter is still turning, make a small change of
bank attitude to center the turn needle and stop movement of the heading indicator.

HEADING INDICATOR
2-49. In coordinated flight, the heading indicator indirectly indicates the helicopter’s bank attitude. A
banked helicopter turns; however, when the lateral axis of the helicopter is level, the helicopter flies
straight. Therefore, in coordinated flight, the heading indicator shows a constant heading when the
helicopter is level laterally. A deviation from desired heading indicates a bank in the direction of the turn.
A small bank angle is indicated by a slow change of heading; a large bank angle is indicated by a rapid
change. When noticing a turn, apply opposite cyclic until the heading indicator indicates the desired
heading while maintaining trim. When making correction to the desired heading, do not use a bank angle
greater than that required to achieve a standard rate turn. In addition, if the number of degrees of change is
small, limit the bank angle to the number of degrees to be turned. Bank angles greater than a standard rate
turn require more skill and precision. During straight-and-level flight, the heading indicator is the primary
reference for bank control.

TURN INDICATOR
2-50. During coordinated flight, the needle of the turn-and-slip indicator indirectly indicates helicopter
bank attitude. When the needle is displaced from the vertical position, the helicopter is turning in the
direction of displacement. Thus, if the needle is displaced to the left, the helicopter is turning left; bringing
the needle back to vertical position with the cyclic produces straight flight. Close observation of the needle
is necessary to accurately interpret small deviations from the desired position.
2-51. Cross-check the ball of the turn-and-slip indicator to determine if the helicopter is in coordinated
flight. If the rotor is laterally level and torque is properly compensated for by pedal pressure, the ball
remains in the center. To center the ball, level the helicopter laterally by reference to other bank
instruments and then center the ball with pedal trim. Torque correction pressures vary as power changes
are made. Always check the ball following such changes.

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POWER CONTROL
2-52. Establishing specific power settings is accomplished through collective pitch adjustments and
throttle control, where necessary. For turbine-powered helicopters, power is observed on the torque gauge.
At a given airspeed, a specific power setting determines whether the helicopter is in level flight, a climb, or
a descent (for example, cruising airspeed maintained with cruising power results in level flight). By
increasing the power setting and holding airspeed constant, the helicopter climbs. Conversely, by
decreasing power and holding airspeed constant, the helicopter descends. A turbine-powered helicopter
requires a 10 to 15 percent change in torque to establish climbs or descents if airspeed and attitude remain
the same.
2-53. When the aviator increases power in a helicopter with a counterclockwise main rotor blade rotation,
the added power causes the nose to pitch up and yaw to the right. When power is reduced, the nose pitches
down and yaws to the left. The yawing effect is most pronounced in single-rotor helicopters and is absent
in counterrotating helicopters. The aviator applies pedal trim during power changes to compensate for
unwanted yaw.
2-54. To maintain constant altitude and airspeed in level flight, coordinate pitch attitude and power
control. The relationship between altitude and airspeed determines the need for a change in power/pitch
attitude. If altitude is constant and airspeed is high or low, change power to obtain the desired airspeed.
During changes in power, make an accurate interpretation of the altimeter and counteract deviation from
the desired altitude by an appropriate change of pitch attitude. If altitude is low and airspeed is high, or
vice versa, a change in pitch attitude alone may return the helicopter to proper altitude and airspeed. If
airspeed and altitude are both low or high, a change in both power and pitch attitude is necessary.
2-55. Changes in airspeed can easily be made if the approximate power settings are known for various
airspeeds flown. When airspeed changes any appreciable amount, adjust torque about 5 percent over or
under the setting necessary to maintain the new airspeed. Include the torque meter in the cross-check to
determine when proper adjustments have been accomplished. As the airspeed changes, adjust pitch attitude
to sustain a constant altitude while maintaining a constant heading throughout the change. As desired
airspeed is approached, adjust power to the new cruising power setting and further adjust pitch attitude to
maintain altitude. Torque adjustments of about 5 percent result in a change of airspeed at a moderate rate,
which allows time to adjust pitch and bank smoothly. Figures 2-9 and 2-10, page 2-14, illustrate instrument
indications for straight-and-level flight at normal cruise and during the transition from normal cruise to
slow cruise. After the aviator stabilizes airspeed at slow cruise, the attitude indicator shows an approximate
level pitch attitude.

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Figure 2-9. Straight-and-level flight at normal cruise speed

Figure 2-10. Straight-and-level flight with airspeed deceasing

2-56. The altimeter is the primary pitch instrument during level flight, whether the aircraft is flying at a
constant airspeed or during a change in airspeed. Altitude should not change during airspeed transitions.
The heading indicator remains the primary bank instrument. When airspeed changes any appreciable
amount, the torque meter is momentarily the primary instrument for power control; when the aircraft
approaches the desired airspeed, the airspeed indicator again becomes the primary instrument for power
control.

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2-57. Straight-and-level flight relies on a cross-check of pitch-and-bank instruments and power control
instruments. With a constant power setting, a normal cross-check should be satisfactory. When changing
power, increase the rate of the cross-check to cover pitch-and-bank instruments to counteract deviations.

COMMON ERRORS
2-58. Common errors made during straight-and-level flight include the following:
• Failure to maintain altitude.
• Failure to maintain heading.
• Overcontrolling pitch and bank during corrections.
• Improper use of power.
• Failure to maintain proper pedal trim.
• Failure to cross-check all available instruments.

SECTION V – STRAIGHT CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

2-59. Any power setting and load condition has only one airspeed that provides the most efficient rate of
climb. Consult climb data for the helicopter to determine this setting. The technique varies according to
airspeed on entry and whether the maneuver will be a constant-airspeed or constant-rate climb.

CLIMBS
ENTRY
2-60. To enter a constant-airspeed climb from cruise airspeed when climb speed is lower than cruise speed,
simultaneously increase power to the climb power setting and adjust pitch attitude to the approximate
climb attitude. An increase in power causes the helicopter to start climbing, and only slight back cyclic
pressure is required to change from level to climb attitude. Use the attitude indicator to accomplish pitch
change. If transition from level flight to a climb is smooth, the VSI shows an immediate upward trend and
stops at a rate appropriate to the stabilized airspeed and attitude (Figure 2-11, page 2-16).

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Figure 2-11. Climb entry

2-61. When the helicopter stabilizes on a constant airspeed and attitude, the airspeed indicator becomes
primary for pitch. The torque meter continues to be primary for power and is monitored closely to
determine if the proper climb power setting is being maintained (Figure 2-12).

Figure 2-12. Stabilized constant airspeed climb

2-62. The technique and procedures for entering a constant-rate climb are similar to a constant-airspeed
climb. For training purposes, a constant-rate climb is entered from climb airspeed. In helicopters with low
climb rates, 500 FPM is appropriate; in helicopters capable of high climb rates, use a rate of 1,000 FPM.

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2-63. Entering a constant-rate climb means increasing power to the approximate setting for the desired
rate. As power is applied, the airspeed indicator is primary for pitch until vertical speed approaches the
desired rate. The VSI then becomes primary for pitch. Change pitch attitude accordingly with the attitude
indicator to maintain the desired vertical speed. When the VSI becomes primary for pitch, the airspeed
indicator becomes primary for power (Figure 2-13). Adjust power to maintain desired airspeed. Closely
coordinate pitch attitude and power corrections. If vertical speed is correct but airspeed is low, add power.
As power increases, lowering the pitch attitude slightly may become necessary to avoid increasing the
vertical rate. Adjust pitch attitude smoothly to avoid overcontrolling. Small power corrections are usually
sufficient to return airspeed to the desired indication.

Figure 2-13. Stabilized constant-rate climb

LEVEL-OFF
2-64. Level-off from a constant-airspeed climb is started before reaching the desired altitude. Although the
amount of lead varies with the helicopter being flown and piloting technique, the most important factor is
vertical speed. Use 10 percent of vertical velocity as the lead point as in the following example.

Example of Using Lead to Level Off

If the climb rate is 500 FPM, initiate level-off at about 50 feet before the aircraft reaches the desired altitude.
When proper lead altitude is reached, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch. Adjust pitch attitude to level
flight attitude for that airspeed, and cross-check the altimeter and vertical speed indicator to determine when
level flight has been attained at the desired altitude.

2-65. To level-off at cruise airspeed if this speed is higher than climb airspeed, leave power at the climb
power setting until airspeed approaches cruise airspeed and then reduce to cruise power setting. Level-off
from a constant-rate climb is accomplished in the same manner as level-off from a constant-airspeed climb.

DESCENTS
ENTRY
2-66. If airspeed is higher than descending airspeed and a constant-airspeed descent at the descending
airspeed is required, reduce power to the descending power setting and maintain a constant altitude using

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cyclic pitch control. When the aircraft is approaching the descending airspeed, the airspeed indicator
becomes primary for pitch and the torque meter is primary for power. As airspeed is held constant, the
helicopter begins to descend. For a constant-rate descent, reduce power to the approximate setting for the
desired rate. If descent begins at the descending airspeed, the airspeed indicator is primary for pitch until
the VSI approaches the desired rate. At this time, the VSI becomes primary for pitch and the airspeed
indicator becomes primary for power. Coordinate power and pitch attitude control as for constant-rate
climbs.

LEVEL-OFF
2-67. Level-off from a constant-airspeed descent may be made at descending airspeed or cruise airspeed (if
this is higher than descending airspeed). As in a climb level-off, the amount of lead depends on descent
rate and control technique. For a level-off at descending airspeed, lead should be about 10 percent of
vertical speed. At lead altitude, increase power to the setting necessary to maintain descending airspeed in
level flight. At this point, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch and the airspeed indicator becomes
primary for power.
2-68. To level-off at a higher airspeed than descending airspeed, increase power about 100 to 150 feet
before reaching the desired altitude. The power setting should be what is necessary to maintain desired
airspeed in level flight. Hold vertical speed constant until about 50 feet above desired altitude. At this
point, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch and the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power.
Level-off from a constant-rate descent should be accomplished in the same manner as level-off from a
constant-airspeed descent.

COMMON ERRORS
2-69. Common errors made during straight climbs and descents include the following:
• Failure to maintain heading.
• Improper use of power.
• Poor control of pitch attitude.
• Failure to maintain proper pedal trim.
• Failure to level-off on desired altitude.

SECTION VI – TURNS
2-70. Pitch, bank, and power principles related to straight-and-level flight apply while performing level
turns. This maneuver requires an understanding of how to enter; maintain bank, altitude, and airspeed
during; and recover from the turn. Turns are classified as normal (standard rate or less) or steep. Most
aviators practice steep turns using 30 degrees of bank, which is the maximum bank angle recommended
under instrument conditions.
2-71. Helicopters normally operate under instrument conditions between 80 and 120 knots. TAS
determines the bank angle necessary to maintain a standard-rate turn. To determine the approximate bank
angle, divide airspeed by 10 and add one-half of the result as shown in the following example.

Example of Determining Bank Angle

At 80 knots (kt), about 12 degrees of bank is required (80 ÷ 10 = 8 + 4 = 12); at 120 kt, about 18 degrees of
bank is required.

2-72. Enter a turn by applying lateral cyclic in the desired turn direction. Enter using the attitude indicator
to establish approximate bank angle. When the turn indicator indicates a standard-rate turn, the turn
indicator becomes primary for bank. The attitude indicator is now a supporting instrument. During level
turns, the altimeter is primary for pitch and the airspeed indicator is primary for power (Figure 2-14, page
2-19). If an increase in power is required to maintain airspeed, slight forward cyclic pressure may be

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required because the helicopter tends to pitch up as collective pitch angle is increased. Apply pedal trim, as
required, to keep the ball centered.

Figure 2-14. Standard rate turn to the left

2-73. Return to straight-and-level flight by applying cyclic in the direction opposite the turn. The rate of
rollout is the same used when rolling into the turn. The attitude indicator becomes the primary reference for
bank during turn recovery. When the helicopter is about level, the heading indicator is primary for bank as
in straight-and-level flight. Cross-check the airspeed indicator and ball to sustain airspeed and pedal trim.

PREDETERMINED HEADING
2-74. A helicopter turns as long as its lateral axis is tilted; therefore, recovery starts before the desired
heading is reached. The amount of lead varies with the turn rate and piloting technique. As a guide, when
making a standard rate turn, use a lead of one-half the bank angle as shown in the following example.

Example of Using Lead Point

If using a 12º bank angle, use half, or 6º, as the lead point for rolling out on the desired heading.

2-75. The bank angle should never exceed the number of degrees to be turned. As in any standard rate
turn, the recovery rate should be the same as the rate for entry. During turns to predetermined headings,
cross-check primary and supporting pitch, bank, and power instruments closely.

TIMED
2-76. A timed turn is when the clock and turn-and-slip indicator are used to change a heading a definite
number of degrees in a given time. Using a standard-rate turn, a helicopter turns 45 degrees in 15 seconds.
Using a half-standard-rate turn, a helicopter turns 45 degrees in 30 seconds. Timed turns can be used if the
heading indicator becomes inoperative.
2-77. Before performing timed turns, the turn coordinator must be calibrated to determine the accuracy of
its indications. To accomplish calibration, establish a standard-rate turn by referring to the turn-and-slip
indicator. As the sweep second hand of the clock passes a cardinal point (12, 3, 6, or 9), check the heading
on the heading indicator. While holding the indicated rate of turn constant, note heading changes at
10-second intervals. If the helicopter turns more or less than 30 degrees in that interval, a smaller or larger
deflection of the needle is necessary to produce a standard-rate turn. When calibrating the turn-and-slip

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indicator during turns in each direction, note corrected deflections. If any deflections are noted, apply them
during all timed turns.
2-78. The same cross-check and control technique used to make turns to a predetermined heading is used
in making timed turns, except substitute the clock for the heading indicator. The needle of the turn-and-slip
indicator is primary for bank control, the altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the airspeed indicator is
primary for power control. Begin the roll in when the clock’s second hand passes a cardinal point, hold the
turn at the calibrated standard-rate indication (or half standard rate for small changes in heading), and
begin roll-out when the computed number of seconds has elapsed. If roll-in and rollout rates are the same,
the time taken during entry and recovery need not be considered in the time computation. Check the
heading indicator for the accuracy of turns when practicing timed turns with a full instrument panel. Use
the magnetic compass at the completion of the turn to check accuracy, taking compass deviation errors into
consideration when executing turns without the heading indicator.

CHANGING AIRSPEED
2-79. Changing airspeed in turns is an effective maneuver for increasing proficiency in all three basic
instrument skills. Because the maneuver involves simultaneous changes in all components of control,
proper execution requires a rapid cross-check and interpretation as well as smooth control. Proficiency also
contributes to confidence in instruments during attitude and power changes involved in more complex
maneuvers.
2-80. Pitch and power control techniques are the same as those used during airspeed changes in
straight-and-level flight. As discussed previously, the bank angle necessary for a given turn rate is
proportional to the TAS. Turns are executed at standard rate; therefore, the bank angle must be varied in
direct proportion to airspeed change to maintain a constant turn rate. During a reduction of airspeed,
decrease the bank angle and increase the pitch attitude to maintain altitude and a standard-rate turn.
2-81. The altimeter and needle on the turn indicator should remain constant throughout the turn. The
altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the turn needle is primary for bank control. The torque meter is
primary for power control while airspeed is changing. As airspeed approaches the new indication, the
airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control.
2-82. Methods of changing airspeed in turns include changing airspeed after the turn is established and
initiating an airspeed change simultaneously with turn entry. Regardless of the method, the rate of
cross-check must be increased as power is reduced. As the helicopter decelerates, check the altimeter and
VSI for pitch changes and bank instruments for bank changes. If the needle of the turn-and-slip indicator
shows a deviation from the desired deflection, change the bank. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain
altitude. When approaching the desired airspeed, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control.
Adjust the torque meter to maintain desired airspeed. Use pedal trim to ensure the maneuver is coordinated.
Until the control technique is smooth, frequently cross-check the attitude indicator to keep from
overcontrolling and provide approximate bank angles appropriate for changing airspeeds.

COMPASS
2-83. Use of gyroscopic heading indicators makes heading control easy; however, if the heading indicator
fails, use the magnetic compass for heading reference. When making compass-only turns, adjust for lead or
lag created by acceleration and deceleration errors (refer to Chapter 1) so that rollout occurs on the desired
heading. When the aviator turns to a heading of north, lead for the rollout must include the number of
degrees of latitude plus the lead normally used in turn recovery as described in the following example.

Example of Using the Magnetic Compass During Turn to the North

When turning from an easterly direction to north, where the latitude is 30 degrees, start rollout when the
compass reads 037 degrees (30 degrees plus 1/2 the 15 degrees bank angle, or an amount appropriate for
the rollout rate).

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2-84. During a turn to a south heading, maintain the turn until the compass passes south the number of
degrees of latitude minus normal rollout lead. This procedure is described in the following example.

Example of Using the Magnetic Compass During Turn to the South

When turning from an easterly direction to the south, start rollout when the magnetic compass reads 203º (180
degrees plus 30 degrees minus 1/2 of the 15 degrees bank angle). When making similar turns from a westerly
direction, begin rollout at 323 degrees for a turn north and 157 degrees for a turn south.

2-85. A quick reference diagram is provided to help visualize the correction Figure 2-15 is a compass turn
correction diagram.

Figure 2-15. Compass turn correction diagram

2-86. A simple method of calculating compass turns is to use timed turns. Take the difference between
current heading and desired heading, and divide by three (standard rate turn of 3 degrees per second). The
product is the number of seconds to enter into a standard-rate turn to arrive at the desired heading (table
2-2, page 2-22). This procedure works in any hemisphere/latitude, regardless of turning direction, and
eliminates the need to memorize a chart or more complicated mathematical formula partly based on
latitude. This procedure also limits distraction caused by direct and frequent viewing of the magnetic
compass in the turn.

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Table 2-2. Compass turn computation

Current heading Desired heading Headings difference divided by 3 Seconds in turn

120° 030° 90° ÷ 3 30
180° 280° 100° ÷ 3 33
320° 020° 60° ÷ 3 20
225° 140° 85° ÷ 3 28
Enter standard rate turn for the computed seconds, stop the turn, and arrive at the desired heading.

THIRTY-DEGREE BANK
2-87. A 30-degree bank turn is seldom necessary, or advisable, in IMC and is considered a steep turn in a
helicopter. Although entry and recovery techniques are the same as for other turns, it is more difficult in a
30-degree bank turn to control pitch because of the decrease in vertical lift as bank increases. Because of
this decrease, there is a tendency to lose altitude/airspeed; therefore, to maintain a constant altitude and
airspeed, additional power is required. The altimeter and VSI will indicate necessary corrections. Check the
indications on the attitude indicator, and make necessary adjustments. Recheck the altimeter and VSI to
determine whether the correction was adequate.

CLIMBING AND DESCENDING

2-88. The climbing and descending turn techniques for straight climbs and descents and those for
standard-rate turns are combined. Start the climb or descent and turn simultaneously. The primary and
supporting instruments for a stabilized constant airspeed left climbing turn are illustrated in Figure 2-16.
Leveling-off from a climbing or descending turn is the same as leveling-off from a straight climb or
descent. Returning to straight-and-level flight can occur by stopping the turn and leveling-off, leveling-off
and stopping the turn, or simultaneously leveling-off and stopping the turn. During climbing and
descending turns, keep the ball of the turn indicator centered with pedal trim.

Figure 2-16. Stabilized left climbing turn, constant airspeed

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COMMON ERRORS
2-89. Common errors made during turns include the following:
• Failure to maintain desired turn rate and airspeed.
• Failure to maintain altitude in level turns.
• Variation in the rate of entry and recovery.
• Failure to use proper lead in turns to a heading.
• Failure to properly compute time during timed turns.
• Failure to use proper leads and lags during compass turns.
• Improper use of power.
• Failure to use proper pedal trim.

SECTION VII – OTHER MANEUVERS

UNUSUAL ATTITUDES
2-90. Any maneuver not required for normal helicopter instrument flight is an unusual attitude and may be
caused by any one or a combination of factors such as turbulence, disorientation, instrument failure,
confusion, preoccupation with cockpit duties, carelessness in cross-checking, errors in instrument
interpretation, or lack of proficiency in aircraft control. Because of the instability characteristics of the
helicopter, unusual attitudes can be extremely critical. When experiencing an unusual attitude, make quick
attitude corrections to straight-and-level flight then return to desired airspeed and altitude as soon as
possible.
2-91. To recover from an unusual attitude, correct bank-and-pitch attitude and adjust power as necessary.
All components are changed almost simultaneously with little lead of one over the other. Aviators must
perform this task with and without the attitude indicator. If the helicopter is in a climbing or descending
turn, correct bank, pitch, and power. The bank attitude is corrected by referring to the turn-and-slip
indicator and attitude indicator. Pitch attitude is corrected by reference to the altimeter, airspeed indicator,
VSI, and attitude indicator. Adjust power by referring to the airspeed indicator and torque meter. Because
displacement of the controls used in recoveries from unusual attitudes may be greater than those for normal
flight, make careful adjustments as straight-and-level flight is approached. Cross-check other instruments
closely to avoid overcontrolling.

COMMON ERRORS
2-92. Common errors made during unusual attitude recoveries include the following:
• Failure to make proper pitch, bank, and power corrections.
• Overcontrolling pitch/bank attitude and power.
• Excessive loss of altitude.

AUTOROTATIONS
2-93. A straight-ahead or turning autorotation is practiced by reference to instruments ensuring that an
aviator can take prompt corrective action to maintain positive aircraft control in case of engine failure. To
enter autorotation, reduce collective pitch, smoothly maintaining safe rotor revolutions per minute (RPM),
and apply pedal trim to keep the ball of the turn-and-slip indicator centered. The pitch attitude of the
helicopter should be approximately level as shown by the attitude indicator. The airspeed indicator is the
primary pitch instrument and is adjusted to recommended autorotation speed. The heading indicator is
primary for bank in a straight-ahead autorotation. In a turning autorotation, a standard-rate turn is
maintained by reference to the needle of the turn-and-slip indicator.

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COMMON ERRORS
2-94. Common errors made during autorotation include the following:
• Uncoordinated entry because of improper pedal trim.
• Poor airspeed control because of improper pitch attitude.
• Poor heading control in straight-ahead autorotation.
• Failure to maintain proper rotor RPM and a standard-rate turn during turning autorotation.

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 Chapter 3
Fixed Wing Instrument Flight Maneuvers

Instrument flying techniques differ according to aircraft type, class, performance

capability, and instrumentation. Therefore, this chapter augments Chapter 2 and
covers only the differences for fixed wing aircraft. Recommended procedures,
performance data, operating limitations, and flight characteristics of a particular
aircraft are available in the appropriate operator’s manual and ATM.

SECTION I – INSTRUMENT TAKEOFF

3-1. Aviator competency in ITO will provide the

proficiency and confidence necessary for use of

flight instruments during departures under

Contents
conditions of low visibility, rain, low ceilings, or
Section I – Instrument Takeoff ..................... 3-1
disorientation at night. A sudden rapid transition
Section II – Straight-and-Level Flight .......... 3-2
from visual to instrument flight can result in serious
Section III – Straight Climbs and
disorientation and control problems. ITO techniques
Descents ................................................... 3-12
vary with different types of airplanes, but the
Section IV – Turns ....................................... 3-19
following method applies to most and should be
Section V – Other Maneuvers ..................... 3-24
accomplished according to the appropriate ATM

and operator’s manual.

TAKEOFF
3-2. Align the airplane with the centerline of the runway with the nose wheel straight. Lock or hold the
brakes firmly to avoid creeping while preparing for takeoff. Slight changes in heading can be detected by
setting the heading indicator with the nose index on the mark nearest the published runway heading. Make
certain that the instrument is uncaged (if a caging feature is available) by rotating the knob after uncaging,
and check for constant heading indication. Advance the power levers to an RPM that provides partial
rudder control. Release the brakes, advancing the power smoothly to takeoff setting.
3-3. During the takeoff roll, hold the heading constant on the heading indicator by using the rudder.
Multiengine propeller-driven airplanes also use differential power to maintain direction. The use of brakes
to control heading usually results in overcontrolling and extending the takeoff roll and should be avoided.
Any deviation in heading should be quickly corrected.
3-4. Heading and airspeed indicators must be cross-checked rapidly as the aircraft accelerates. The
attitude indicator may falsely indicate a slight nose-up attitude. As flying speed is approached (about 15 to
25 knots below takeoff speed), smoothly apply elevator control for the desired takeoff attitude on the
attitude indicator (about a two-bar-width climb indication for most airplanes). Continue with a quick
cross-check of the heading indicator and attitude indicator as the airplane leaves the ground. Do not pull
the aircraft off; fly the aircraft off while holding the attitude constant. Maintain pitch-and-bank control by
referencing the attitude indicator, and make coordinated corrections in heading when indicated on the
heading indicator. Cross-check the altimeter and VSI for a positive rate of climb (steady clockwise rotation
of the altimeter needle at a rate that can be interpreted with experience and the VSI showing an appropriate
stable rate of climb).

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3-5. Raise the landing gear and flaps when the altimeter shows a safe altitude (about 100 feet),
maintaining attitude by referencing the attitude indicator. Because of control pressure changes during gear
and flap operation, overcontrolling is likely unless the aviator notes pitch indications accurately and
quickly. Trim off control pressures necessary to hold the stable climb attitude. Check the altimeter, VSI,
and airspeed for a smooth acceleration to the predetermined climb speed (altimeter and airspeed increasing,
vertical speed stable). At climb speed, reduce power to the climb setting if required. Throughout the ITO,
perform rapid cross-check and interpretation, along with positive and smooth control. During liftoff, the
changing control reactions of gear and flap retraction and power reduction demand rapid cross-check,
adjustment of control pressures, and accurate trim changes.

COMMON TAKEOFF ERRORS AND RESOLUTIONS

3-6. Common takeoff errors and resolutions include the following:
• Failure to perform an adequate cockpit check before takeoff; do not attempt instrument takeoffs
with inoperative airspeed indicators (pitot tube obstructed), gyros caged, or controls locked.
• Improper alignment on the runway. Improper brake application may allow the airplane to creep
after alignment; alignment with the nose wheel or tail wheel cocked may cause improper
alignment on the runway.
• Improper application of power. Abrupt application of power complicates directional control; add
power with a smooth, uninterrupted motion.
• Improper use of brakes. Incorrect seat or rudder pedal adjustment, with feet in an uncomfortable
position, often causes inadvertent application of brakes and excessive heading changes.
• Overcontrolling rudder pedals. This fault may be due to late recognition of heading changes,
tension on the controls, misinterpretation of the heading indicator (and correcting in the wrong
direction), and failure to appreciate changing effectiveness of rudder control as the aircraft
accelerates; heading changes observed and corrected instantly with small movement of the
rudder pedals reduce swerving tendencies.
• Failure to maintain attitude after becoming airborne. If the aviator is reacting to proprioceptive
sensations when the airplane lifts off, pitch control is guesswork; do not allow excessive pitch or
apply excessive forward-elevator pressure, depending on reaction to trim changes.
• Inadequate cross-check. Fixations are likely during trim changes, attitude changes, gear and flap
retractions, and power changes; after checking an instrument or applying a control, continue the
cross-check and note the effect of the control during the next cross-check sequence.
• Inadequate interpretation of instruments; failure to immediately understand instrument
indications indicates that further study of the maneuver is necessary.

SECTION II – STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT

PITCH CONTROL
3-7. The pitch attitude of an airplane is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the
actual horizon. In level flight, the pitch attitude varies with airspeed and load. For training purposes, the
latter factor can normally be disregarded. At a constant airspeed, there is only one specific pitch attitude for
level flight. At slow cruise speeds, the level-flight attitude is nose-high; at fast cruise speeds, the level-
flight attitude is nose-low. Figure 3-1, page 3-3 shows the attitude at normal cruise speeds. The pitch
instruments are the attitude indicator, altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator.

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Figure 3-1. Pitch attitude and airspeed in level flight

ATTITUDE INDICATOR
3-8. The attitude indicator is the same as in a helicopter. Desired pitch attitude is obtained by using the
elevator control (control wheel, not cyclic) to raise or lower the miniature aircraft in relation to the horizon
bar. Properly adjusting the miniature aircraft on the attitude indicator on the ground before takeoff should
indicate approximately level flight at normal cruise speed after the aviator completes level-off from a
climb. If further adjustment of the miniature aircraft is necessary, the other pitch instruments must be used
to maintain level flight while the adjustment is made.
3-9. In practicing pitch control for level flight using only the attitude indicator, restrict the displacement
of the horizon bar initially to a bar width up or down, then a half-bar width, and finally, a one and-one-half
bar width.
3-10. Pitch attitude changes for corrections to level flight by reference to instruments are much smaller
than those commonly used for visual flight. When the airplane is correctly trimmed for level flight, the
elevator displacement and the control pressures necessary to effect these standard pitch changes are usually
very slight. The following hints help determine how much elevator control pressure is required:
• Relax, and learn to control using the senses rather than muscle; considerable conscious effort is
needed to perfect this technique during the early stages of instrument training. A tight grip on
the controls makes feeling control pressure changes difficult.
• Make smooth and small pitch changes with a positive pressure; practice these small corrections
until becoming proficient in making pitch corrections up or down, freezing (holding constant)
the one-half, full, and one-and-one-half bar widths on the attitude indicator.
• Avoid unnecessary inputs to the flight controls. With the airplane properly trimmed for level
flight, momentarily release all pressure on the elevator control; the airplane should remain stable
and will maintain level flight if left alone when properly trimmed. Some aviators may find it
difficult to resist the impulse to move the controls even when their eyes provide data that no
control change is called for.

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ALTIMETER
3-11. At constant power, any deviation from level flight (except in turbulent air) must be the result of a
pitch change. Therefore, the altimeter indirectly indicates the pitch attitude in level flight (assuming
constant power). Because the altitude should remain constant when the airplane is in level flight, any
deviation from the desired altitude signals the need for a pitch change. When the aircraft gains the desired
altitude, the nose must be adjusted accordingly.
3-12. The rate of movement of the altimeter needle is as important as its direction of movement for
maintaining level flight without the use of the attitude indicator. An excessive pitch deviation from level
flight results in a relatively rapid change of altitude; a slight pitch deviation causes a slow change. Thus, if
the altimeter needle moves rapidly clockwise, assume a considerable nose-high deviation from level-flight
attitude. Conversely, if the needle moves slowly counterclockwise to indicate a slightly nose-low attitude,
assume the pitch correction necessary to regain the desired altitude is small. The addition of the altimeter to
the attitude indicator in cross-check assists in recognizing rate of movement of the altimeter needle.
3-13. When a pitch error is detected, corrective action should be taken promptly but with light control
pressures and two distinct changes of attitude: a change of attitude to stop the needle movement and a
change of attitude to return to the desired altitude.
3-14. Apply just enough elevator pressure to slow down the rate of needle movement when the needle
movement indicates an altitude deviation. If needle movement slows down abruptly, ease off some of the
pressure until the needle continues to move, but slowly. Slow needle movement means airplane attitude is
close to level flight. Add a little more corrective pressure to stop the direction of needle movement. At this
point, level flight has been attained; a reversal of needle movement means that the aircraft has passed
through level flight. Relax the control pressures carefully, continuing to cross-check, because changing
airspeed will cause changes in the effectiveness of a given control pressure. Adjust the pitch attitude with
elevator pressure for the rate of change of altimeter needle movement that has been correlated with normal
pitch corrections, and return to the desired altitude. For errors of less than 100 feet, use a half-bar-width
correction. For errors in excess of 100 feet, use an initial full-bar-width correction.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

3-15. The VSI indirectly indicates pitch attitude and is both a trend and a rate instrument. As a trend
instrument, the initial vertical movement of the airplane is shown immediately that, disregarding
turbulence, can be considered a reflection of pitch change. To maintain level flight, use the VSI with the
altimeter and attitude indicator. Note any up or down trend of the needle from zero and apply a very light
corrective elevator pressure. As the needle returns to zero, relax the corrective pressure. If control
pressures have been smooth and light, the needle reacts immediately and deliberately and the altimeter
shows little or no change of altitude.
3-16. Lag refers to the delay involved before the needle attains a stable indication following a pitch
change. Used as a rate instrument, lag characteristics of the VSI must be considered. Lag is directly
proportional to the speed and magnitude of a pitch change. If a slow, smooth pitch change is initiated, the
needle moves with minimum lag to a point of deflection corresponding to the extent of the pitch change
and then stabilizes as the aerodynamic forces are balanced in the climb or descent. A large and abrupt pitch
change produces erratic needle movement and a reverse indication and introduces greater time delay before
the needle stabilizes. Aviators should not chase the needle when flight through turbulent conditions
produces erratic needle movements.
3-17. When using the VSI as a rate instrument and cross-checking with the altimeter and attitude indicator
to maintain level flight, keep in mind that the amount that the altimeter has moved from the desired altitude
governs the rate necessary to return to that altitude. Make an attitude change resulting in a vertical-speed
rate approximately double the error in altitude. If the altitude is off by 100 feet, for example, the rate of
return should be about 200 FPM.

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3-18. If altitude is off by more than 100 feet, the correction should be correspondingly greater but should
never exceed the optimum rate of climb or descent for the airplane at a given airspeed and configuration. A
deviation of more than 200 FPM from the desired rate of return is considered overcontrolling as described
in the following example.

Example of How to Avoid Overcontrolling

If a pilot is attempting to return to an altitude at a rate of 300 FPM, he or she should avoid overcontrolling by
not exceeding a rate of 500 FPM.

3-19. The VSI is the primary pitch instrument that the aviator uses to reestablish altitude. Occasionally, the
VSI is slightly out of calibration and may indicate a climb or descent when the airplane is in level flight. If
the instrument cannot be adjusted, consider the error when using the VSI for pitch control; for example, if
the needle indicates a descent of 200 FPM while in level flight, use this indication as the zero position.
Therefore, a 300 FPM rate of descent would be indicated on the VSI as a 500 FPM rate of descent.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
3-20. The airspeed indicator presents an indirect indication of the pitch attitude. At a constant power
setting and pitch attitude, airspeed remains constant. As the pitch attitude lowers, airspeed increases, and
the nose should be raised. As the pitch attitude rises, airspeed decreases and the nose should be lowered. A
rapid change in airspeed indicates a large pitch change, and a slow change of airspeed indicates a small
pitch change.
3-21. The apparent lag in airspeed indications with pitch changes varies greatly among different airplanes
and is due to the time required for the airplane to accelerate or decelerate when the pitch attitude is
changed. There is no appreciable lag because of the construction or operation of the instrument. Small
pitch changes, smoothly executed, result in an immediate change of airspeed.
3-22. Pitch control in level flight is a question of cross-check and interpretation of the instrument panel for
the instrument information that will enable visualization and control of pitch attitude. Regardless of
individual differences in cross-check technique, all aviators should use the instruments giving the best
information for controlling the airplane in any given maneuver. Aviators should also check other
instruments to aid in maintaining the important, or primary, instruments at the desired indication.
3-23. The primary instrument is one that gives the most pertinent information for a particular maneuver
and is usually held at a constant indication. Which instrument is primary for a particular maneuver should
be considered in the context of the specific airplane, weather conditions, aviator experience, operational
conditions, and other factors. Attitude changes must be detected and interpreted instantly for immediate
control action in high-performance airplanes. On the other hand, a reasonably proficient instrument aviator
in a slower aircraft may rely more on the altimeter for primary pitch information, especially if the aviator
determines that too much reliance on the attitude indicator fails to provide necessary precise attitude
information. Whether the aviator decides to regard the altimeter or the attitude indicator as primary
depends on which approach will best help control the attitude. In this manual, the altimeter is normally
considered as the primary pitch instrument during level flight.

COMMON PITCH ERRORS AND RESOLUTIONS

3-24. Pitch errors and their resolutions include the following:
• Improper adjustment of the attitude indicator’s miniature aircraft to the wings-level attitude;
following initial level-off from a climb, check the attitude indicator and make any necessary
adjustment in the miniature aircraft for level flight indication at normal cruise airspeed.
• Insufficient cross-check and interpretation of pitch instruments; for example, the airspeed
indication is low. Believing that the aircraft is in a nose-high attitude, the aviator reacts with
forward pressure without noting that a low power setting is the cause of the airspeed
discrepancy; increase cross-check speed to include all relevant instrument indications before
making a control response.

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• Uncage the attitude indicator when the airplane is not in level flight. The altimeter and heading
indicator must be stabilized with airspeed indication at normal cruise when the aviator pulls out
the caging knob; this adjustment will cause the instrument to read straight-and-level at normal
cruise airspeed.
• Failure to interpret the attitude indicator in terms of existing airspeed.
• Late pitch corrections. When the altimeter shows a 20-foot error, there is a reluctance to correct
such an error, perhaps because of fear of overcontrolling. If overcontrolling is the error, the
more that an aviator practices small corrections and determines the cause of overcontrolling, the
closer the aviator is to holding the altitude. By tolerating a deviation, errors increase.
• Chasing the vertical-speed indications; this tendency can be corrected by proper cross-check of
other pitch instruments as well as by increasing the understanding of the instrument
characteristics.
• Using excessive pitch corrections for the altimeter evaluation; rushing a pitch correction by
making a large pitch change usually compounds the existing error.
• Failure to maintain established pitch corrections. This is a common error associated with cross­
check and trim errors; for example, having established a pitch change to correct an altitude error,
an aviator tends to slow down the cross-check, waiting for the airplane to stabilize in the new
pitch attitude. To maintain the attitude, continue to cross-check and trim off the pressures being
held.
• Fixations during cross-check. After initiating a heading correction, aviators tend to become
preoccupied with bank control and fail to notice a pitch error; likewise, during an airspeed
change, unnecessary gazing at the power instrument is common. A small error in power setting
is of less consequence than large altitude and heading errors.

BANK CONTROL
3-25. The bank attitude of an airplane is the angle between the lateral axis of the airplane and the natural
horizon. To maintain a straight-and-level flight path, keep the wings of the airplane level with the horizon
(assuming that the airplane is in coordinated flight). Any deviation from straight flight resulting from bank
error should be corrected by coordinated aileron and rudder pressure.
3-26. The instruments used for bank control are the attitude indicator, heading indicator, and turn
coordinator/turn-and-slip indicator. Control inputs affect each control instrument differently.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR
3-27. The attitude indicator is the same as the attitude indicator in a helicopter, but the desired bank is set
by the aileron control (control wheel, not cyclic).

HEADING INDICATOR
3-28. The bank attitude of an aircraft in coordinated flight is shown on the heading indicator. A rapid
movement of the heading indicator needle (or azimuth card in a directional gyro) indicates a large angle of
bank, whereas a slow movement of the needle or card reflects a small angle of bank. By noting the rate of
movement of the heading indicator and comparing that movement to the attitude indicator’s degrees of
bank, aviators will learn to look for important bank information on the heading indicator. This experience
is especially useful when the attitude indicator’s precession error makes a precise check of heading
information necessary to maintain straight flight.
3-29. Make a correction to the desired heading using a bank angle no greater than the number of degrees to
be turned when noting deviations from straight flight on the heading indicator. Limit bank corrections to a
bank angle no greater than that required for a standard-rate turn. Use of larger bank angles, which normally
results in overcontrolling and erratic bank control, requires a very high level of proficiency.

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 Fixed Wing Instrument Flight Maneuvers

TURN COORDINATOR
3-30. A turn coordinator is not installed in most Army aircraft. However, this instrument is used in the
single-engine phase of fixed wing qualification.
3-31. The miniature aircraft on the turn coordinator indirectly indicates bank attitude. When the miniature
aircraft is level, the airplane is in straight flight. If the ball is centered, a left deflection of the miniature
aircraft means that the left wing is low and the airplane is in a left turn. Thus, when the miniature aircraft is
in a stabilized deflection, the airplane is turning in the direction indicated. Return to straight flight is
accomplished by coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to level the miniature aircraft. Include the
miniature aircraft in the cross-check, and correct for even the smallest deviations from the desired position.
When used to maintain straight flight, control pressures must be applied very lightly and smoothly.
3-32. The ball of the turn coordinator is a separate instrument located under the miniature aircraft because
the two instruments are used together. The ball instrument indicates the quality of the turn. If the ball is off
center, the airplane is slipping or skidding and the miniature aircraft under these conditions shows an error
in bank attitude. Instrument indications are shown in Figure 3-2 (slips) and Figure 3-3 (skids). If the wings
are level and the airplane is properly trimmed, the ball will remain in the center and the airplane will be in
straight flight. If the ball is not centered, the airplane is improperly trimmed (or the aviator is holding
rudder pressure against proper trim).

Figure 3-2. Slip indication

Figure 3-3. Skid indication

3-33. To maintain straight-and-level flight with proper trim, note the direction of ball displacement. If the
ball is to the left of center and the left wing is low, apply left rudder pressure (or release right rudder

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Chapter 3

pressure) to center the ball and correct the slip. At the same time, apply right aileron pressure, as necessary,
to level the wings, cross-checking the heading indicator and attitude indicator when centering the ball. If
the wings are level and the ball is displaced from the center, the airplane is skidding. Note the direction of
ball displacement, and use the same corrective technique as for an indicated slip. Center the ball (left
ball/left rudder, right ball/right rudder), use aileron as necessary for bank control, and retrim.
3-34. To trim the airplane using only the turn coordinator, use aileron pressure to level the miniature
aircraft and rudder pressure to center the ball. Hold these indications with control pressures, gradually
releasing them when applying rudder trim sufficient to relieve all rudder pressure. Apply aileron trim, if
available, to relieve aileron pressure. With a full instrument panel, maintain a wings-level attitude by
reference to all available instruments while trimming the airplane.

COMMON HEADING ERRORS

3-35. Heading errors usually result from the following:
• Failure to cross-check the heading indicator, especially during changes in power or pitch
attitude.
• Misinterpreting changes in heading with resulting corrections in the wrong direction.
• Failure to note and remember a preselected heading.
• Failure to observe the rate of heading change and its relation to bank attitude.
• Overcontrolling in response to heading changes especially during changes in power settings.
• Anticipating heading changes with premature application of rudder control.
• Failure to correct small heading deviations. Unless zero error in heading is the goal, an aviator
will find himself tolerating larger deviations; correction of a 1-degree error takes less time than a
20-degree error.
• Correcting with improper bank attitude. By correcting a 10-degree heading error with a
20-degree bank correction, an aviator can roll past the desired heading before having bank
established, which requires another correction in the opposite direction; do not multiply existing
errors with errors in corrective technique.
• Failure to note the cause of a previous heading error and, thus, repeating the same error; for
example, the airplane is out of trim with a left wing low tendency. An aviator repeatedly corrects
for a slight left turn yet does nothing about trim.
• Failure to set the heading indicator properly or failure to uncage.

POWER CONTROL
3-36. Power produces thrust, which with the appropriate angle of attack of the wing, overcomes the forces
of gravity, drag, and inertia to determine airplane performance. Power control must be related to its effect
on altitude and airspeed because any change in power setting results in a change in the airspeed or the
altitude of the airplane. At any given airspeed, the power setting determines whether the airplane is in level
flight, a climb, or a descent. An increase in power while holding airspeed constant during straight-and-level
flight causes the aircraft to climb. A decrease in power, while the aviator holds airspeed constant during
straight-and-level flight, causes the aircraft to descend. When altitude is held constant, the power applied
will determine airspeed.
3-37. The relationship between altitude and airspeed determines the need for a change in pitch or power. If
the airspeed is off the desired value, always check the altimeter before deciding that a power change is
necessary. Aviators can think of altitude and airspeed as interchangeable. Therefore, aviators can trade
altitude for airspeed by lowering the nose or convert airspeed to altitude by raising the nose. If the altitude
is higher than desired and airspeed is low (or vice versa), a change in pitch alone may return the airplane to
the desired altitude and airspeed. If both airspeed and altitude are high or if both are low, then a change in
both pitch and power is necessary to return to the desired airspeed and altitude.

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3-38. For changes in airspeed in straight-and-level flight, pitch, bank, and power must be coordinated to
maintain a constant altitude and heading. When power is changed to vary airspeed in straight-and-level
flight, a single-engine, propeller-driven airplane tends to change attitude around all axes of movement.
Therefore, to maintain constant altitude and heading, apply various control pressures in proportion to the
changes in power. When the aviator adds power to increase airspeed, the pitch instruments will show a
climb unless forward-elevator control pressure is applied as the airspeed changes. When the aviator
increases power, the airplane tends to yaw and roll to the left unless counteracting aileron and rudder
pressures are applied. Keeping ahead of these changes requires an increase in cross-check speed, which
varies with the type of airplane and its torque characteristics, the extent of power and speed change
involved, and the technique used in making the power change.

POWER SETTINGS
3-39. Power control and airspeed changes are much easier when the aviator already knows the
approximate power settings necessary to maintain various airspeeds in straight-and-level flight. However,
to change airspeed any appreciable amount, the common procedure is to underpower or overpower on
initial power changes to accelerate the rate of airspeed change. (For small speed changes or in airplanes
that decelerate or accelerate rapidly, overpowering or underpowering is not necessary.)
3-40. Figures 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6 illustrate a method to reduce airspeed from 200 knots to 160 knots while
the aviator maintains straight-and-level flight.

Figure 3-4. Straight-and-level flight

3-41. Instrument indications, prior to the power reduction, are shown in Figure 3-4. The basic attitude is
established and maintained on the attitude indicator, and the specific pitch, bank, and power control
requirements are detected on these primary instruments:
• Altimeter—primary pitch.
• HSI, RMI, or compass—primary bank.
• Airspeed indicator—primary power.
3-42. Supporting pitch-and-bank instruments are shown in the illustrations. The supporting power
instrument is the torque gauge. The torque gauge becomes the primary power instrument when the aviator
makes a smooth power reduction (underpower) (Figure 3-5, page 3-10). With practice, an aviator will be
able to change a power setting, with only a brief glance at the power instrument, by sensing the movement
of the power levers, the change in sound, and the changes in the feel of control pressures.

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Figure 3-5. Airspeed deceasing

3-43. As the thrust decreases, increase the speed of the cross-check and be ready to apply left rudder,
back-elevator, and aileron control pressure the instant that the pitch-and-bank instruments show a deviation
from altitude and heading. When proficient, an aviator will cross-check, interpret, and control the changes
with no deviation of heading and altitude. Assuming smooth air and ideal control technique, as airspeed
decreases, a proportionate increase in airplane pitch attitude is required to maintain altitude. Similarly,
effective torque control means counteracting yaw with rudder pressure.
3-44. As power is reduced, the altimeter is primary for pitch, the heading indicator is primary for bank, and
the torque gauge is temporarily primary for power. Control pressures should be trimmed off as the airplane
decelerates. As airspeed approaches 160 knots (the desired airspeed), torque is adjusted and becomes the
supporting power instrument. The airspeed indicator again becomes primary for power (Figure 3-6).

Figure 3-6. Reduced airspeed stabilized

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AIRSPEED CHANGES
3-45. Practice of airspeed changes in straight-and-level flight provides an excellent means of developing
increased proficiency in all three basic instrument skills and brings out some common errors to be expected
during training. Having learned to control the airplane in a clean configuration (minimum drag conditions),
aviators can increase proficiency in cross-check and control by practicing speed changes while extending
or retracting the flaps and landing gear. While practicing, be sure to comply with the airspeed limitations
specified in the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual for gear and flap operation.
3-46. Sudden and exaggerated attitude changes may be necessary to maintain straight-and-level flight as
the landing gear is extended and the flaps are lowered in some airplanes. The nose tends to pitch down
with gear extension, and when flaps are lowered, lift increases momentarily (at partial flap settings),
followed by a marked increase in drag as the flaps near maximum extension.
3-47. Control technique varies according to the lift and drag characteristics of each airplane. Accordingly,
knowledge of the power settings and trim changes associated with different combinations of airspeed, gear,
and flap configurations, such as in the following example, will reduce instrument cross-check and
interpretation problems.

Example of Control Technique

Assume that in straight-and-level flight an airplane indicates 145 knots with power at 95 percent torque,
gear and flaps up. After reduction in airspeed, with gear and flaps fully extended, straight-and-level flight
at the same altitude requires 98 percent torque. Maximum gear extension speed is 125 knots; maximum
flap extension speed is 105 knots.

3-48. Airspeed reduction to 95 knots, gear and flaps down, can be made in the following manner:
• Increase RPM to high, because a high power setting will be used in full drag configuration.
• Reduce torque to 50 percent; as the airspeed decreases, increase cross-check speed.
• Make trim adjustments for an increased angle of attack and decrease in torque.
3-49. By lowering the gear at 125 knots, the nose may tend to pitch down while the rate of deceleration
increases. Increase pitch attitude to maintain constant altitude, and trim off some of the back-elevator
pressures. By lowering full flaps at this point, cross-check, interpretation, and control must be very quick.
A less difficult technique is to stabilize the airspeed and attitude with gear down before lowering the flaps.
3-50. Because 75 percent torque will hold level flight at 95 knots with the gear down, increase power
smoothly to that setting as the airspeed indicator shows about 100 knots and retrim. The attitude indicator
now shows about two-and-a-half bar width nose-high in straight-and-level flight. Actuate the flap control
and simultaneously increase power to the predetermined setting (98 percent) for the desired airspeed, and
trim off the pressures necessary to hold constant altitude and heading. The attitude indicator now shows a
bar-width nose low in straight-and-level flight at 95 knots. A high level of proficiency in the basic skills
involved in straight-and-level flight is developed when an aviator can consistently maintain constant
altitude and heading with smooth pitch, bank, power, and trim control during these pronounced changes in
trim.

COMMON POWER ERRORS

3-51. Power errors usually result from the following:
• Failure to know the power settings and pitch attitudes appropriate to various airspeeds and
airplane configurations.
• Abrupt use of power levers.
• Failure to lead the airspeed during power changes. For example, during airspeed reduction in
level flight, especially with gear and flaps extended, adjust the power levers to maintain the
slower speed before reaching the desired airspeed; otherwise, the airplane will decelerate to a

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speed lower than desired, resulting in further power adjustments. How much to lead the airspeed
depends upon how fast the airplane responds to power changes.
• Fixation on airspeed or torque instruments during airspeed changes, resulting in erratic control
of both airspeed and power.

TRIM TECHNIQUE
3-52. Proper trim technique is essential for smooth and precise aircraft control during all phases of flight.
By relieving all control pressures, holding a given attitude constant is mush easier and an aviator can
devote more attention to other cockpit duties.
3-53. An aircraft is trimmed by applying control pressures to establish a desired attitude and then adjusting
the trim so that the aircraft will maintain that attitude when flight controls are released. Trim the aircraft for
coordinated flight by centering the ball of the turn-and-slip indicator. Center the ball of the turn-and-slip
indicator by using rudder trim in the direction that the ball is displaced from the center. Differential power
control on multiengine aircraft is an additional factor affecting coordinated flight. Use balanced power or
thrust, when possible, to aid in maintaining coordinated flight.
3-54. Changes in attitude, power, or configuration require a trim adjustment in most cases. Using trim
alone to establish a change in aircraft attitude invariably leads to erratic aircraft control. Smooth and
precise attitude changes are attained by a combination of control pressures and trim adjustments.
Therefore, when used correctly, trim adjustment is an aid to smooth aircraft control.
3-55. Some aircraft have a yaw damper system. The yaw damper may have to be turned off while
trimming the aircraft.
3-56. Common trim errors usually result from the following:
• Improper adjustment of seat or rudder pedals for comfort; tension in the legs and ankles makes
relaxing rudder pressure difficult.
• Confusion as to the operation of trim devices, which differ among various airplane types. Some
trim wheels are aligned appropriately with the airplane’s axes; others are not; some rotate in a
direction contrary to what is expected.
• Faulty sequence in trim technique. Trim should be used, not as a substitute for control with the
wheel (stick) and rudders, but to relieve pressures already held to stabilize attitude; by gaining
proficiency, an aviator becomes familiar with trim settings—just as with power settings—and
will be able, with little conscious effort, to trim off pressures continually as they occur.
• Excessive trim control. Excessive trim control induces control pressures that must be held until
retrim is properly completed; use trim frequently and in small amounts.
• Failure to understand the cause of trim changes; by not understanding the basic aerodynamics
related to the basic instrument skills, an aviator will continually lag behind the airplane.

SECTION III – STRAIGHT CLIMBS AND DESCENTS

CLIMBS
3-57. For a given power setting and load condition, there is only one attitude that will give the most
efficient rate of climb. The airspeed and the climb power setting that will determine this climb attitude are
given in the performance data found in the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual. Details of the technique
for entering a climb vary according to airspeed on entry and the type of climb (constant airspeed or
constant rate) desired. (Heading and trim control are maintained as discussed under straight-and-level
flight.)

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CONSTANT-AIRSPEED CLIMB
3-58. To enter a constant-airspeed climb from cruising airspeed, raise the miniature aircraft to the
approximate nose-high indication for the predetermined climb speed. The attitude will vary according to
the type of airplane flown. Apply light back-elevator pressure to initiate and maintain the climb attitude.
The pressures will vary as the airplane decelerates. Power may be advanced to the climb power setting
simultaneously with the pitch change or after the pitch change is established and the airspeed approaches
climb speed. If the transition from level flight to climb is smooth, the VSI will show an immediate upward
trend. Continue to move slowly, and then stop at a rate appropriate to the stabilized airspeed and attitude.
Primary and supporting instruments for the climb entry are shown in Figure 3-7.

Figure 3-7. Climb entry

3-59. Once the airplane stabilizes at a constant airspeed and attitude, the airspeed indicator is primary for
pitch and the heading indicator remains primary for bank (Figure 3-8, page 3-14). Monitor the torque
gauge as the primary power instrument to ensure the proper climb power setting is being maintained. If the
climb attitude is correct for the power setting selected, the airspeed will stabilize at the desired speed. If the
airspeed is low or high, make an appropriate small pitch correction.

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Figure 3-8. Stabilized constant airspeed climb

CONSTANT-RATE CLIMB
3-60. The technique for entering a constant-rate climb is very similar to that used for entry to a
constant-airspeed climb from climb airspeed. As the power is increased to the approximate setting for the
desired rate, simultaneously raise the miniature aircraft to the climbing attitude for the desired airspeed and
rate of climb. As the power is increased, the airspeed indicator is primary for pitch control until the vertical
speed approaches the desired value. As the vertical-speed needle stabilizes, the vertical speed becomes
primary for pitch control and the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control (Figure 3-9, page
3-15).

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Figure 3-9. Stabilized constant rate climb

3-61. Pitch and power corrections must be prompt and closely coordinated. For example, if vertical speed
is correct but airspeed is low, add power. As power is increased, the miniature aircraft must be lowered
slightly to maintain constant vertical speed. If vertical speed is high and airspeed is low, lower the
miniature aircraft slightly and note the increase in airspeed to determine whether a power change is
necessary. Familiarity with power settings helps to keep pitch and power corrections at a minimum.

LEVEL-OFF
3-62. To level-off from a climb and maintain an altitude, start the level-off before reaching the desired
altitude. The amount of lead varies with rate of climb and aviator technique. If the airplane is climbing at
1,000 FPM, the airplane will continue to climb at a decreasing rate throughout the transition to level flight.
An effective practice is to lead the altitude by 10 percent of the vertical speed shown (500 FPM/50-foot
lead, 1,000 FPM/100-foot lead).
3-63. To level-off at cruising airspeed, apply smooth, steady forward-elevator pressure toward level-flight
attitude for the speed desired. As the attitude indicator shows the pitch change, the vertical-speed needle
will move slowly toward zero, the altimeter needle will move more slowly, and the airspeed will show
acceleration (Figure 3-10, page 3-16). Constant changes in pitch and torque control will have to be made as
the airspeed increases when the altimeter, attitude indicator, and VSI show level flight. As the airspeed
approaches cruising speed, reduce power to the cruise setting. The amount of lead depends on the rate of
acceleration of the airplane.
3-64. To level-off at climbing airspeed, lower the nose to the pitch attitude appropriate to that airspeed in
level flight. Power is simultaneously reduced to the setting for that airspeed as the pitch attitude is lowered.
If the power reduction is at a rate proportionate to the pitch change, airspeed will remain constant.

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Figure 3-10. Level-off

DESCENTS
3-65. A descent can be made at a variety of airspeeds and attitudes by reducing power, adding drag, and
lowering the nose to a predetermined attitude. Sooner or later, the airspeed will stabilize at a constant
value. Meanwhile, the only flight instrument providing a positive attitude reference, by itself, is the attitude
indicator. Without the attitude indicator (such as during a partial-panel descent), the airspeed indicator, the
altimeter, and the VSI will show varying rates of change until the airplane decelerates to a constant
airspeed at a constant attitude. Maintain cruise airspeed during descent by reducing power and decreasing
pitch. Adjust pitch for rate of descent and power to maintain correct airspeed. During the transition,
changes in control pressure and trim, as well as cross-check and interpretation, must be very accurate to
maintain positive control.

AIRSPEED DESCENT
3-66. The following method for entering descents is effective either with or without an attitude indicator.
First, reduce airspeed to the selected descent airspeed while maintaining straight-and-level flight, and then
make a further reduction in power (to a predetermined setting). As the power is adjusted, simultaneously
lower the nose to maintain constant airspeed and trim off control pressures.
3-67. During a constant-airspeed descent, any deviation from the desired airspeed calls for a pitch
adjustment. For a constant-rate descent, the entry is the same but the vertical-speed indicator is primary for
pitch control (after the aircraft stabilizes near the desired rate) and the airspeed indicator is primary for
power control. Pitch and power must be closely coordinated when the aviator makes corrections (Figure
3-11, page 3-17).

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Figure 3-11. Constant airspeed descent, airspeed high—reduce power

LEVEL-OFF
3-68. Level-off from a descent must be started before reaching the desired altitude. The amount of lead
depends on the descent rate and control technique. With too little lead, an aviator tends to overshoot the
selected altitude unless the technique is quick. Lead the altitude by 100 to 150 feet for a level-off at
airspeed higher than descending speed (assuming a 500-FPM rate of descent). At the lead point, add power
to the appropriate level-flight cruise setting (Figure 3-12). Because the nose tends to rise as airspeed
increases, hold forward-elevator pressure to maintain vertical speed at the descending rate until about 50
feet above altitude and smoothly adjust the pitch attitude to the level-flight attitude for the airspeed
selected.
3-69. To level-off from a descent at descent airspeed, lead the desired altitude by about 50 feet,
simultaneously adjusting the pitch attitude to level flight and adding power to a setting that will hold the
airspeed constant (Figure 3-12, page 3-18). Trim off the control pressures and continue with the normal
straight-and-level flight cross-check.

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Figure 3-12. Level-off at descent airspeed

COMMON CLIMB AND DESCENT ERRORS AND RESOLUTIONS

3-70. Common errors and their resolutions include the following:
• Overcontrolling pitch on climb entry. An inexperienced aviator has a tendency to make larger
than necessary pitch adjustments; overcome the inclination to make large control movements by
applying small control pressures smoothly. Cross-check quickly for results of the change, and
continue with the pressures as the instruments show the desired results at a rate that can be
interpreted; small pitch changes are more easily controlled, stopped, and corrected.
• Failure to vary the rate of cross-check during speed, power, or attitude changes for climb and
descent entries.
• Failure to maintain a new pitch attitude. For example, an aviator raises the nose to the correct
climb attitude; as airspeed decreases, the aviator may continue to lead the input, which can cause
overcontrol, further increasing the pitch attitude. Another error is if the aviator does not
maintain the proper pitch attitude, which could allow the nose to lower; this undercontrol may
not provide the desired climb rate. Control pressures change with airspeed changes; therefore,
the aviator must increase cross-checks and readjust control pressures as necessary for desired
pitch attitude.
• Failure to trim off pressures; unless the aviator trims, there will be difficulty in determining
whether control pressure changes are induced by aerodynamic changes or aviator movements.
• Failure to learn and use proper power settings.
• Failure to cross-check airspeed and vertical speed before making pitch or power adjustments.
• Improper pitch and power coordination on slow-speed level-offs because of slow cross-check of
airspeed and altimeter indications.
• Failure to cross-check the VSI against other pitch control instruments.
• Failure to note the rate of climb or descent to determine the lead for level-offs.
• Failure to maintain descending attitude with forward-elevator pressure as power is increased to
level flight cruise setting causes ballooning (allowing the nose to pitch up).
• Failure to recognize the approaching straight-and-level flight indications when leveling-off.

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SECTION IV – TURNS

STANDARD-RATE TURNS
3-71. To enter a standard-rate level turn, apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressures in the desired
direction of turn. Aviators commonly roll into turns at a much too rapid rate. During initial training in
turns, base control pressures on the rate of cross-check and interpretation. There is nothing to be gained by
maneuvering an airplane faster than the capacity to keep up with the changes in instrument indications.
3-72. On the roll in, use the attitude indicator to establish the approximate angle of bank and then check
the turn coordinator’s miniature aircraft for a standard-rate turn indication. Maintain the bank for this rate
of turn, using the turn coordinator’s miniature aircraft as the primary bank reference and the attitude
indicator as the supporting bank instrument (Figure 3-13). Note the exact angle of bank shown on the
banking scale of the attitude indicator when the turn coordinator indicates a standard-rate turn.

Figure 3-13. Standard rate turn

3-73. During roll-in, check the altimeter, VSI, and attitude indicator for the necessary pitch adjustments as
the vertical lift component decreases with an increase in bank. If constant airspeed is to be maintained, the
airspeed indicator becomes primary for power and the power levers must be adjusted as drag increases. As
the bank is established, trim off the pressures applied during pitch and power changes.
3-74. To recover to straight-and-level flight, apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressures opposite the
direction of turn. If an aviator strives for the same rate of roll-out used to roll into the turn, he or she will
encounter fewer problems in estimating the lead necessary for roll-out on exact headings, especially on
partial-panel maneuvers. The attitude indicator becomes the primary bank instrument when the aviator
initiates the turn recovery. When the airplane is approximately level, the heading indicator is the primary
bank instrument. Pitch, power, and trim adjustments are made as changes in vertical lift component and
airspeed occur. The ball should be checked throughout the turn, especially if control pressures are held
rather than trimmed off.
3-75. Some airplanes are very stable during turns, and slight trim adjustments permit hands-off flight while
the airplane remains in the established attitude. Other airplanes require constant, quick cross-check and

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control during turns to correct overbanking tendencies. Because of the interrelationship of pitch, bank, and
airspeed deviations during turns, the cross-check must be fast to prevent an accumulation of errors.

STEEP TURNS
3-76. For purposes of instrument flight training in conventional aircraft, any turn with a 45-to 60-degree
bank angle or greater is considered steep (Figure 3-14). The exact angle of bank at which a normal turn
becomes steep is unimportant. What is important is to learn to control the airplane with bank attitudes in
excess of those normally used on instruments. Practice in steep turns will not only increase proficiency in
basic instrument flying skills but also enable smooth, quick, and confident reaction to unexpected abnormal
flight attitudes under instrument flight conditions.

Figure 3-14. Steep right turn

3-77. Aerodynamic forces inhibit aircraft control at progressively steeper bank attitudes. Skill in
cross-check, interpretation, and control is increasingly necessary in proportion to the amount of these
changes. The techniques for entering, maintaining, and recovering from the turn are the same in principle
for steep turns as for shallow turns.
3-78. Enter a steep turn exactly as a shallow turn, but prepare to cross-check quickly as the turn becomes
steeper. Because of the reduced vertical lift component, pitch control is usually the most difficult aspect of
this maneuver. Unless immediately noted and corrected with a pitch increase, the loss of vertical lift results
in rapid movement of the altimeter, vertical speed, and airspeed needles. The faster the rate of bank change,
the more suddenly the lift changes occur. If the cross-check is fast enough to note the immediate need for
pitch changes, smooth, steady back-elevator pressure will maintain constant altitude. However, if an
aviator overbanks to excessively steep angles without adjusting pitch as bank changes occur, pitch
corrections require increasingly stronger elevator pressure. The loss of vertical lift and increase in wing
loading finally reach a point where further application of back-elevator pressure tightens the turn without
raising the nose.
3-79. Despite the application of back-elevator pressure, the aircraft is in a diving spiral when the aviator
observes a rapid downward movement of the altimeter needle or vertical-speed needle, along with an
increase in airspeed. Immediately shallow the bank with smooth and coordinated aileron and rudder

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pressures, hold or slightly relax elevator pressure, and increase the cross-check of the attitude indicator,
altimeter, and VSI. Reduce power if the airspeed increase is rapid. The altimeter needle moves slower as
the vertical lift increases and the vertical speed trends upward. When noting the elevator is effective in
raising the nose, hold the bank attitude shown on the attitude indicator and adjust elevator control pressures
smoothly for the nose-high attitude appropriate to the bank maintained. If pitch control is consistently late
on entries to steep turns, roll-out immediately to straight-and-level flight and analyze any errors. Practice
shallower turns until able to keep up with the attitude changes and control responses required, and then
proceed to steeper banks as quicker and more accurate control techniques are developed.
3-80. The power necessary to maintain a constant airspeed increases as the bank and drag increase. With
practice, an aviator quickly learns the power settings appropriate to specific bank attitudes and can make
adjustments without undue attention to airspeed and power instruments. When the aviator keeps the pitch
attitude relatively constant, there is more time to cross-check, interpret, and control for accurate airspeed
and bank control.
3-81. During recovery from steep turns to straight-and-level flight, elevator and power control must be
coordinated with bank control in proportion to the changes in aerodynamic forces. Back-elevator pressures
must be released and power decreased. Errors are more exaggerated and more difficult to correct and
analyze unless the rates of entry and recovery are consistent with the level of proficiency in the basic
instrument flying skills.

CLIMBING AND DESCENDING TURNS

3-82. To execute climbing and descending turns, combine the technique used in straight climbs and
descents with various turn techniques. The aerodynamic factors affecting lift and power control must be
considered in determining power settings, and the rate of cross-check and interpretation must be increased
to enable an aviator to control bank as well as pitch changes.

CHANGE OF AIRSPEED DURING TURNS

3-83. Changing airspeed during turns (Figure 3-15) is an effective maneuver for increasing proficiency in
all three basic instrument skills. Because the maneuver involves simultaneous changes in all components of
control, proper execution requires a quick cross-check and interpretation as well as smooth control.
Proficiency in the maneuver will also contribute to aviator confidence in the instruments during attitude
and power changes involved in more complex maneuvers. Pitch and power control techniques are the same

as those used during changes in airspeed during straight-and-level flight.

Figure 3-15.Change of airspeed in turn

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3-84. The angle of bank necessary for a given rate of turn is proportional to the TAS. Because turns are
executed at a standard rate, the angle of bank must be varied in direct proportion to the airspeed change to
maintain a constant rate of turn. During a reduction of airspeed, an aviator must decrease the angle of bank
and increase the pitch attitude to maintain altitude and a standard-rate turn.
3-85. The altimeter and turn coordinator indications should remain constant throughout the turn. The
altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is primary for bank
control. The torque gauge is primary for power control while the airspeed is changing. As the airspeed
approaches the new indication, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control.
3-86. Two methods of changing airspeed in turns may be used. In the first method, airspeed is changed
after the turn is established; in the second method, the airspeed change is initiated simultaneously with the
turn entry. Regardless of the method used, the rate of cross-check must be increased as power is reduced.
As the airplane decelerates, check the altimeter and VSI for needed pitch changes and the bank instruments
for needed bank changes. If the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator shows a deviation from the
desired deflection, change the bank. Adjust pitch attitude to maintain altitude. When the aircraft
approaches the desired airspeed, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control and the torque
gauge is adjusted to maintain the desired airspeed. Trim is important throughout the maneuver to relieve
control pressures. Until an aviator’s control technique is smooth, frequent cross-check of the attitude
indicator is essential to keep from overcontrolling and to provide approximate bank angles appropriate to
the changing airspeeds.

COMMON TURN ERRORS

PITCH
3-87. Pitch errors and their resolutions include the following:
• Preoccupation with bank control during turn entry and recovery. Check pitch instruments when
initiating bank pressures. If bank control pressure and rate of bank change are consistent, an
aviator soon develops a sense of timing regarding attitude change. Control the total attitude
instead of one factor at a time.
• Failure to understand the need for changing pitch attitude as the vertical lift component changes,
causing consistent loss of altitude during entries.
• Changing the pitch attitude before necessary (because of a slow cross-check and a rapid rate of
entry); the error occurs during the turn entry because of a mechanical and premature application
of back-elevator control pressure.
• Overcontrolling pitch changes.
• Failure to properly adjust the pitch attitude as the vertical lift component increases during the
rollout causing consistent gain in altitude on recovery to headings.
• Failure to trim during turn entry and following turn recovery (if the turn is prolonged).
• Failure to maintain straight-and-level cross-check after rollout (commonly follows a perfectly
executed turn).
• Erratic rates of bank change on entry and recovery resulting from failure to cross-check pitch
instruments with changes in lift.

BANK
3-88. Bank and heading errors and their resolutions include the following:
• Overcontrolling resulting in overbanking upon turn entry and overshooting and undershooting
headings as well as aggravated pitch, airspeed, and trim errors.
• Fixation on a single bank instrument; be selective during the cross-check and avoid fixating on a
single instrument as described in the following example.

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An Example of Using Other Cues During Turns

On a 90 degrees change of heading, leave the heading indicator out of the cross-check for about 20 seconds
after establishing a standard-rate turn because, at 3 degrees per second, the aircraft will not approach the
lead point until that time has elapsed.
• Failure to check for precession of the horizon bar following recovery from a turn. If the heading
indicator shows a change in heading when the attitude indicator shows level flight, the airplane
is turning. If the ball is centered, the attitude gyro has precessed; conversely if the ball is not
centered, the airplane may be in a slipping or skidding turn. Center the ball with rudder pressure,
check the attitude indicator and heading indicator, stop a continued heading change, and retrim.
• Failure to use the proper degree of bank for the amount of heading change desired; rolling into a
20-degree bank for a heading change of 10 degrees will normally overshoot the heading. Use the
bank attitude appropriate to the amount of heading change desired.
• Failure to remember the new heading; this fault is likely when the aviator rushes the maneuver.
• Turning in the wrong direction because of misreading or misinterpreting the heading indicator or
confusion as to the location of points on the compass; turn in the shortest direction to reach a
given heading, unless there is a specific reason to turn the long way around. To avoid turning in
the wrong direction—
• The aviator should be familiar enough with the compass rose to be able to visualize the
positions of the eight major points around the azimuth and quickly determine the correct
direction to be flown; for example, to turn from a heading of 305 degrees to a heading of
110 degrees, the shortest way around is to the right.
• The aviator should be able to quickly determine reciprocal headings as in the following
example.

Example of Determining a Reciprocal Heading

Subtracting 200 from 305 and adding 20, the answer is 125 degrees (as the reciprocal of 305 degrees); thus,
execute a turn to the right. Likewise, to figure the reciprocal of a heading less than 180 degrees, add 200 and
subtract 20. Compute quickly by using multiples of 100s and 10s, and then add or subtract 180 degrees from
the actual heading.

• Failure to check the ball of the turn coordinator when the aviator interprets the instrument for
bank information. If the roll rate is reduced to zero, the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator
indicates only direction and rate of turn. Unless the ball is centered, do not assume that the turn
results from a banked attitude.

POWER
3-89. Power and airspeed errors result from the following:
• Failure to cross-check the airspeed indicator when the aviator makes pitch changes.
• Erratic use of power control; these type of errors may be due to improper friction control,
inaccurate power lever settings, the tendency to chase the airspeed readings, abrupt or
overcontrolled pitch-and-bank changes, or failure to recheck the airspeed to note the effect of a
power adjustment.
• Poor coordination of power lever controls. Errors occur when poor coordination of power lever
controls is combined with pitch-and-bank changes associated with slow cross-check and can be
caused by a failure to understand the aerodynamic factors related to turns.
TRIM
3-90. Trim errors result from the following mistakes:
• Failure to recognize the need for a trim change because of slow cross-check and interpretation;
for example, a turn entry at a rate too rapid for the cross-check leads to confusion in cross-check
and interpretation with resulting tension on the controls.

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• Failure to understand the relationship between trim and attitude/power changes.

• Tendency to chase the vertical-speed needle. Overcontrolling leads to tension and prevents the
aviator from sensing the pressures to be trimmed off.
• Failure to trim following power changes.

SECTION V – OTHER MANEUVERS

APPROACH TO STALL
3-91. Practicing approach to stall recoveries in various airplane configurations builds confidence in an
aviator’s ability to recognize and recover the airplane in unexpected situations such as stalls. Approach to
stall should be practiced from straight-and-level flight and from shallow banks. Prior to stall recovery
practice, select a safe altitude above the terrain, free of conflicting air traffic, verifying that adequate
weather conditions are present and appropriate radar traffic advisory services are available. During
approaches to stalls, power is applied while smoothly and simultaneously increasing the angle of attack to
induce an indication of a stall. The approaches to stalls are accomplished in the following configurations:
• Takeoff. Begin from level flight near liftoff speed.
• Clean. Begin from a reduced airspeed, such as pattern airspeed, in level flight.
• Approach or landing. Initiate at the appropriate approach or landing airspeed.
3-92. Promptly respond to a stall warning device or an aerodynamic indication by smoothly reducing the
angle of attack and applying maximum power or as recommended by the appropriate aircraft operator’s
manual. The recovery should be completed without an excessive loss of altitude and on a predetermined
heading, altitude, and airspeed.

UNUSUAL ATTITUDES AND RECOVERIES

3-93. An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally required for instrument flight. Unusual
attitudes may result from a number of conditions such as turbulence, disorientation, instrument failure,
confusion, preoccupation with cockpit duties and carelessness in cross-checking, errors in instrument
interpretation, or lack of proficiency in aircraft control. Unusual attitudes are often unexpected during
instrument flight (except in training), and the reaction of an inexperienced aviator to an unexpected
abnormal flight attitude is usually instinctive rather than deliberate. Avoid responding with abrupt
muscular effort, which is hazardous in turbulent conditions, at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes;
however, techniques for rapid and safe recovery from unusual attitudes can be learned. When noting an
unusual attitude on the cross-check, focus on returning the aircraft to straight-and-level flight as quickly as
possible.

RECOGNIZING UNUSUAL ATTITUDES

3-94. When an abnormal instrument rate of movement or indication is noted, assume an unusual attitude
and perform a rapid cross-check to confirm the attitude, instrument error, or instrument malfunction.
Nose-high attitudes are shown by the rate and direction of movement of the altimeter needle, vertical-speed
needle, airspeed needle, and the attitude indicator (except in extreme attitudes) (Figure 3-16).

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Figure 3-16. Unusual attitude—nose high

3-95. Nose-low attitudes are shown by the same instruments but in the opposite direction (Figure 3-17).

Figure 3-17. Unusual attitude—nose low

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RECOVERY FROM UNUSUAL ATTITUDES

3-96. In moderate unusual attitudes, the aviator can normally be reoriented by establishing a level flight
indication on the attitude indicator. However, the aviator should not depend on this instrument if the
attitude indicator is the spillable type because upset limits may have been exceeded, making the unit
inoperative because of mechanical malfunction. Even if the instrument is operating properly, errors up to 5
degrees of pitch-and-bank may result. Its indications are difficult to interpret in extreme attitudes. When
the unusual attitude is detected, recommended recovery procedures in the appropriate aircraft operator’s
manual are initiated. If there are no recommended procedures, the recovery is initiated by reference to the
airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator.

Note. Refer to the airplane operator’s manual to determine if the attitude indicator is a spillable
type.

Nose-High Attitudes
3-97. When airspeed is decreasing or below the desired airspeed—
• Increase power (in proportion to the observed deceleration).
• As the nose pitches to the horizon, decrease bank to wings level.
• Adjust pitch to reverse the airspeed trend and return to a level flight attitude.
• Adjust power to cruise setting.
• Cross-check the slip indicator.
• Trim the aircraft.
3-98. Corrective control applications are made almost simultaneously but in the sequence given above. A
level pitch attitude is indicated by reversal and stabilization of the airspeed indicator and altimeter needles.
Straight coordinated flight is indicated by a level miniature aircraft and centered ball of the turn
coordinator.

Nose-Low Attitudes
3-99. When airspeed is increasing or is above the desired airspeed—
• Smoothly reduce power as required.
• Level wings.
• Adjust pitch up to the horizon.
• Adjust power to maintain desired airspeed and altitude.
• Cross-check the slip indicator.
• Trim the aircraft.
3-100. All components of control are changed simultaneously for a smooth recovery. However, during
initial training, a positive recovery is made in the sequence provided above. The instinctive reaction to a
nose-down attitude is to pull back on the elevator control.
3-101. After initial control has been applied, continue with a rapid cross-check for possible
overcontrolling because the necessary initial control pressures may be excessive. As the rate of movement
of the altimeter and airspeed indicator needles decreases, the attitude is approaching level flight. When the
needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight. As the indications of the
airspeed indicator, altimeter, and turn coordinator stabilize, incorporate the attitude indicator into the
cross-check.
3-102. The attitude indicator and turn coordinator are checked to determine bank attitude. Then corrective
aileron and rudder pressures are applied. The ball should be centered. If not centered, skidding and slipping
sensations can easily aggravate disorientation and retard recovery. When entering the unusual attitude from

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an assigned altitude (either by the instructor or by ATC if operating under IFR), return to the original
altitude after stabilizing in straight-and-level flight.

COMMON RECOVERY ERRORS

3-103. Errors noted in connection with basic instrument skills are aggravated during unusual attitude
recoveries. Common errors include the following:
• Failure to keep the airplane properly trimmed. A cockpit interruption when an aviator is holding
pressures can lead into unusual attitudes.
• Disorganized cockpit. Hunting for charts and logs detracts attention from the instruments.
• Slow cross-check and fixations. The impulse is to stare when an instrument discrepancy is
noted.
• Attempting to recover by senses other than sight (see FM 3-04.301 for more information).
• Failure to practice basic instrument skills.

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 Chapter 4
Air Navigation Charts

All aviators must be able to navigate. By understanding and using air navigational
charts, aviators are able to maintain situational awareness and accomplish missions
during VFR and IFR conditions. The following chapter explains DOD-approved
charts used by aviators to navigate while instrument flying. The chapter also covers
basic plotting and measuring techniques used to plan instrument flights.

SECTION I – AIR NAVIGATION

MEASURING A POSITION USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

EQUATOR
4-1. The equator is an imaginary circle equidistant
from the poles of the earth. Circles parallel to the Contents
equator (lines running east and west) are parallels of
latitude. They measure degrees of latitude north or Section I – Air Navigation ............................. 4-1
south of the equator. The angular distance from the Section II – Plotting and Measuring ........... 4-24
equator to the pole is one-fourth of a circle, or 90
degrees. Thus, latitude runs from 90 degrees north to 90 degrees south of the equator. Fort Rucker,
Alabama lies approximately at the 30 degrees north latitude. The following example shows a distance
conversion.

Example of a Distance Conversion

1 degree of latitude is 60 nautical miles (NM), 69 statute miles (SM), or 111 kilometers (KM).

1 minute of latitude is 1 NM, 1.15 SM, or 1.85 KM.

MERIDIAN
4-2. Meridians of longitude are drawn from North Pole to South Pole and at right angles to the equator.
The prime meridian, which passes through Greenwich, England, is used as the zero-degree line from which
measurements are made in degrees east and west to 180 degrees. Fort Rucker, Alabama, lies about at the 90
degrees west longitude. Any specific geographical point can be located by reference to its latitude and
longitude.

DEGREES, MINUTES, AND SECONDS

4-3. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are the most universal format used to mark maps and the most
cumbersome:
• There are 60 seconds in a minute (60 inches equal 1 foot).
• There are 60 minutes in a degree (60 feet equal 1 degree).

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Chapter 4

Degrees, Minutes, Seconds Example

DDD° MM’ SS.S”

32° 18’ 23.1” N 122° 36’ 52.5” W

4-4. A few easy conversions between seconds and decimal minutes help when the aviator works with
maps that use degrees, minutes, and seconds:
• Fifteen seconds is one quarter of a minute, or 0.25 minutes.
• Thirty seconds is one half of a minute, or 0.5 minutes.
• Forty-five seconds is three quarters of a minute, or 0.75 minutes.

DEGREES AND DECIMAL MINUTES

4-5. This format is found in the IFR supplement and is most commonly used when working with
electronic navigation equipment. To convert decimal minutes (MM.MMM) to degrees, minutes, and
seconds, multiply decimal point numbers by 60.

Degrees and Decimal Minutes Example

For latitude 32° 18.385’ N, multiply .385 by 60, and the coordinate converts to 32° 18’ 23.1” N; longitude 122°
36.875’ W converts to 122° 36’ 52.5”
W.DDD° MM.MMM’ = 32° 18.385’ N 122° 36.875’ W

DECIMAL DEGREES
4-6. This is the format that most computer-based mapping systems display. The coordinates are stored
internally in a floating point data type; no additional work is required to print them as a floating point
number. Positive values of latitude are north of the equator, negative values to the south. Watch the sign on
the longitude; most programs use negative values for west longitude, but a few are opposite (Figure 4-1,
page 4-3).

Decimal Degrees Example

DDD.DDDDD°
32.30642° N 122.61458° W
or +32.30642, -122.61458

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Figure 4-1. Longitude and latitude

MEASURING DIRECTION
EARTH CIRCUMFERENCE
4-7. The circumference of the earth is divided into 360 degrees; each degree is further divided into 60
minutes. Moving one minute east or west on the equator is equal to 1 nautical mile. Thus, a nautical mile is
the circumference of the earth divided by 360, giving the distance in 1 degree, which is further divided by
60 for the distance in one minute of arc.

DISTANCE
4-8. The circumference of the earth is 24,857 statute miles, or 40,003.2 kilometers. The statute mile has
been standardized at 5,280 feet. The nautical mile has been standardized at 6,076 feet. Therefore, 1 statute
mile is equal to 0.87 nautical mile, or 1.609 kilometers, for the purposes of measuring distance (table 4-1).

Table 4-1. Distance conversions

1 SM 1 NM 1 KM
Feet 5,280 6,076.1 3280.8
SM 1.0 1.15 0.621
NM 0.87 1.0 0.539
KM 1.609 1.852 1.0

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Chapter 4

SPEED
4-9. A nautical knot is a measure of speed equal to 1 nautical mile per hour. To determine this speed,
sailors would throw lines over the sides of the ships. Each line was divided into 47 feet, 3 inch, sections
called knots. The line was run over the ship’s side while a 28-second glass was emptying itself. The length
of the knot was derived from the proportion that one hour (3,600 seconds) is to 28 seconds as 1 nautical
mile (6,080 feet) is to the length of 1 knot (47 feet, 3 inches). Therefore, a knot is equal to 1 nautical mile
per hour, or 1.15 statute miles per hour (see Chapter 1 for a discussion on the different types of airspeed).

Example of Knots to Statute Mile Conversion

120 knots on the airspeed indicator is equal to 138 (statute) miles per hour (120 X 1.15 = 138).

NAVIGATION CHARTS
4-10. An air navigation chart is a diagram representing the earth’s surface. In this manual, aeronautical
chart discussion is limited to charts used for instrument navigation. Both the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) charts and FAA National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO)
charts are approved Department of Defense (DOD)/United States (U.S.) Government Flight Information
Publications (FLIPs), and aviators may fly procedures in both sets. FAA NACO charts may contain more
civil procedures than NGA charts. Generally, only one of each type of procedure is included in NGA
charts. NGA does not normally include multiple instrument landing system (ILS) procedures to the same
airfield; the NGA chooses one to include. Mission needs must be considered when the aviator determines
which FLIP to use; aviators can choose, depending on the flight destination. All DOD approaches are now
included in the NACO publications. If a procedure is not in either set of charts, then the procedure is a
non-DOD/U.S. Government procedure and must have United States Army Aeronautical Services Agency
(USAASA) approval before use.

CHARACTERISTICS
4-11. Each chart has a different purpose, and no one chart is best for every use. A chart cannot be both
equal in angles and equal in area. Secondary charts assist aviators in finding and plotting coordinates and
finding cardinal directions parallel throughout the chart. They also assist when it is necessary to join two or
more charts together, promoting easier assembly.

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES EN ROUTE CHARTS

4-12. En route charts show civil and military airports with an approved instrument approach procedure
(IAP) and many non-IFR airports. En route charts do not show terrain or cultural landmarks (such as roads
and cities); only large bodies of water are depicted. Low-altitude en route charts are for use up to, but not
including, 18,000 feet MSL.
4-13. The objective of an IFR en route flight is to navigate within the lateral limits of a designated airway
at an altitude consistent with ATC clearance. The ability to fly instruments in the system safely and
competently is enhanced by understanding the vast array of data available to the aviator within instrument
charts. NACO maintains the database and produces the charts for the U.S. Government.
4-14. En route high-altitude charts provide aeronautical information for en route IFR navigation at or
above 18,000 feet MSL. Information includes the portrayal of jet routes, identification and frequencies of
radio aids, selected airports, distances, time zones, special-use airspace, and related information. From
altitudes of 18,000 feet MSL to FL450, aviators should establish routes using NAVAIDs not more than
260 nautical miles apart. Scales vary from 1 inch equals 45 nautical miles to 1 inch equals 18 nautical
miles. The charts are revised every 56 days.
4-15. Appropriate IFR en route low-altitude charts are required to effectively depart from one airport and
navigate en route under instrument conditions. The IFR en route low-altitude chart is the instrument

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equivalent of the sectional chart. When folded, the cover of the NACO en route chart displays a map of the
United States, showing coverage areas. Cities near congested airspace are shown in black type, and their
associated area chart is listed in the box in the lower left-hand corner of the map coverage box. Also noted
is the highest off-route obstruction clearance altitude. The effective date of the chart is printed on the other
side of the folded chart. Information concerning military training routes (MTRs) is also included on the
chart cover. Scales vary from 1 inch equals 5 nautical miles to 1 inch equals 20 nautical miles. The en route
charts are revised every 56 days. When the NACO en route chart is unfolded, the legend is displayed and
provides information concerning airports, NAVAIDs, air traffic services (ATS), and airspace.
4-16. Area navigation (RNAV) routes, including routes that use GPS for navigation, are normally not
depicted on IFR en route charts; however, a number of RNAV routes have been established in the
high-altitude structure and are depicted on the RNAV en route high-altitude charts. RNAV instrument DPs
and standard terminal arrival routes (STARs) are contained in the U.S. Terminal Procedures booklets.
Graphic notices and supplemental data also contain a tabulation of RNAV routes.
4-17. In addition to published routes, aviators may fly a random RNAV route under IFR if approved by
ATC. Random RNAV routes are direct routes (based on area navigation capability) between waypoints
defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from established
routes/airways at a specified distance and direction.
4-18. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all random RNAV routes. These routes can only be
approved in a radar environment. Factors considered by ATC in approving random RNAV routes include
the capability to provide radar monitoring and compatibility with traffic volume and flow. ATC radar
monitors each flight; however, navigation on the random RNAV route is the responsibility of the aviator.
4-19. Reliance on RNAV systems for instrument approach operations is becoming more commonplace as
new systems, such as GPS and wide area augmentation system (WAAS), are developed and deployed. To
foster and support full integration of RNAV into the National Airspace System (NAS), the FAA has
developed a charting format for RNAV approach charts.

AIRPORT INFORMATION
4-20. Airport information is provided in the legend, and the symbols used for the airport name, elevation,
and runway length are similar to the sectional chart presentation. Instrument approaches are found at
airports with blue or green symbols, while a brown airport symbol denotes airports that do not have
published instrument approach procedures. Asterisks indicate the part-time nature of tower operations,
lighting facilities, and airspace classifications (consult the communications panel on the chart for primary
radio frequencies and hours of operation). The asterisk also indicates filing that airport as an alternate is not
approved during specified hours. A box after an airport name with a C inside indicates Class C airspace
while a box with a D inside indicates Class D airspace (Figure 4-2, page 4-6).

CHARTED INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES ALTITUDES

Minimum En Route Altitude

4-21. The minimum en route altitude (MEA) is the lowest published altitude between radio fixes that
ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements between those
fixes. The MEA ensures a navigation signal strong enough for adequate reception by the aircraft navigation
(NAV) receiver and adequate obstacle clearance along the airway. Verbal ATC communication is not
necessarily guaranteed with MEA compliance. The obstacle clearance, within the limits of the airway, is
typically 1,000 feet in nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet in designated mountainous areas. MEAs can
be authorized with breaks in signal coverage; if this is the case, the NACO en route chart notes the MEA
gap parallel to the affected airway. MEAs are usually bidirectional; however, they can be unidirectional.
Arrows are used to indicate the direction to which the MEA applies.

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Chapter 4

Figure 4-2. En route airport legend

Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude

4-22. The minimum obstruction clearance altitude (MOCA) is the lowest published altitude in effect
between radio fixes on VOR airways, off-airway routes, or route segments that meets obstacle clearance
requirements for the entire route segment and ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within
25 statute (22 nautical) miles of a VOR. The MOCA provides the same obstruction clearance as an MEA;
however, the NAV signal reception is only ensured within 22 nautical miles of the closest NAVAID
defining the route. The MOCA is listed below the MEA and indicated on NACO charts by a leading
asterisk (*3400).

Minimum Reception Altitude

4-23. The minimum reception altitude (MRA) is the lowest altitude at which an airway intersection can be
determined. The MRA identifies an intersection from an off-course NAVAID. If reception is line-of-sight
based, signal coverage extends to the MRA or above. However, if the aircraft is equipped with DME and
the chart indicates the intersection can be identified with such equipment, the aviator could define the fix

without attaining the MRA. On NACO charts, the MRA is indicated by the symbol , and the altitude
is preceded by MRA (MRA 9300).

Minimum Crossing Altitude

4-24. The minimum crossing altitude (MCA) is the lowest altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must
cross when it is proceeding in the direction of a higher MEA. The MCA is depicted along an MEA route
segment where altitude increases. The MCA is usually indicated when the route approaches steeply rising
terrain and obstacle clearance and/or signal reception is compromised. In this case, the pilot is required to
initiate a climb so that the MCA is reached by the time that the intersection is crossed. On NACO charts,

the MCA is indicated by the symbol , Victor airway number, and applied direction.

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 Air Navigation Charts

Maximum Authorized Altitude

4-25. The maximum authorized altitude (MAA) is a published altitude representing the maximum usable
altitude or FL for an airspace structure or route segment. The MAA is the highest altitude at which the
airway can be flown without aircraft navigation systems receiving conflicting navigation signals from
NAVAIDs operating on the same frequency. Chart depictions appear as MAA-15000.

4-26. A sideways T is depicted on the chart when an MEA, MOCA, and/or MAA changes on a
segment other than a NAVAID. If there is an airway break without the symbol, assume that the altitudes
have not changed. When a change of MEA to a higher MEA is required, the climb may commence at the
break, ensuring obstacle clearance.

Off Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude

4-27. The off route obstruction clearance altitude (OROCA) is an off-route altitude that provides
obstruction clearance with a 1,000-foot buffer in nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000-foot buffer in
designated mountainous areas within the United States. This altitude may not provide signal coverage from
ground-based NAVAIDs, ATC radar, or communications coverage.

NAVIGATION SYMBOLOGY

Types of Navigational Aids

4-28. VOR is the principal NAVAID that supports Victor airways. Many other navigation tools are also
available to the aviator. Nondirectional beacons (NDBs) broadcast signals accurate enough to provide
stand-alone approaches, and DME allows the aviator to pinpoint a reporting point on the airway. Though
primarily navigation tools, these NAVAIDs can also transmit voice broadcasts.
4-29. TACAN channels are represented as the two- or three-digit numbers following the three-letter
identifier in the NAVAID boxes. The NACO terminal procedures provide a frequency-pairing table for
TACAN-only sites. On NACO charts, very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF)
NAVAIDs (VORs) are depicted in black, while low frequencies (LFs) and medium frequencies (MFs) are
depicted as brown (Figure 4-3, page 4-8).

Identifying Intersections
4-30. Intersections along the airway route are established by a variety of NAVAIDs. An open triangle
indicates the location of an ATC reporting point at an intersection; a solid triangle means that a report
is compulsory (Figure 4-4, page 4-9). NDBs, localizers, and off-route VORs are used to establish
intersections. NDBs are sometimes collocated with intersections; if so, the passage of the NDB marks the
intersection. A bearing to an off-route NDB also can provide intersection identification. The presence of a
localizer course can be determined from a feathered arrowhead symbol on the en route
chart . If crosshatched markings appear on the left-hand side of the arrowhead,
a back course (BC) signal is transmitted. On NACO charts, the localizer symbol is
depicted to identify an intersection.
4-31. When an aircraft is traveling on an airway, off-route VORs remain the most common means of

identifying intersections. Arrows depicted next to the intersection, , indicate the NAVAID being used
for identification. Another means of identifying an intersection is with the use of DME. A hollow
arrowhead indicates that DME is authorized for intersection identification. If DME mileage at the
intersection is a cumulative distance of the route segments, the mileage is totaled and indicated by a

D-shaped symbol with a number inside . Typically, distance numbers do not appear on the initial

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Chapter 4

segment. Approved IFR GPS units are also used to report intersections if the intersection name resides in a
current database.

Figure 4-3. Navigational aid and communication boxes

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 Air Navigation Charts

Figure 4-4. Air traffic services and airspace information

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Chapter 4

Other Route Information

4-32. DME and GPS provide valuable route information such as mileage, position, and ground speed.
Even without this equipment, information provided on the charts makes the necessary calculations, using
time and distance. The en route chart depicts point-to-point distances on the airway system in nautical

miles. Distances from VOR to VOR are charted with a number inside of a box . To differentiate
distances when two airways cross, TO with the three-letter VOR identifier appears next to the distance box
.

4-33. A VOR changeover point (COP) is depicted on charts by this symbol: . The numbers indicate
the distance at which to change the VOR frequency. The frequency change might be required because of
signal reception or conflicting frequencies. If a COP does not appear on an airway, the frequency should be
changed midway between the facilities. A COP at an intersection often indicates a course change.
4-34. Occasionally an “x” will appear at a separated segment of an airway that is not an intersection. The
“x” is a mileage breakdown or computer navigation fix and indicates a course change.
4-35. The ATC computerized system has reduced the need for holding en route. However, published
holding patterns are still found on charts at junctures where ATC has deemed a holding pattern necessary
to enable traffic flow. When a holding pattern is charted, the controller may provide the holding direction
and the statement as published (Figure 4-4, page 4-10).
4-36. Boundaries separating the jurisdiction of Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) are depicted
on charts with blue serrations: . The name of the controlling facility
is printed on the corresponding side of the division line. ARTCC remote sites are depicted as blue serrated
boxes and contain the center name, sector name, and sector frequency.

Weather Information and Communication Features

Automated Flight Service Station

4-37. En route NAVAIDs also provide weather information and serve communication functions. When a
NAVAID is shown as a shadowed box, an automated flight service station (AFSS) of the same name is
directly associated with the facility. If an AFSS is located without an associated NAVAID, the shadowed
box is smaller and contains only the name and identifier. The AFSS frequencies are provided on top of the
box (frequencies 121.5, 122.2, 255.4, and 243.0 are normally available at all flight service stations [FSSs]
and are not shown above the boxes).

Remote Communications Outlet

4-38. A remote communications outlet (RCO) associated with a NAVAID is designated by a box with the
controlling AFSS frequency on the top and the name under the box. Without an associated facility, the
RCO box contains the AFSS name and remote frequency.

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 Air Navigation Charts

Hazardous In-Flight Weather Advisory Service and Transcribed Weather Broadcast

4-39. The Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) and the Transcribed Weather
Broadcast (TWEB) are continuously transmitted over selected NAVAIDs and depicted in the NAVAID
box. HIWAS is depicted by a white H in a black circle in the upper left corner of the box; TWEB
broadcasts show as a white T in a black circle in the upper right corner.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURE CHART

4-40. Departure Procedure (DP) charts are ATC-coded departure procedures established at certain airports
to simplify clearance delivery procedures. DPs provide obstacle clearance protection to aircraft in IMC
while reducing communications and departure delays. DPs are published in text/charted graphic form.
Regardless of format, all DPs provide a way to depart the airport and make the transition to the en route
structure safely. When available, aviators are strongly encouraged to file and fly a DP at night during
marginal VMC and IMC.
4-41. DPs provide obstacle clearance given that the aircraft crosses the end of the runway at least 35 feet
AGL, climbs to 400 feet above airport elevation before turning, and climbs at least 200 feet per nautical
mile (FPNM), unless a higher climb gradient is specified to the assigned altitude. ATC may vector an
aircraft off a previously assigned DP; however, the 200 FPNM or the FPNM specified in the DP is
required. Textual DPs are listed by airport in the DOD FLIP (Terminal) volumes. Graphic DPs are depicted
in the DOD FLIP (Terminal) volumes following the approach procedures for the airport.

STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL ROUTE CHARTS

4-42. Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR) charts are ATC-coded IFR arrival routes established for
certain airports to simplify clearance delivery procedures. STARs depict prescribed routes so that the
instrument pilot can make the transition from the en route structure to a fix in the terminal area from which
an instrument approach can be conducted. If the appropriate STAR is not available, the aviator can write
No STAR in the flight plan. However, if the controller is busy, the aviator might be cleared along the same
route. If necessary, the controller has the aviator copy the entire text of the procedure.

INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHART

4-43. Instrument approach procedure (IAP) charts provide an IFR descent from the en route environment
to a point where a safe landing can be made. The instrument approach chart is divided into five main
sections: the margin identification, pilot briefing information, plan view, profile view, landing minimums
(and notes), and airport diagram (Figure 4-5, page 4-12).

MARGIN IDENTIFICATION
4-44. The margin identification, found at the top and bottom of the chart, depicts airport location and
procedure identification. The approach plates are organized by city first, then airport name and state.
Military airfields are organized by airfield name first, then city and state. For example, Cairns Army
Airfield (AAF) at Fort Rucker, Alabama, is alphabetically listed under C for Cairns.
4-45. In the center of the top margin is the FAA chart reference number and approving authority and, at
the bottom center, the airport’s latitude and longitude coordinates. The chart’s amendment status appears
below the city and state on the left side in the bottom margin, along with the amendment’s effective date.
The five-digit date format in the amendment (06050) is read, the fiftieth day of 2006.

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Chapter 4

4-46. The procedure identification (top and bottom margin area of Figure 4-5) is derived from the type of
navigational facility providing final-approach course guidance. A runway number is listed when the
approach course is aligned within 30 degrees of the runway centerline (ILS runway [RWY] 6 or VOR or
GPS RWY 24); this type of approach allows a straight-in landing under the right conditions. Some airports
have parallel runways and simultaneous approach procedures. To distinguish between the left, right, and
center runways, an L, R, or C follows the runway number (ILS RWY 16R). If the approach course
diverges more than 30 degrees from the runway centerline, a letter from the beginning of the alphabet is
assigned (VOR-A). Letter designation signifies the expectation for the procedure to culminate in a circling
approach to land. In some cases, an airport might have more than one circling approach.

Figure 4-5. Instrument approach chart

4-47. More than one navigational system, separated by a slash, indicates that more than one type of
equipment is required to execute the final approach (VOR/DME RWY 31). More than one navigational
system separated by “or” indicates either type of equipment may be used to execute final approach (VOR
or GPS RWY 6). Multiple approaches of the same type to the same runway using the same guidance have

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an additional letter from the end of the alphabet, number, or term in the title (ILS Z RWY 28, Silver ILS
RWY 28, or ILS 2 RWY 28). VOR/DME RNAV approaches are identified as VOR/DME RNAV RWY
(runway number). Helicopters have special IAPs designated with COPTER in the procedure identification
(COPTER LOC/DME 25L). Other types of navigation systems may be required to execute other portions
of the approach before intercepting the final-approach segment or during a missed approach.

PILOT BRIEFING INFORMATION

4-48. Pilot briefing information format consists of three horizontal rows of boxed procedure-specific
information along the top edge of the chart. Altitudes, frequency, and course and elevation values (except
HATs and HAAs) are charted in bold type. The top row contains the primary procedure navigation
information, final approach course, landing distance available, touchdown zone, and airport elevations. The
middle row contains procedure notes and limitations, icons indicating if nonstandard alternate and/or
takeoff minimums apply, approach lighting symbology, and a full-text description of the missed approach
procedure. The bottom row contains air-to-ground communication facilities and frequencies in the order
used during an approach.
4-49. When an alternate airport is required, standard IFR alternate minimums apply according to AR 95-1.

A black triangle with a white A, , appearing in the middle row (Figure 4-6) indicates nonstandard IFR

alternate minimums exist for the airport. If an NA appears after the A, , alternate minimums are
not authorized. This information is found on the Roman numeral pages in the beginning of the DOD FLIP
(Terminal) charts.

Figure 4-6. Procedures and notes

4-50. Procedural notes are included in a box located on the middle row. A procedural note might indicate,
“Circling not authorized west of RWY.” Other notes might concern a local altimeter setting and the

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Chapter 4

resulting change in the minimums. The use of radar may also be noted in this section. Additional notes may
be found in the plan view.

4-51. A black triangle with a white T, , (appears in the notes area), signifies that the airport has
nonstandard IFR takeoff minimums. The appropriate section in the front of the DOD FLIP (Terminal)
charts is consulted in this case.

PLAN VIEW
4-52. The plan view provides a graphical overhead view of the procedure and depicts the routes that guide
the aviator from the en route segments to the initial approach fix (IAF) (Figure 4-5, page 4-12). During
initial approach, the aircraft has departed the en route phase of flight and is maneuvering to enter an
intermediate or final segment of the instrument approach. An initial approach can be made within the
terminal area along prescribed routes such as an arc, a radial, or a course; a heading or a radar vector; or a
combination thereof. Procedure turns and high-altitude teardrop penetrations are initial approach segments.
Features of the plan view include the procedure turn, obstacle elevation, minimum safe altitude (MSA),
and procedure track (Figure 4-5, page 4-12).
4-53. Most NACO/DOD FLIP (Terminal) charts contain a reference or distance circle with a 10 nautical
mile radius. Normally, approach features within the plan view are shown to scale; however, only data
within the reference circle are always drawn to scale. The circle is centered on an approach fix and has a
radius of 10 nautical miles unless otherwise indicated. When a route segment outside of the circle is drawn
to scale, the symbol interrupts the segment.
4-54. Dashed circles or concentric rings around the distance circle are used when the information
necessary to the procedure will not fit to scale within the limits of the plan view area. They serve as a
means to systematically arrange this information in its relative position outside and beyond the reference
circle. These concentric rings are labeled en route and feeder facilities. The en route facilities ring depicts
NAVAIDs, fixes, and intersections that are part of the en route low-altitude airway structure used in the
approach procedure. The feeder facilities ring includes radio aids to navigation, fixes and intersections
used by ATC to direct aircraft to intervening facilities/fixes between the en route structure, and the IAF.
Feeder routes are not part of the en route structure.
4-55. The primary airport depicted in the plan view is drawn with enough detail to show the runway
orientation and final approach course alignment. Airports other than the primary approach airport are not
depicted in the plan view.
4-56. Known spot elevations and obstacles are indicated on the plan view in MSL altitudes. The largest dot
and number combination indicates the highest elevation. An inverted V with a dot in the center depicts an
obstacle. The highest obstacle is indicated with a bolder, larger version of the same symbol. Two
interlocking inverted “Vs” signify a group of obstacles.
4-57. The MSA circle appears in the plan view (Figure 4-5, page 4-12), except in approaches for which
appropriate NAVAIDs (VOR or NDB) are unavailable. The MSA is provided for emergency purposes only
and guarantees 1,000 feet obstruction clearance in the sector indicated with reference to the bearing in the
circle. For conventional navigation systems, the MSA is normally based on the primary omnidirectional
facility on which the IAP is predicated. The MSA depiction on the approach chart contains the facility
identifier of the NAVAID used to determine the MSA altitudes. For RNAV approaches, the MSA is based
on the runway waypoint for straight-in approaches or the airport waypoint for circling approaches. For
GPS approaches, the MSA center is the missed approach waypoint. The MSL altitudes appear in boxes
within the circle, which is typically a 25-nautical mile radius unless otherwise indicated. The MSA circle
refers to the letter identifier of the NAVAID or waypoint that describes the center of the circle. MSAs are
not depicted on terminal arrival area (TAA) approach charts.
4-58. NAVAIDs in the plan view are necessary for completion of the instrument procedure and include the
facility name, frequency, letter identifier, and Morse code sequence. A heavy-lined NAVAID box depicts
the primary NAVAID used for the approach. An “I” in front of the NAVAID identifier (Figure 4-5, page

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 Air Navigation Charts

4-12, I-OZR) listed in the NAVAID box indicates a localizer and a TACAN channel (Chan 49), which
signifies DME availability. The requirement for an ADF, DME, or RADAR in the approach is noted in the
plan view.
4-59. Intersections, fixes, radials, and course lines describe route and approach sequencing information.
The main procedure or final approach course is a thick, solid line. A DME arc, which is part of the main
procedure course, is also represented as a thick, solid line. A feeder route is depicted with a medium line
and provides heading, altitude, and distance information. All three components must be designated on the
chart to provide a navigable course. Radials, such as lead radials, are shown by thin lines. The missed
approach track is drawn using a thin-dashed line with a directional arrow. A visual flight path segment
appears as a thick, dashed line with a directional arrow. IAFs are charted when associated with a NAVAID
or when freestanding.
4-60. The missed approach holding pattern track is represented with a thin, dashed line. When collocated,
the missed approach holding pattern and procedure turn holding pattern are indicated as a solid-black line.
Arrival holding patterns are depicted as thin, solid lines.

Course Reversal Elements in Plan View and Profile View

4-61. Course reversals are included in an IAP and depicted in one of three ways: a 45/180-degree
procedure, holding pattern, or teardrop procedure. The maneuvers are required when it is necessary to
reverse direction to establish the aircraft inbound on an intermediate or final approach course. Components
of the required procedure are depicted in the plan view and profile view. The maneuver must be completed
within the distance and at the minimum altitude specified in the profile view. Aviators should coordinate
with the appropriate ATC facility relating to course reversal during the IAP.

Procedure Turns
4-62. A procedure turn barbed arrow indicates the direction or side of the outbound course on which the
procedure turn is made. Headings are provided for course reversal using the 45-degree procedure turn.
However, the point at which the turn may be commenced and type and rate of turn are at the discretion of
the aviator. Some options are the standard 45-degree procedure turn (45/180), holding/racetrack pattern,
teardrop procedure turn, or 80/260-degree course reversal. Absence of the procedure turn barbed arrow in
the plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not authorized. A maximum procedure turn speed of not
greater than 200 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) should be observed when the aircraft turns outbound over
the IAF and throughout the procedure turn maneuver to ensure staying within the obstruction clearance
area. The normal procedure turn distance is 10 nautical miles but may be reduced to a minimum of 5
nautical miles where only Category A or helicopter aircraft are operated or increased to as much as 15
nautical miles to accommodate high-performance aircraft. Descent below the procedure turn altitude begins
after the aircraft is established on the inbound course. The procedure turn is not required when “No PT”
appears or radar vectoring to final approach is provided and when conducting a timed approach or the
procedure turn is not authorized. Aviators contact the appropriate ATC facility when in doubt if a
procedure turn is required.

Holding in Lieu of Procedure Turn

4-63. A holding in lieu of procedure turn may be specified for course reversal in some procedures. In such
cases, the holding pattern is established over an intermediate fix (IF) or a FAF. The holding pattern
distance or time specified in the profile view must be observed. Maximum holding airspeed limitations set
forth for all holding patterns apply. The holding pattern maneuver is completed when the aircraft is
established on the inbound course after executing the appropriate entry. If cleared for the approach before
returning to the holding fix and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the holding
pattern are not necessary nor expected by ATC. It is the aviator’s responsibility to advise ATC, upon
receipt of the approach clearance, if electing to make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude or
become better established on course. When holding in lieu of a procedure turn is conducted, the holding

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pattern must be followed except when radar vectors to the final-approach course are provided or when “No
PT” is shown on the approach course.

Teardrop Procedure
4-64. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and a course reversal is required (unless otherwise
authorized by ATC), this type of procedure must be executed. The teardrop procedure consists of departure
from an IAF on the published outbound course, followed by a turn toward and intercepting the inbound
course at or before the intermediate fix or point. Its purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse direction and
lose considerable altitude within reasonably limited airspace. Where no fix is available to mark the
beginning of the intermediate segment, assume that the segment commences at a point 10 nautical miles
before the FAF. When the facility is located on the airport, an aircraft is considered to be on final approach
upon completing the penetration turn; however, the final approach segment begins on the final approach
course 10 nautical miles from the facility.

Terminal Arrival Area

4-65. Terminal arrival area (TAA) procedures provide a transition method for arriving aircraft with
GPS/RNAV equipment. TAAs also eliminate or reduce the need for feeder routes, departure extensions,
and procedure turns or course reversal. The TAA is controlled airspace established with standard or
modified RNAV approach configurations. Three areas in a standard TAA are straight-in, left base, and
right base. Arc boundaries of the three TAA areas are published portions of the approach and allow aircraft
to make the transition from the en route structure directly to the nearest IAF. When crossing the boundary
of these areas or when released by ATC within the area, the aviator proceeds directly to the appropriate
waypoint IAF for the approach area being flown. An aviator has the option, in all areas, of proceeding
directly to the holding pattern.
4-66. The TAA has a T structure normally providing a “No PT” for aircraft using the approach (Figure
4-7, page 4-17). The TAA provides the aviator and air traffic controller with an efficient method for
routing traffic from the en route to the terminal structure. The basic T contained in the TAA normally
aligns the procedure on the runway centerline with the missed approach point (MAP) located at the
threshold, the FAF 5 nautical miles from the threshold, and the IF 5 nautical miles from the FAF.
4-67. To descend from a high en route altitude to the initial segment altitude, a hold in lieu of a procedure
turn provides the aircraft with an extended distance for the necessary descent gradient. The holding pattern
constructed for this purpose is always established on the center IAF waypoint. Other modifications may be
required for parallel runways or because of operational requirements. When published, the RNAV chart
depicts the TAA through icons representing each TAA associated with the RNAV procedure. These icons
are depicted in the plan view of the approach plate and are generally arranged on the chart according to
their position relative to the aircraft’s arrival from the en route structure.

PROFILE VIEW
4-68. The profile view is a side-view drawing of the procedure illustrating the vertical approach path
altitudes, headings, distances, and fixes (Figure 4-8, page 4-18). The view includes minimum altitude and
maximum distance for the procedure turn, altitudes over prescribed fixes, distances between fixes, and the
missed approach procedure. The profile view aids in the aviator’s interpretation of the IAP; however, the
profile view is not drawn to scale.
4-69. The precision approach glide-slope intercept altitude (Figure 4-8, page 4-18) is a minimum altitude
for glide-slope interception after completion of the procedure turn illustrated by an altitude number and
zigzag line with an arrow pointer. It applies to precision approaches and, except where otherwise
prescribed, applies as a minimum altitude for crossing the FAF when the glide slope is inoperative or not
used. Precision approach profiles also depict the glide-slope angle of descent, threshold crossing height
(TCH), and glide-slope altitude at the outer marker (OM).

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Figure 4-7. Basic T design of terminal arrival area

4-70. In nonprecision approaches, a final descent is initiated at the FAF or after completing the procedure
turn and established inbound on the procedure course. The FAF is clearly identified by use of the Maltese
cross symbol in the profile view. If the FAF is not indicated in the profile view, the MAP is based on
station passage when the facility is on the airport or at a specified distance (VOR/DME or GPS
procedures).
4-71. Step-down fixes in nonprecision procedures are provided between the FAF and airport for
authorizing a lower MDA after passing an obstruction. Step-down fixes are identified by NAVAID,
NAVAID fix, waypoint, and radar and are depicted by a vertical dashed line. Normally, there is only one
step-down fix between the FAF and MAP, but there can be several. If the step-down fix cannot be
identified for any reason, the minimum altitude at the step-down fix becomes the MDA for the approach.
However, circling minimums apply if they are higher than the step-down fix minimum altitude and a
circling approach is required.
4-72. The visual descent point (VDP) is a defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision
straight-in approach procedure. A normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be
commenced, provided visual reference is established. The VDP is identified on the profile view of the
approach chart by the symbol “V” (Figure 4-8, page 4-19).

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Chapter 4

Figure 4-8. Profile view features

4-73. The MAP varies, depending upon the approach flown. For the ILS, the MAP is at the DA/DH. In
nonprecision procedures, the aviator determines the MAP by timing from the FAF when the approach aid
is well away from the airport, a fix or NAVAID when the navigation facility is located on the field, or
waypoints as defined by GPS or VOR/DME RNAV. The aviator may execute the MAP early, but aviators
should, unless otherwise cleared by ATC, fly the IAP as specified on the approach plate to the MAP at or
above the MDA or DA/DH before executing a turning maneuver.
4-74. A complete description of the missed approach procedure appears in the pilot briefing information
section (Figure 4-5, page 4-12), and missed approach icons appear in the profile view. When initiating a
missed approach, the aviator will be directed to climb straight ahead (climb to 2,500) or commence a
turning climb to a specified altitude (climbing left turn to 2,500). In some cases, the procedure will direct
the aviator to climb straight ahead to an initial altitude, then turn or enter a climbing turn to the holding
altitude (climb to 900, then continue a climbing right turn to 2,500 direct ABC VOR and hold).
4-75. When the missed approach procedure specifies holding at a facility or fix, the aviator proceeds
according to the missed approach track and pattern depicted on the plan view. An alternate missed

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approach procedure may also be issued by ATC. The textual description specifies the NAVAIDs or radials
that identify the holding fix.
4-76. The profile view also depicts minimum, maximum, recommended, and mandatory block altitudes
2500
used in approaches. Minimum altitude is depicted with the altitude underscored . On final
approach, aircraft are required to maintain an altitude at or above the depicted altitude until reaching the
4300
subsequent fix. Maximum altitude is depicted with the altitude overscored , and aircraft must
remain at or below the depicted altitude. Mandatory altitude is depicted with the altitude both underscored
5500
and overscored , and altitude is to be maintained at the depicted value. Recommended altitudes are
advisory altitudes and are neither overscored nor underscored. When an overscore or underscore spans two
numbers, a mandatory block altitude is indicated and aircraft are required to maintain altitude within the
range of the two numbers (Figure 4-7, page 4-18).

LANDING MINIMUMS
4-77. The landing minimums section sets forth the lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the
approach, whether precision or nonprecision, straight-in or circling, or radar vectored. When a fix is
incorporated in a nonprecision final segment, two sets of minimums may be published, depending on
whether the fix can be identified. Two sets of minimums may also be published when a second altimeter
source is used in the procedure. The minimums ensure that final approach obstacle clearance is provided
from the start of the final segment to the runway or MAP, whichever occurs last. The same minimums
apply to day and night operations unless different minimums are specified. Published circling minimums
provide obstacle clearance when aviators remain within the appropriate area of protection (Figure 4-9, page
4-21).
4-78. Minimums for straight-in and circling appear directly under each aircraft category (Figure 4-9, page
4-21). When there is no solid division line between minimums for each category on the straight-in or
circling rows, minimums apply to the two or more undivided categories.

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Chapter 4

Figure 4-9. Landing minimums

Altitudes
4-79. Terms used to describe minimum approach altitudes differ between precision and nonprecision
approaches (Figure 4-9). Precision approaches use DA, charted in feet MSL and measured with a
barometric altimeter, followed by DH, which is referenced to the HAT. DA will replace DH for Category I
precision IAP. Category II and III approach DHs are referenced to AGL and measured with a radar
altimeter. Category II and III approaches require special ground and airborne equipment to be installed and
operational, as well as special aircrew training and authorization (see AR 95-1).
4-80. Nonprecision approaches use MDA referenced to feet MSL and measured with a barometric
altimeter. Minimums are also referenced to HAT for straight-in approaches or HAA for circling
approaches. Height above landing (HAL) is a term specific to helicopters, which means height above a

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designated helicopter landing area used for helicopter IAPs. On NACO charts, figures listed parenthetically
are for military operations, not civil aviation.
4-81. Minimums are specified for various aircraft approach categories based on a value 1.3 times the
stalling speed of the aircraft in the landing configuration at maximum certified gross landing weight. If
necessary to maneuver the aircraft at speeds in excess of the upper limit of a speed range for a category, the
minimums for the next higher category should be used. For example, an aircraft falling into Category A but
circling to land at a speed in excess of 91 knots should use approach Category B minimums (table 4-2).

Table 4-2. Aircraft approach categories and circling limits

Category A B C D E
Maneuvering Speed (knots) 0-90 91-120 121-140 141-165 166 & higher
Circling Approach Area Radii (miles) 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.3 4.5

Note. All U.S. military helicopters may use the aircraft approach Category A minima published
in authorized FLIP. Because aircraft speeds are used in determining turning radii and obstacle
clearance areas for circling and turning missed approaches, helicopters operating at speeds
greater than Category A use the higher category minima. Procedures containing the word
COPTER in the procedure title (COPTER VOR 190) are approved under terminal instrument
procedures (TERPS) helicopter criteria for helicopter use only and are restricted to 90 KIAS,
unless a lesser speed is annotated on the approach plate.

Visibility
4-82. Visibility figures are provided in statute miles or runway visual range (RVR), which is reported in
hundreds of feet. RVR is measured by a transmissometer, which represents the horizontal distance
measured at points along the runway and is based on sighting of either high-intensity runway lights or on
the visual contrast of other targets, whichever yields greater visual range. RVR is horizontal visual range,
not slant visual range, and is used in lieu of prevailing visibility when the aviator determines minima for a
particular runway (table 4-3).
4-83. Visibility figures are depicted after the DA/DH or MDA in the minima section. If visibility in statute
miles is indicated, an altitude number, hyphen, and a whole or fractional number appear (for example,
530-1, which indicates 530 feet MSL and 1 statute mile visibility). This is the descent minimum for the
approach. The RVR value is separated from the minimum altitude with a slash (1065/24, which indicates
1,065 feet MSL and a RVR of 2,400 feet). If RVR was prescribed for the procedure but not available, a
conversion table would be used to provide the equivalent visibility, in this case, of 1/2 statute mile
visibility (table 4-3). The conversion table is also available in the DOD FLIP (Terminal) chart.

Table 4-3. Runway visual range conversion table

RVR (ft) Visibility (SM) RVR (ft) Visibility (SM)

1,200 1/4* 4,000 3/4
1,600 1/4 4,500 7/8
2,400 1/2 5,000 1
3,200 5/8 6,000 1 1/4
* copter only

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Chapter 4

4-84. In addition to COPTER approaches, instrument-equipped helicopters may fly standard approach
procedures. The required visibility minimum may be reduced to one-half of the published visibility
minimum for Category A aircraft, but in no case may the reduction be less than 1/4 mile, or 1,200 feet
RVR. Reduction of visibility for approaches labeled “copter only” is not authorized.
4-85. Point in space approach refers to a helicopter IAP to a MAP more than 2,600 feet from an associated
helicopter landing area. For example, the COPTER RNAV (GPS) 028 degrees displays a helicopter IAP
with a portion of the approach that is conducted VFR to three helicopter landing points (Figure 4-10, page
4-24).

AIRPORT DIAGRAM
4-86. Airport diagrams are specifically designed to assist in the movement of ground traffic at locations
with complex runway/taxiway configurations and provide information for updating geodetic position
navigational systems aboard aircraft. The airport diagram, located on the bottom right side of the chart,
includes helpful features. IAPs for some larger airports devote an entire page to an airport diagram.
Information concerning runway orientation, lighting, final approach bearings, airport beacon, and obstacles
all serve to guide the pilot in the final phases of flight. See Figure 4-5, page 4-12, for an example of an
airport diagram.
4-87. The diagram shows the runway configuration in solid black, while taxiways and aprons are shaded
gray. Other runway environment features shown are runway identification, dimensions, magnetic heading,
displaced threshold, arresting gear, usable length, and slope. Airport elevation is indicated in a separate box
at the top of the airport diagram box. The touchdown zone elevation (TDZE), the highest elevation within
the first 3,000 feet of the runway, is designated at the approach end of the procedure’s runway. Beneath the
airport diagram is the time and speed table providing distance and the amount of time required to transit the
distance from the FAF to the MAP for selected ground speeds.
4-88. Approach lighting systems and visual glide-slope indicators are depicted on the approach chart.

White on black symbols, , are used for identifying pilot-controlled lighting (PCL). Runway lighting
aids are noted (runway end identifier lights [REIL], high intensity runway lights [HIRL]) as well as the
runway centerline lighting (RCL). Refer to FIH, section B, for a current description and information.

Remote Altimeter Settings

4-89. Weather planning minimums are computed when the aviator identifies that an MDA or a DA/DH has
been raised because of the need to use a remote altimeter setting. In some cases, new minimums are shown
in the minimum box. When not shown, the method illustrated in Figure 4-11, page 4-24, is used to compute
new weather planning minimums.

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Figure 4-10. Point in space approach

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Chapter 4

Figure 4-11. Remote altimeter settings

INOPERATIVE COMPONENTS
4-90. Certain procedures can be flown with inoperative components. According to the Inoperative
Components Table (Figure 4-12, page 4-25), an ILS approach with a malfunctioning medium-intensity
approach lighting system (MALS) with runway alignment indicator lights (MALSR = MALS with RAIL)
can be flown if the minimum visibility is increased by 1/4 mile (figure 4-12). A note in this section might
read as follows: “Inoperative Table does not apply to ALS or HIRL Runway 13L.”
4-91. For helicopter operations, add the visibility requirement for the inoperative components chart to the
visibility requirement for the approach to be flown. This increased visibility may be reduced by one-half
for Category A aircraft but in no case may it be reduced to less than 1/4 mile, or 1,200 feet RVR. For
approaches labeled “copter only,” do not reduce the visibility; increase for inoperative components.

SECTION II – PLOTTING AND MEASURING

4-92. Plotting is establishing points and lines on a chart with reference to meridians and parallels.
Measuring refers to distance and direction on a chart. The chart serves as a record and provides necessary
information for a successful flight. Accurate chart work is a fundamental navigational skill.

PLOTTER
4-93. A plotter (Figure 4-13, page 4-26)—an instrument that primarily aids in drawing lines and in
measuring distances on an aeronautical chart—is made of transparent plastic, and has lines and scales
printed in black. The rectangular part of the plotter has a straight edge for drawing lines and scales for
measuring distances. The semicircular part of the plotter has three circular scales for measuring direction.

RECTANGULAR PART
4-94. All scales on the rectangular part are for measuring distances in nautical miles. The two upper scales
read outward from the center in both directions. The three lower scales read from left to right. Scales of
1:500,000 (Sectional Aeronautical Charts), 1:1,000,000 (Operational Navigation Charts and World
Aeronautical Charts), and 1:2,000,000 (charts such as Jet Navigation Charts) are provided. No scale is
provided for the IFR en route chart measurement/ratio (1 inch equals 12 nautical miles).

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Figure 4-12. Inoperative components

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Chapter 4

CIRCULAR SCALES
4-95. The circular scales are calibrated in degrees. The outer scale, reading from 0 degrees to 180 degrees
(right to left), is for direction in the first and second chart quadrants (north through east to south, Figure
4-13). Because these directions are to the right on the chart, the outer scale has an arrow pointing to the
right. The inner scale, reading from 180 degrees to 360 degrees (right to left), is for directions in the third
and fourth quadrants (Figure 4-13). The center of curvature of both scales is marked by a small hole.

SIXTY-DEGREE CENTER SCALE

4-96. This scale is an aid for aviators to measure courses that are nearly north or south. The outer scale
reads from 150 degrees to 210 degrees, while the inner scale reads from 030 degrees to 330 degrees.

MEASUREMENTS AND COURSE LINES

4-97. To measure a course, the aviator places the center hole on a meridian about midway along the plotted
course line, with the straight edge parallel to the course line. If the chart meridians do not intersect the
course line, the line is extended and the straight edge of the plotter is moved parallel to the course line until
the center hole lies over a meridian. The small arrows on the circular scale determine correct direction. The
scale on which the small black arrow points in the direction of the course should be noted. The scale
should be read up from the smaller values toward the larger values.
4-98. To determine the direction of a course line, place the straight edge of the plotter along the course line
and, while keeping them aligned, slide the plotter over to the nearest meridian of longitude so that the
center hole in the plotter lies over the meridian (Figure 4-13). Reading off the outer protractor scale,
determine what number of degrees matches the meridian. This is the true course. There will actually be two
numbers on the plotter, the course heading and the reciprocal. Use the one that makes sense. If the course
was almost due east and the true heading choices are 100 degrees and 280 degrees, the heading would be
100 degrees, for example.

Figure 4-13. East/west course reading, using outer/inner scale

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4-99. For some courses approaching vertical angles on the chart, it may become difficult or impossible for
the aviator to line up the course line at the meridian. In these instances, use a parallel of latitude and read
the course off the inner scale printed on the protractor. The following example is depicted in Figure 4-14.

Example of Using the Inner Scale on the Protractor

A course drawn from the Blood NDB direct to the Montgomery very (high frequency) omnidirectional radio
range tactical air navigation aid (VORTAC) has a true heading of 335 degrees (Figure 4-14) with a reciprocal
heading of 155 degrees .

Figure 4-14. North course reading, using inner scale

4-100. To draw a given course line from a known point, the aviator places the point end of a pencil at the
known point. While the plotter is being pushed and pivoted against the pencil, the straight edge remains on
the known point while the center hole and desired heading (number of degrees on the protractor) are being
aligned with a meridian. The pencil is in place for drawing the course line when the plotter has been
properly aligned with a meridian. In drawing a course line that is nearly north or south, 0 to 180 degrees,
the center scale may be used. The following example of plotting a course line is depicted in Figure 4-15,
page 4-29.

Example of Plotting a Course Line

If a 040 degrees course line is desired from the Summerdale NDB, the course line is drawn as depicted in
Figure 4-15.

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Chapter 4

Figure 4-15. Drawing a course line from a known point

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 Chapter 5
Air Navigation Handheld Computer

A dead reckoning (DR) computer is a combination of two devices: a specially

designed instrument for solving wind triangles and a circular slide rule for solving
mathematical problems. Many different types of DR navigational computers exist,
but construction and design features of major types are similar. Electronic versions of
the DR, also known as the CPU-26A/P computer, are available for download.

SECTION I – CALCULATOR SIDE

5-1. The slide rule side of the handheld computer

consists of two circular scales. The miles scale

Contents
(outer scale) is stationary while the minutes scale

(inner scale) rotates.

Section I – Calculator Side ........................... 5-1
Section II – Wind Side ................................. 5-13
VALUES
5-2. Numbers on the computer scale (Figure 5-1) represent multiples of 1, 2, 5, or 10; care must be used
to determine the value of the numbers shown. For example, the number 12 on either scale (outer or inner)
may represent 0.12, 1.2, 12, 120, or 1,200. On the inner scale, minutes may be converted to hours by
reference to the adjacent hour scale; for example, two hours is adjacent to 12 (meaning 120 minutes) as
found in Figure 5-1.
5-3. The higher the scale values, the fewer the graduations between numbers. There are only 5
graduations, for example, between 15 and 16, compared to 10 graduations between 14 and 15. When the
aviator uses numbers between 15 and 16, each graduation equals .2; when used as 150 and 160, each unit
represents 2, and so on. The same application applies to the 10 graduations between 10 and 11, which
equal .1; these .1 graduations can also indicate one-minute marks between 1:40 and 1:50.

Figure 5-1. CPU-26A/P calculator side

INDEXES
5-4. Three of the indexes on the outer stationary scale are used for converting statute miles, nautical
miles, and kilometers. These indexes are appropriately labeled NAUT (nautical) at 66, STAT (statue) at 76,

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Chapter 5

and KM at 122. On the inner rotating scale are two rate indexes. The large black arrow at 60 (speed index
or 60 index) is the hour index. The small arrow at 36 is the second (SEC) index (3,600 seconds equal 1
hour). The STAT index on the inner scale is used in mileage conversion. Each scale has a 10 index used as
a reference mark for multiplication and division (Figure 5-2).

Figure 5-2. Calculator side of CPU-26A/P computer

TIME AND DISTANCE

5-5. Time and distance problems (Figure 5-3, page 5-3) use three items: time, distance, and speed. Two
of three items must be known. Figure 5-3 depicts the following examples of computing time and distance.
Figure 5-4, page 5-3, depicts the following example of computing speed.

Example of Computing Time

How much time is required to fly 329 NM at a ground speed of 170 kt (Figure 5-3)? 1:56 hours.

Set 60 index under 17 (outer scale) for 170 kt.

Under 32.9 (outer scale) for 329 NM, read 116 minutes (inner scale) or 1:56 (hours scale).

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

Example of Computing Distance

If an aircraft has a ground speed of 170 kt & flies for 1 hour & 35 minutes, how many NM will the aircraft have flown

(Figure 5-3)? 269 miles.

Set 60 index under 17 for 170 (outer scale).

Above 1:35 (hour scale), read just left of 27 for 269 miles (outer scale).

Figure 5-3. Computing time and distance

Computing Speed Example

An aircraft flies 250 NM in 1:40; what is the speed of the aircraft (Figure 5-4)? 150 kt.
Set 1:40 (hour scale) under 25 (outer scale) for 250 NM.
Directly over the speed index is 15; therefore, the answer is 150 kt (outer scale).

Figure 5-4. Computing speed

SHORT TIME AND DISTANCE (USE OF THE 36 INDEX)

5-6. The 36 index (Figure 5-5, page 5-4) is used to solve for short distances, usually less than 10 nautical
miles, and when time calculations are in seconds and minutes instead of minutes and hours. When the

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Chapter 5

aviator uses the 36 (seconds) index, the minutes scale reads as seconds (first example) and the hour scale
reads as minutes and seconds (second example). Figure 5-5 depicts the following examples.

36 Index Scale Examples

Example 1
If an aircraft has a ground speed of 90 kt & flies for 1.3 NM, how much time is required to fly the distance (Figure 5-5)? 52
sec.
Set the 36 index under 90 (outer scale) for 90 kt.
Below 13 (outer scale) for 1.3 NM, read 52 sec (minutes scale).
Note. Read left, or counterclockwise, from the 60 (speed) index; the correct time is taken from the minutes scale and read
as seconds.
Example 2
If an aircraft has a ground speed of 90 kt and flies for 4.5 NM, how much time is required to fly the distance (Figure 5-5)?
3:00 minutes.

Set the 36 index under 90 (outer scale) for 90 kt.

Below 45 (outer scale) for 4.5 NM read 3:00 minutes (hour scale).
Note. Read right, or clockwise, from the 60 (speed) index; the correct time is taken from the hours scale and read as
minutes and seconds.

Figure 5-5. Short time and distance

COMPUTING TIME FOR OUTBOUND LEG DURING HOLDING

5-7. Because holding is concerned with inbound time and not distance inbound, knowing wind velocity
and direction is not necessary. By using the computer side of the dead-reckoning computer, the aviator can
determine the time outbound that will result in one minute inbound. Place the initial 60-second outbound

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

time on the outer scale over the inbound time on the inner scale, and the number above the speed index is
the number of seconds to subsequently fly outbound to achieve a one-minute inbound time. The following
examples show how to compute estimated outbound times depicted in Figures 5-6 and 5-7.

Estimated Outbound Time More Than 1 Minute Example

If an outbound time of 1 minute results in an inbound time of 45 sec, how much time on the subsequent outbound leg must

the aircraft fly to achieve an inbound time of 1 minute (Figure 5-6)? 80 sec.

Set 45 for actual inbound time of 45 sec (inner scale) under 60 for time flown outbound of 1 minute or 60 sec (outer scale).

Above speed index, read 80 (outer scale) for 80 sec subsequent outbound time to be flown.

Figure 5-6. Estimated outbound time more than one minute

Estimated Outbound Time Less Than 1 Minute Example

If an outbound time of 1 minute results in an inbound time of 82 sec, how much time on the subsequent outbound leg must

the aircraft fly to achieve an inbound time of 1 minute (Figure 5-7)? 44 sec.

Set 82 for actual inbound time of 82 sec (inner scale) under 60 for time flown outbound of 1 minute or 60 sec (outer scale).

Above the speed index, read 44 (outer scale) for 44 sec subsequent outbound time to be flown.

Figure 5-7. Estimated outbound time less than one minute

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 5-5

Chapter 5

FUEL CONSUMPTION
5-8. Fuel consumption problems are solved in the same manner as time and distance problems, except
gallons per hour and gallons are used in place of miles per hour and miles.

GALLONS AND POUNDS CONVERSION

5-9. The CPU-26A/P is useful for determining weights of fuel and gallon-pound conversions. table 5-1
shows gallons-to-pounds or pounds-to-gallons conversion ratios. Figure 5-8 provides an example of
gallons-to-pounds conversion based on the following example.

Table 5-1. Gallons and pounds conversion

Fuel Conversion
JP-4 6.5:1
JP-5/JET-A 6.8:1
JP-8/JET A-1 6.7:1
JP = Jet propulsion

Gallons and Pounds Conversion Example

If 172 gallons of JP-8 are added to the aircraft, how many pounds does that fuel weigh (Figure 5-8)? 1,150 pounds of

JP-8.

Using JP-8 as onboard fuel, set the 10 index (inner scale) under 67 (outer scale) for 6.7:1. The inner scale now

represents gallons, & the outer scale represents pounds.

Find 17 on the inner scale, move right (clockwise) to the next mark (17.2), & read above to see 11.5. The answer is 1,150

pounds.

The black boxed 10 index is a representation of 1.0 gallons, which is set in this equation under 67 (outer scale) for 6.7

pounds (weight of 1 gallon of JP-8, Table 5-1). Therefore, reading from the 10 index clockwise; 11 is equal to 1.1 gallons,

12 is equal to 1.2 gallons, & so on. Continue clockwise to the next mark after 17 (1.7 gallons), which is equal to 1.72; the

decimal point must be moved two places to the right to achieve 172.0 gallons. Consequently, the same number of

decimal point places must be moved for the correct fuel weight so that 11.5 (outer scale) reads as 1,150.0 pounds.

Figure 5-8. Gallons and pounds conversion

COMPUTING ENDURANCE TIME

5-10. The CPU-26A/P can be used for determining endurance time based on fuel burn rate and gallons of
useable fuel onboard. Figure 5-9, page 5-7, shows an endurance time based on the example depicted.

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

Computing Endurance Time Example

If an aircraft has a fuel burn rate of 130 gallons per hour & 230 gallons of useable fuel onboard, how long until aircraft fuel

burnout (Figure 5-9) occurs? 1 hour & 46 minutes.

Set the 60 index under 13 (outer scale) for 130 gallons per hour.

Below 23 (outer scale) for 230 gallons, read 106 minutes (minutes scale), or 1 hour & 46 minutes (hours scale).

Figure 5-9. Computing time for fuel consumption

COMPUTING FUEL REQUIRED

5-11. The CPU-26A/P can be used during premission planning to determine fuel requirements. Figure 5­
10 shows calculations based on the following example.

Fuel Required Example

If an aircraft has an estimated burn rate of 280 pounds per hour and time of flight of 2 hours & 5

minutes, how many pounds of fuel are required for the mission (Figure 5-10)? 585 pounds of fuel

required.

Set the 60 index (inner scale) under 28 (outer scale) for 280 pounds per hour.

Above 2:05 (hours scale), read 58.5 (outer scale) for 585 pounds of fuel required.

Note. This computation does not include VFR and IFR reserves.

Figure 5-10. Fuel required

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Chapter 5

COMPUTING RATE OF FUEL CONSUMPTION

5-12. The CPU-26A/P can be used to compute fuel consumption rate. Figure 5-11 shows computations for
the following example.

Rate of Fuel Consumption Example

If an aircraft burns 410 pounds of fuel in 30 minutes, how many pounds is the aircraft burning per hour (Figure 5-11)? 820

pounds per hour.

Set 30 (minutes/inner scale) under 41 (outer scale) for 410 pounds burned.

Above the 60 index (inner scale), read 82 (outer scale) for 820 pounds per hour.

Figure 5-11. Rate of fuel consumption

TRUE AIRSPEED
5-13. The window marked FOR AIRSPEED AND DENSITY ALTITUDE COMPUTATIONS (figure 5­
12, page 5-9, provides a means for computing TAS when CAS, temperature, and altitude are known or vice
versa. To change from one to the other, correct for altitude and temperature differences existing from those
standard at sea level. Free air temperature (FAT) is read from a free air thermometer, and pressure altitude
is found by setting the altimeter at 29.92 inches Hg and reading the altimeter directly.

True Airspeed Computation Example

The CAS is 120 kt, FAT is –15 degrees Celsius (C), & pressure altitude is 8,000 ft. What is the TAS (Figure 5-12)? 132 kt.
Set –15 degrees C for air temperature above the 8 position mark in the “pressure altitude thousands of ft” window for 8,000
ft.
Over 12 (inner scale) for 120 kt, read 13.2 (outer scale) for a TAS of 132 kt.

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

Figure 5-12. True airspeed computation

Note. The outer scale is marked TRUE A.S. between 15 and 17. The inner scale is marked CAL.
A.S. between 14 and 16.

Note. To solve CAS when TAS is known, locate TAS on the outer scale and read answer (CAS)
in the inner scale.

DISTANCE CONVERSION
5-14. This problem is made simple by a small conversion scale, consisting of three arrows, labeled NAUT,
STAT, and Km. These arrows are located on the outer scale at 66, 76, and 12.2 respectively and point
toward the inner scale.

OUTER SCALE COMPUTATIONS

5-15. The following example shows distance conversions using the outer scale of the CPU-26A/P. Figure
5-13, page 5-10, illustrates the calculations in the following example.

Distance Conversion (Outer Scale) Example

To change 20 NM to SMs or Km (Figure 5-13):

Set 20 (inner scale) under the NAUT arrow at 66 (outer scale).

Under STAT arrow head (outer scale), read 23 (inner scale); the answer is 20 NM = 23 SM.

Under Km arrowhead (outer scale), read 37 (inner scale); the answer is 20 NM or 23 SM = 37 KM.

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Chapter 5

Figure 5-13. Nautical, statute, and kilometer correlation

INNER SCALE COMPUTATIONS

5-16. The following example shows distance conversions using the inner scale of the CPU-26A/P. Figure
5-14 illustrates the calculations in the following example.

Distance Conversion (Inner Scale) Example

Another statute index arrow is located on the inner scale at 76. The index arrow allows for the conversion of SM (inner

scale) to NM or KM on the outer scale.

Align the statute index (inner scale) directly below the NAUT on the outer scale.

Select any value, and the corresponding value will be above or below the selected value. For example, 90 SM equals 78

NM (Figure 5-14).

Align the statute index (inner scale) directly below the Km on the outer scale to read selected/corresponding value as in the

above example.

Figure 5-14. Inner scale computation

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TRUE ALTITUDE CALCULATION

5-17. The window marked FOR ALTITUDE CALCULATIONS provides a means for computing
corrected altitude by applying any variations from standard temperature to indicated or calibrated altitude.
Figure 5-15 illustrates the calculations in the following example.

Altitude Calculation Example

Pressure altitude is 9,000 feet, indicated altitude is 9,100 feet, and the FAT is –15 degrees C. What is the corrected altitude

(Figure 5-15)? 8,700 feet.

Set –15 degrees C for the air temperature above the 9 position mark in the “pressure altitude thousands of feet” window for

9,000 feet.

Above 91 for 9,100 feet indicated altitude (inner scale), read 87 for 8,700 feet corrected altitude (outer scale).

Figure 5-15. True altitude calculation

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION CALCULATIONS

5-18. The computer can be used for multiplication and division. The index for these problems is the 10
index.

MULTIPLICATION
5-19. CG-26A/P can be used for simple multiplication calculations. Figure 5-16, page 5-12, illustrates
calculations for the following example.

Altitude Calculation Example

If the aircraft is climbing at 450 fpm for 8 minutes, how much altitude would be gained (Figure 5-16)? 3,600 feet.

Set 10 index (inner scale) under 45 (outer scale) for 450.

Above 80 (inner scale) for 8 minutes, read 36 (outer scale) for 3,600 feet.

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Chapter 5

Figure 5-16. Multiplication

DIVISION
5-20. CG-26A/P can be used for simple division calculations. Figure 5-17 illustrates calculations for the
following example.

Rate of Descent Calculation Example

An aircraft must lose 9,000 feet in 20 minutes; what is the rate-of-descent (Figure 5-17)? 450 FPM.

Set 90 (outer scale) for 9,000 feet over 20 (inner/minutes scale).

Find 10 index (inner scale), and read 45 (outer scale) for 450 FPM.

Figure 5-17. Division

CONVERTING DISTANCE TO TIME

5-21. Certain IFR DPs require a minimum climb rate to assure proper obstruction clearance. However, the
minimum climb requirement is stated in terms of feet to be gained per nautical mile. The aviator can easily
convert FPNM to a number representative of FPM. Figure 5-18, page 5-13, illustrates the following
example.

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

Converting Distance to Time Example

With a ground speed of 90 knots and a climb requirement of 400 FPNM, what is the rate of climb in FPM (Figure 5-18)?

600 FPM.

Set 60 (speed) index to 90 (outer scale) for 90 knots.

Above 40 (inner scale) for 400 feet, read 60 (outer scale) for 600 FPM.

Figure 5-18. Converting feet per nautical mile to feet per minute

SECTION II – WIND SIDE

DISK AND CORRECTION SCALES

5-22. Solve wind problems by the grid side of the DR computer (Figure 5-19, page 5-14), which consists
of a transparent, rotational plotting disk mounted in a frame on the reverse side of the circular slide rule. A
compass rose is located around the plotting disk. The correction scale on the top frame of the circular grid
is graduated in degrees right and left of the true index (labeled TRUE INDEX). This scale is used for
calculating drift or drift correction (labeled DRIFT RIGHT and DRIFT LEFT). A small reference circle,
called a grommet, is located at the center of the plotting disk.

REVERSIBLE GRID
5-23. A reversible sliding grid (Figure 5-19, page 5-14), inserted between the circular slide-rule and
plotting disk, is used for wind computations. The slide has converging lines, spaced 2 degrees apart,
between the concentric arcs marked 0 to 150 and 1 degree apart above the 150 arc. Concentric arcs are
used to calculate speed and spaced 2 units (usually knots or miles per hour) apart. The direction of the
centerline coincides with the index. The common center of the concentric arcs and point at which all
converging lines meet is located at the lower end of the slide. On one side of the sliding grid, the speed arcs
are scaled from 0 to 270. The low range of speeds on the sliding grid helps solve navigation problems for
aircraft with slow flight-speed characteristics. On the reverse side, which is not shown in Figure 5-19, the
scale ranges from 70 to 800 knots; this side is normally used by aircraft that can exceed speeds of 270
knots.

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Chapter 5

Figure 5-19. Wind side of CPU-26A/P computer

DETERMINING HEADING AND GROUND SPEED

5-24. To determine the total effect of wind on a flight, wind direction and velocity, TAS, and true course
(track) must be known. Figure 5-20, page 5-15, illustrates the following example.

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

Heading and Ground Speed Example

The wind is from 160 degrees at 30 knots; TAS is 120 knots; and the course (track) is 090 degrees. What are the heading

and ground speed? 104 degrees and 106 knots.

Set 160 (direction from which the wind is blowing) under the TRUE INDEX (Figure 5-20, left side).

Plot the wind vector above the grommet 30 units (wind speed), and place a wind dot within a circle at this point (Figure

5-20, left side).

Set 90 (course/track) at the TRUE INDEX (Figure 5-20, right side).

Adjust the sliding grid so that the TAS arc (120 knots) is at the wind dot (Figure 5-20, right side). Note that the wind dot is

at the 14 degrees converging line to the right of centerline.

Under the 14 degrees correction scale (DRIFT RIGHT) to the right of center at the top of the computer, read the heading

(104 degrees).

Under the grommet, read the ground speed (106 knots) (Figure 5-20, right side).

Figure 5-20. Heading and ground speed

DETERMINING UNKNOWN WIND

5-25. To solve for an unknown wind condition, four factors are required: true course (track), ground
speed, true heading, and TAS. Figure 5-21, page 5-16, illustrates the following example.

Determining Unknown Wind Example

True course (track) is 090 degrees, ground speed is 106 knots, true heading 085 degrees, and TAS is 116 knots; what are the

wind direction and speed? The unknown wind is 045 degrees at 14 knots.

Place the true course under the index (Figure 5-21, left side).

Place the line representing the ground speed under the grommet (Figure 5-21, left side).

Subtract true heading from true course (track), and find the true heading is 5 degrees less than the true course, which means

the 5 degrees is a left wind correction angle.

With the center on 106, the ground speed, move up the grid to the TAS line of 116 knots. Then move left 5 degrees and use a

pencil to make a wind dot on the 116 knots arc (Figure 5-21, left side).

Rotate the compass rose/plotting disk until the wind dot is resting directly on the centerline (Figure 5-21, right side).

By checking the lines between the grommet & wind dot, find the wind speed is 14 knots (Figure 5-21, right side).

Find wind direction by looking under the true index; the wind direction is 045 degrees (Figure 5-21, right side).

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Chapter 5

Figure 5-21. Determining unknown wind

DETERMINING ALTITUDE FOR MOST FAVORABLE WIND

5-26. By comparing winds aloft, the aviator can determine the best altitude to obtain the highest ground
speed. Figure 5-22 illustrates the following example.

Determining Altitude for Most Favorable Wind

Winds aloft are 3,000 feet – 210 degrees at 20 knots, 6,000 feet – 240 degrees at 12 knots, and 9,000 feet – 290 degrees at 08

knots.

The true course/track is 160degrees and a ground speed of 100 knots.

Plot the winds aloft on the plotting disk, ensuring that the compass rose and arc are properly aligned for each entry (Figure

5-22, left side). Left side is positioned for last entry of 290 at 08 knots for 9,000 feet.

Place the true course/track (160 degrees) under the index (Figure 5-22, right side).

Place the line representing the ground speed under the grommet (Figure 5-22, right side).

The most favorable altitude is 9,000 feet; with a tailwind, the ground speed is 105 knots. The winds at 3,000 feet and 6,000

feet are headwinds.

Figure 5-22. Determining altitude for most favorable wind

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 Air Navigation Handheld Computer

DETERMINING RADIUS OF ACTION

5-27. Radius of action means the time or distance that an aircraft can fly out on a given course, turn
around, and have enough fuel to return to the departure point. Figure 5-23 and figures 5-24 and 5-25, page
5-18, illustrate the following three examples.

Determining Radius of Action Example (Part I)

The true course/track is 060 degree, TAS is 120 knots, wind is 050 degrees at 20 knots, and useable fuel is 110 gallons/740
pounds (JP-8) at a fuel consumption of 42 gallons/280 pounds an hour. How long can the aircraft fly outbound before
having to return to the departure point? 1 hour and 15 minutes.
Place the wind direction of 050 degrees under the true index; use the 100 arc as the base point by placing the grommet
centered on the 100 arc; then move up to the 120 arc for a wind speed of 20 knots, and place a small pencil mark in the
center (Figure 5-23, left side).
Rotate the compass rose until the true course/track of 060 degrees is under the true index (Figure 5-23, center).
To find the ground speed, slide the grid until the wind dot is on the 120 arc, representing the TAS of 120 knots. Then look
at the grommet to find the ground speed, which is 100 knots (Figure 5-23, center). Record values for use later.
Now, reverse the compass rose to the reciprocal of 060 degrees, which is 240 degrees, the true course back to the departure
point (Figure 5-23, right side).
To find ground speed, slide the grid until the wind dot is on the 120 knots arc, which is the TAS. Look at the grommet to find
ground speed, which is 140 knots (Figure 5-23, right side).
Add ground speed outbound to ground speed back to departure point (100 + 140 = 240); the total is 240 knots.

Figure 5-23. Determining radius of action, part I

Determining Radius of Action (Part II)

Now, change fuel in pounds/gallons to fuel in hours on the calculator side. Set 60 index under 28 (outer scale) for 280
pounds of fuel consumption (Figure 5-24, page 5-18, left side).
Look directly under 74 (outer scale) for 740 pounds of useable fuel, and find 2 hours and 39 minutes (hours scale) (Figure 5­
24, left scale). The density altitude index obscures the hours scale, so note that 15 (minute scale) aligns with 2 hours and 30
minutes. Count over 4½ graduations; each graduation equals 2 minutes, to be directly under 74. Now add the 9 minutes to
the 2 hours and 30 minutes for a total of 2 hours and 39 minutes (Figure 5-24, left side).
AR 95-1 requires a 30-minute reserve for rotary wing and 45-minute reserve for fixed wing on an IFR flight, so deduct 30
minutes (rotary-wing) or 45 minutes (fixed wing) from the total hours & minutes. The total is now 2 hours and 9 minutes
(rotary wing) or 1 hour and 54 minutes (fixed wing). The remainder of the calculations will continue to use the rotary wing
information.
Now place 24 (outer scale) for 240 knots, total of out and back ground speeds, directly over 2 hours and 9 minutes (hours
scale) (Figure 5-24, right side).
Visually move along the outer scale counterclockwise to the ground speed back to departure point of 14 for 140 knots. Look
directly under 14, and read 75 minutes, or 1 hour and 15 minutes, on the hours scale. The aircraft should turn back to the
departure point at 1 hour and 15 minutes to have enough fuel to make the return trip and arrive at the departure point with a
30-minute reserve.

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Chapter 5

Figure 5-24. Determining radius of action, part II

Determining Radius of Action (Part III)

To convert the times calculated above to distance, perform the following actions:

Set 60 index under 10 (outer scale) for 100 knots ground speed outbound (Figure 5-25, left side).

Look directly over 75 minutes, or 1 hour and 15 minutes (hours scale), and find that the aircraft will fly 125 NM in this time

(Figure 5-25, left side).

The radius of action is 125 NM. The radius of action in time is 1 hour and 15 minutes.

To check the problem, find the time required to fly back over the 125-mile course with a ground speed back to departure

point of 140 knots as follows:

Set 60 index under 14 (outer scale) for 140 knots ground speed back to departure point (Figure 5-25, right side).

Under 12.5 (outer scale) for 125 NM, find the aircraft will take 53.5 minutes, round up to 54 minutes, (minutes scale) to

make the return trip (Figurer 5-25, right side).

This is the final check. By adding the time out of 1 hour and 15 minutes to the time back of 54 minutes, the total time equals

2 hours and 9 minutes. The calculations are confirmed and accurate.

Figure 5-25. Determining radius of action, part III

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 Chapter 6
Instrument Weather

After more than a century of flight, weather is still the most likely factor to result in
fatal accidents. From the hangar, second guessing an aviator’s decisions is easy.
Many aviators have had the experience of hearing about a weather-related accident
and thinking themselves immune from a similar experience because they believe that
they would never attempt to fly in adverse conditions. Aviators escaping aviation
weather accidents indicate that they found themselves in weather conditions they did
not expect and could not safely handle. Although the focus of this manual is
instruments, the principles in this chapter apply to all flight. More detailed weather
information is found in FM 1-230.

EFFECTS OF WIND
6-1. Wind is a mass of air moving over the surface of

the Earth in a definite direction. When the wind is

Contents
blowing from the north at 25 knots, it simply means

Effects of Wind ......................................... 6-1

that air is moving southward over the Earth’s surface

at the rate of 25 nautical miles in one hour.

Turbulence ............................................... 6-3
Structural Icing ......................................... 6-4
6-2. Under these conditions, any inert object free Fog ........................................................... 6-5
from contact with the Earth is carried 25 nautical miles Volcanic Ash............................................. 6-5
southward in one hour. This effect becomes apparent Thunderstorms ......................................... 6-6
when clouds, dust, and toy balloons are observed Wind Shear ............................................ 6-6
being blown along by the wind. An aircraft flying
within the moving mass of air is similarly affected. Therefore, at the end of one hour of flight, the aircraft
is in a position that results from a combination of these two motions:
• The movement of the air mass in reference to the ground.
• The forward movement of the aircraft through the air mass.
6-3. These two motions are independent. As far as the aircraft’s flight through the air is concerned, there
is no difference, whether the air mass is moving or stationary. An aviator flying in a 70-knot gale is
unaware of any wind (except for possible turbulence) unless the ground is observed. In reference to the
ground, however, the aircraft would appear to fly faster with a tailwind, slower with a headwind, or to drift
right or left with a crosswind.
6-4. In addition, wind has an effect on ground speed and drift. An aircraft flying eastward at an airspeed
of 120 knots in still air has a ground speed of 120 knots (Figure 6-1, page 6-2). If the air mass is moving
eastward at 20 knots, airspeed of the aircraft is not affected, but progress of the aircraft over the ground is
120 knots plus 20 knots, or a ground speed of 140 knots. Conversely, if the air mass is moving westward at
20 knots, the airspeed of the aircraft still remains the same, but ground speed becomes 120 knots minus 20
knots, or 100 knots.

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Chapter 6

Figure 6-1. Wind effect and ground speed

6-5. Assuming that no correction is made for wind effect, if an aircraft is heading eastward at 120 knots
through an air mass moving southward at 20 knots, at the end of one hour, the aircraft is almost 120 miles
east of its point of departure because of its progress through the air. It is also 20 miles south because of the
motion of the air. Under these circumstances, airspeed remains 120 knots, but ground speed is determined
by combining the movement of the aircraft with that of the air mass. Ground speed can be measured as the
distance from the point of departure to the position of the aircraft at the end of one hour. The ground speed
can be computed by the time required to fly between two points a known distance apart and can be
determined before flight by constructing a wind triangle (Figure 6-2).

Figure 6-2. Wind drift

6-6. Heading is the direction in which the aircraft is flying. Track is its actual path over the ground, which
is a combination of the motion of the aircraft and motion of the air. The angle between the heading and
track is drift angle. If the aircraft’s heading coincides with the true course and the wind is blowing from the
left, the track will not coincide with the true course. The wind will drift the aircraft to the right so that the
track will fall to the right of the desired course or true course (Figure 6-3, page 6-3). Standard wind drift
correction procedures are depicted in table 7-1, page 7-21.

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 Instrument Weather

Figure 6-3. Wind drift angle

6-7. By determining the amount of drift, the aviator can counteract the effect of wind and make the track
of the aircraft coincide with the desired course. If the air mass is moving across the course from the left, the
aircraft will drift to the right and a correction must be made by heading the aircraft sufficiently to the left to
offset this drift. Therefore, if the wind is from the left, correction is made by pointing the aircraft to the left
a certain number of degrees to correct for wind drift. This wind correction angle is expressed in terms of
degrees right or left of the true course (Figure 6-4).

Figure 6-4. Wind correction angle

TURBULENCE
6-8. Turbulence is caused by winds, thermals, and other movement of air. Turbulence effects on aircraft
can range from occasional bumps to extreme airspeed and altitude variations in which aircraft control is
difficult. To reduce the risk factors associated with turbulence, aviators must learn methods of avoidance as
well as piloting techniques.
6-9. Turbulence avoidance begins with a thorough preflight weather briefing. Many reports and forecasts
are available to assist the aviator in determining areas of potential turbulence to include the severe weather
warning (WW), significant meteorological information (SIGMET) (WS), convective SIGMET (WST),
airman’s meteorological information (AIRMET) (WA), severe weather outlook (advisory circular [AC]),
center weather advisory (CWA), area forecast (FA), and pilot reports (pilot weather reports [PIREPs]).
Because thunderstorms always indicate turbulence, areas of known and forecast thunderstorm activity are
always of interest to the aviator. In addition, clear air turbulence (CAT) associated with jet streams, strong
winds over rough terrain, and fast-moving cold fronts are also good indicators of turbulence.
6-10. Aviators are alert while in flight for the signposts of turbulence. Clouds with vertical
development—such as cumulus, towering cumulus, and cumulonimbus—are indicators of atmospheric
instability and possible turbulence. Standing lenticular clouds lack vertical development but indicate strong

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Chapter 6

mountain wave turbulence. (For more information on cloud types, see FM 1-230. While en route, aviators
can monitor the HIWAS broadcast for updated weather advisories or contact the nearest AFSS or en route
flight advisory service (EFAS) for the latest turbulence-related PIREPs.
6-11. Avoid turbulence associated with strong thunderstorms. Circumnavigate cells by at least 20 miles.
Turbulence may also be present in the clear air above a thunderstorm. Fly at least 1,000 feet above the
cloud tops for every 10 knots of wind at that level, or fly around the storm. Do not underestimate
turbulence underneath a thunderstorm. Never attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even if the other side is
visible. The possible results of turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be disastrous.
6-12. Aircraft control is difficult for the aviator to maintain while flying in moderate to severe
turbulence The aviator may not be able to maintain a proper scan of the instruments because of the higher
workload associated with turbulence (Figure 6-5). Aviators should immediately reduce power and slow the
aircraft to the recommended turbulence penetration speed as described in the appropriate aircraft operator’s
manual. To minimize the load factor imposed on the aircraft, the wings should be kept level and the
aircraft’s pitch attitude should be held constant, while the altitude of the aircraft is allowed to fluctuate up
and down. Maneuvering to maintain a constant altitude only increases stress on the aircraft. If necessary,
the aviator should advise ATC of the fluctuations and request a block altitude clearance. In addition, the
power should remain constant at a setting to maintain the recommended turbulence penetration airspeed.

Figure 6-5. Instrument scan in severe turbulence (blurry instrument panel)

6-13. PIREPs are the best source of information on the location and intensity of turbulence. Therefore,
aviators are encouraged to familiarize themselves with the turbulence reporting criteria found in the AIM.
The AIM also describes the procedure for volunteering turbulence-related PIREPs.

STRUCTURAL ICING
6-14. The very nature of IFR requires flight in visible moisture such as clouds. At the right temperatures,
this moisture can freeze on the aircraft, causing increased weight, degraded performance, and unpredictable
aerodynamic characteristics. Understanding, avoiding, and early recognition, followed by prompt action,
are the keys to avoiding this potentially hazardous situation.
6-15. Structural icing refers to the accumulation of ice on the exterior of the aircraft and is broken down
into three classifications: rime ice, clear ice, and mixed ice. For ice to form, moisture must be present in the
air, and the air must be cooled to a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit [F]) or lower.

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 Instrument Weather

Aerodynamic cooling can lower the surface temperature of an airfoil, causing ice to form on the airframe
even when the ambient temperature is slightly above freezing.
6-16. Rime ice forms if droplets are small and freeze immediately when contacting the aircraft surface.
This type of ice usually forms on areas such as the leading edges of wings or struts. Rime ice has a
somewhat rough-looking appearance and a milky-white color. Clear ice forms from larger water droplets or
freezing rain that can spread over a surface. This is the most dangerous type of ice because it is clear, hard
to see, and can change the shape of the airfoil. Freezing rain and drizzle occur during inversion levels and
are extremely hazardous. Mixed ice is a mixture of clear ice and rime ice. It has the characteristics of both
types and can form rapidly. Ice particles become imbedded in clear ice, building a very rough
accumulation. Table 6-1 lists the temperatures at which various types of ice form.

Table 6-1. Temperature ranges for ice formation

Outside Air Temperature Ranges Icing Type

0°C to -10°C Clear
-10°C to -15°C Mixed clear & rime
-15°C to -20°C Rime

6-17. Structural icing is a condition that can only worsen; therefore, during an inadvertent icing
encounter, the aviator must act to prevent additional ice accumulation. Regardless of the level of anti-ice or
deice protection offered by the aircraft, the first course of action should be to avoid the area of visible
moisture with icing conditions. Therefore, the aviator should descend to an altitude below the cloud bases,
climb to an altitude above the cloud tops, climb to an altitude of minus 20 degrees Celsius or below, or turn
to a different course. If one of these courses of action is not possible, the aviator should move to an altitude
free of icing. Report icing conditions to ATC, and request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard.
Refer to the AIM for information on reporting icing intensities, and comply with AR 95-1 and the aircraft
operator’s manual for flight into icing. Commanders will assess the risk management considerations for
flight into icing conditions based on severity of icing, duration of time in icing conditions, criticality of
mission, and availability of deice and anti-ice systems.

FOG
6-18. Instrument aviators must anticipate conditions leading to the formation of fog and take appropriate
action early in flight. Before a flight, close examination of current and forecast weather should alert the
aviator to possible fog formation. When fog is a consideration, aviators should plan adequate fuel reserves
and alternate landing sites. En route, the aviator must stay alert for fog formation through weather updates
from EFAS, the automatic terminal information service (ATIS), and the automated surface observation
system (ASOS)/automated weather observing system (AWOS) sites.
6-19. Two conditions lead to the formation of fog: air is cooled to saturation, or sufficient moisture is
added to the air until saturation occurs. In either case, fog can form when the temperature/dew-point spread
is 5 degrees or lower. Aviators planning to arrive at their destination near dusk with decreasing
temperatures should be particularly concerned about possible fog formation.

VOLCANIC ASH
6-20. Volcanic eruptions create volcanic ash clouds containing an abrasive dust that poses a serious
safety threat to flight operations. Ash clouds are not easily discernible from ordinary clouds when aviators
encounter clouds at some distance from a volcanic eruption.
6-21. When an aircraft enters a volcanic ash cloud, dust particles and smoke may become evident in the
cabin often along with the odor of an electrical fire. Inside the volcanic ash cloud, the aircraft may also
experience lightning and St. Elmo’s fire on the windscreen. The abrasive nature of volcanic ash can pit the
windscreens, thus reducing or eliminating forward visibility. The pitot-static system may become clogged,
causing instrument failure. Severe engine damage is probable in both piston and turbine-powered aircraft.

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Chapter 6

6-22. Every effort is made to avoid volcanic ash. Because volcanic ash clouds are carried by the wind,
aviators should plan their flights to remain upwind of ash-producing volcanoes. Visual detection and
airborne radar are not considered reliable means of avoiding volcanic ash clouds. Aviators witnessing
volcanic eruptions or encountering volcanic ash should immediately pass this information along in a PIREP
(if in flight, immediately inform the nearest agency). As with other hazards to flight, the best source of
volcanic information comes from PIREPs. The National Weather Service monitors volcanic eruptions,
estimates ash trajectories, and passes this information along to aviators in a SIGMET. Volcanic ash forecast
transport and dispersion (VAFTAD) charts are also available. These charts depict volcanic ash cloud
locations in the atmosphere following an eruption and forecast dispersion of the ash concentrations over 6-
and 12-hour time intervals (see AC 00-45).

THUNDERSTORMS
6-23. A thunderstorm contains nearly every weather hazard known to aviation. Turbulence, hail, rain,
snow, lightning, sustained updrafts and downdrafts, and icing conditions are all present in thunderstorms.
Do not take off in the face of an approaching thunderstorm or fly an aircraft not equipped with
thunderstorm detection in clouds. Likewise, do not fly at night in areas of suspected thunderstorm activity.
6-24. Unlike VMC, in which thunderstorms can be easily detected and avoided, in IMC flight there is
greater difficulty in determining where thunderstorms are located or where they are likely to develop.
Aviators should obtain a weather update immediately before departure to determine thunderstorm location,
approximate direction, and speed of movement, as well as suspected areas of instability along the planned
route where thunderstorms might develop. Because of the dynamic nature of thunderstorms, aircrews
should seek frequent updates while en route.
6-25. There is no useful correlation between the external visual appearance of thunderstorms and the
severity or amount of turbulence or hail within them. All thunderstorms are considered hazardous, and
thunderstorms with tops above 35,000 feet are considered extremely hazardous.
6-26. Weather radar, airborne or ground-based, normally reflects areas of moderate to heavy
precipitation (radar does not detect turbulence). The frequency and severity of turbulence generally
increases with radar reflectivity closely associated with the areas of highest liquid water content of the
storm. A flight path through an area of strong or very strong radar echoes separated by 20 to 30 miles, or
less, may not be considered free of severe turbulence.
6-27. The probability of lightning strikes occurring to aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes
where temperatures are between -5 degrees Celsius and +5 degrees Celsius. In addition, an aircraft flying
in the clear air near a thunderstorm is also susceptible to lightning strikes. Thunderstorm avoidance is
always the best policy.

WIND SHEAR
6-28. Wind shear is defined as a change in wind speed and/or wind direction in a short distance. Wind
shear can exist in a horizontal or vertical direction and, occasionally, in both. Wind shear can occur at any
and all atmospheric levels and is typically associated with thunderstorms and low-level temperature
inversions; however, the jet stream and weather fronts are also sources of wind shear. Wind shear is of
greatest concern during takeoffs and landings.
6-29. As Figure 6-6, page 6-7, illustrates, while an aircraft is on an instrument approach, a shear from a
tailwind to a headwind causes the airspeed to increase and the nose to pitch up with a corresponding
balloon above the glide path. A shear from a headwind to a tailwind has the opposite effect, and the aircraft
sinks below the glide path.

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 Instrument Weather

Figure 6-6. Glide-slope deviations in wind shear

6-30. A headwind shear followed by a tailwind/downdraft shear is particularly dangerous because the
aviator has reduced power and lowered the nose in response to the headwind shear. The aircraft is,
therefore, in a nose-low, power-low configuration when the tailwind shear occurs. This situation makes
recovery more difficult, particularly near the ground. This type of wind-shear scenario is likely to occur
during an approach into an oncoming thunderstorm. Aviators should be alert for early indications of wind
shear during the approach phase and be ready to initiate a missed approach. An aviator may not be able to
recover an aircraft from a wind-shear encounter at low altitude.
6-31. To inform aviators of hazardous wind shear activity, some airports have installed a low-level wind
shear alert system (LLWAS) consisting of a centerfield wind indicator and several surrounding
boundary-wind indicators. With this system, controllers are alerted of wind discrepancies (an indicator of
wind-shear possibility) and provide this information to aviators. Aviators encountering wind shear are
encouraged to pass along a PIREP. Refer to the AIM for additional information on wind-shear PIREPs. A
typical wind-shear alert issued to an aviator is, “Wind-shear alert, centerfield wind 230 at 8, south
boundary wind 170 at 20.”

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 Chapter 7
Navigation Aids

This chapter provides basic radio principles applicable to navigation equipment as

well as an operational knowledge of how to use these systems in instrument flight.
This information provides the framework for all instrument procedures including
DPs, holding patterns, and approaches. Each of these maneuvers consists mainly of
accurate attitude instrument flying and accurate tracking using navigation systems.
Chapter 10 contains more information on DPs, holding patterns, and approaches.

SECTION I – BASIC RADIO PRINCIPLES

7-1. A radio wave is an electromagnetic (EM)
wave with frequency characteristics that are useful Contents
in radio. The wave travels long distances through
space (in or out of the atmosphere) without losing Section I – Basic Radio Principles ............... 7-1
much strength. The antenna is used to convert the Section II – Navigation Systems................... 7-3
electric current into a radio wave, allowing for
Section III – Navigation Procedures........... 7-14
travel through space to the receiving antenna, which
converts the radio wave back into an electric current.

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

7-2. All matter has a varying degree of conductivity or resistance to radio waves. The Earth itself acts as
the greatest resistor to radio waves. Radiated energy traveling near the surface induces a voltage in the
ground that subtracts energy from the wave, decreasing its strength as the distance from the antenna
increases. Trees, buildings, and mineral deposits affect wave strength to varying degrees. Radiated energy
in the upper atmosphere is likewise affected as the energy is absorbed by molecules of air, water, and dust.
The characteristics of radio-wave propagation vary according to signal frequency, design, use, and
limitations of equipment.

TYPES OF WAVES
SURFACE WAVE
7-3. Surface waves travel across the surface of the Earth. The surface wave’s path is like being in a tunnel
or alley, bound by the surface of the Earth and ionosphere, which prohibit the surface wave from vectoring
into space. Generally, the lower the frequency, the farther the signal travels.
7-4. Surface waves are usable for navigation purposes because they reliably and predictably travel the
same route daily and are not influenced by many outside factors. The surface-wave frequency range is
generally from the lowest frequencies in the radio range (perhaps as low as 100 Hertz) up to about 1,000
kilohertz (1 megahertz). Although there is a surface-wave component to frequencies between 1 and 30
megahertz, the surface wave at these higher frequencies loses strength over very short distances.

SKY WAVE
7-5. The sky wave, at frequencies of 1 to 30 megahertz, is good for long distances because these
frequencies are refracted, or bent, by the ionosphere causing the signal to be sent back to Earth from high

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Chapter 7

in the sky (Figure 7-1). Used by high frequency (HF) radios in aircraft, messages are sent across oceans
using only 50 to 100 watts of power. Frequencies producing a sky wave are not used for navigation
because the signal pathway from transmitter to receiver is highly variable. The wave bounces off the
ionosphere, which is always changing because of varying amounts of the sun’s radiation (night/day,
seasonal variations, and sunspot activity). The sky wave is not reliable for navigation purposes. For
aeronautical communication purposes, the sky wave (HF) is about 80 to 90 percent reliable.

Figure 7-1. Surface, space, and sky wave propagation

SPACE WAVE
7-6. Radio waves of 15 megahertz and above (up to many gigahertz), when able to pass through the
ionosphere, are considered space waves. Most navigation systems operate with their signals propagating as
space waves. Frequencies above 100 megahertz have nearly no surface or sky-wave components. They are
space waves, except for GPS; the navigation signal is used before reaching the ionosphere. This signal
usage makes the effect of the ionosphere, which can cause some propagation errors, minimal. GPS errors
caused by passage through the ionosphere are significant and corrected for by the GPS receiver system.
7-7. Space waves also reflect off hard objects and may be blocked if the object is between the transmitter
and receiver. Site and terrain error, as well as propeller/rotor modulation error in VOR systems, is caused
by this bounce. ILS course distortion is also the result of this phenomenon, which led to the need for ILS
critical areas.
7-8. Space waves are line-of-sight receivable, but those of lower frequencies bend over the horizon
somewhat. Because the VOR signal at 108 to 118 megahertz is a lower frequency than DME at 962 to
1213 megahertz, when aircraft fly over the horizon from a VOR/DME station, the DME is normally the
first to stop functioning.

RADIO WAVE RECEPTION DISTURBANCES

7-9. Static distorts the radio wave and interferes with normal reception of both communications and
navigation signals. Low-frequency airborne equipment is particularly subject to static disturbance. Signals
in the higher frequency bands are static free.
7-10. Precipitation static (P-static) occurs when static electricity is generated on various aircraft surfaces in
flight and is discharged onto other surfaces or into the air. An aircraft generally accumulates little or no
static charge when flying in a clear atmosphere. An aircraft flying in particle-laden air may encounter
P-static because charged particles adhere to the aircraft, create a charge through frictional contact, or divide
into charged fragments on impact with the aircraft surfaces. Some problems caused by P-static are the
following:
• Complete loss of VHF communications.
• Erroneous magnetic compass readings.

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 Navigation Aids

• High-pitched squeal on audio.

• Motorboat sound on audio.
• Loss of all avionics.
• Very low frequency (VLF) navigation system inoperative.
• Erratic instrument readouts.
• Weak transmissions and poor radio reception.
• St. Elmo’s Fire.

PRECAUTIONS
7-11. Various types of navigation aids serve a special purpose; although operating principles and cockpit
displays vary among navigation systems, several precautionary actions must be taken to prevent erroneous
navigation signals:
• Identification. Check identification of any navigation aid and monitor during flight according to
the navigation procedures in Section III.
• Navigation information. Use all suitable navigation equipment aboard the aircraft, and
cross-check heading and bearing information; most aircraft navigation systems have fail flags or
warnings that appear when reestablished criteria are not met.
• Estimated time of arrival (ETA). Never overfly an ETA without a careful cross-check of
navigation aids and ground checkpoints.
• Notice to airmen (NOTAM). Check NOTAMs and FLIP for possible malfunctions or
limitations to navigation aids.
• Navigation aids. Discontinue use of any navigation aids that may be malfunctioning or
erroneous; if necessary, confirm aircraft position with radar or other equipment. Advise ATC of
any problems receiving NAVAIDs; the problem may stem from the ground station, not aircraft
equipment.

SECTION II – NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

NONDIRECTIONAL RADIO BEACON

7-12. The ground station portion of the nondirectional radio beacon is the NDB that transmits radio energy
in all directions. The airborne receiver is the ADF.

FREQUENCY
7-13. The NDB is a low, medium, or UHF ground-based radio beacon that transmits nondirectional signals
whereby a properly equipped aircraft can automatically determine and display bearing to any radio station
within its frequency and sensitivity range. These facilities normally operate on frequencies between 190
and 1750 kilohertz or 275 to 287 megahertz and transmit a continuous carrier keyed to provide
identification except during voice transmission. The 190 to 1750 kilohertz band is displayed on navigation

charts as a brown-colored symbol, and the frequency range NDB used by Army aircraft. The 275- to

287-megahertz band is displayed on navigation charts as a black symbol, not currently received and
used by most Army aircraft.

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Chapter 7

AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER

Components
7-14. The purpose of the ADF is to point to an NDB. The ADF equipment includes two antennas, a
receiver, and the indicator instrument. The sense antenna (nondirectional) receives signals with nearly
equal efficiency from all directions. The loop antenna receives signals from two directions (bidirectional).
The ADF can tell from loop antenna signals that the NDB is one of two possible directions, 180 degrees
apart; the sense antenna helps the ADF determine which of the two is correct. When the loop and sense
antenna inputs are processed together in the ADF radio, the aircraft is able to receive a radio signal in all
directions.
7-15. The radio waves from an NDB consist of an electric field, called the E-field, and magnetic field,
called the H-field. These fields are perpendicular in space, and their amplitudes vary sinusoidally with
time. NDBs transmit a vertically polarized wave, meaning that the E-field is vertical and the H-field is
horizontal. The H-field induces a voltage into the windings of the ADF loop antenna. The loop antenna
consists of two perpendicular windings on a square ferrite core. By measuring the phase difference
between these two windings, the ADF is able to determine the direction of the beacon.
7-16. All ADF systems have loop and sense antennas. With older ADFs, they are two separate antennas
(UH-60A/L Black Hawk). The loop antenna is a flat antenna, usually located on the bottom of the aircraft,
while the sense antenna may also be located there. More recent ADFs have a combined loop/sense antenna
(UH-60Q/HH-60L Black Hawk and CH-47D Chinook), which works far better than older systems, has less
drag, and is much less vulnerable to icing.

Operation
7-17. Most ADF receivers have several modes. If the antenna (ANT) mode is selected, the loop antenna is
disabled, and receiving is done through the sense antenna. This mode provides the clearest audio reception,
and is normally used to identify a station. On some ADFs, the needle should park in the 90-degree position
when the receiver is in ANT mode; other models may work differently:
• In the ADF mode, the pointer is activated and the ADF tries to point to the station. Some ADF
systems have a beat frequency oscillator (BFO) position that generates an audio tone for
beacons identifying themselves using interrupted-carrier keying; this feature is seldom used in
the United States except for a few marine beacons but can be useful in other parts of the world.
• If the ADF has a TEST button, this should cause the needle to slew to the 90-degree position
whenever the button is pressed and held; if not, then this function is usually activated by
switching to ANT mode.
• The ADF indicator consists of a needle and compass card. The needle points to the stations
when the receiver is in ADF mode; the compass card is slaved automatically to the aircraft
heading.

COMPASS LOCATOR
7-18. A radio beacon, used with ILS markers, is a compass locator. Compass locators are low-powered
NDBs, operating between 200 and 415 kilohertz with a reliable reception range of at least 15 nautical
miles, which is received and indicated by the ADF receiver. Higher powered low-frequency NDBs may be
collocated with the marker beacons and used as compass locators. These generally carry transcribed
weather broadcast information. When used with an ILS front course, the compass locator facilities are
collocated with the OM and/or middle marker (MM) facilities. The coding identification of the outer
locator consists of the first two letters of the three-letter identifier of the associated LOC. For example,
with an ILS localizer identified by the letters “I-DAL” (Dallas/Love Field), the outer locator is identified as
“DA.” The middle locator at DAL is identified by the last two letters “AL.” On the profile view of the
approach chart, the locators are depicted by the letters LOM or LMM (locator outer marker or locator
middle marker).

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 Navigation Aids

VOICE TRANSMISSION
7-19. NDB stations are capable of voice transmission—unless the letter W (without voice) is included in
the class designator—and are often used for transmitting the prerecorded AWOS data. The aircraft must be
in operational range of the NDB. Coverage depends on the strength of the transmitting station. Before
relying on ADF indications, identify the station by listening to the Morse code identifier.

IDENTIFICATION
7-20. Most radio beacons within the United States transmit a continuous three-letter identifier. A two-letter
identifier is normally used with an ILS. Some NDBs have only a one-letter identifier. Outside the
contiguous U.S., one-, two-, or three-letter identifiers are transmitted.

ACCURACY
7-21. Course accuracy of the VOR is generally plus or minus 1 degree but no more than 2.5 degrees.
When the aircraft nears the station, slight deviations from the desired track result in large deflections of the
needle. Therefore, establish the correct drift correction angle as soon as possible. Make small heading
corrections (not over 5 degrees) as soon as the needle shows a deviation from course, until the needle
begins to rotate steadily toward a wingtip position or shows erratic left/right oscillations. Aviators are
abeam a station when the needle points to the 90- or 270-degree position. Hold last corrected heading
constant and time station passage when the needle shows either wingtip position or settles at or near the
180-degree position. The time interval from the first indications of station proximity to positive station
passage varies with altitude (a few seconds at low levels to three minutes at high altitude).
7-22. When the aviator uses ADF equipment, the loop antenna is automatically positioned to the null
position. However, the antenna can only rotate about the vertical axis (in relation to the aircraft) and cannot
tilt. When the aircraft is banked, the antenna becomes tilted. This tilting moves the loop away from the
null, and the motor is not capable of correcting for this error. This error is called dip error and is present
anytime the aircraft is not in level flight. The magnitude of this error depends on the position of the aircraft
from the station, altitude, range from the station, and angle of bank used. Dip error is most noticeable when
the aircraft is banked and the station is on the nose or tail. The ADF bearings should be considered
accurate only when the aircraft is in level flight.

DISTURBANCES
7-23. Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that may result in erroneous bearing information. Such
disturbances result from intermittent or unpredictable signal propagation because of such factors as
lightning and precipitation static. At night, radio beacons are vulnerable to interference from distant
stations. Nearly all disturbances affecting the ADF bearing also affect the facility’s identification. Noisy
identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music, or erroneous identification will
usually be heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed.

Note. Because ADF receivers do not have a flag to warn the aviator when erroneous bearing
information is being displayed, the aviator must continuously monitor the NDB’s identification.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE

FREQUENCY
7-24. VOR operates within the 108.0 to 117.95 megahertz VHF frequency band and has a power output
necessary to provide coverage within the assigned operational service volume. The equipment is subject to
line-of-sight restriction, and its range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment.

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Chapter 7

VOICE TRANSMISSION
7-25. Most VORs are equipped for voice transmission. VORs without voice capability are indicated on en
route and sectional charts by underlining the VOR frequency and by the designation VORW in the IFR
supplement. Because a large portion of the frequencies available on the VOR control panel may overlap the
VHF communication frequency band, aviators may use the VOR receiver as a VHF communications
receiver. For example, the AN/ARC-186 VHF-amplitude modulation (AM)/FM radio has frequencies
116.0 through 151.975 megahertz range and 108.0 through 115.975 megahertz receive only.

IDENTIFICATION
7-26. The only method of identifying a VOR is by its Morse code identification or the recorded automatic
voice identification. Voice identification consists of a voice announcement (CAIRNS VOR), alternating
with the usual Morse code identification. During periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate T-E-S-T
in Morse code or the code may be removed.

RADIALS
7-27. The courses oriented from the station are called radials. The VOR information received by an aircraft
is not influenced by aircraft attitude or heading (Figure 7-2). The following example shows VOR
information.

Figure 7-2. Very (high frequency) omnidirectional range radials

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 Navigation Aids

Example of VOR Information

For example, aircraft A (heading 180 degrees) is inbound on the 360 degrees radial, and the omnibearing
selector (OBS) was used to select 180 degrees, thereby displaying a TO indication. If the OBS was used to
select the 360 degrees radial, the instrument will display a reverse sensing. Reverse sensing is when the VOR
needle indicates the reverse of normal operation. This reversal occurs when the aircraft is heading toward the
station with a FROM (FR) indication or when the aircraft is headed away from the station with a TO indication.

After crossing the station, the aircraft is outbound on the 180 degrees radial at A-1 and displaying a FR
indication. Aircraft B is shown crossing the 240 degrees radial while flying a heading of 340 degrees. The OBS
was used to select 240 degrees, thereby displaying an FR indication. Similarly, at any point around the station,
an aircraft can be located somewhere on a VOR radial. The heading selected on the OBS determines the
sensitivity of the instrument.

TRACKING TO AND FROM THE STATION

7-28. To track to the station, rotate the OBS until TO appears and then center the course deviation
indicator (CDI). Fly the course indicated by the index. If the CDI moves off center to the left, follow the
needle by correcting course to the left, beginning with a 20-degree correction.
7-29. When an aviator flies the course indicated on the index, a left deflection of the needle indicates a
crosswind component from the left. If the amount of correction brings the needle back to center, decrease
the left course correction by half. If the CDI moves left or right now, the movement should be much slower
and the aviator can make a smaller heading correction for the next iteration.
7-30. Keeping the CDI centered will take the aircraft to the station. To track to the station, the OBS value
at the index is not changed. To home to the station, the CDI needle is periodically centered and the new
course, under the index, is used for the aircraft heading. Homing will follow a circuitous route to the
station, just as with ADF homing.
7-31. To track from the station on a VOR radial, first orient the aircraft’s location, with respect to the
station and the desired outbound track, by centering the CDI needle with a from indication, shown as FR.
The track is intercepted by either flying over the station or establishing an intercept heading. The magnetic
course of the desired radial is entered under the index, using the OBS, and the intercept heading is held
until the CDI centers. Then the procedure for tracking to the station is used to fly outbound on the specified
radial.

ACCURACY
7-32. The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent, generally ± 1 degree, but no more than
2.5 degrees. The effectiveness of the VOR depends on proper use and adjustment of both ground and
airborne equipment.
7-33. On some VORs, minor course roughness may be observed, evidenced by course needle or brief flag
alarm. At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the aviator may occasionally observe a brief
course needle oscillation, similar to the indication of approaching station. Aviators flying over unfamiliar
routes are cautioned to be on the alert for these course needle oscillations and, in particular, to use the
TO/FR indicator to determine positive station passage.

RECEIVER ACCURACY CHECK

7-34. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR), part 91.171, provides certain VOR equipment
accuracy checks and an appropriate endorsement within 30 days before flight under IFR for civil aircraft.
This requirement does not apply to military aircraft because they are defined as public aircraft. Army
aircraft operator manuals and checklists require avionics to be tested before each flight and any
malfunction to be written on the appropriate forms in the aircraft logbook.

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Chapter 7

7-35. VOR system course sensitivity may be checked by noting the number of degrees of change when the
aviator rotates the OBS to move the CDI from center to the last dot on either side. The course selected
should not exceed 10 or 12 degrees either side. To ensure satisfactory operation of the airborne system, use
the following means for checking VOR receiver accuracy:
• VOR test facility (VOT) or a radiated test signal from an appropriately rated radio repair station.
• Certified checkpoints on the airport surface.
• Certified airborne checkpoints.

Test Facility
7-36. The FAA VOT transmits a test signal that provides users with a convenient means to determine the
operational status and accuracy of a VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT is located. Locations
of VOTs are published in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). Two means of identification are used. One
is a series of dots, and the other is a continuous tone. Information concerning an individual test signal can
be obtained from the local FSS. The airborne use of VOT is permitted; however, its use is strictly limited to
those areas/altitudes specifically authorized in the A/FD or appropriate supplement.
7-37. To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT frequency 108.0 megahertz on the VOR receiver. With the
CDI centered, the OBS should read 0 degrees with the TO/FR indication showing FROM, or the OBS
should read 180 degrees, with the TO/FR indication showing TO. Should the VOR receiver operate an
RMI, the indication will be 180 degrees on any OBS setting.
7-38. A radiated VOT from an appropriately rated radio repair station serves the same purpose as an FAA
VOT signal. The check is made in much the same manner as a VOT with some differences.

Certified Checkpoints
7-39. Airborne and ground checkpoints consist of certified radials received at specific points on the airport
surface or over specific landmarks while the aircraft is airborne in the immediate vicinity of the airport.
Locations of these checkpoints are published in the A/FD.
7-40. Should an error in excess of ± 4 degrees be indicated through use of a ground check, or ± 6 degrees
using the airborne check, IFR flight will not be attempted without first correcting the source of the error.
No correction other than the correction card figures supplied on the DD Form 1613 (Pilot’s Compass
Correction Card) should be applied in making these VOR receiver checks.
7-41. If a dual system VOR (units independent of each other except for the antenna) is installed in the
aircraft, one system may be checked against the other. Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility,
and note the indicated bearing to that station. If the receivers are within 4 degrees of each other, both may
be considered reliable.

TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
7-42. The theoretical and technical principles of operation of TACAN equipment are different from those
of VOR; however, the result is the same. In addition to the displayed bearing information, TACAN adds a
continuous display of range information. DME, an integral part of TACAN, provides continuous slant-
range distance information.

GROUND EQUIPMENT
7-43. TACAN ground equipment consists of either a fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit,
with the ground unit, reduces the transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both azimuth and distance
information. TACAN operates in the UHF band of frequencies. The system presently has a total of 252

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channels available and is identified by two sets of channel numbers, from 1 to 126, with suffixes X or Y
for discrimination between the sets.
7-44. TACAN ground equipment consists of a rotating type of antenna for transmitting bearing
information and a receiver-transmitter (transponder) for transmitting distance information. The TACAN
station is identified by an international Morse code tone modulated at 1,350 hertz with a reception interval
of about 30 seconds. Permanent TACAN ground stations are usually dual transmitter equipped (one
operating and one on standby) or full monitored installations, which automatically switch to the standby
transmitter when a malfunction occurs. The ground monitor, set to alarm at any radial shift of ± 1 degree, is
usually located in the base control tower or approach control and sets off a light and buzzer to warn the
ground crew when an out-of-tolerance condition exists. Sometimes TACAN reception might be suspected
of being in error, or bearing/distance unlock conditions might be encountered in flight. When errors occur,
the aviator can check the status of the ground equipment by calling ATC. When ground equipment is
undergoing tests or repairs, the identification is silenced to prevent transmission of erroneous signals.

MALFUNCTIONS
7-45. Several forms of TACAN malfunctions can give false or erroneous information to the navigation
display equipment.

Bearing/Distance Unlock
7-46. TACAN bearing and distance signals are subject to line-of-sight restrictions because of utilization of
UHF frequencies. Because of the transmission/reception principles, unlock (indicated by rotating of
bearing pointer and/or range indicator) will occur if these signals are obstructed. Temporary obstruction of
TACAN signals can occur in flight when aircraft fuselage, wing, gear, external stores, or wingmen get
between the ground and aircraft antenna. Aircraft receiver memory circuits prevent unlock for short
periods (about 10 seconds for DME and 2 seconds for azimuth). Beyond this, unlock occurs and will
persist until the obstruction is removed and search cycles are completed. Unlock may occur during
maneuvers, such as procedure turns, which cause the aircraft antenna to be obstructed for longer than 2 to
10 seconds.

Azimuth Cone of Confusion

7-47. The structure of the azimuth cone of confusion over a TACAN station is considerably different from
other NAVAIDs. The azimuth cone can be up to 100 degrees or more in width (about 15 nautical miles
wide at 40,000 feet). Indications on the aircraft instruments make the cone appear even wider. Approaching
the TACAN station, usable azimuth information is lost before the actual cone is reached. This is correct
although actual azimuth unlock is prevented by the memory circuit until after the aircraft has entered the
cone. After the cone is crossed and usable signals are regained, the search cycle extends the unusable area
beyond the actual cone. Only azimuth information is unusable in the cone of confusion; slant-range
distance information continues to be displayed on the range indicator.

40-Degree Azimuth Error Lock-On

7-48. Because of the nature of the TACAN signal, the TACAN azimuth can lock on in multiples of 40
degrees from the true bearing, with no warning flag appearing. The aviator should cross-check other
navigation aids available to verify TACAN azimuth. Rechanneling the airborne receiver to deliberately
cause unlock may correct the problem. Although some TACAN sets are designed to eliminate 40-degree
lock-on error, the aviator should cross-check the bearing with other available navigation aids.

Co-Channel Interference
7-49. Co-channel interference occurs when the aircraft is in a position to receive TACAN signals from
more than one ground station on the same channel, normally at high altitude. DME, azimuth, or
identification from either ground station may be received.

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False or Incorrect Lock-on

7-50. False or incorrect lock-on is caused by misalignment or excessive wear of the airborne equipment
channel selection mechanism. Rechanneling from the selected channel number and back, preferably from
the direction opposite the original setting, sometimes corrects this problem.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTIONAL RANGE/TACTICAL

AIR NAVIGATION
7-51. A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two components, VOR and TACAN, which provide three
individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at one site. Although
consisting of more than one component—incorporating more than one operational frequency and using
more than one antenna system—a VORTAC is considered to be a unified navigation aid. Both components
of a VORTAC operate simultaneously and provide the three services at all times.
7-52. Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are each identified by a three-letter code transmission and
interlocked so that aviators using VOR azimuth with TACAN distance can be assured of both signals being
received are from the same ground station. The frequencies of the VOR, TACAN, and DME at each
VORTAC facility are paired according to a national plan to simplify airborne operation. Frequency pairing
information is published in the FIH.

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT

OPERATION
7-53. In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft and
received at the ground station. The ground station then transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the
same pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time required for the round trip of this signal
exchange is measured in the airborne DME unit and translated into distance in nautical miles from the
aircraft to the ground station.

LINE-OF-SIGHT PRINCIPLE
7-54. Operating on the line-of-sight principle, DME furnishes distance information with a very high
degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received at distances up to 199 nautical miles at line-of-sight
altitude with an accuracy of better than a half mile or 3 percent of the distance, whichever is greater.
Distance information received from DME equipment is slant-range distance and not actual horizontal
distance.

FREQUENCIES
7-55. DME operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum between 962 megahertz and 1213 megahertz.
Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will receive distance information from a VORTAC
automatically, while aircraft equipped with only a VOR receiver must have a separate DME airborne unit.

FACILITIES
7-56. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME navigation facilities provide course and distance
information from collocated components under a frequency-pairing plan. Aircraft receivers equipped to
provide automatic DME selection ensure reception of azimuth and distance information from these
common sources when selected by the pilot.

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IDENTIFICATION
7-57. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME facilities are identified by synchronized
identifications, which are transmitted on a time-sharing basis. The DME or TACAN coded identification is
transmitted one time for each three or four times that the VOR or localizer coded identification is
transmitted. When either the VOR or DME is inoperative, the aviator needs to recognize which identifier is
retained for the operative facility. A single coded identification with a repetition interval of about 30
seconds indicates that the DME is operative.

Note. DME unlocks can occur periodically because of ground station overload when more than
100 aircraft interrogations are received at the same time. This problem is most likely to occur at
locations of heavy traffic (such as Chicago [Illinois] O’Hare International Airport).

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

7-58. The GPS is a space-based navigation system that provides highly accurate three-dimensional
navigation information to an infinite number of equipped users anywhere on or near the Earth. The typical
GPS integrated system provides position, velocity, time, altitude, steering information, ground speed,
ground track error, heading, and variation.

SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Signal Accuracy
7-59. GPS measures distance by timing a radio signal that starts at the satellite and ends at the GPS
receiver. The signal carries data that disclose satellite position and time of transmission and synchronize
the aircraft GPS system with satellite clocks. There are two levels of accuracy available: standard
positioning service (SPS) and precise positioning service (PPS). Course acquisition (C/A) data will provide
position accurate to within 100 meters and can be received by anyone with a GPS receiver.
7-60. Current accuracy for SPS users is better than 7 meters horizontal with a probability of 95 percent.
Precision data can be received only by authorized users (PPS) in possession of the proper codes. The data
is accurate to within 16 meters.

Segments
7-61. GPS is composed of the three following major segments:
• Space segment. The GPS constellation is composed of multiple satellites whose orbits and
spacing are arranged to optimize the GPS coverage area.
• Control segment. The control segment includes a number of monitor stations and ground
antennas located throughout the world. Monitor stations use GPS receivers to track all satellites
in view and accumulate ranging data from satellite signals; information is processed at the
master control station (MCS) and used to manage the satellite system.
• User segment. The user segment consists of GPS equipment (such as aircraft avionics,
surveying equipment, and handheld GPS receivers) used in a variety of ways; GPS equipment
uses data transmitted by the satellites to provide instantaneous position information.

Navigation Database
7-62. Navigation databases supporting GPS equipment certified for en route and terminal operations
contain, as a minimum, all airports, VORs, VORTACs, NDBs, and named waypoints (WPs) and
intersections shown on en route and terminal area charts, SIDs, and STARs. In the terminal area, the
database includes WPs for SIDs and STARs, as well as other flight operations from the beginning of a
departure to the en route structure or from an en route fix to the beginning of an approach procedure. All

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named WPs are identified with a five-letter designation provided by the National Flight Data Center
(NFDC). WPs unnamed by the NFDC, such as a DME fix, are assigned a five-letter alphanumeric coded
name in the database. For example, D234T is a coded WP, representing a point located on the 234-degree
radial of XYZ VORTAC at 20 nautical miles. The letter T is the twentieth letter of the alphabet and
indicates a distance of 20 nautical miles.

USE OUTSIDE UNITED STATES NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

7-63. GPS use may be further restricted depending on the area of operation. Flight using GPS is not
authorized in some countries. If planning to use GPS outside the NAS, check for additional restrictions in
the FLIP GP and area planning (AP) documents in areas of intended operation.

RECEIVER AUTONOMOUS INTEGRITY MONITORING

7-64. GPS equipment certified for IFR use must have the capability of verifying the integrity of the signals
received from the GPS constellation. Loss of satellite reception and receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring (RAIM) warnings may occur because of aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle).
Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may also
affect reception of one or more satellites. Because the relative positions of the satellites are constantly
changing, prior experience with the airport does not guarantee reception at all times and RAIM availability
should always be checked. The integrity of the GPS signal is verified by determining if the integrity
solution is out of limits for the particular phase of flight, if a satellite is providing corrupted information, or
there are an insufficient number of satellites in view. When the integrity of the GPS information does not
meet the integrity requirements for the operation being performed, the GPS avionics of the aircraft provide
a warning in the cockpit. A GPS integrity warning in the cockpit is equivalent to an off flag on the HSI; the
GPS navigation information may no longer be reliable. Refer to the aircraft operator’s manual for specific
information regarding GPS avionics.

DATABASE REQUIREMENTS
7-65. To use GPS for IFR navigation in the terminal area or for GPS nonprecision approaches, the
aircraft’s GPS equipment must include an updatable navigation database. GPS airborne navigation
databases may come from the NGA via the mission planning system or from an approved commercial
source.

MANUAL DATABASE MANIPULATION

7-66. Manual entry/update of the validated data in the navigation database is not possible. However, this
requirement does not prevent the storage of user-defined data within the equipment.

EMBEDDED GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM/INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

7-67. Although GPS is meant to replace some navigation equipment, the embedding into the navigation
system depends on the mission of the aircraft. The combination of GPS and INS is referred to as embedded
global positioning system/inertial navigation system (EGI). GPS can greatly enhance the performance of an
INS, and the INS, in turn, increases the usefulness of GPS equipment. INS can accurately measure changes
in position and velocity over short periods using no external signal; however, errors are cumulative and
increase with time. GPS can provide a continual position update that allows the INS to calculate error
trends and improve its accuracy as time increases. The INS aids the GPS receiver by improving GPS
antijam performance. When GPS is not available, (because of mountain shadowing of satellites, jamming,
or high dynamic maneuvers), this improved INS provides the integrated navigation system with accurate
position information until the satellites are in view or the jamming is over. GPS provides an in-flight
alignment capability for the INS as an added advantage.

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COURSE SENSITIVITY
7-68. The course deviation bar or indicator sensitivity related to GPS equipment varies with the mode of
operation and type of equipment. Refer to the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual for specific
information. Unlike traditional ground-based NAVAIDs, GPS course sensitivity is normally linear,
regardless of the distance from the WP.

WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM

7-69. The Wide-Area Augmentation System (WAAS) augments the basic GPS signal for IFR use from
takeoff through Category I precision approach. This system improves the accuracy, availability, and
integrity currently provided by GPS, thereby improving capacity and safety.

System Description
7-70. Unlike traditional ground-based navigation aids, the WAAS covers a more extensive service area.
Wide-area ground reference stations (WRSs) are linked to form a United States WAAS network. These
precisely surveyed ground reference stations receive signals from GPS satellites, and any errors in the
signals are then determined. Each station in the network relays the data to a wide-area master station
(WMS) where correction information for specific geographical areas is computed. A correction message is
prepared and uplinked to a geostationary satellite via a ground uplink station (GUS). The current WAAS
site installation consists of 25 WRSs, two WMSs, four GUSs, and the required terrestrial communications
to support the WAAS network. The message is then broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1, 1575.42
megahertz) to WAAS receivers within the broadcast coverage area of the WAAS. The WAAS broadcast
message improves the GPS 95 percent signal accuracy from 100 meters to about 7 meters.

Planned Expansion
7-71. Planned expansion of the U.S. ground-station network will include Canada, Iceland, Mexico, and
Panama and may expand to other countries. In addition, Japan and Europe are building similar systems,
planned to be interoperable with the United States WAAS. The merging of these systems will create a
worldwide seamless navigation capability, similar to GPS but with greater accuracy and availability.

Operations
7-72. The FAA is moving directly to a lateral navigation (LNAV)/vertical navigation (VNAV) capability
using WAAS. This capability will facilitate improved instrument approaches to include vertical (glide
path) guidance to an expanded number of airports. Concurrently, the FAA will evaluate the approach to
achieve global navigation satellite system (GNSS) landing system (GLS) capability in later years.

LOCAL AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM

7-73. The local area augmentation system (LAAS) augments the GPS to provide an all-weather approach,
landing, and surface navigation capability. LAAS focuses its service on a local area (about a 20- to 30-mile
radius), such as an airport, and broadcasts its correction message via a VHF radio data link from a
ground-based transmitter. LAAS has a profound effect on aviation navigation; LAAS yields the extreme
high accuracy, availability, and integrity necessary for Category I, II, and III precision approaches. The
end-state configuration pinpoints the aircraft’s position to within 1 meter or less with a significant
improvement in service flexibility and user operating costs. Curved approach paths, not possible using the
current instrument landing systems, are possible for Category I, II, and III precision approaches.
Approaches are designed to avoid obstacles, restricted airspace, noise-sensitive areas, or congested
airspace. Unlike current landing systems, LAAS provides multiple precision approach capabilities to
runways within the LAAS coverage area. Duplication of equipment solely for the purpose of serving
multiple runways can be eliminated. Also, airports with the need for precise surface area navigation may
use the accuracy of LAAS for the position determination of aircraft. Using this capability, controllers know
the location of all airport service vehicles and taxiing aircraft to assist in the prevention of runway

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incursions in low-visibility conditions. Furthermore, aircraft operators benefit from the reduction of
expenses associated with purchasing a variety of radio navigation equipment. Potentially, WAAS and
LAAS could use the same aircraft avionics to accomplish both types of missions, reduce avionics
maintenance costs, and realize savings in aircrew training.

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

DESCRIPTION
7-74. The INS is a primary source of ground speed, attitude, heading, and navigation information. A basic
system consists of acceleration sensors mounted on a gyro-stabilized, gimbaled platform, a computer unit
to process raw data and maintain present position, and a CDU for data input and monitoring. The aircrew
can selectively monitor a wide range of data, define a series of courses, and update present position. The
INS operates by sensing the movement of the aircraft. Its accuracy is theoretically unlimited and affected
only by technology and manufacturing precision. Because neither transmitting nor receiving any signal, the
INS is unaffected by electronic countermeasures or weather conditions.

OPERATION
7-75. Before use, the INS must be aligned. During alignment, present position coordinates are inserted
manually while the INS derives local level and true north. This operation must be completed before the
aircraft is moved. If alignment is lost in flight, navigation data may be lost; however, in some cases,
attitude and heading information may still be used. Coordinate or radial and distance information
describing points that define the route of flight are inserted as needed through the CDU. For complete
operation procedures of any specific INS, consult the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual.

SECTION III – NAVIGATION PROCEDURES

APPLICATION
7-76. Instrument procedures are flown using a combination of the techniques described in this chapter.
Aircraft operator manuals should provide proper procedures for using the navigation equipment installed.
The following discussions apply to ground-based radio aids to navigation only. A discussion on RNAV
and GPS procedures is provided at the end of this section.
7-77. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft within controlled airspace
under IFR except as follows:
• On a Federal airway, along the centerline of that airway.
• On any other route, along the direct course between the navigational aids or fixes defining that
route; however, this section does not prohibit maneuvering the aircraft to pass well clear of other
air traffic or maneuvering of the aircraft in VFR conditions to clear the intended flight path both
before and during climb or descent.
7-78. Where procedures depict a ground track, the aviator is expected to correct for known wind
conditions. In general, the only time that wind correction should not be applied is during radar vectors. The
following general procedures apply to all aircraft.

TUNE
7-79. Tune to or select the desired frequency or channel.

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IDENTIFY
7-80. Positively identify the selected station via an aural or visual signal. Through human error or
equipment malfunction, the intended station may not be the one being received. These problems may occur
as the result of failure to select the correct frequency or the receiver to channelize to the new frequency.
7-81. For aircraft with the capability to translate Morse code station identification into an alphanumeric
visual display, the visual display may be used as the sole means of identifying the station identification
provided—
• The alphanumeric visual display must always be in view of the aviator.
• Loss of the Morse code station identification will cause the alphanumeric visual display to
disappear or a warning to be displayed.

Note. Be cognizant of station identification being displayed. If from the DME portion of a
VOR/DME station, only the DME alphanumeric display may be used; VOR azimuth station
identification must still be identified aurally. Voice communication is possible on VOR, ILS,
and ADF frequencies. The only positive method of identifying a station is by its Morse code
identifier (aurally or alphanumeric display) or recorded automatic voice identification, indicated
by VOR following the station name. Listening to other voice transmissions by an FSS or other
facility (TWEB) is not a reliable method of station identification and is not used. Consult FLIP
documents to determine availability of specific stations.

MONITOR STATION IDENTIFICATION

7-82. Monitor station identification to ensure that a reliable signal is being transmitted. Removal of
identification serves as a warning to aviators that the facility is officially off the air for tune-up or repairs
and may be unreliable although intermittent or constant signals are received. The navigation signal is
considered unreliable when the station identifier is not being received. Three methods for monitoring
station identification are the following:
• The first method is the traditional aural Morse code identifier; this is transmitted by all VOR,
TACAN, VORTAC, NDB, and ILS transmitters. If this method is selected to monitor the
station, aviators should monitor the station continuously during navigation.
• The second method applies to aircraft with the capability to translate Morse code station
identification into an alphanumeric visual display.
• The third method of monitoring a station involves monitoring the visual warning, or off, flags;
this method is acceptable as the sole means of monitoring the station identification if—
• Initial station identification is accomplished via an aural Morse code identifier,
alphanumeric display, or recorded automatic voice identification.
• The off flag, or equivalent, is displayed immediately upon losing station identification.
• The off flag, or equivalent, is displayed directly in the aviator’s view immediately upon
activation.

SELECT
7-83. Select the proper position for the navigation system switches.

SET
7-84. Set the selector switches to display the desired information on the navigation instruments.

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MONITOR FOR WARNING FLAGS

7-85. Monitor the course warning flag (if installed) or aural or alphanumeric display continuously to
ensure adequate signal reception strength.

CHECK
7-86. Check the appropriate instrument indicators for proper operation.

HOMING TO A STATION
7-87. Tune and identify the station. Turn the aircraft in the shorter direction to place the head of the
bearing pointer under the top index of the RMI or upper lubber line of the HSI. Adjust aircraft heading, as
necessary, to keep the bearing pointer under the top index or upper lubber line. Because homing does not
incorporate wind-drift correction, in a crosswind, the aircraft follows a curved path to the station (Figure
7-3). Therefore, homing should be used only when maintaining course is not required.

Note. The online version of this manual contains a video clip of the procedure in Figure 7-3.

Figure 7-3. Homing to a station

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TRACKING TO A STATION
PUSH THE HEAD, PULL THE TAIL
7-88. This is one of several techniques that may be used to achieve a desired track to a selected
bearing/radial. Push the head towards the desired bearing/radial, and pull the tail towards the desired
bearing/radial. This phrase states the method to obtain the intercept of a desired bearing or radial of a
navigation aid. The application is shown below.

Push the Head

7-89. Figure 7-4 illustrates tracking to a station using the ADF/VOR needle. If the aircraft is flying toward
the navigation aid, look at the heading. Then look at the head of the ADF/VOR needle. If the head of the
needle is right of the desired heading, turn right until past the head of the needle. The aviator should
continue flying on a course that is slightly right of the needle. The needle will be pushed to the left, back
toward the desired on-course bearing. When the ADF/VOR needle is pointing toward the desired heading,
the pilot can resume the desired heading.

Note. The online version of this manual contains a video clip of the procedure in Figure 7-4.

Figure 7-4. Push the head

Pull the Tail

7-90. Figure 7-5, page 7-18, illustrates tracking from a station using the ADF/VOR needle. If the aircraft is
flying away from the navigation aid, look at the heading. Then look at the tail of the ADF/VOR needle. If
the tail of the needle is left of the desired heading, turn right to pull the tail right. When the tail of the
ADF/VOR needle is pointing toward the desired bearing from the station, the pilot can resume the desired
heading.

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Note. The online version of this manual contains a video clip of the procedure in Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-5. Pull the tail

TRACKING INBOUND
7-91. Tracking inbound (Figure 7-6, page 7-19), NDB or VOR, uses a heading to maintain the desired
track to or from the station, regardless of crosswind conditions. Interpretation of the heading indicator and
needle is done to maintain a constant magnetic bearing to or from the station. Magnetic bearing is the
direction to or from a radio transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north.
7-92. To track inbound, turn the aircraft in the shorter direction to place the head of the bearing pointer
under the top index of the RMI or upper lubber line of the HSI. Maintain this heading until off-course drift
is indicated by displacement of the needle, which occurs if during a crosswind (needle moving left equals
wind from the left; needle moving right equals wind from the right). When a definite (2 to 5 degrees)
change in needle reading occurs, turn the aircraft to push the head of the needle back to the desired
bearing/radial. The angle of interception must be greater than the number of degrees of drift. The intercept
angle depends on the rate of drift, aircraft speed, and station proximity (see table 7-1, page 7-21).

Note. The online version of this manual contains a video clip of the procedure in Figure 7-6,
page 7-19.

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Figure 7-6. Tracking inbound

TRACKING OUTBOUND
7-93. To track outbound, the same bracketing principles apply, except that the tail of the needle moving
left equals wind from the right and the tail of the needle moving right equals wind from the left. Wind
correction is made away from the tail of the needle deflection. This action is displayed as pulling the tail of
the needle to the desired heading, bearing, or radial. Note the example of outbound tracking in Figure 7-7,
page 7-20.

Note. The online version of this manual contains a video clip of the procedure in Figure 7-7,
page 7-20.

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Figure 7-7. Tracking outbound

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STANDARD WIND DRIFT CORRECTION

7-94. Wind-drift correction is a continuous process because of the varying nature of winds in speed and
direction. Table 7-1 depicts standard wind drift correction procedures. When applying wind drift
corrections, continually monitor the desired course to be flown.

Table 7-1. Standard wind drift correction

Condition Correction
Initial correction Used to return to course (reintercept).
30° at airspeeds < 90 knots
20° at airspeeds =/> 90 knots
First trial Apply half the initial correction after course reinterception.
15° at airspeeds < 90 knots
10° at airspeeds =/> 90 knots
Too little wind correction Repeat initial correction to return to course.
Second trial Increase correction by applying ½ of the first trial correction (Example: ½ of
15° is 7.5° [rounded to 7]; 15° + 7° = 22°).
Too much wind correction If trial drift correction is too large, turn to parallel course & allow wind to drift
aircraft back on course; then decrease correction on next trial correction.
Bracketing process Continue until a heading is determined that maintains aircraft course.
Corrections for unusually After applying standard initial corrections and course is not reintercepted,
strong winds correction of 40° or more may be required to return to course.
Note. All course corrections are applied to the tracked (maintained) course.

COURSE INTERCEPT
7-95. Course interceptions are performed in most phases of instrument navigation. The equipment used
varies, but an intercept heading must be flown that results in an angle or rate of intercept sufficient to solve
a particular problem.

RATE OF INTERCEPT
7-96. Rate of intercept, seen by the aviator as bearing pointer or HSI movement, is a result of the following
factors:
• The angle at which the aircraft is flown toward a desired course (angle of intercept).
• True airspeed and wind (ground speed).
• Distance from the station.

ANGLE OF INTERCEPT
7-97. The angle of intercept is the angle between the heading of the aircraft (intercept heading) and desired
course. Controlling this angle by selection/adjustment of the intercept heading is the easiest and most
effective way to control course interceptions. Angle of intercept must be greater than the degrees from
course but should not exceed 90 degrees. Within this limit, adjust to achieve the most desirable rate of
intercept.
7-98. When selecting an intercept heading, the key factor is the relationship between distance from the
station and degrees from the course. Each degree, or radial, is 1 nautical mile wide at a distance of 60
nautical miles from the station. Width increases or decreases in proportion to the 60 nautical mile distance.
For example, 1 degree is 2 nautical miles wide at 120 nautical miles—and 1/2 nautical mile wide at 30

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nautical miles. For a given ground speed and angle of intercept, the resultant rate of intercept varies
according to the distance from the station. When selecting an intercept heading to form an angle of
intercept, consider the following factors:
• Degrees from course.
• Distance from the station.
• True airspeed and wind (ground speed).

COMPLETING THE INTERCEPT

Lead Point
7-99. A lead point to roll out on the course must be determined because of turn radius of the aircraft. The
lead point is determined by comparing bearing pointer or HSI movement with the time required to turn to
course. Remember that the HSI deviation scale remains fully deflected until the aircraft is within 10
degrees of course for a VOR. Because deviation scale movement can be accurately compared with angle of
intercept displayed by the heading pointer, use the deviation scale for completing intercepts whenever
possible.

Rate of Intercept
7-100. To determine the rate of intercept, monitor the bearing pointer or HSI movement. If the movement
of the bearing pointer or the HSI is quick, the rate of intercept should also be quick.

Turn
7-101. The time required to make the turn to course is determined by the intercept angle and the aircraft
turn rate. Greater intercept angles and slower aircraft turn rates require more time.

Complete the Intercept

7-102. Use the HSI, when available, for completing the course intercept. The HSI deviation scale is more
sensitive than a bearing pointer.

Undershoot or Overshoot
7-103. If the selected lead point will result in undershooting the desired course, either reduce the angle of
bank or roll out of the turn and resume the intercept. If the selected lead point results in an overshoot,
continue the turn and roll out with a correction back to the course.

Maintain Course
7-104. The aircraft is considered to be maintaining course centerline when the HSI is centered or the
bearing pointer points to the desired course. A correction for known winds should be applied when
completing the turn to a course, as shown in Figure 7-6, page 7-19, and figure 7-7, page 7-20.
7-105. Aviators should always attempt to fly as close to the course centerline as possible. TERPS design
criteria provide maximum obstacle clearance protection when the course centerline is maintained.

INBOUND PROCEDURES
7-106. An aviator may use various methods to intercept a radial while flying to a station. Generally,
setting up a 45-degree angle of intercept is recommended (Figure 7-9, page 7-25); a 30-degree angle of
intercept (Figure 7-8, page 7-24) is also correct, as is double the angle off the nose method if the number of
radials to be crossed is not in excess of 45 degrees. The double the angle off the nose method (Figure 7-12,
page 7-28) and timed distance method for radial changes in excess of 45 degrees (Figure 7-10, page 7-26)
are described in detail below.

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 Navigation Aids

Figure 7-8. Inbound course intercept of less than 45 degrees

Horizontal Situation Indicator

7-107. The HSI used in the following figures is a generic representation and has the following
features/functions:
• Needle 1, representing an NDB signal.
• Needle 2, representing a VOR signal or GPS WP.
• Upper left indicator, representing distance to go in kilometers.
• Upper right indicator, the course set display.
• Lower left knob, the course selector.
• Lower right knob, the heading selector.
• To or from arrows.
• Compass card.
• Deviation scale (each dot representing 2 degrees of deviation for VOR).
• Lubber line, 45-degree left and right marks, and 90-degree left and right marks.
• Glide-slope deviation scale and dual pointers.

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Chapter 7

Angular Difference Less Than 45 Degrees

7-108. To determine the intercept heading, locate the bearing from the station presently on. Find the
bearing that the aviator wants to intercept, and measure the angular difference.
7-109. If the angular difference is less than 45 degrees, turn toward the desired bearing in the shortest
direction with an angle of intercept equal to the computed angular difference. The time to the station will
be about equal to the time necessary to complete the intercept (Figure 7-8, page 7-23).

Angular Difference Greater Than 45 Degrees

7-110. The aviator may select any angular interception if timing is not essential, 30 to 45 degrees being
generally sufficient (Figure 7-9). If the angular difference is greater than 45 degrees, a series of
time-distance check maneuvers (discussed later) may be performed if distance/time to the station is
unknown (Figure 7-10, page 7-25).

Figure 7-9. Inbound course intercept

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 Navigation Aids

Figure 7-10. Inbound course intercept of greater than 45 degrees

Station Passage
7-111. When the aircraft is using VOR and VOR/DME, station passage occurs when the TO-FROM
indicator makes the first positive change to FROM. For RMI only, station passage is determined when the
bearing pointer passes 90 degrees to the inbound course. When the aircraft is using TACAN, station
passage is determined when the range indicator stops decreasing. When the aircraft is using NDB, station
passage is determined when the bearing pointer passes 90 degrees to the inbound course.

TIME AND DISTANCE CHECK

7-112. To compute time and distance from a station, first turn the aircraft to place the bearing pointer on
the nearest 90-degree index; note time and maintain heading. When the bearing pointer has moved 10
degrees, note the elapsed time in seconds and apply the formulas in the following example to determine
time and distance.

Time-Distance Check Example

Time in seconds between bearings
= Minutes to station
Degrees of bearing change

For example, if two minutes (120 seconds) is required to fly a bearing change of 10 degrees, the aircraft is—
120
= 12 minutes to the station
10

7-113. The time from station may also be calculated by using a short method based on the above formula,
if a 10-degree bearing change is flown. If the elapsed time for the bearing change is noted in seconds and a
10-degree bearing change is made, the time from the station in minutes is determined by counting off one

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Chapter 7

decimal point. Thus, if 75 seconds are required to fly a 10-degree bearing change, the aircraft is 7.5
minutes from the station. When the bearing pointer is moving rapidly or when several corrections are
required to place the pointer on the wingtip position, the aircraft is at station passage.
7-114. The distance from the station is computed by multiplying TAS or ground speed (in miles per
minute) by the previously determined time in minutes. For example, if the aircraft is four minutes from
station, flying at a TAS of 150 knots or 2.5 nautical miles per minute, the distance from station is 10
nautical miles (2.5 x 4).
7-115. The preceding are methods of computing approximate time and distance. For increased accuracy,
use only a small amount of bearing change (about 10 degrees) and correct for existing winds.
7-116. The aviator can determine the ETA over the station by flying a constant heading and checking the
time and bearing progression closely. The aviator can also check the position and distance from another
station not directly on the flight path.
7-117. The accuracy of time and distance checks is governed by existing wind, degree of bearing change,
and accuracy of timing. The number of variables involved causes the result to be an approximation.
However, by flying an accurate heading and checking the time and bearing closely, the aviator can get a
reasonable estimate of time and distance from the station.

OUTBOUND PROCEDURES

Immediately After Station Passage

7-118. Intercepting courses immediately after station passage does not require large intercept angles.
Because of radial convergence, actual aircraft displacement from course is relatively small. For example, a
30-degree off-course indication at 2 nautical miles from the station represents about 1 nautical mile off
course.
7-119. Turn to parallel the desired outbound course (compensate for wind). Maintain heading, and allow
the bearing pointer to stabilize. Note the number of degrees between the tail of the bearing pointer and the
desired course. To correct back on course, use the outbound course interception technique (Figure 7-11).

Figure 7-11. Outbound course intercept immediately after station passage

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 Navigation Aids

Away From Station

7-120. Note the position of the bearing pointer tail. Then, on the compass card, look from the tail in the
short direction to the desired course. Any heading beyond the desired course is a no-wind intercept
heading. Normally, 45 degrees beyond the desired course is a good intercept heading. As in inbound
intercepts, consider the known factors of ground speed and distance from the station when selecting an
intercept heading. Outbound—away from station procedures are essentially identical to outbound—
immediately after station passage, the intercept heading as determined in step 4, Figure 7-12, can be 45
degrees, 30 degrees, or double the angle off the nose intercept.

Figure 7-12. Outbound course intercept away from station

ARC INTERCEPTIONS
7-121. TACAN and VOR/DME arcs are used during all phases of flight. An arc may be intercepted at
any angle but is normally intercepted from a radial. An arc may be intercepted when the aircraft is

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Chapter 7

proceeding inbound or outbound on a radial. A radial may be intercepted either inbound or outbound from
an arc. The angles of intercept (arc to radial or radial to arc) are about 90 degrees. Because of the large
intercept angles, the use of accurate lead points during the interception aids in preventing excessive
undershoots or overshoots.

ARC INTERCEPTION FROM A RADIAL

7-122. Track inbound on the RRS 325-degree radial (Figure 7-13) frequently checking the DME mileage
readout. A .5 nautical mile lead is satisfactory for ground speeds of 150 knots or less; start the turn to the
arc at 10.5 miles. At higher ground speeds, use a proportionately greater lead. Continue the turn for about
90 degrees. The rollout heading will be 055 degrees in no-wind conditions. During the last part of the
intercepting turn, monitor the DME closely. If the arc is being overshot (more than 1 nautical mile),
continue through the originally planned rollout heading. If the arc is being undershot, roll out of the turn
early. The procedure for intercepting the 10 DME when outbound is basically the same, the lead point
being 10 nautical miles minus .5 nautical mile, or 9.5 nautical miles.

Figure 7-13. Arc interception from a radial

RADIAL INTERCEPTION FROM AN ARC

7-123. A lead radial is the radial at which the turn from the arc to the inbound course is started. When the
aircraft intercepts a radial from a DME arc, the lead radial will vary with arc radius and ground speed.
When an aviator flies arcs, such as those depicted on most approach plates, the lead radial will be less than
5 degrees at speeds of 150 knots or less. There is no difference between intercepting a radial from an arc
and intercepting from a straight course.
7-124. Set the course of the radial to be intercepted as soon as possible and determine the approximate
lead. Upon reaching this point, start the intercepting turn. Without an RMI, the technique for radial
interception is the same except for azimuth information, which is available only from the OBS and CDI.
7-125. The technique for intercepting a localizer from a DME arc is similar to intercepting a radial. At the
depicted lead radial (LR 330 degrees in Figure 7-14, page 7-29), an aviator having a single VOR/LOC
receiver should set the localizer frequency. If the aviator has dual VOR/LOC receivers, one unit may be
used to provide azimuth information with the other being set to the localizer frequency.

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 Navigation Aids

Figure 7-14. Localizer interception from a distance measuring equipment arc

FLYING A DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT ARC

7-126. When flying a DME arc with wind, the aviator should keep a continuous mental picture of
position relative to the facility. Because the wind-drift correction angle is constantly changing throughout
the arc, wind orientation is important. In some cases, wind can be used to return to the desired track. High
airspeeds require more aviator attention because of the higher rate of deviation and correction.
7-127. Maintaining the arc is simplified by keeping slightly inside the curve; thus, the arc is turning
toward the aircraft and interception may be accomplished by holding a straight course. If outside the curve,
the arc is turning away and a greater correction is required.
7-128. With an RMI, in a no-wind condition, the aviator should theoretically be able to fly an exact circle
around the facility by maintaining an RB of 90 degrees or 270 degrees. In actual practice, a series of short
legs are flown. To maintain the arc in Figure 7-15, page 7-30, proceed as the following example describes.

Flying a DME Arc Example

With the RMI bearing pointer on the wingtip reference (90º or 270º position) and the aircraft at the desired
DME range, maintain a constant heading and allow the bearing pointer to move 5º to 10º behind the wingtip.
DME range should increase slightly.

Turn toward the facility to place the bearing pointer 5º to 10º ahead of the wingtip reference, then maintain
heading until the bearing pointer is again behind the wingtip. Continue this procedure to maintain the
approximate arc.

If a crosswind is drifting the aviator away from the facility, turn the aircraft until the bearing pointer is ahead of
the wingtip reference. If a crosswind is drifting the aviator toward the facility, turn until the bearing is behind the
wingtip.

As a guide in making range corrections, correct about 10º to 20º for each ½-mile deviation from the desired
arc. For example, in no-wind conditions if the aviator is ½ to 1 mile outside of the arc and the bearing pointer is
on the wingtip reference, turn the aircraft 20º toward the facility to return to the arc.

Maintain aircraft position within 2 nautical miles of the desired DME arc.

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Chapter 7

Figure 7-15. Flying a distance measuring equipment arc

AREA NAVIGATION
DESCRIPTION
7-129. RNAV equipment includes VOR/DME, TACAN, VORTAC, GPS, and INS. RNAV equipment is
capable of computing aircraft position, actual track, and ground speed and then presenting meaningful
information to the aviator. This information may be in the form of distance, cross-track error, and time
estimates relative to the selected track or WP. In addition, RNAV equipment installations must be
approved for use under IFR. The appropriate aircraft operator’s manual must always be consulted to
determine what equipment is installed, approved operations, and details of how to use the equipment. Some
aircraft may have equipment allowing input from more than one RNAV source, thereby providing a very
accurate and reliable navigation source.

AREA NAVIGATION COMPUTATION

7-130. VOR RNAV is based on information generated by present VORTAC or VOR/DME systems to
create a WP using an airborne computer. As shown in Figure 7-16, page 7-31, the value of side A is the
measured DME distance to the VOR/DME. The value of Side B is the distance from the VOR/DME to the
WP angle 1 (VOR radial or bearing from the VORTAC to the WP). The bearing from the VOR/DME to
the aircraft, angle 2, is measured by the VOR receiver. The airborne computer continuously compares
angles 1 and 2 and determines angle 3 and side C, which is the distance in nautical miles and magnetic
course from the aircraft to the WP. Guidance information is presented on the cockpit display.

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 Navigation Aids

Figure 7-16. Area navigation computation

COMPONENTS
7-131. Although RNAV cockpit instrument displays vary among manufacturers, most are connected to
the aircraft CDI with a switch or knob to select VOR or RNAV guidance. The display includes WP,
frequency, mode in use, WP radial and distance, DME distance, ground speed, and time to station. Most
VOR/DME RNAV systems have the following airborne controls:
• Off/on/volume control to select the frequency of the VOR/DME station to be used.
• MODE select switch used to select VOR/DME mode with one of the following:
• Angular course width deviation (standard VOR operation).
• Linear cross-track deviation as standard (±5 nautical miles full-scale CDI).
• RNAV mode with direct to WP with linear cross-track deviation of ±5 nautical miles.
• RNAV/APPR (approach mode) with linear deviation of ±1.25 nautical miles as full-scale CDI
deflection.
• WP selection control, which allows selection of any WP in storage; some units allow the storage
of more than one WP.
• Data input controls, which allow user input of WP number or identification (IDENT), VOR or
LOC frequency, WP radial, and distance.
7-132. DME ground-speed readout in the VOR/DME mode is accurate only when the VOR/DME is
tracking directly to or from the station. In RNAV mode, the DME ground-speed readout is accurate on any
track.

FUNCTION
7-133. Advantages of the VOR/DME RNAV system stem from the ability of the airborne computer to
locate a WP wherever convenient, as long as the aircraft is within reception range of both a nearby VOR
and DME facility. A series of these WPs make up an RNAV route. In addition to the published routes, a
random RNAV route may be flown under IFR if approved by ATC. To either fly a route or to execute an
approach under IFR, the RNAV equipment installed in the aircraft must be approved for the appropriate
IFR operations.
7-134. In vertical NAV mode, vertical as well as horizontal guidance is provided in some installations. A
WP is selected where the descent begins and another where the descent ends. The RNAV equipment

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computes rate of descent relative to ground speed and, on some installations, displays vertical guidance
information on the glide-slope indicator. When using RNAV during an instrument approach, the aviator
must keep in mind that the vertical guidance information provided is not part of the nonprecision approach.
Published nonprecision approach altitudes must be observed and complied with, unless otherwise directed
by ATC. To fly to a WP using RNAV, observe the procedure described in the following example and
illustrated in Figure 7-17.

Aircraft/VORTAC/WP Relationship Example

Select the VOR/DME frequency, the RNAV mode, and the radial of the VOR that passes through the WP (225
degrees). Select the distance from the DME to the WP chosen (12NM). Check and confirm all inputs and that
the CDI needle is centered with the TO indicator showing. To keep the CDI needle centered, maneuver the
aircraft to fly the indicated heading ± wind correction. The CDI needle indicates distance off course of 1
nautical mile per dot; DME readout indicates distance (NM) from the WP; ground speed reads closing speed
(knots) to the WP; and time to station (TTS) reads time to the WP.

Figure 7-17. Aircraft/very (high frequency) omnidirectional radio range tactical air navigation
aid/waypoint relationship

ERRORS
7-135. The limitation of the RNAV system is the reception volume. Published approaches have been
tested to ensure that reception volume is not a problem. Descents/approaches to airports distant from the
VOR/DME facility may not be possible because during the approach, the aircraft may descend below the
reception altitude of the facility at that distance.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM NAVIGATION

7-136. GPS equipment used while operating under IFR must meet the standards set forth in Technical
Standard Order (TSO) C-129 (or equivalent) and the airworthiness installation requirements and be
approved for that type of IFR operation and operated according to the appropriate aircraft operator’s
manual.
7-137. An updatable GPS database that supports the appropriate operations (en route, terminal, and
instrument approaches) is required when the aircraft is operating under IFR. The aircraft GPS navigation

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database contains WPs from geographic areas where GPS navigation has been approved for IFR
operations. The aviator selects the desired WPs from the database and may add user-defined WPs for the
flight.
7-138. Equipment approved according to TSO C-115a, VFR, and hand-held GPS systems do not meet the
requirements of TSO C-129 and are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a
principal instrument flight reference. During IFR operations, these units (TSO C-115a) may only be
considered as an aid to situational awareness (SA).
7-139. Using the calculated range and position information supplied by the satellite, the GPS
receiver/processor mathematically determines its position by triangulation from several satellites. The GPS
receiver needs at least four satellites to yield a three-dimensional position (latitude, longitude, and altitude)
and time solution. The GPS receiver computes navigational values (such as distance and bearing to a WP
and ground speed) by using the aircraft’s known latitude/longitude and referencing these to a database built
into the receiver.
7-140. The GPS receiver verifies the integrity (usability) of the signals received from the GPS
constellation through RAIM to determine if a satellite is providing corrupted information. RAIM needs a
minimum of five satellites in view (or four satellites and a barometric altimeter barometrically aiding), to
detect an integrity anomaly. For receivers capable of doing so, RAIM needs six satellites in view (or five
satellites with barometrically aiding) to isolate and remove a corrupt satellite signal from the navigation
solution.
7-141. Generally there are two types of RAIM messages. One type indicates that there are not enough
satellites available to provide RAIM, and another type indicates that the RAIM has detected a potential
error exceeding the limit for the current phase of flight. Without RAIM capability, the aviator has no
assurance of the accuracy of GPS position.
7-142. Aircraft using approved GPS navigation equipment during IFR conditions may be required to have
an alternate means of navigation. Alternate means of navigation are required when aircraft are operating
IFR during the following: domestic en route phase, terminal operations, and certain IAPs. The avionics
necessary to receive all ground-based facilities appropriate for the route to the destination airport and any
required alternate airport must be installed and operational. Ground-based facilities necessary for these
routes must also be operational. Active monitoring of alternative navigation equipment is not required if
the GPS receiver uses RAIM for integrity monitoring. Active monitoring of an alternate means of
navigation is required when the RAIM capability of the GPS equipment is lost. In situations where the loss
of RAIM capability is predicted, the flight must rely on other approved equipment or delay departure or the
flight may be cancelled.

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES FLIGHT

7-143. Preflight preparations ensure that the GPS is properly installed and certified with a current
database for the type of operation. The GPS operation must be conducted according to the appropriate
aircraft operator’s manual. Aviators must be thoroughly familiar with the particular GPS equipment
installed in the aircraft.
7-144. Required preflight preparations include checking NOTAMs relating to the IFR flight when the
aviator is using GPS as a supplemental method of navigation. GPS satellite outages are issued as GPS
NOTAMs, both domestically and internationally. Aviators may obtain GPS RAIM availability information
for an airport by specifically requesting GPS aeronautical information from an AFSS during preflight
briefings. GPS RAIM aeronautical information can be obtained for a three-hour period: the ETA and one
hour before to one hour after the ETA hour or a 24-hour timeframe for a specific airport. FAA briefers
provide RAIM information for a period of one hour before to one hour after the ETA, unless a specific
timeframe is requested by the aviator. Aviators should request a RAIM prediction from the departure
airport when departing on a published GPS departure procedure. Some GPS receivers can predict RAIM
availability. The aviator ensures that the required underlying ground-based navigation facilities, related
aircraft equipment appropriate to the route of flight, terminal operations, instrument approaches for the

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destination, and alternate airports/heliports are operational for the ETA. If the required ground-based
facilities and equipment are not available, the flight should be rerouted, rescheduled, or canceled or
conducted under VFR.
7-145. Except for programming and retrieving information from the GPS receiver, planning the flight is
accomplished in a manner similar to that using conventional NAVAIDs. Departure WP, DP, route, STAR,
desired approach, IAF, and destination airport are entered into the GPS receiver according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. During preflight, additional information may be entered for functions such as
ETA, fuel planning, and winds aloft.
7-146. When the GPS receiver is turned on, an internal process of test and initialization is started. When
the receiver is initialized, the user develops the route by selecting a WP or series of WPs, verifies the data,
and selects the active flight plan. This procedure varies widely among the manufacturer’s receivers. GPS is
a complex system, offering little standardization between receiver models. The aviator is responsible for
being familiar with the operation of the aircraft equipment that he or she is using.
7-147. The GPS receiver provides navigational values such as track, bearing, ground speed, and distance.
These are computed from the aircraft’s present latitude and longitude to the location of the next WP.
Course guidance is provided between WPs. The aviator has the advantage of knowing the aircraft’s actual
track over the ground. As long as track and bearing to the WP are matched up (by selecting the correct
aircraft heading), the aircraft is going directly to the WP.

SUBSTITUTION
7-148. Aircraft GPS systems, certified for IFR en route phase and terminal operations, may be used as a
substitute for ADF, VOR, and DME receivers during the following operations within the United States
NAS:
• Determining the aircraft position over a DME fix, which includes en route operations at and
above 24,000 feet MSL (FL240) during GPS navigation.
• Flying a DME arc.
• Navigating TO or FROM the NDB/compass locator or VOR.
• Determining the aircraft position over the NDB/compass locator or VOR.
• Determining the aircraft position over a fix defined by the NDB/compass locator bearing
crossing a VOR/LOC course.
• Holding over the NDB/compass locator or VOR.
7-149. The following restrictions apply when the aviator uses GPS as a substitute for ADF, VOR, or
DME:
• Equipment must be installed according to appropriate airworthiness installation requirements
and operated within the provisions of the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual.
• The required integrity for these operations must be provided by at least en route RAIM or
equivalent.
• WPs, fixes, intersections, and facility locations to be used for these operations must be retrieved
from the GPS airborne database, which must be current; if the required positions cannot be
retrieved from the airborne database, the substitution of GPS for ADF, VOR, and/or DME is not
authorized.
• Procedures must be established for RAIM outages or predicted outages; these outages may
require the flight to rely on other approved equipment or the aircraft to be equipped with
operational NDB/ADF, VOR, and/or DME receivers. Otherwise, the flight must be rerouted,
delayed, or canceled or conducted VFR.
• The course deviation bar or indicator must be set to terminal sensitivity (normally 1 or 1-1/4
nautical miles) during GPS course guidance tracking in the terminal area.

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• A non-GPS approach procedure must exist at the alternate airport when one is required; if the
non-GPS approaches on which the aviator must rely require DME, VOR, or ADF, the aircraft
must be equipped with DME, VOR, or ADF avionics, as appropriate.
• Charted requirements for ADF, VOR, and/or DME can be met using GPS, except for use as the
principal instrument approach navigation source.
7-150. To determine the aircraft position over a DME fix, verify that aircraft GPS system integrity
monitoring is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory integrity. If the fix is identified by a five-letter
name contained in the GPS airborne database, select either the named fix as the active GPS WP or facility
establishing the DME fix as the active GPS WP. When the aviator uses a facility as the active WP, the only
acceptable facility is the DME facility charted as the one used to establish the DME fix. If this facility is
not in the airborne database, the aviator is not authorized to use that facility WP for this operation. If the
fix is identified by a five-letter name not contained in the GPS airborne database or if the fix is not named,
select the facility establishing the DME fix or another named DME fix as the active GPS WP. If selecting
the named fix as the active GPS WP, the aviator is over the fix when the GPS indicates arrival at the active
WP. If selecting the DME providing facility as the active GPS WP, the aviator is over the fix when the
GPS distance from the active WP equals the charted DME value and the aircraft is on the appropriate
bearing or course.
7-151. To fly a DME arc, verify that aircraft GPS system integrity monitoring is functioning properly and
indicates satisfactory integrity. Select from the airborne database the facility providing the DME arc as the
active GPS WP. The only acceptable facility is the DME facility on which the arc is based. If this facility is
not in the airborne database, the aviator is not authorized to perform this operation. Maintain position on
the arc by reference to the GPS distance, instead of DME readout.
7-152. To navigate TO or FROM the NDB/compass locator or VOR, verify that aircraft GPS system
integrity monitoring is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory integrity. Select the NDB/compass
locator or VOR facility from the airborne database as the active WP. If the chart depicts the compass
locator collocated with a fix of the same name, use of that fix as the active WP in place of the compass
locator facility is authorized. Select and navigate on the appropriate course to or from the active WP.
7-153. To determine the aircraft position over the NDB/compass locator or VOR, verify that aircraft GPS
system integrity monitoring is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory integrity. Select the
NDB/compass locator or VOR facility from the airborne database. When the aviator uses the
NDB/compass locator or VOR, that facility must be charted and in the airborne database. If this facility is
not in the airborne database, the aviator is not authorized to use a facility WP for this operation. The
aviator is over the NDB/compass locator or VOR when the GPS system indicates he or she is at the active
WP. To determine the aircraft position over a fix made up of the NDB/compass locator bearing crossing a
VOR/ LOC course, verify that aircraft GPS integrity monitoring is functioning properly and indicates
satisfactory integrity.
7-154. A fix made up by crossing an NDB and/or a compass locator bearing is identified by a five-letter
fix name. The aviator may select the named fix or NDB/compass locator facility providing the crossing
bearing to establish the fix as the active GPS WP. When using the NDB/compass locator, that facility must
be charted and in the airborne database. If this facility is not in the airborne database, the aviator is not
authorized to use a facility WP for this operation. If selecting the named fix as the active GPS WP, the
aviator is over the fix when the GPS system indicates that he or she is at the WP and the aircraft is on the
prescribed track from the non-GPS navigation source. If selecting the NDB/compass locator facility as the
active GPS WP, the aviator is over the fix when the GPS bearing to the active WP is the same as the
charted NDB/compass locator bearing for the fix when flying the prescribed track from the non-GPS
navigation source.
7-155. To hold over the NDB/compass locator or VOR, verify that aircraft GPS system integrity
monitoring is functioning properly and indicates satisfactory integrity. Select the NDB/compass locator or
VOR facility from the airborne database as the active WP. When using a facility as the active WP, the only
acceptable facility is the NDB/compass locator or VOR facility that is charted. If this facility is not in the
airborne database, the aviator is not authorized to use a facility WP for this operation. Select

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nonsequencing (HOLD or OBS) mode and the appropriate course according to the appropriate aircraft
operator’s manual. Hold using the GPS according to the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual.

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 Chapter 8
Airspace

This chapter provides a general overview of airspace systems. AR 95-1, AIM,

Instrument Flying Handbook, Instrument Procedures Handbook, and other
FAA/International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) publications and Web sites
provide specific and detailed information.

SECTION I – NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

8-1. The National Airspace System (NAS) is the
network of U.S. airspace: air navigation facilities, Contents
equipment, services, airports, landing areas,
Section I – National Airspace System ...... 8-1
aeronautical charts, rules, regulations, procedures,
Section II – International Civil Aviation
technical information, manpower, information
Organization ........................................... 8-7
and/or services, and material. Included are system
components shared jointly with the military. The
system’s present configuration is a reflection of the technological advances involving the speed and
altitude capability of jet aircraft, as well as the complexity of microchip and satellite-based navigation
equipment. To conform to international aviation standards, the U.S. adopted the primary elements of the
classification system developed by ICAO.

AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION
8-2. Airspace classification in the United States is as designated in Figure 8-1, page 8-2. Refer to AR 95­
1 for approved cloud clearance and flight visibility for Army aviators.

CLASS A
8-3. Generally, Class A airspace is airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600, including
the airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and
Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all pilots must operate their aircraft under IFR.

CLASS B
8-4. Generally, Class B airspace is airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation’s
busiest airports in terms of airport operations or number of passengers. The configuration of each Class B
airspace area is individually tailored and consists of a surface area and two or more layers (some Class B
airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding cakes) and is designed to contain all published instrument
procedures, once an aircraft enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in
the area, and all aircraft that are cleared receive separation services within the airspace.

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Chapter 8

Figure 8-1. Airspace classification

CLASS C
8-5. Generally, Class C airspace is airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar
approach control, and have a certain number of IFR operations or passengers. Although the configuration
of each Class C area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of a surface area with a 5 nautical
mile radius, an outer circle with a 10 nautical mile radius that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above
the airport elevation, and an outer area. Each person must establish two-way radio communications with

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 Airspace

the ATC facility providing air traffic services before entering the airspace and thereafter maintain those
communications while within the airspace.

CLASS D
8-6. Generally, Class D airspace is airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower. The configuration of
each Class D airspace area is individually tailored, and when instrument procedures are published, the
airspace will normally be designed to contain the procedures. Arrival extensions for IAPs may be Class D
or Class E airspace. Unless otherwise authorized, each person must establish two-way radio
communications with the ATC facility providing air traffic services before entering the airspace and,
thereafter, maintain those communications while in the airspace.

CLASS E
8-7. Generally, if not classified as A, B, C, or D airspace, and it is controlled airspace, then it is Class E.
Class E airspace extends upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or
adjacent controlled airspace. When designated as a surface area, the airspace will be configured to contain
all instrument procedures. Also in this class are Federal airways, airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200
feet AGL used to make the transition to and from the terminal or en route environment and en route
domestic and offshore airspace areas designated below 18,000 feet MSL. Unless designated at a lower
altitude, Class E airspace begins at 14,500 MSL over the United States, including that airspace overlying
the waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska, up to but not
including 18,000 feet MSL and the airspace above FL600.

CLASS G
8-8. Class G airspace is airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E. Class G airspace is essentially
uncontrolled by ATC except when associated with a temporary control tower.

SPECIAL-USE AIRSPACE
8-9. Special-use airspace is the designation for airspace in which certain activities must be confined or
where limitations may be imposed on aircraft operations that are not part of those activities. Certain
special-use airspace areas can create limitations on the mixed use of airspace. The special-use airspace
depicted on instrument charts includes the area name or number, effective altitude, time and weather
conditions of operation, the controlling agency, and the chart panel location. On NACO en route charts,
this information is available on the panel opposite the air/ground (A/G) voice communications.

PROHIBITED AREA
8-10. Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined dimensions within which the flight of aircraft is
prohibited. Such areas are established for security or other reasons associated with national welfare. These
areas are published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts. The area is charted as a
“P” with a number (such as P-123). As the name implies, flight through this airspace is not permitted.

RESTRICTED AREA
8-11. Restricted areas are areas where operations are hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft and contain
airspace within which the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions. Activities
within these areas must be confined because of either their nature or limitations imposed upon aircraft
operations that are not a part of those activities, or both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual,
often invisible, hazards to aircraft (artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles). IFR flights may be
authorized to transit the airspace and are routed accordingly. Penetration of restricted areas without
authorization from the using or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its

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occupants. ATC facilities apply the following procedures when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance
(including those cleared by ATC to maintain VFR-On-Top) via a route that lies within joint-use restricted
airspace:
• If the restricted area is not active and has been released to the FAA, the ATC facility will allow
the aircraft to operate in the restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance to do so.
• If the restricted area is active and has not been released to the FAA, the ATC facility will issue a
clearance that will ensure that the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace.
8-12. Restricted areas are charted with an “R” followed by a number (such as R-5701) and are depicted on
the en route chart appropriate for use at the altitude or FL being flown.

WARNING AREA
8-13. Warning areas are similar in nature to restricted areas; however, the U.S. government does not have
sole jurisdiction over the airspace. A warning area is airspace of defined dimensions, extending from 3
nautical miles outward from the coast of the United States, containing activity that may be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of such areas is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential
danger. A warning area may be located over domestic or international waters or both. The airspace is
designated with a “W” and a number (such as W-123).

MILITARY OPERATIONS AREA

8-14. Military operations areas (MOAs) consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral limits established
for the purpose of separating certain military training activities from IFR traffic. Whenever an MOA is
being used, nonparticipating IFR traffic may be cleared through an MOA if IFR separation can be provided
by ATC. Otherwise, ATC will reroute or restrict nonparticipating IFR traffic. MOAs are depicted on
sectional, VFR terminal area, and en route low-altitude charts and are named rather than numbered
(Boardman MOA).

ALERT AREA
8-15. Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts with an “A” and a number (A-123) to inform
nonparticipating aviators of areas that may contain a high volume of aviator training or an unusual type of
aerial activity. Aviators should exercise caution in alert areas. All activity within an alert area shall be
conducted according to regulations, without waiver, and aviators of participating aircraft, as well as
aviators transiting the area, shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance.

CONTROLLED FIRING AREA

8-16. Controlled firing areas (CFAs) contain activities that, if not conducted in a controlled environment,
could be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature of the CFA, as compared to
other special-use airspace, is that its activities are suspended immediately when spotter aircraft, radar, or
ground lookout positions indicate that an aircraft might be approaching the area. There is no need to chart
CFAs because they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.

OTHER AIRSPACE
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTE
8-17. Military training routes (MTRs) are used by military aircraft to maintain proficiency in tactical
flying; see Area Planning/1B (AP/1B). These routes are usually established below 10,000 feet MSL for
operations at speeds in excess of 250 knots. Some route segments may be defined at higher altitudes for
purposes of route continuity. Routes are identified as IR for IFR and VR for VFR, followed by a number.
MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet AGL are identified by four number characters (IR1206, VR1207).
MTRs that include one or more segments above 1,500 feet AGL are identified by three-number characters

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 Airspace

(IR206, VR207.). IFR low-altitude en route charts depict all IR and VR routes that accommodate
operations above 1,500 feet AGL. IR routes are conducted according to IFR, regardless of weather
conditions. Refer to DOD FLIP AP/1B.

TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTION

8-18. Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) are put into effect when traffic in the airspace would endanger
or hamper air or ground activities in the designated area. For example, a forest fire, chemical accident,
flood, or disaster-relief effort could warrant a TFR, which would be issued as a NOTAM.

NATIONAL SECURITY AREA

8-19. National security areas (NSAs) consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions
established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities.
Flight in NSAs may be temporarily prohibited by regulation under the provisions of 14 CFR, part 99, and
prohibitions will be disseminated via NOTAM.

FEDERAL AIRWAY
8-20. The primary NAVAID for routing aircraft operating under IFR is the Federal Airways System. Each
Federal airway is based on a centerline that extends from one NAVAID or intersection to another
NAVAID specified for that airway. A Federal airway includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines 4
nautical miles to each side of the centerline. As in all instrument flight, courses are magnetic and distances
are in nautical miles. The airspace of a Federal airway has a floor of 1,200 feet AGL, unless otherwise
specified. A Federal airway does not include the airspace of a prohibited area.

VICTOR AIRWAY
8-21. Victor airways include the airspace extending from 1,200 feet AGL up to, but not including, 18,000
feet MSL. The airways are designated on sectional and IFR low-altitude en route charts with the letter “V,”
followed by a number (such as V198). Typically, victor airways are given odd numbers when oriented
north/south and even numbers when oriented east/west. If more than one airway coincides on a route
segment, the numbers are listed serially (such as V70-194) (Figure 8-2, page 8-6).

JET ROUTE
8-22. Jet routes exist only in Class A airspace, from 18,000 feet MSL to FL450, and are depicted on
high-altitude en route charts. The letter “J” precedes a number to label the airway (J12).

OTHER ROUTING
8-23. The latest version of AC 90-91, National Route Program, provides guidance to users of the NAS for
participation in the National Route Program (NRP). All flights operating at or above FL290 within the
continental United States are eligible to participate in the NRP, the primary purpose of which is to allow
operators to plan minimum time/cost routes that may be off the prescribed route structure.
8-24. In addition, international flights to destinations within the United States are eligible to participate in
the NRP within specific guidelines and filing requirements. NRP aircraft are not subject to route-limiting
restrictions (published preferred IFR routes) beyond a 200 nautical mile radius of their point of departure
or destination.

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Chapter 8

Figure 8-2. Victor airways and charted information

Preferred Instrument Flight Rules Route

8-25. Preferred IFR routes have been established between major terminals to guide pilots in planning their
routes of flight, minimizing route changes, and aiding in the orderly management of air traffic on Federal
airways. Low- and high-altitude preferred routes are located at the following Web site,

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http://www.fly.faa.gov/Products/Coded_Departure_Routes/NFDC_Preferred_Routes_Database/nfdc_prefe
rred_routes_database.html. To use a preferred route, reference the departure and arrival airports; if a
routing exists for the flight, airway instructions will be listed.

Tower En Route Control

8-26. Tower en route control (TEC) is an ATC program that uses overlapping approach control radar
services to provide IFR clearances. By using TEC, the aviator is routed by airport control towers. Some
advantages include abbreviated filing procedures, fewer delays, and reduced traffic separation
requirements. TEC depends on the ATC’s workload, and the procedure varies among locales.

SECTION II – INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION

8-27. The ICAO is composed of more than 180 member nations and is a part of the United Nations. Unlike
the FAA, whose regulations are directive, ICAO is basically an advisory organization that jointly agrees on
procedural criteria. These criteria are published in a document called Procedures for Air Navigation
Services-Aircraft Operations (PANS-OPS). Individual ICAO member nations may then comply with all, a
part, or none of the criteria published in PANS-OPS. For example, the United States is an ICAO member
nation but uses none of the PANS-OPS procedures—instead using the Federal Aviation Regulations
(FARs) for procedural guidance. A specific nation’s adoption of ICAO criteria makes that criteria directive
in that country. When adopted by a participating nation, these procedures are intended to be strictly
adhered to by flight crews to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of safety in flight operations. The
information provided in this chapter is based on the standards of PANS-OPS.

SAFETY
8-28. Even more so than in the United States, international flying requires good judgment on the part of
the aviator. The Army expects and encourages the application of good, sound judgment. The global
mission of the Army requires aviators to operate in countries without a well-developed aviation system or
into airfields where the ICAO rules have been ignored, replaced, or poorly applied. The pilot-in-command
(PC) must necessarily be the final judge of what is safe and prudent for any given mission.

APPLICABILITY
8-29. Procedures described in this chapter apply only in airspace not under FAA control. These procedures
are ICAO standard procedures and may be modified by each country.

CURRENT INFORMATION AND PROCEDURES

8-30. Changes to ICAO standard procedures can be numerous and may even vary from airfield to airfield
within a country. Area planning FLIP generally contains a comprehensive consolidation of procedural
requirements, but a thorough review of all applicable preflight planning sources is essential to ensuring
compliance with ICAO, host-nation, and Army requirements.

TERMINAL INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES

8-31. There are many different kinds of approaches published in the DOD FLIP books for regions outside
of the United States. Some approaches are designed using U.S. TERPS at overseas bases. Other approaches
are designed under the civil PANS-OPS criteria while other procedures use host-nation criteria that are
different from PANS-OPS. Aircraft executing maneuvers other than those intended by the host-nation
approach design could exceed the boundaries of the protected airspace or may cause overflight of
unauthorized areas. All ICAO procedures must be flown as depicted.

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Chapter 8

COMPLIANCE
8-32. When operating in airspace not under FAA control, aviators will apply ICAO procedures. Local
procedures may have to be developed for operations in different theaters, airfields, or host nations not
under ICAO or FAA jurisdiction.

DEFINITIONS
PROCEDURES FOR AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES-AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
8-33. PANS-OPS is a two-part document. The first volume is for aviators and is similar to the FAA’s
AIM. The second volume contains the ICAO TERPS. The document is intended for use by international
civilian aviation, not the military. A number of editions of PANS-OPS have been published since the
creation of the ICAO, each with significant changes in the details of instrument approach procedure design.
Therefore, approaches in different parts of the world have been designed with entirely different rules.

AIRCRAFT CATEGORIES
8-34. Aircraft approach categories play a much larger role in the design of ICAO instrument procedures
than they do in the United States. In addition to affecting final approach minimums, PANS-OPS references
maximum speeds by category for such operations as holding, departures, and the intermediate segments of
instrument approaches. To make matters even more confusing, these additional category restrictions
specify speeds that are completely different from the familiar approach speeds on final. The appropriate
PANS-OPS category speeds appear in table 8-1, page 8-10, and table 8-2, page 8-15.

TRACK
8-35. Track is the projection on the surface of the earth of the path of an aircraft, the direction of which
path at any point is usually expressed in degrees from North. The aviator should apply known wind drift to
maintain the ground path.

BANK ANGLE
8-36. Bank angles for ICAO procedures are based on an average achieved bank angle of 25 degrees or the
bank angle giving a rate of turn of 3 degrees per second, whichever is less.

ESTABLISHED ON COURSE
8-37. The ICAO defines established on course as being within half full scale deflection for an ILS or
VOR/TACAN and within ± 5 degrees of the required bearing for the NDB. Aviators should not consider
their aircraft established on course until within these limits. ICAO obstacle clearance surfaces assume that
the aviator does not normally deviate from the centerline more than one-half scale deflection after being
established on track. Although there is a range of acceptable variation, make every attempt to fly the
aircraft on the course centerline and on the glide path. Allowing a more than half-scale deflection (or a
more than half-scale fly-up deflection on glide slope), combined with other system tolerances, could place
aircraft near the edge or bottom of the protected airspace where loss of protection from obstacles can occur.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
SCREEN HEIGHTS
8-38. Accurately determining screen height used for a particular DP may be difficult or impossible. For
PANS-OPS, the origin of the obstacle identification surface (OIS) begins at 16 feet (5 meters) above the
departure end of the runway (DER). Use this for a default planning reference unless it is determined that a

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different screen height applies. Use caution, be conservative, and make use of all available resources when
attempting to determine the actual screen height.

CLIMB GRADIENT
8-39. ICAO gradients are the same as the FAA, but they are expressed as percent gradients instead of
feet/nautical miles. ICAO obstacle clearance during departures is based on a 2.5 percent gradient obstacle
clearance (152 feet/nautical miles) and an increasing 0.8 percent obstacle clearance (48 feet/nautical miles).
This minimum climb gradient equates to 3.3 percent (200 feet/nautical miles). Minimum climb gradients
exceeding 3.3 percent will be specified to an altitude/height, after which the 3.3 percent will be used.

BASIC RULES FOR ALL DEPARTURES

8-40. PANS-OPS uses the same initial departure concept as the U.S. TERPS. Unless the procedure
specifies otherwise, the aviator must climb on runway heading at a minimum of 200 feet/nautical miles (3.3
percent) until reaching 400 feet above the DER. Continue to climb at a minimum of 200 feet/nautical miles
until reaching a safe en route altitude.

OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURES
8-41. The PANS-OPS omnidirectional departure is somewhat similar to the FAA’s diverse departure; the
departure procedure is without any track guidance provided. There are some very important differences,
however. An omnidirectional departure may be published although obstacles penetrate the 40:1 OIS. If this
is the case, PANS-OPS gives the departure designer a number of ways to publish departure restrictions.
These restrictions may be published singly or in any combination.

Standard Case
8-42. Where no obstacles penetrate the 40:1 OIS, then no departure restrictions will be published. Upon
reaching 400 feet above DER, the aviator may turn in any direction.

Specified Turn Altitude

8-43. The procedure may specify a 3.3 percent climb to an altitude where a safe omnidirectional turn can
be made.

Specified Climb Gradient

8-44. The procedure may specify a minimum climb gradient of more than 3.3 percent to an altitude before
turns are permitted.

Sector Departure
8-45. The procedure may identify sectors for which either a minimum turn altitude or a minimum climb
gradient is specified. For example, climb straight ahead to 2,000 feet before commencing a turn to the
east/sector 180 degrees to 270 degrees.

DEPARTURES WITH TRACK GUIDANCE

8-46. PANS-OPS uses the term standard instrument departure (SID) to refer to departures using track
guidance. Minimum climb gradients may apply. Two basic types are straight and turning.

Straight Departures
8-47. Whenever possible, a straight departure will be specified. A departure is considered straight if the
track is aligned within 15 degrees of the runway centerline.

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Chapter 8

Turning Departures
8-48. A turning departure may be constructed where a route requires a turn of more than 15 degrees. Turns
may be specified at an altitude, a fix, or a facility. If an obstacle prohibits turning before reaching the DER,
an earlier turning point or a minimum turning altitude/height will be specified. When necessary, the aviator
will turn to a heading to intercept a specified radial/bearing. The turning departure procedure will specify
the turning point, the track to be made, and the radial/bearing to be intercepted.

Maximum Speed Limits

8-49. Maximum speeds may be published by category or by a note. For example, these procedures may be
annotated, “Departure limited to CAT B Aircraft” or “Departure turn limited to 165 KIAS maximum.”
Aviators must comply with the speed limit published on the departure to remain within protected airspace.
If a higher speed is required, request an alternate DP.

Aircraft Categories
8-50. If the departure is limited to specific aircraft categories, table 8-1 provides the applicable speeds.

Table 8-1. Aircraft category and maximum airspeed

Category Maximum Airspeed (KIAS)

A 120
B 165
C 265
D 290
E 300

APPROACH PROCEDURES
PROCEDURAL TRACKS
8-51. Procedural track approaches are the most common ways of making the transition from the en route
structure. These approaches are often much more complicated than a comparable United States approach,
and may include multiple NAVAIDs, fixes, and course changes.

REVERSAL AND RACETRACK PROCEDURES

8-52. If the instrument approach cannot be designed as a procedural track arrival, then a reversal procedure
or a racetrack or a holding pattern is required.

Reversal Procedure
8-53. ICAO reversal procedures are similar in concept to FAA procedure turns. The ICAO recognizes
three methods of performing a reversal procedure, each with its own airspace characteristics:
• The 45-degree/180-degree procedure turn.
• The 80-degree/260-degree procedure turn.
• The base turn.
8-54. Entry is restricted to a specific direction or sector. To remain within the airspace provided requires
strict adherence to the directions and timing specified. The protected airspace for reversal procedures does
not permit a racetrack or holding maneuver to be conducted unless so specified. An aviator may not enter
an ICAO procedure turn using the holding technique described in Chapter 10. Instead, refer to the
following entry procedures.

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 Airspace

The 45-Degree/180-Degree Procedure Turn

8-55. This procedure starts at a facility or fix and consists of the following:
• A straight leg with track guidance (may be timed or limited by a radial or DME distance).
• A 45-degree turn.
• A straight leg without track guidance (timed one minute from the start of the turn for categories
A and B aircraft and 1 minute 15 seconds from the start of the turn for categories C, D, and E
aircraft).
• Turning 180 degrees in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track.
8-56. Adjust time or distance on the outbound track to ensure that the reversal is initiated at a point
specified on the IAP, if so depicted, or the maneuver is completed within the specified “remain within”
distance (Figure 8-3).

Figure 8-3. The 45-degree/180-degree procedure turn

The 80-Degree/260-Degree Procedure Turn

8-57. This procedure (Figure 8-4, page 8-12) starts at a facility or fix and consists of—
• A straight leg with track guidance (may be timed or limited by a radial or DME distance).
• An 80-degree turn.
• Turning 260 degrees in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track.
8-58. Adjust time or distance on the outbound track to ensure that the reversal is initiated at a point
specified on the IAP, if so depicted, or the maneuver is completed within the specified “remain within”
distance.

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Chapter 8

Figure 8-4. The 80-degree/260-degree procedure turn

The Base Turn

8-59. This procedure consists of intercepting and maintaining a specified outbound track, timing from the
facility or proceeding to a specified fix, followed by a turn to intercept the inbound track (Figure 8-5). The
base turn procedure is not optional. An aviator may not fly one of the procedure turns described above
instead of the depicted base turn. More than one track may be depicted, depending on the aircraft category.

Figure 8-5. Base turn

Reversal Procedure Entry

The 30-Degree Entry Sector

8-60. PANS-OPS specifies this entry sector because, unlike in the United States, the course reversal
protected airspace may not include any airspace except on the outbound side of the procedure turn fix. In
the United States, protected airspace includes a large entry zone surrounding fix (Figure 8-6, page 8-13).

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 Airspace

Figure 8-6. Comparison of Federal Aviation Administration and International Civil Aviation
Organization protected airspace for a procedure turn

8-61. Unless the procedure specifies particular entry restrictions, the 45-degree/180-degree,
80-degree/260-degree, and base turn reversal procedures must be entered from a track within ± 30 degrees
of the outbound reversal track (Figure 8-7, page 8-14). There is a special rule for base turns; for base turns
where the ± 30-degree entry sector does not include the reciprocal of the inbound track, the entry sector is
expanded to include the reciprocal (Figure 8-8, page 8-14). If the aircraft’s arrival track is not within the
entry sector—
• Comply with the published entry restrictions or arrival routing.
• Enter holding before the reversal procedure if a suitable arrival holding pattern is published.
• Use good judgment while maneuvering the aircraft into the entry sector if no published routing
or suitable holding pattern is available.

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Chapter 8

Figure 8-7. Procedure turn entry

Figure 8-8. Base turn entry

Arriving From Outside the Entry Sector

8-62. There is often some form of published arrival routing into the course reversal IAF such as a STAR, a
feeder routing, or an arrival airway. This arrival routing may not fall into the 30-degree entry sector. Such
arrival routes will be blended into the reversal approach, and protected airspace is provided to allow the
aviator to turn onto the outbound reversal track. Aviators need not request maneuvering airspace to
perform an alignment maneuver. Such requests are often met with confusion by ATC. Aviators should
remain within protected airspace on the published arrival routing whether maneuvering happens to align
the aircraft with the 30-degree entry sector.

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 Airspace

8-63. On most ICAO course reversals, a holding pattern is published at or near the IAF to accommodate
arrivals from outside the 30-degree sector and not on a published arrival routing. PANS-OPS directs
aviators arriving from outside the entry sector to enter holding before the reversal procedure. In most cases,
the holding pattern will align the aircraft for the approach.
8-64. If there is no suitable holding pattern, danger arises when the aviator attempts to perform the course
reversal upon arriving into the IAF from a direction not anticipated by the approach designer. Sometimes
there is no holding pattern published for alignment or there is a holding pattern that does not turn into the
entry sector. In this case, the aviator will need to maneuver into the entry sector somehow. The aviator
must understand the criticality of how small the protected airspace is, especially when compared to an FAA
procedure turn. An aviator may be operating completely outside of protected airspace while proceeding to
the IAF, and terrain and obstacle clearance may be totally up to aviator judgment. Use good judgment,
consider the published minimum safe/sector altitudes, and do not rely solely on ATC to keep safe. Begin
timing to comply with published times, or remain within distances when outbound abeam the facility or fix.
If the abeam position cannot be determined while in a turn, start timing after completing the turn.
8-65. A descent can be depicted at any point along a course reversal. When a descent is depicted at the
IAF, start descent when abeam or past the IAF and on a parallel or intercept heading to the depicted
outbound track. For descents past the IAF, be established on a segment of the IAP before beginning a
descent to the altitude associated with that segment.
8-66. According to the ICAO definition, established on a segment is considered being within half full-
scale deflection for an ILS or VOR and within ± 5 degrees of the required bearing for the NDB.
8-67. The course-reversal maneuver must be completed within the prescribed “remain-within” distance if
one is specified and at or above the altitude specified for its completion. Most ICAO course reversals
specify a fix or a time to start the reversal turn instead of a remain-within distance. Comply with all
guidance on the IAP. Do not automatically assume an ICAO course-reversal maneuver is treated the same
as a procedure turn in the United States.
8-68. Before reaching the IAF, reduce to maneuvering airspeed. Use holding speed if maneuvering speed
is not specified for the aircraft. If the procedure is limited to specific aircraft categories, the applicable
speeds for these are located in table 8-2.

Table 8-2. Aircraft category and airspeed

Category Maximum Airspeed (KIAS)

A 110
B 140
C 240
D 250
E 250

8-69. Additional speed restrictions may be charted on individual IAPs. The maximum speeds by category,
as shown above, however, will not be exceeded without approval of the appropriate ATC agency.

Racetrack Procedure
8-70. The ICAO racetrack procedure (Figure 8-9, page 8-16) is similar in concept to FAA holding in lieu
of procedure turn. This maneuver consists of a holding pattern with outbound leg lengths of one to three
minutes, specified in 30-second increments. As an alternative to timing, the outbound leg may be limited
by a DME distance or an intersecting radial or bearing.

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Chapter 8

Figure 8-9. Racetrack procedure

Racetrack Entry
8-71. A racetrack procedure is used when aircraft arrive at the fix from various directions. Entry
procedures for a racetrack are the same as entry procedures for holding patterns. Exceptions are the
following:
• The teardrop offset will not exceed 30 degrees from the inbound course.
• The teardrop entry from sector 2 (Figure 8-10, page 8-18) is limited to one-and-a-half minutes
wings level on the 30-degree teardrop track, after which the aviator is expected to turn to a
heading to parallel the outbound track for the remainder of the outbound time; if the outbound
time is only one minute, the time on the 30-degree teardrop track will also be one minute.
• Parallel entries may not return directly to the facility without first intercepting the inbound track.
• All maneuvering will be done, as much as practical, on the maneuvering side of the inbound
track.
8-72. When necessary because of airspace limitations, entry into the racetrack procedure may be restricted
to specified routes. When so restricted, the entry routes will be depicted on the IAP. Racetrack procedures
are used where sufficient distance is not available in a straight segment to accommodate the required loss
of altitude and when entry into a reversal maneuver is not practical. They may also be specified as
alternatives to reversal procedures to increase operational flexibility.

Shuttle
8-73. A shuttle is a descent or climb conducted in a holding pattern. A shuttle is normally specified where
the descent required between the end of the initial approach and the beginning of the final approach
exceeds standard ICAO approach design limits.

Alternate
8-74. Alternate procedures may be specified to any of the procedures described above. IAPs will contain
the appropriate depiction and the words “alternative procedure.” Aviators should be prepared to execute
either procedure. Before accepting clearance for an approach that depicts an alternative procedure,
determine which procedure that the controlling agency expects.

Circling
8-75. ICAO circling protected airspace is essentially the same as in the United States. One important
distinction to make is between the terms “runway environment” and “airport environment.” While circling
using an ICAO-designed procedure, the aviator must maintain visual contact with the runway environment
(as defined in paragraph 10-184) throughout the entire circling maneuver. In the United States, an aviator
is required to maintain visual contact with the airport environment only while circling to land.

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 Airspace

LOCALIZER
8-76. PANS-OPS abbreviates the localizer facility as LLZ. The accuracy of the signal generated by the
LLZ is the same as an LOC. PANS-OPS normally requires the LLZ final-approach track alignment to
remain within 5 degrees of the runway centerline. However, in certain cases, the alignment can exceed 5
degrees. Where required, PANS-OPS allows an increase of the final-approach track to 15 degrees for
categories C, D, and E. For aircraft categories A and B, the maximum angle formed by the final-approach
track and the runway centerline is 30 degrees.
8-77. Before flying an LLZ, compare the final approach course with runway heading. The airdrome sketch
should provide a visual indication of the angle formed between the final-approach track and the runway
centerline.

TIMING FOR MISSED APPROACH AND FINAL APPROACH FIX TO MISSED APPROACH POINT
8-78. Some host nations use nonstandard timing for determining the MAP on a procedure. Timing may go
from the FAF to the runway threshold or from a step-down fix to the runway threshold. When these
host-nation procedures are published in DOD FLIP, these nonstandard timing blocks will be converted to
the U.S. standard of FAF to MAP. This conversion can induce some errors because of rounding of
numbers. For this reason, when using timing to determine the MAP on a DOD procedure produced by a
host nation, crews must correctly determine the timing based on ground speed and then fly that ground
speed to avoid exaggerating errors already induced because of the conversion from host-nation to DOD
format.

HOLDING
BANK ANGLE
8-79. Make all turns at a bank angle of 25 degrees or at a rate of 3 degrees per second, whichever requires
the lesser bank. ICAO procedures do not allow correcting for winds by adjusting bank angle. The
triple-drift technique, described in paragraph 10-113, is a good way to correct for winds without varying
the bank angle.

TRACKS
8-80. All procedures depict tracks. Attempt to maintain the track by allowing for known winds and
applying corrections to heading and timing during entry and while flying in the holding pattern.

LIMITING RADIAL
8-81. When holding away from a NAVAID, where the distance from the holding fix to the NAVAID is
short, a limiting radial may be specified. A limiting radial may also be specified where airspace
conservation is essential. If encountering the limiting radial first, initiate a turn onto the radial until turning
inbound. Do not exceed the limiting DME distance, if published.

HOLDING ENTRY PROCEDURE

8-82. The ICAO holding entry procedure is a mandatory procedure. Aviators must comply with all timing,
distances, and limiting radials. Enter the holding pattern based on the heading (±5 degrees) relative to the
three entry sectors depicted in Figure 8-10, page 8-18. Upon reaching the holding fix, follow the
appropriate procedure for the following entry sectors:
• Sector 1 (Parallel). Turn onto an outbound heading for the appropriate time or distance, and
then turn towards the holding side to intercept the inbound track or to return to the fix.
• Sector 2 (Offset). Turn to a heading making an angle of 30 degrees from the reciprocal of the
inbound track on the holding side; fly outbound for the appropriate period of time, until the

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Chapter 8

correct limiting DME is attained or where a limiting radial is specified, then turn right to
intercept the inbound holding track.
• Sector 3 (Direct). Turn and follow the holding pattern.

Figure 8-10. International Civil Aviation Organization holding pattern entry sectors

AIRSPEEDS
8-83. There is little standardization of maximum holding airspeeds in PANS-OPS. There are three
different tables of holding airspeeds that an approach designer could use, depending on which edition of
PANS-OPS was used when the holding pattern was constructed. Furthermore, many countries publish their
own holding pattern airspeeds. This information should be published in FLIP but may be quite difficult or
impossible to actually find. An aviator must understand, however, that the concept is the same as in the
United States. Maximum holding airspeeds are defined by PANS-OPS (or the host country) and have no
relation to the holding speed specified in the aircraft operator’s manual. Table 8-3 reproduces airspeeds
from the second edition of PANS-OPS, which is the one most commonly used.

Table 8-3. Airspeeds

ALTITUDE (feet) AIRSPEED (Normal Conditions) AIRSPEED (Turbulence*)

0-14,000 (CAT A and B) 170 KIAS 170 KIAS
0-14,000 (CAT C and D) 230 KIAS 280 KIAS
14,001-20,000 240 KIAS 280 KIAS or 0.8 Mach, whichever is less
20,001-34,000 265 KIAS 280 KIAS or 0.8 Mach, whichever is less
34,001+ 0.83 Mach 0.83 Mach
*The speeds published for turbulence conditions shall be used for holding only after prior clearance with ATC, unless the
relevant publications indicate the holding area can accommodate aircraft flying at these high holding speeds.

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 Airspace

HOLDING PATTERN LENGTHS

8-84. On the second and subsequent arrivals over the fix, turn and fly an outbound track that will most
appropriately position the aircraft for the turn onto the inbound track. Continue outbound until the
appropriate limiting distance or time. ICAO outbound legs are the limiting factor for both timed and
fixed-distance holding patterns. The times are one minute outbound at or below 14,000 feet MSL or
one-and-a-half minutes outbound above 14,000 feet MSL.

WIND CORRECTIONS
8-85. Attempt to correct both heading and timing to compensate for the effects of wind to ensure that the
inbound track is regained before passing the holding fix inbound. Indications available from the NAVAID
and estimated or known winds should be used in making these corrections. If a limiting radial is published
and encountered before the outbound limits, that radial must be followed until a turn inbound is initiated.

ALTIMETER SETTING PROCEDURES

8-86. There are three different methods of reporting the altimeter measurements and four different units of
measure used to express altimeter settings. For aircraft having only one type of altimeter scale or for areas
where the altimeter setting is not converted for the aviator, the FIH contains conversion tables. Crew
members must understand how to apply the conversions before flight into airspace using other than inches
of mercury/atmosphere pressure at nautical height (QNH) for altimeter settings. Refer to FLIP AP for
specific altimeter setting procedures for each country.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT NAUTICAL HEIGHT SETTINGS

8-87. A QNH altimeter setting represents the pressure that would, in theory, exist at sea level at that
location by measuring the surface pressure and correcting to sea-level pressure for a standard day. Set the
reported QNH when descending through, or operating below, the published MSL transition level. With the
proper QNH set, the altimeter will indicate the height above MSL. All DOD approach criteria are based on
using QNH altimeter settings.

STANDARD ALTIMETER SETTINGS

8-88. The standard altimeter (QNE) is used to indicate the height above an imaginary plane called the
standard datum plane, also known as FL0. The established altimeter setting at FL0 is 29.92 inches of
mercury, or 1013.2 millibars. Set QNE (29.92) when climbing through or operating above the transition
altitude.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT FIELD ELEVATION SETTINGS

8-89. Atmospheric pressure at field elevation (QFE) is the altimeter setting issued to aircraft to indicate the
AGL height above the airport. With the proper QFE set, the altimeter should indicate zero on the ground.
QFE is commonly used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy in the United Kingdom and in many
parts of the Pacific and Eastern Europe.

TRANSITION ALTITUDE
8-90. Transition altitude is the altitude in the vicinity of an airport at or below which the vertical position
of an aircraft is determined from an altimeter set to QNH. Transition altitude is normally specified for each
airfield by the country in which the airfield exists. Transition altitude will not normally be below 3,000 feet
HAA and must be published on the appropriate charts.

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Chapter 8

TRANSITION LEVEL
8-91. The lowest flight level available for use above transition altitude is called the transition level.
Transition level is usually passed to aircraft during approach or landing clearances. The transition layer
may be published or supplied by ATC via the ATIS or during arrival. Half flight levels may be used
(FL45).

TRANSITION LAYER
8-92. The transition layer is that area between the transition altitude and transition level. Aircraft are not
normally assigned altitudes within the transition layer.

TRANSITION BETWEEN FLIGHT LEVELS AND ALTITUDES

8-93. The vertical position of an aircraft at or below transition altitude shall be expressed in altitude (QNH
or QFE as appropriate). Vertical position at or above the transition level shall be expressed in terms of
flight levels (QNE). When passing through the transition layer, vertical position shall be expressed in terms
of flight levels (QNE) when climbing and in terms of altitudes (QNH or QFE as appropriate) when
descending. After an approach clearance has been issued and the descent to land is commenced, the
vertical positioning of an aircraft above the transition level may be by reference to altitude (QNH or QFE
as appropriate), provided that level flight above the transition altitude is not indicated or anticipated. This is
intended for turbo jet aircraft where an uninterrupted descent from high altitude is desired and for airfields
equipped to reference altitudes throughout the descent.

ALTIMETER ERRORS
8-94. When the altimeter does not indicate the reference elevation or height exactly but is within specified
tolerances, no adjustment of this indication should be made either by the pressure adjustment knob or other
adjustments on the altimeter during any phase of flight. Furthermore, any error within tolerances noted
during preflight check on the ground should be ignored by the aviator in flight.

ALTIMETER USE IN FLIGHT

8-95. Before takeoff, at least one altimeter will be set to the latest QNH/QFE altimeter setting. Set the
altimeter to QNE (29.92) climbing through transition altitude. Before commencing the initial approach to
an airfield, the number of the transition level should be obtained from the appropriate air traffic services
unit. Obtain the latest QNH/QFE before descending below the transition level.

TRANSPONDER OPERATING PROCEDURES

8-96. When an aircraft carries a serviceable transponder, the aviator shall operate the transponder at all
times during flight, regardless of whether the aircraft is within or outside airspace where secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) is used for air traffic service purposes.

OPERATING CODES
8-97. Operate codes as assigned by ATC on the basis of regional air navigation agreements. In the absence
of any ATC directions or regional air navigation agreements, operate the transponder on Mode A, Code
2000.
8-98. The use of Mode A, Code 7700, in certain areas, may result in the elimination of the SSR response
of the aircraft from the ATC radar display in cases where the ground equipment is not provided with
automatic means for its immediate recognition.

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 Airspace

8-99. If an aviator squawks 7600, the controller will try to verify by asking the aviator to IDENT or
change the code. If the aviator’s receiver is functioning, the controller will communicate with him or her
using the IDENT or code change.

HI-JACK CODES
8-100. If an aviator experiences an unlawful interference with an aircraft in flight and selects code 7500,
ATC will request confirmation of this code. Depending on the circumstances, the aviator can confirm the
code or not reply at all. The absence of a reply from the aviator will be taken by ATC as an indication that
the use of code 7500 is not due to an inadvertent false code selection.

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 Chapter 9
Air Traffic Control System

This chapter provides a general overview of communication equipment,

communication procedures, and ATC facilities and services available for IFR flight in
the NAS. Specific and detailed information is provided in FAA Order 7110.10, AIM,
Instrument Flying Handbook, Instrument Procedures Handbook, and other
FAA/ICAO publications and Web sites.

COMMUNICATIONS
EQUIPMENT

Navigation/Communication Equipment
9-1. Aviators communicate with ATC on VHF and

UHF frequencies. If ATC assigns a frequency that

Contents
cannot be selected on the assigned radio, ask for an

alternative frequency. Some AFSSs can be

Communications .......................................... 9-1
communicated with by transmitting on 122.1
Control Sequence ........................................ 9-6
megahertz (selected on the communication radio)
Letters of Agreement ................................... 9-8
and receiving on a VOR frequency (selected on the

navigation radio). This is called duplex operation.

Radar and Transponders

9-2. ATC radars are able to display energy reflected from an aircraft’s metallic structure, which is
displayed as a primary return. Some ATC radars are also able to display secondary returns. A secondary
return, which relies on transponder replies to ground interrogation signals, is able to display aircraft-
specific information. This information can be used with automation.
9-3. A transponder is a radar beacon transmitter/receiver installed in the instrument panel. ATC beacon
transmitters send out interrogation signals continuously as the radar antenna rotates. When an interrogation
is received by the transponder, a coded reply is sent to the ground station for display on the controller’s
scope. Transponder codes are assigned by ATC.
9-4. When a controller asks the aviator to IDENT and he or she pushes the IDENT button, the return on
the controller’s scope is intensified for precise identification of the flight. When requested, briefly push the
IDENT button to activate this feature. A good practice is to verbally confirm to ATC that the codes have
been changed or the IDENT button has been pushed.
9-5. Secondary radar returns can display Mode C altitude reporting on the control scope if the aircraft is
equipped with an encoding altimeter or blind encoder. When the transponder’s function switch is in the
altitude (ALT) position, the aircraft’s pressure altitude is sent to the controller. Adjusting the altimeter’s
Kollsman window has no effect on the altitude read by the controller. (Primary radar returns provide only
range and bearing information from the radar antenna to the target.)
9-6. Transponders must be on whenever the aircraft is operating in controlled airspace. Mode C altitude
reporting is required by regulation in Class B and Class C airspace and inside of a 30-mile circle
surrounding the primary airport in Class B airspace. Altitude reporting should be on at all times.

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Chapter 9

PROCEDURES
9-7. Clarity in communication is essential for safe instrument flight and requires aviators and controllers
to use terms understood by both. The pilot/controller glossary in the AIM is the best source of terms and
definitions. The AIM is revised twice a year, and new definitions are added. Review the glossary
frequently. Because clearances and instructions are composed largely of letters and numbers, a phonetic
pronunciation guide has been developed for both.
9-8. Air traffic controllers must follow the guidance of FAA Order 7110.65 when communicating with
aviators. The manual presents the controller with different situations and prescribes precise terminology to
be used. This is advantageous for aviators because a recognized pattern or format can be expected.
Controllers are faced with a variety of communication styles based on aviator experience, proficiency, and
professionalism.
9-9. Aviators should study the examples in the AIM, listen to other aviators communicate, and apply
lessons learned to their own communications with ATC. Aviators should ask for clarification of a clearance
or instruction, when needed. Use plain English to ensure understanding, and expect the controller to reply
in the same way. A safe instrument flight is the result of cooperation between controller and aviator.

FACILITIES
9-10. The controller’s primary responsibility is separation of aircraft operating under IFR. Separation of
aircraft is achieved using ATC facilities, which include the AFSS, airport traffic control tower (ATCT),
terminal radar approach control (TRACON), and ARTCC.

Automated Flight Service Station

9-11. The first contact with ATC will likely be through AFSS, either by radio or telephone. AFSSs provide
pilot briefings, receive and process flight plans, relay ATC clearances, originate NOTAMs, and broadcast
aviation weather. Some facilities provide EFAS, take weather observations, and advise United States
Customs and Immigration of international flights.
9-12. Telephone contact with flight service is obtained by dialing 1-800-WX-BRIEF anywhere in the
United States for connection to the nearest AFSS based on the area code from which the aviator is calling.
There are a variety of methods for making radio contact: direct transmission, RCOs, ground
communication outlets (GCOs), and using duplex transmissions through NAVAIDs. The best source of
information on frequency usage is the A/FD. The legend panel on sectional charts also contains contact
information.
9-13. The briefer sends the flight plan to the host computer at the ARTCC. After processing, the computer
sends flight strips to the tower, radar facility handling the departure route, and center controller in whose
sector the aviator will first enter. These strips are delivered about 30 minutes before the proposed departure
time. Strips are delivered to en route facilities 30 minutes before the aviator is expected to enter their
airspace. If the aviator fails to open the flight plan, the flight plan will time out 2 hours after the proposed
departure time.
9-14. When departing an airport in Class G airspace, the aviator receives IFR clearance from the AFSS by
radio or telephone. The clearance contains either a clearance void time (the aviator must be airborne before
this time) or a release time (the aviator should not be airborne before this time). Aviators can help the
controller by stating how soon they expect to be airborne. If, for example, the void time is 10 minutes past
the hour and the aviator is airborne at exactly 10 minutes past the hour, the clearance is void; he or she
must be airborne before the void time. Aviators may ask for a specific void time when filing their flight
plan.

Air Traffic Control Towers

9-15. Several controllers in the tower cab are involved in handling instrument flight. Where there is a
dedicated clearance delivery position, that frequency is found in the A/FD and on the instrument approach

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 Air Traffic Control System

chart for the departure airport. Where there is no clearance delivery position, the ground controller
performs this function. At the busiest airports, pretaxi clearance is required; the frequency for pretaxi
clearance can be found in the A/FD. Taxi clearance should be requested not more than 10 minutes before
proposed taxi time.
9-16. IFR clearances should be read back to the clearance delivery controller. Instrument clearances can be
overwhelming when the aviator copies them verbatim. IFR clearances typically begin with the clearance
limit (usually the destination airport) and then continue with the route, including any DP; initial altitude;
frequency (for departure control); and transponder code. With the exception of the transponder code, most
of these items are known before engine start. Clearances will be issued according to FAA Order 7110.65,
as appropriate, in the following order:
• Aircraft identification.
• Clearance limit.
• SID.
• Route of flight including preferential departure route/preferential departure arrival
route/preferred arrival route, when applied.
• Altitude data in the order flown.
• Holding instructions.
• Any special information.
• Frequency and beacon code information.
9-17. One technique for copying clearances is writing CRAFT (clearance, route, approach, frequency, and
transponder code) down the left side of a page. Refer to the following example.

Example of IFR Clearance (using CRAFT)

An aviator has filed an IFR flight plan from Seattle, Washington, to Sacramento,
California, via V-23 at 7,000 feet. The aviator notes that traffic is taking off to the
north from Seattle-Tacoma (Sea-Tac) airport and, by monitoring the clearance
delivery frequency, notes the DP being assigned to southbound flights. The
clearance limit will be the destination airport, so he or she writes “SAC” after the
letter C. The aviator writes “SEATTLE TWO–V23” after R for route, because
departure control has issued this departure to other flights (the aviator could also call
the tower via telephone to ask what departure is in use). The aviator writes “7” after
the A and the departure control frequency printed on the approach charts for Sea-
Tac after F, and leaves the space after T blank–the transponder code is generated
by computer and can seldom be determined in advance. Then he or she calls
clearance delivery and reports ready to copy.

As the controller reads the clearance, the aviator confirms what he or she has
already written down; if there is a change, he or she draws a line through that item
and writes in the changed item. Chances are that changes will be minimal, and he or
she will have copied most of the clearance before keying the microphone.
Developing clearance shorthand to cut down on the verbiage that must be copied is
worthwhile.

9-18. Either the text or a graphic representation of a DP is required (if one is available) and should be
reviewed before accepting a clearance. This is another reason for the aviator to find out beforehand which
DP is in use. If the DP includes an altitude or a departure control frequency, those items will not be
included in the clearance from the tower cab.
9-19. The last clearance received supersedes all previous clearances. For instance, if the DP is “Climb and
maintain 2,000 feet, expect higher in 6 miles” and upon contacting the departure controller, the aviator is
told “Climb and maintain 8,000 feet,” the 2,000-foot restriction has been canceled. This rule applies in
terminal and center airspace. If the aviator is ready to copy the IFR clearance before the strip has been

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Chapter 9

received from the center computer, he or she will be advised “clearance on request” and the controller will
call when the clearance has been received.
9-20. The local controller is responsible for operations in Class D airspace and on active runways. At some
towers designated as IFR towers, the local controller has vectoring authority. At VFR towers, the local
controller accepts inbound IFR flights from the terminal radar facility and cannot provide vectors. The
local controller also coordinates flights in the local area with radar controllers. Although Class D airspace
normally extends 2,500 feet above field elevation, towers frequently release the top 500 feet to the radar
controllers to facilitate overflights. Accordingly, when a flight is vectored over an airport at an altitude that
appears to enter the tower controller’s airspace, there is no need to contact the tower controller—all
coordination is handled by ATC.
9-21. The departure radar controller may be in the same building as the control tower, but often the
departure radar position is remotely located. The tower controller will not issue a takeoff clearance until the
departure controller issues a release.

Terminal Radar Approach Control

9-22. TRACONs are considered terminal facilities because they provide the link between the departure
airport and en route structure of the NAS. Terminal airspace normally extends 30 nautical miles from the
facility with a vertical extent of 10,000 feet; however, dimensions vary widely. Class B and Class C
airspace dimensions are provided on aeronautical charts. At terminal radar facilities, the airspace is divided
into sectors, each with one or more controllers. Each sector is assigned a discrete radio frequency. All
terminal facilities are approach controls and should be addressed as “Approach” except when directed to
do otherwise: “Contact departure on 120.4.”
9-23. Terminal radar antennas are located on or adjacent to the airport. Terminal controllers can assign
altitudes lower than published procedural altitudes, called minimum vectoring altitudes (MVAs). MVAs
are not published or accessible to aviators but are displayed at the controller’s position. However, if
altitude assigned seems too low, confirm before descending.
9-24. When the aviator receives and accepts his or her clearance and reports ready for takeoff, a controller
in the tower contacts the TRACON for a release; the aviator will not be released until the departure
controller can fit the flight into the departure flow and may have the aviator hold for release. When the
aviator receives takeoff clearance, the departure controller is advised of the flight and awaits a call from the
aviator. All of the information that the controller needs is on the departure strip or computer screen; there is
no need to repeat any portion of the clearance to that controller. Simply establish contact with the facility
when instructed to do so by the tower controller. The terminal facility computer detects and tracks assigned
transponder codes; for this reason, the transponder should remain on standby until takeoff clearance has
been received.
9-25. The aircraft will appear on the controller’s radar as a target with an associated data block that moves
as the aircraft moves through the airspace. The data block includes aircraft identification and type, altitude,
and airspeed. A TRACON controller uses airport surveillance radar (ASR) to detect primary targets and
automated radar terminal systems (ARTSs) to receive transponder signals. These two are combined on the
controller’s scope.
9-26. At facilities with ASR-3 equipment, radar returns from precipitation are not displayed as varying
levels of intensity and controllers must rely on pilot reports and experience to provide weather avoidance
information. With ASR-9 equipment, the controller can select up to six levels of intensity. Level 1
precipitation does not require avoidance tactics, but the presence of levels 2 or 3 should cause aviators to
investigate further. The returns from higher levels of intensity may obscure aircraft data blocks, and
controllers may select the higher levels only on aviator request. When uncertain about the weather ahead,
ask the controller if the facility can display intensity levels.

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 Air Traffic Control System

Tower En Route Control

9-27. At many locations, instrument flights can be conducted entirely in terminal airspace. These TEC
routes are generally for aircraft operating below 10,000 feet and can be found in the A/FD. Aviators
desiring to use TEC should include that designation in the remarks section of the flight plan.
9-28. Aviators are not limited to the major airports at the city pairs listed in the A/FD. For example, a
tower en route flight from an airport in New York (NYC) airspace could terminate at any airport within
about 30 miles of Bradley International Airport (BDL) airspace such as Hartford (HFD).
9-29. Minimum safe altitude warnings (MSAWs) are a valuable service provided by the automated radar
equipment at terminal radar facilities. This equipment predicts aircraft positions with a two-minute lead
time based on the present flight-path conditions—the controller issues a safety alert if the aircraft will
encounter terrain or obstructions in its projected path. An unusually rapid descent rate on a nonprecision
approach can trigger such an alert.

Air Route Traffic Control Center

9-30. Air route traffic control center facilities are responsible for maintaining separation between IFR
flights in the en route structure. Center radars (air route surveillance radar) acquire and track transponder
returns using the same basic technology as terminal radars.
9-31. Earlier center radars display weather as an area of slashes (light precipitation) and “H”s (moderate
rainfall). Because the controller cannot detect higher levels of precipitation, aviators should be wary of
areas showing moderate rainfall. Newer radar displays show weather as three levels of blue, and controllers
can select the level of weather to be displayed. Weather displays of higher levels of intensity can cause
difficulty for controllers in seeing aircraft data blocks; aviators should not expect ATC to display weather
continuously.
9-32. Center airspace is divided into sectors in the same manner as terminal airspace; in addition, most
center airspace is divided by altitudes into high and low sectors. Each sector has a dedicated team of
controllers and selection of radio frequencies because each center has a network of remote
transmitter/receiver sites. All center frequencies are found in the back of the A/FD and on en route charts.
Each ARTCC’s area of responsibility covers several states; when flying from the vicinity of one remote
communication site toward another, expect the same controller to talk on different frequencies.

Center Approach/Departure Control

9-33. Most airports with instrument approaches do not lie within terminal radar airspace, and when
operating to or from these airports, the aviator communicates directly with the center controller. If the
aircraft is departing a tower-controlled airport, the tower controller provides instructions for contacting the
appropriate center controller. When an aircraft is departing an airport without an operating control tower,
clearance includes instructions such as “Upon entering controlled airspace, contact Houston Center on
126.5.” The aviator is responsible for terrain clearance until reaching the controller’s MVA and still has
this responsibility until he or she hears his or her aircraft call sign and “radar contact” from the center
controller.
9-34. If obstacles in the departure path require a steeper-than-standard climb gradient (200 FPNM), the
aviator should be so advised by the controller. However, the departure airport listing should be checked in
the A/FD to determine if there are trees or wires in the departure path; when in doubt, ask the controller for
the required climb gradient.
9-35. A common clearance in these situations is “When able, proceed direct to the Astoria VOR.” This
means that the aviator can proceed when he or she is able to do so while maintaining terrain and
obstruction clearance but not as soon as a signal suitable for navigation is received from the NAVAID.
Using the standard climb gradient, the aviator must be 2 miles from the DER before it is safe to turn (400
feet AGL). When a center controller issues either a heading to fly to or a direct route or states “direct when
able,” the controller becomes responsible for terrain and obstruction clearance.

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Chapter 9

9-36. Another center clearance is “Leaving (altitude), fly (heading) or proceed direct when able.” This
clearance keeps the terrain/obstruction clearance responsibility in the cockpit until above the minimum IFR
altitude. A controller cannot issue an IFR clearance until the aviator is above the minimum IFR altitude
unless the aircraft is able to climb in VFR conditions.
9-37. On a center controller’s scope, one nautical mile is about 1/28 of an inch. When a center controller is
providing approach/departure control services at an airport many miles from the radar antenna, estimating
headings and distances is difficult for center controller. Controllers issuing vectors to final must set the
range on their scopes to not more than 125 nautical miles to provide the greatest possible accuracy for
intercept headings. At locations farther from a center radar antenna, aviators should expect a minimum of
vectoring.

CONTROL SEQUENCE
9-38. The IFR system is flexible and accommodating if an aviator is prepared. As many frequencies as
possible are written down before they are needed, and an alternate is determined if the flight cannot be
completed as planned. Be familiar with facilities and services available on the flight route (table 9-1).
Know where to find the nearest VFR conditions, and be prepared to divert if the situation deteriorates. An
IFR flight with departure and arrival at airports with control towers uses ATC facilities and services in the
following sequence:
• AFSS: Obtain a weather briefing for departure, destination, alternate airports, and en route
conditions, and then file a flight plan by calling 1-800-WX-BRIEF.
• ATIS: Preflight complete, listen for present conditions and approach in use.
• Clearance delivery: Before taxiing, obtain departure clearance.
• Ground control: Receive taxi instructions.
• Tower: Takeoff checks complete, receive clearance to takeoff.
• Departure control: Once the transponder tags up with the ARTS, the tower controller instructs
the aviator to contact “Departure” to establish radar contact.
• ARTCC: After departing the departure controller’s airspace, the aviator is handed off to the
center that coordinates the flight while en route. The aviator may be in contact with multiple
ARTCC facilities; they coordinate handoffs.
• EFAS/HIWAS: Obtain in-flight weather information before leaving the ATC frequency.
• ATIS: Obtain ATIS information before leaving the ATC frequency.
• Approach Control: Center hands off to approach control where the aviator receives additional
information and clearances.
• Tower: Once cleared for approach, the aviator is instructed to contact tower control; the flight
plan is canceled by the pilot through the tower controller when the aircraft lands.

Table 9-1. Air traffic control facilities, services, and radio call signs

Communications Facility Description Frequency

Airport Advisory Area AFSS personnel provide traffic advisories
to pilots operating within 10 miles of the 122.2, 123.6, and 255.4 MHz.
“(AFSS name) RADIO” airport.
UNICOM Airport advisories from an airport without Listed in A/FD under the city name; also
“(airport name) UNICOM” an operating control tower or AFSS. on sectional charts in airport data block.
En route radar facilities that maintain
Air Route Traffic Control Center separation between IFR flights and
Listed in A/FD and on instrument en route
between IFR flights and known VFR flights.
“CENTER” charts.
Centers will provide VFR traffic advisories
on a workload-permitting basis.

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 Air Traffic Control System

Table 9-1. Air traffic control facilities, services, and radio call signs

Communications Facility Description Frequency

Positions at a terminal radar facility
Approach/Departure Control Listed in A/FD; also on sectional charts in
responsible for handling of IFR flights to
“(airport name) APPROACH” the communications panel and on
and from the primary airport (where Class
(unless otherwise advised) terminal area charts.
B airspace exists).
Continuous broadcast of audiotape
prepared by ATC controller containing wind Listed in A/FD under the city name; also
Automatic Terminal Information direction, wind velocity, temperature, on sectional charts in airport data block, in
Service altimeter setting, runway and approach in the communications panel, and on
use, and other information of interest to terminal area charts.
pilots.
Clearance Delivery Control tower position responsible for
Listed on instrument approach procedure
transmitting departure clearances to IFR
“(airport name) CLEARANCE” charts.
flights.
Listed in A/FD; also on sectional charts in
CTAF provides a single frequency for pilots
the airport data block (followed by a white
Common Traffic Advisory in the area to use for contacting the facility
C on a blue or magenta background). At
Frequency and/or broadcasting their position and
airports with no tower, CTAF is 122.9, the
intentions to other pilots.
“MULTICOM” frequency.
Listed in A/FD and on sectional charts,
Automated Flight Service both under city name and in a separate
Station Provides information and services to pilots,
listing of AFSS frequencies. On sectional
using RCOs and GCOs.
“(facility name) RADIO” charts, listed above the VOR boxes or in
separate boxes when remote.
Ground Control At tower-controlled airports, a position in
the tower responsible for controlling aircraft Listed in A/FD under city name.
“(airport name) GROUND” taxiing to and from the runways.
Continuous broadcast of forecast Black circle with white H in VOR
Hazardous Inflight Weather
hazardous weather conditions on selected frequency box; notation in A/FD airport
Advisory Service
NAVAIDs. No communication capability. listing under “Radio Aids to Navigation.”
122.9 MHz.
Intended for use by pilots at airports with
MULTICOM no radio facilities. Pilots should use A/FD shows 122.9 as CTAF; also on
self-announce procedures given in the sectional charts, 122.9 is followed by a
“(airport name) TRAFFIC”
AIM. white C on a dark background, indicating
CTAF.
Listed in A/FD under city name; also on
Tower “Local” controller responsible for
sectional and terminal control area charts
operations on the runways and in Class B,
“(airport name) TOWER” in the airport data block and
C, or D airspace surrounding the airport.
communications panel.
En Route Flight Advisory In-flight weather information provided by
122.0 MHz (0600-2200 local time).
Service “FLIGHT WATCH” FAA.

9-39. An IFR flight with departure and arrival at airports without operating control towers uses ATC
facilities and services in the following sequence:
• AFSS: Obtain a weather briefing for departure, destination, alternate airports, and en route
conditions, and then file the flight plan by telephone; provide the latitude/longitude description
for small airports to ensure that the center is able to locate departure and arrival locations.
• AFSS or UNICOM: ATC clearances can be filed and received on the UNICOM frequency if
the licensee has made arrangements with the controlling ARTCC; otherwise, file with AFSS via
telephone. Be sure preflight preparations are complete before filing. Clearance includes a
clearance void time; the aviator must be airborne before the void time.
• ARTCC: After takeoff, establish contact with the center. The aviator may be in contact with
multiple ARTCC facilities; they coordinate handoffs.
• EFAS/HIWAS: Obtain in-flight weather information before leaving the ATC frequency.

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Chapter 9

• Approach Control: Center hands off to approach control, where the aviator receives additional
information and clearances. If the aircraft is able to land under VMC, the IFR clearance may be
canceled before landing.

LETTERS OF AGREEMENT
9-40. At boundaries between the airspace controlled by different facilities, the location and altitude the
aviator is handed off is determined by letters of agreement (LOAs) negotiated between the two facilities.
This information is not available in any FAA publication. Note on en route charts the points at which
handoffs occur. In each handoff to a different facility, the controller must know aircraft altitude and
position.

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 Chapter 10
Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

No single procedure applies to the planning and preparation involved with all flights
conducted IFR. Once an aviator understands the overall operation of IFR flight, the
many procedural details can be put into the appropriate sequence. This chapter
explains sources for flight planning, conditions associated with instrument flight, and
procedures used for each phase of IFR flight: departure, en route, approach, and
landing.

SECTION I – SOURCES OF FLIGHT PLANNING INFORMATION

10-1. Aviators consult the appropriate aircraft
operator’s manual for flight planning information Contents
pertinent to the aircraft flown. In case of a conflict
between AR 95-1 and FARs, Army aviators are Section I – Sources of Flight Planning
Information ............................................... 10-1
expected to comply with AR 95-1. USAASA has
negotiated with the FAA and obtained written Section II – Instrument Flight Rules
Flight Plan ................................................ 10-4
authorization to deviate, in certain instances, from
requirements stipulated in the FARs. Section III – Clearances .............................. 10-8
Section IV – Notice to Airmen System ..... 10-11
Section V – Navigation Options in the
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE National Airspace System ..................... 10-15
FLIGHT INFORMATION Section VI – Departures ............................ 10-17
PUBLICATIONS Section VII – En Route .............................. 10-19
Section VIII – Approaches......................... 10-29
10-2. DOD FLIP information is provided at: Section IX – Landing ................................. 10-56
https://164.214.2.62/products/digitalaero/index.cfm#
flip. After 1 October 2006, the FLIP and Digital
Aeronautical Flight Information File (DAFIF) will no longer be accessible to the public. DOD customers
will continue to have web access to all DAFIF and FLIP products through a restricted Web site. Details are
available at http://www.nga.mil.

GENERAL PLANNING
10-3. General planning (GP) contains general information on all FLIP terms, explanation of divisions of
United States Airspace, flight plans and codes, common worldwide pilot procedures, ICAO procedures,
operations and firings over high seas, and aviation weather codes. The GP is published every 32 weeks
with planning change notices (PCNs) issued at the 16-week midpoint of the GP book cycle and urgent
change notices (UCNs) issued as required.

AREA PLANNING

AP 1, 2, 3, and 4
10-4. These documents contain planning and procedure information for a specific region or geographic
area. Area planning (AP)/1, 2, and 3 are published every 24 weeks with PCNs at the 8- and 16-week
intervals. AP/4 is published every 48 weeks with PCNs at the 16- and 32-week intervals. UCNs are
published as required.

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Chapter 10

AP 1A, 2A, 3A and 4A (Special-Use Airspace)

10-5. These documents contain all prohibited, restricted, danger, warning, and alert areas listed by country.
Military operations and known parachute jumping areas are also listed. These documents are published
every 48 weeks with PCNs at the 16- and 32-week intervals. UCNs are published as required.

AP 1B (Military Training Routes, North and South America)

10-6. AP/1B contains information relative to military routes including IRs, VRs, slow-speed, low-altitude
training routes (SRs), refueling tracks/anchors/VFR helicopter refueling tracks, and avoidance locations.
Charts (seven charts on four sheets) containing graphic depictions of IR, VR, and SR route systems
throughout the continental United States and Alaska are also included. These documents are published
every eight weeks.

FLIGHT INFORMATION HANDBOOK

10-7. The FIH contains aeronautical information required by DOD aircrews in flight that is not subject to
frequent change. Sections include information on emergency procedures, FLIP and NOTAM
abbreviation/codes, national and international flight data and procedures, meteorological information,
conversion tables, and standard time signals. The handbook is designed for worldwide use with DOD FLIP
en route supplements. The publication cycle is every 32 weeks.

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES SUPPLEMENT

10-8. This supplement contains an alphabetical IFR airport/facility directory, special notices, and
procedures required to support en route and area charts. The publication cycle is every eight weeks.

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES EN ROUTE LOW-ALTITUDE CHARTS

10-9. These charts portray the airway system and related data required for IFR operations at altitudes
below 18,000 feet MSL. Twenty-six variable scale charts are printed on 13 sheets, L-1 through L-26,
covering the entire United States. An additional sheet containing Charts L-27 and L-28—duplicating data
shown on L-20, L-22, L-24 and L-25—is available for those who frequently plan flights north and south
along the east coast within the area of coverage. The publication cycle is every eight weeks.

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES EN ROUTE HIGH-ALTITUDE CHARTS

10-10. These charts portray the airway system and related data required for IFR operations at altitudes at
and above 18,000 feet MSL. Six charts are printed on three sheets. The publication cycle is every eight
weeks.

TERMINAL HIGH AND LOW ALTITUDE

10-11. Twenty-five bound booklets contain IAPs, airport diagrams, SIDs, and radar instrument approach
minimums. The set contains all DOD TERPS and civil TERPS requested by the military. Cross-hatching,
displayed along the entire top and bottom borders, denotes high-altitude procedures; cross-hatching,
displayed along the upper left half of the top border and lower right half of the bottom border, denotes
high- and low-altitude procedures. Publication cycle is every eight weeks. A high-low terminal change
notice is published at the four-week midpoint and contains revisions, additions, and deletions to the last
complete issue. TERPS are identified to be meaningful to the aviator and permit ready identification of air
traffic control phraseology. The types of charts found in these publications follow.

Straight-in Approach
10-12. Procedures meeting criteria for authorization of straight-in landing minima are identified by the
type of NAVAIDs that provide final approach guidance and the runway to which the final approach

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

courses are aligned (such as ILS Rwy 18R, LOC BC Rwy 7, TACAN Rwy 4, NDB Rwy 21, VOR Rwy 15,
VOR/DME Rwy 6, or ILS or TACAN Rwy 9). A solidus (/) indicates that more than one type of
equipment must be used to execute final approach (VOR/DME). When two approaches are on the same
chart, the word “or” indicates that either type of equipment may be used to execute the final approach (for
example, ILS or TACAN, ILS or NDB, or VOR/DME or TACAN). The naming of multiple approaches of
the same type to the same runway is in the process of being changed and has started to be phased into
newly published approach plates. Multiple approaches with the same guidance will be annotated with an
alphabetical suffix beginning at the end of the alphabet (Z) and work its way backwards towards (A) for
subsequent procedures (for example, VOR Z RWY 11, VOR Y RWY11.) The Category II and Category
III designations are used to differentiate between multiple ILSs to the same runway unless there are
multiple approaches of the same type. Carefully examine all procedures to determine if the aviator is
capable of flying the entire procedure. In some instances, Army aircraft may not be equipped to execute
missed approach segments that are designated to/from a NAVAID such as TACAN.

Circling Approach
10-13. When a procedure does not meet criteria for straight-in landing minimums authorization,
identification is by the type of NAVAID that provides final approach guidance and an alphabetical suffix.
The first procedure formulated bears the suffix A although there may be no intention to formulate
additional procedures. If additional procedures are formulated, they are identified alphabetically in
sequence (VOR-A, VOR/DME-B, NDB-C, and localizer-type directional aid [LDA]–D). A revised
procedure bears its original identification.

Helicopter Procedures
10-14. Helicopter-only procedures bear an identification that includes the term copter, type of facility
providing final approach course guidance, and a final approach course numerical identification (such as
COPTER VOR 090, COPTER NDB 270, COPTER PAR 327, and COPTER ASR 327). If the procedure
includes an arc final approach, the word ARC is used and followed by a sequential number (COPTER
VORTAC ARC 1, COPTER VOR/DME ARC 2, and COPTER TACAN ARC 3).

STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVALS

10-15. A single booklet contains all STARs. The publication cycle is every eight weeks.

CIVIL PUBLICATIONS
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL
10-16. The AIM provides the aviation community with basic flight information and ATC procedures used
in the U.S. NAS. An international version, called the Aeronautical Information Publication, contains
parallel information, as well as specific information on international airports used by the international
community. The AIM is available online at http://www.faa.gov/airports_airtraffic/ air_traffic/
publications/atpubs/aim/.

AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY
10-17. The A/FD contains information on airports, communications, and NAVAIDs pertinent to IFR
flight. The A/FD also includes VOR receiver checkpoints, AFSS, weather service telephone numbers, and
ARTCC frequencies. Various special notices essential to IFR flight are also included, such as land and hold
short operations (LAHSO) data, civil use of military fields, continuous power facilities, and special flight
procedures.

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Chapter 10

10-18. In major terminal and en route environments, preferred routes have been established to guide
aviators in planning their routes of flight, minimizing route changes, and aiding in the orderly management
of air traffic using Federal airways. The A/FD lists high- and low-altitude preferred routes.

NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION

10-19. The Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) contains current NOTAMs that are essential to flight
safety as well as supplemental data affecting other operational publications listed. The NTAP also includes
current flight data center (FDC) NOTAMs, which are regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions
to flight or amend charts or published IAPs.

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES HANDBOOK

10-20. The Instrument Procedures Handbook (IPH) is a technical reference for aviators who are
conducting IFR operations in the NAS. Instrument flight examiners (IFEs), instructor pilots (IPs), and all
Army aviators will find this handbook a valuable training aid that details coverage of instrument charts and
procedures including IFR takeoff, departure, en route, arrival, approach, and landing. The IPH is available
at http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/instrument_procedures_handbook. The IPH introduces
advanced information for IFR operations and expands on information contained in FAA H-8083-15 and is
available at http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/instrument_flying_handbook/.
10-21. Safety information covering relevant subjects—such as runway incursion, LAHSO, controlled
flight into terrain (CFIT), and human factors issues—are also included. Emphasis applies to airplane
operations. Guidelines specific to helicopter IFR operations are included in Appendix C. Persons using this
handbook must also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of the AIM.

AERONAUTICAL CHART USER GUIDE

10-22. For reference purposes, the Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide is now available in Adobe Acrobat
format for download at http://www.naco.faa.gov/index.asp?xml=naco/online/aero_guide. The guide is
divided into six sections and covers the charts listed in Figure 10-1.

• World aeronautical charts

• IAPs
• Sectional aeronautical charts
• Flyway planning charts
• STARs
• En route low-altitude charts
• En route high-altitude charts
• Area charts
• Oceanic route charts
• Helicopter route charts
• SIDs
• Terminal area charts
Figure 10-1. Types of aeronautical charts

SECTION II – INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES FLIGHT PLAN

FILING
PRIOR TO FLIGHT
10-23. As specified in 14 CFR, part 91, no person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace IFR
unless that person has filed an IFR flight plan. IFR flight plans are filed and IFR flights are conducted

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

according to AR 95-1 and AR 95-2. Flight plans may be submitted to military flight operations in person or
to the nearest AFSS or ATCT either in person or by telephone or computer (using the direct user access
terminal system [DUATS] at http://www.duats.com/), or by radio if no other means are available. Aviators
should file IFR flight plans at least 30 minutes before estimated time of departure to preclude possible
delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC. Chapter 4 provides guidance for completing and filing
DD Form 175 (Military Flight Plan) (Figure 10-2) and DD Form 1801 (DOD International Flight Plan)
(Figure 10-3, page 10-6). The GP authorizes use of FAA Form 7233-1 (Flight Plan) in lieu of DD Form
175 and of FAA Form 7233-4 (International Flight Plan) in lieu of DD Form 1801 when the aircraft is
departing U.S. installations that do not have a military base operations facility. Find DD Form 175 and DD
Form 1801 at http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/infomgt/forms/formsprogram.htm. The GP provides a
blank copy of FAA Form 7233-1 and FAA Form 7233-4 but not specific guidance on completing the form.
The AIM provides guidance for completing and filing FAA Form 7233-1 (Figure 10-4, page 10-7); it is
available at FSSs and is generally found in flight planning rooms at airport terminal buildings. An
electronic version of FAA Form 7233-1 is located at http://forms.faa.gov/forms/faa7233-1.pdf . Specific
guidance on completing FAA Form 7233-4 is found at http://www.faa.gov/ats/aat/ifim/ifim0107.htm under
flight planning notes, and the blank form is found at http://forms.faa.gov/forms/faa7233-4.pdf.

Figure 10-2. Department of Defense Form 175

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Figure 10-3. Department of Defense Form 1801

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-4. Federal Aviation Administration Form 7233-1

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Chapter 10

10-24. Aviators must advise base operations or the tie-in FSS serving the departure, stopover, or en route
delay aerodrome when actual departure time will be delayed one hour or more beyond the filed proposed
departure time and provide an updated proposed departure time. When departing nonmilitary fields, the
aviator must ensure that the actual departure time is passed to the tie-in FSS servicing the departure field.
The aviator can request this change through the tower or directly to the tie-in FSS. If takeoff time is not
passed to the tie-in FSS, the aircraft will arrive unannounced at the next destination.

IN FLIGHT
10-25. IFR flight plans may be filed from the air under various conditions including the following:
• A flight outside of controlled airspace before the aircraft proceeds into IFR conditions in
controlled airspace.
• A VFR flight with IFR weather conditions expected en route in controlled airspace.
10-26. In either situation, the flight plan may be filed with the nearest AFSS or directly with the ARTCC.
An aviator who files with the AFSS submits the information normally entered during preflight filing,
except for point of departure, together with present position and altitude. The items required for an in-flight
plan are located on the inside back cover of the DOD FLIP IFR-Supplement. AFSS relays this information
to the ARTCC. The ARTCC then clears the aviator from present position or a specified navigation fix.
10-27. An aviator filing direct with the ARTCC reports present position and altitude and submits only the
flight-plan information normally relayed from the AFSS to the ARTCC. Traffic saturation frequently
prevents ARTCC personnel from accepting flight plans by radio. In such cases, the aviator is advised to
contact the nearest AFSS to file the flight plan.

CANCELING
10-28. An IFR flight plan may be canceled at any time when the aircraft is operating in VFR conditions
outside Class A airspace by stating “cancel my IFR flight plan” to the controller or air-to-ground station
with which communicating. After canceling the IFR flight plan, change to the appropriate air-to-ground
frequency and transponder code as directed and VFR altitude/flight level.
10-29. ATC separation and information services (including radar services, where applicable) are
discontinued. If an aviator desires VFR radar advisory service, he or she must specifically request it. Other
procedures may apply if the IFR flight plan is canceled within areas such as Class B or Class C airspace.
10-30. If an aviator is operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport with an operating control tower, the
flight plan is canceled automatically upon landing. If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport without
an operating control tower, the aviator must cancel the flight plan. The aviator can cancel the flight plan
after landing by telephone or by radio while airborne and able to communicate with ATC. If there is no
FSS and air-to-ground communications with ATC are not possible below a certain altitude, the aviator can
cancel the IFR flight plan while still airborne and able to communicate with ATC by radio. When
following this procedure, be certain that the remainder of the flight can be conducted under VFR. The
aviator should expeditiously cancel the IFR flight plan because this allows other IFR traffic to use the
airspace.

SECTION III – CLEARANCES

10-31. An ATC clearance allows an aircraft to proceed under specified traffic conditions within
controlled airspace for the purpose of providing separation between known aircraft. A flight filed for a
short distance at a relatively low altitude in an area of low traffic density might receive a clearance as in the
following example.

Clearance Example 1
“Army 12345, cleared to Andalusia-Opp airport direct, cruise 5,000.”

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

10-32. The term cruise in this clearance means that the aviator is authorized to fly at any altitude from the
minimum IFR altitude up to and including 5,000 feet. The aviator may level off at any altitude within this
block of airspace. A climb or descent within the block may be made at the aviator’s discretion. However,
once the aviator has reported leaving an altitude within the block, the aircraft may not return to that altitude
without further ATC clearance.
10-33. When ATC issues a cruise clearance with an unpublished route, an appropriate crossing altitude is
specified to ensure terrain clearance until the aircraft reaches a fix, point, or route where altitude
information is available. The crossing altitude ensures IFR obstruction clearance to the point at which the
aircraft enters a segment of a published route or IAP. Once a flight plan is filed, ATC issues clearance with
appropriate instructions as in the following clearing examples 2 and 3.

Clearance Example 2
“Army 12345 is cleared to Skyline airport via the Crossville 055 radial, Victor 18, maintain 5,000. Clearance
void if not off by 1330.”

Clearance Example 3

“Army 12345 is cleared to Wichita Mid-continent airport via Victor 77, left turn after takeoff; proceed direct to
the Oklahoma City VORTAC. Hold west on the Oklahoma City 277 radial, climb to 5,000 in holding pattern
before proceeding on course. Maintain 5,000 to CASHION intersection. Climb to and maintain 7,000.
Departure control frequency will be 121.05. Squawk 0412.”

10-34. Suppose that an aviator is awaiting departure clearance at a busy metropolitan terminal (the first
IFR departure from this airport). On an average day, the tower at this airport controls departures at a rate of
one every two minutes to maintain the required traffic flow. Clearance delivery may issue the abbreviated
clearance given in clearing example 4, which includes a DP.

Clearance Example 4
“Army 12345, cleared to La Guardia as filed, RINGOES 8 departure Phillipsburg transition, maintain 8,000.
Departure control frequency will be 120.4, Squawk 0700.” This clearance may be readily copied in shorthand
as follows: “CAF RNGO8 PSB M80 DPC 120.4 SQ 0700.”

10-35. The information contained in this DP clearance is abbreviated using clearance shorthand found in
the FAA Instrument Flying Handbook. An aviator should be aware of the locations of specified navigation
facilities, together with the route and point-to-point time, before accepting the clearance. The DP enables
the aviator to study and understand details of the departure before filing an IFR flight plan. The DP
provides information necessary to set up communication and navigation equipment and the departure
procedures required before requesting IFR clearance.
10-36. Once clearance is accepted, the aviator is required to comply with ATC instructions. The aviator
may request a clearance different from that issued if another course of action is more practical or aircraft
equipment limitations or other considerations make acceptance of the clearance inadvisable. Aviators
should also request clarification or amendment, as appropriate, whenever a clearance is not fully
understood or considered unacceptable because of safety of flight. The aviator is responsible for requesting
an amended clearance if ATC issues a clearance that would cause an aviator to deviate from a rule or
regulation or place the aircraft in jeopardy.

SEPARATIONS
10-37. ATC may or may not be able to provide separation information. Table 10-1, page 10-10, shows
ATC parameters regarding separation.

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Table 10-1. Air traffic control separation parameters

Air Traffic Control

Provides an IFR clearance w/separation Does not provide clearance for aircraft operating
• Vertically by assignment of different
altitudes. • Outside of controlled airspace.
• Longitudinally by controlling time • With VFR-On-Top authorized instead of a
separation between aircraft on the same specific assigned altitude.
course. • During climb or descent in VFR conditions.
• Laterally by assignment of different flight • In VFR conditions, because uncontrolled VFR
paths. flights may be operating in the same airspace.
• By radar including all of the above.

10-38. In addition to heading and altitude assignments, ATC occasionally issues speed adjustments to
maintain required separations. Example 1 shows an ATC-issued separation adjustment that involves
slowing the aircraft speed.

Separation Example 1
“Army 12345, slow to 100 knots.”

10-39. Aviators who receive speed adjustments are expected to maintain that speed, ±10 knots. If for any
reason the aviator is not able to accept a speed restriction, the aviator should advise ATC. ATC may also
employ visual separation techniques to keep aircraft safely separated. An aviator obtaining visual contact
with another aircraft may be asked to maintain visual separation or to follow the aircraft. A second
separation adjustment is given in the following example.

Separation Example 2

“Army 12345, maintain visual separation with that traffic, climb and maintain 7,000.”

10-40. Acceptance of these instructions is an acknowledgment that the aviator will maneuver the aircraft,
as necessary, to maintain safe separation. The aviator also acknowledges responsibility for wake turbulence
avoidance by accepting these instructions.
10-41. In the absence of radar contact, ATC relies on position reports to assist in maintaining proper
separation. Using data transmitted by the aviator, the controller follows flight progress. ATC must correlate
the reports with all others to provide separation; therefore, accuracy of reports can affect the progress and
safety of every other aircraft operating in the area on an IFR flight plan.

VISUAL FLIGHT RULES-ON-TOP

10-42. Aviators on IFR flight plans operating in VFR weather conditions may request VFR-On-Top in
lieu of an assigned altitude. VFR-On-Top is an IFR clearance allowing aviators to fly VFR altitudes, which
permits them to select an altitude or flight level of their choice (subject to any ATC restrictions).
10-43. By requesting a climb to VFR-On-Top, aviators can climb through a cloud, haze, smoke, or other
meteorological formation and then either cancel their IFR flight plan or operate VFR-On-Top. The ATC
authorization will contain either a top report (or a statement that no top report is available), and a request to
report upon reaching VFR-On-Top. In addition, the ATC authorization may contain a clearance limit,
routing, and an alternative clearance if VFR-On-Top is not reached by a specified altitude.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

10-44. An aviator on an IFR flight plan, operating in VFR conditions, may request to climb/descend in
VFR conditions. When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC authorization to maintain
VFR-On-Top/maintain VFR conditions, aviators on IFR flight plans must do the following:
• Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as prescribed in part 91.
• Comply with VFR visibility and distance-from-cloud criteria in part 91.
• Comply with IFRs applicable to this flight (minimum IFR altitudes, position reporting, radio
communications, course to be flown, and adherence to ATC clearance).
10-45. Aviators operating on a VFR-On-Top clearance should advise ATC before any altitude change to
ensure exchange of accurate traffic information. ATC authorization to maintain VFR-On-Top is not
intended to restrict aviators to operating only above an obscuring meteorological formation (layer). The
clearance also permits operation above, below, or between layers or in areas where there is no
meteorological obscuration. Aviators must understand that clearance to operate VFR-On-Top/VFR
conditions does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan.
10-46. Aviators operating VFR-On-Top/VFR conditions may receive traffic information from ATC on
other pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, when operating in VFR weather conditions, aviators are
responsible for remaining vigilant to see and avoid other aircraft. This clearance must be requested by the
aviator on an IFR flight plan. VFR-On-Top is not permitted in certain areas (such as Class A airspace);
consequently, IFR flights operating VFR-On-Top must avoid such airspace.

VISUAL FLIGHT RULES OVER-THE-TOP

10-47. VFR Over-The-Top is strictly a VFR operation in which the aviator maintains VFR cloud
clearance requirements while operating on top of an undercast layer. This situation might occur when the
departure airport and destination airport are reporting clear conditions, but a low overcast layer is present
in between. The aviator could conduct a VFR departure, fly over the top of the undercast in VFR
conditions, then complete a VFR descent and landing at the destination. VFR cloud clearance requirements
are maintained at all times, and an IFR clearance is not required for any part of the flight.

SECTION IV – NOTICE TO AIRMEN SYSTEM

10-48. Check applicable NOTAMs for each flight. Flight operations depend on thorough preflight
planning. For flight planning purposes, NOTAM information is available from the United States NOTAM
System (USNS) via the DOD Internet NOTAM Distribution System (DINS).
10-49. The DINS is composed of a large central data management system deriving information from the
U.S. Consolidated NOTAM Office at the FAA Air Traffic Control Command Center located at Herndon,
VA. Real-time NOTAM information is maintained and made available through the internet. Coverage
includes all military airfields and virtually all domestic, international, and FDC NOTAMs. If not covered
by DINS, the airfield does not transmit NOTAM data to the USNS. A plain language notice in red font is
displayed advising the user of that fact. In such a case, contact the desired location directly for NOTAM
information.

NOTICE TO AIRMEN
10-50. NOTAM is defined in the GP as a notice containing information (not known sufficiently in
advance to publicize by other means) concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any component
(facility, service, procedures, or hazards in the NAS) of which timely knowledge is essential to personnel
concerned with flight operations. NOTAM abbreviations are explained in the FIH and NTAP.

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NOTICES TO AIRMEN TYPES

MILITARY FLIGHT SAFETY
10-51. These NOTAMs contain flight safety related information about individual military aerodromes.
This information includes runway closures, NAVAID outages, frequency changes, and runway lighting.

FLIGHT DATA CENTER

10-52. FDC NOTAMs are regulatory documents containing important information such as amendments
to published approaches, chart changes, and TFRs. FDC NOTAMs are broken down into the categories of
general FDC NOTAMs; ARTCC FDC NOTAMs; airport, facility, and procedural FDC NOTAMs; and
special notices.

General Flight Data Center

10-53. General FDC NOTAMs apply to all aircraft—regardless of departure, destination, or flight route.
The general FDC NOTAMs contain information including, but not limited to, changes to U.S. Government
FLIPs, hostile airspace advisories, special FAA regulations, changes to SOPs in U.S. airspace, and any
other general information that might affect flight operations.

Air Route Traffic Control Center Flight Data Center

10-54. Applying only to aircraft flying through the associated ARTCC, these FDC NOTAMs are
identified by the three-letter center identifier beginning with a Z (ZHU – Houston Center). ARTCC FDC
NOTAMs may include, but are not limited to, changes to published minimum altitudes and routings,
in-flight hazards and advisories, special-use airspace activity, and airspace changes/restrictions.

Airports, Facilities, and Procedural Flight Data Center

10-55. These NOTAMs cover civilian and some joint-use fields. They include, but are not limited to,
changes to local procedures, changes/revisions/amendments to published instrument approach and
departure procedures, and changes/revisions to minimum altitudes.

Special Notices
10-56. These NOTAMs are FDC NOTAMs. They normally specify special FAA regulations dealing with
current events and issues of national security.

ATTENTION NOTICES
10-57. Attention notices (general notices) are broken into groups (table 10-2). Table 10-2 shows the
abbreviations for these groups.

Table 10-2. Attention notice groups

Group Abbreviation
All ATTA
North America ATTN
Caribbean & South America ATTC

CIVILIAN “D” (DISTANT) SERIES

10-58. D-Series NOTAMs contain information about individual civilian aerodromes. These include
runway closures and lighting, NAVAID outages, and frequency changes.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

CIVILIAN “L” (LOCAL) SERIES

10-59. Equivalent to a military airfield advisory, L-Series NOTAMs contain information that is not
widely disseminated and will not prevent use of an airfield’s runways. The information may, however,
affect the use of other parts of an airfield. Contact the local FSS governing the field to find these
NOTAMs.

NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION

10-60. NTAP is available on the Internet at http://www.faa.gov/NTAP/INDEX.HTM. If Internet access is
not available, ask base operations personnel for the hard copy. This book consists of four parts:
• Part 1 contains FDC NOTAMs and NOTAMs that meet the criteria of D NOTAMs and are
expected to remain in effect for an extended time.
• Part 2 contains revisions to minimum en route IFR altitudes and COPs as well as other
information regarding a wide geographic area or not suited for Part 1.
• Part 3 contains significant international NOTAMs including foreign notices, Department of
State advisories, and overland/oceanic airspace notices.
• Part 4 contains graphical notices of items that will affect flight operations in the following areas:
General Information, Special Military Operations, Major Sporting and Entertainment Events,
Northeast United States, Southeast United States, East Central United States, South Central
United States, Southwest United States, Northwest United States, Alaska/Hawaii, and Special
Airshow Section.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

10-61. The aviator accesses GPS NOTAMs through the DINS Web page by entering the four-letter
identifier KGPS. When entered, this identifier yields individual satellite information useful for updating
FMS database information. GPS NOTAM information regarding GPS approach availability is obtained by
entering the four-letter ICAO airfield identifier on the NOTAM home page. GPS NOTAMs must be
retrieved for all flights using GPS.

INTERNET DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

10-62. DINS (https://www.notams.jcs.mil or backup https://www.notams.faa.gov) is the current method
for aircrews to obtain real-time NOTAM data validated by the USNS, which includes domestic,
international, military, and FDC NOTAMs. DINS is frequently changed to improve content and format of
information provided. The information is broken down into multiple pages including the Home
Page/United States NOTAM Office, FDC NOTAMs, TFRs, Special Notices, ARTCC NOTAMs,
Radius/Flight Path Search, North Atlantic and Pacific Track Systems, reduced vertical separation
minimums (RVSM), European Theater, FM Immunity, and ICAO Search/Listing. DINS provides a
plain-language notice, highlighted in red, when a requested location is not in the U.S. NOTAM System. If
the requested location is not covered, NOTAM information is not transmitted for the USNS. Contact the
requested location to receive NOTAM information.

HOME PAGE/UNITED STATES OFFICE PAGE

10-63. Check for NOTAMs by inputting the four-letter ICAO airfield identifiers in the space provided for
Flight Safety & Local NOTAMs. The user can enter up to 10 ICAO identifiers at any one time. Flight
information region (FIR) identifiers, MOA names, special-use airspace identifiers, and ARTCC identifiers
(to check their NOTAMs as well as KFDC and KGPS to check FDC and GPS NOTAMs respectively) may
be entered. GPS NOTAMs must be retrieved before flights using GPS. Click the “View NOTAMs” button
to view current NOTAMs for the selections. NOTAMs are displayed in plain-language text with the
tracking number unless raw format is selected. When raw format is selected, NOTAMs are presented in the

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international, machine-readable, ICAO code format with multiple report fields, NOTAM series, and
NOTAM tracking numbers displayed.

FLIGHT DATA CENTER PAGE

10-64. The “FDC TFR, Special Notices and ARTCC” page offers the flexibility to extract TFRs from the
FDC NOTAMs and various ARTCC area NOTAMs. Click on the “TFR Only” button, and then select the
ARTCCs of interest.

Note. For those interested in all ARTCC TFRs, click on the All ARTCC TFRs button. Use the
optional “ARTCC Special Notices” checkbox to add “FDC Special Notices” with the TFR
request.

RADIUS/FLIGHT PATH SEARCH

10-65. The radius search page allows the user to input an ICAO identifier or latitude/longitude and
receive NOTAMs within a specified radius of that location. The NOTAMs listed include surrounding
airports and NAVAIDs, ARTCCs, universal information regions (UIRs), and FIRs. The flight-path search
page allows the user to input ICAO identifiers for departure and arrival fields as well as several en route
locations. The user can select to receive any of the NOTAMS specified above within a specified nautical
mile buffer in addition to FDC NOTAMs. Special-use airspace NOTAMs are also available with the radius
and flight-path search pages.

Note. Local NOTAMs are not displayed on these pages. Check for local NOTAMs from the
DINS home page for military airfields or the local FSS for civilian fields.

TRACK SYSTEMS
10-66. This section provides aircrews with daily message traffic regarding the North Atlantic Track
System (NATS) and Pacific tracks. Other parts of the organized track system will be added in the future.

REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMUMS

10-67. RVSM NOTAMs are broken out by FIR and the controlling ATC center. They are displayed
alphabetically by their ICAO identifier. Aircrews are encouraged to frequently check the FAA RVSM Web
site at http://www.faa.gov/ats/ato/rvsm1.htm for updates.

Note. There could be as many as 90 active RVSM notices, and it may take about 15 to 20
seconds to retrieve the data.

EUROPEAN THEATER
10-68. This page provides data from the U.S. Army Flight Operations Detachment Europe (AFOD) and
contains NOTAMs on airfields, airspace, navigation/communications, special notices, and updates
throughout the European theater. This page also covers FM immunity information for Europe, Africa, and
Middle East AOs as well as Bird Activity NOTAMs (BIRDTAMS) issued by the German Military
Geophysical Office.

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European Central Airspace Reservation Facility Page

10-69. NOTAMs concerning operations and airspace controlled by the European Central Airspace
Reservation Facility (EUCARF) can be obtained through this page. Information includes airspace,
refueling tracks, and altitude reservations (ALTRVs) currently reserved through EUCARF.

Frequency Modulation Immunity

10-70. Covering Europe, Africa, and Middle East AOs, this page provides a consolidated listing of FM
immunity NOTAM and country guidance applicable to DOD FLIP. Information is depicted by DOD FLIP
documents and followed by individual country limitations, guidance, and NOTAMS. Listed countries
require FM-immune receivers unless otherwise noted. Countries not listing any information are assumed to
have implemented ICAO Annex 10 requirements for FM immunity.

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION SEARCH/LISTING PAGES

10-71. Use this site to search the DINS database for an ICAO airport and country by inputting the ICAO
identifier. The Listing Page provides a geographic listing of all sites covered by DINS, allowing the user to
find the four-letter identifier of the desired airfield by selecting the country (and state in the continental
United States [CONUS]) to determine if an airfield is covered by DINS and the USNS. Special-use
airspace identifiers are listed at the bottom of each state listing on the Listing Page.

THE FEDERAL ADMINISTRATION AGENCY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

10-72. Unlike DINS, which allows aviators to check their own NOTAMs, the FAA NOTAM Distribution
System is based on a verbal briefing system. To obtain a verbal briefing, contact a FSS by calling
1-800-WX-BRIEF. The FSS briefer will provide the NOTAM D information for any field requested.
NOTAM L information must be requested from the servicing FSS or directly from the airfield. Flight
Service Stations maintain a file of FDC NOTAMs affecting conditions within 400 miles of their facility.
FDC information concerning conditions more than 400 miles away from the FSS or information that is
already published in the NTAP is given only on request. The FSS briefer assumes that the aviator has
looked at the appropriate sections of the Notices to Airman Publication. They will not brief the information
contained in the NTAP unless specifically requested.

WEB PAGE LIMITATIONS

10-73. The DINS web page, while updating on a real-time basis, does not autorefresh information. This
means that while the page is current up-to-the-minute when the aviator originally accesses it, no further
updates are received unless the page is refreshed by clicking VIEW—REFRESH or by reentering the
selected ICAO identifiers and clicking on “view notices.” New NOTAMs will contain a tracking number
and should be sorted in increasing numerical order (oldest to newest). Use caution because various
numbering formats are used depending on the type of NOTAM displayed. The newest NOTAMs may not
necessarily be at the bottom of the complete list of NOTAMs for a particular ICAO location. Recheck the
NOTAM Web site before all flights to ensure receipt of the latest NOTAMs.

SECTION V – NAVIGATION OPTIONS IN THE NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM

10-74. The two methods of navigating in the NAS are on airways and off airways. Specific procedures
for filing are found in FLIP General Planning unless noted otherwise.

ON AIRWAYS
10-75. The two fixed route systems established for air navigation purposes are the VOR and low/medium
frequency (L/MF) system and the jet route system. To the extent possible, these route systems are aligned
in an overlying manner to facilitate transition between each. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aviators

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are required to adhere to the centerline of airways or routes being flown. Special attention must be given to
this requirement during course changes. Turns that begin at or after fix passage may exceed airway or route
boundaries. Thus, the FAA expects aviators to lead turns and take other actions considered necessary
during course changes to adhere as closely as possible to the airways or route being flown. Aviators should
attempt to adhere to course centerline whenever possible.
10-76. The VOR and L/MF airway system consists of airways designated from 1,200 feet above the
surface (in some instances, higher) up to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL. These airways are depicted
on en route low-altitude charts:
• Except in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, VOR airways are based solely on VOR or
VORTAC NAVAIDs and are identified by a “V” (Victor) followed by the airway number
(V12); segments of VOR airways in Alaska and North Carolina (V290) are based on L/MF
NAVAIDs and charted in brown, instead of black, on en route charts. To make the transition
from one airway to another at an unnamed intersection, enter the designations of the two
airways, separated by a space (YKM V4 V187 TCM).
• The L/MF airways (colored airways) are based solely on L/MF NAVAIDs, depicted in brown
on aeronautical charts, and identified by color name and number (Amber One). Green and red
airways are plotted east and west. Amber and blue airways run north and south. Except for G13
in North Carolina, the colored airway system exists only in Alaska.
10-77. The Jet Route system consists of jet routes established in Class A airspace. These routes are
depicted on en route high-altitude charts. On aeronautical charts, jet routes are depicted in black and are
identified by a “J” (Jet), followed by the airway number (J12). Jet routes are based solely on VOR or
VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska). Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF
NAVAIDs and are charted in brown on en route charts.

AREA NAVIGATION ROUTES

10-78. RNAV is a method of navigation permitting aircraft operations on any desired course within the
coverage and capabilities of the aircraft onboard navigation equipment. Designated area navigation routes
are permanently published and charted airway routes based on area navigation equipment. They are
available to aircraft with RNAV capability.

REQUIRED EQUIPMENT
10-79. FAA AC 90-45 outlines the RNAV equipment specifications for certification within the NAS. The
major types of appropriate equipment are the following:
• VORTAC referenced or course line computer (CLC) systems.
• INS units.
• Microwave landing system (MLS)/RNAV equipment, which provides area navigation with
reference to an MLS ground facility; aircraft must stay within range of the navigation station.
• GPS.

OFF AIRWAYS (DIRECT)

10-80. Aviators can use several methods to fly off the airway system. This system is otherwise known as
direct flight.

NAVIGATIONAL AID USE

10-81. The absence of airway identifiers between fixes/NAVAIDs on a flight plan indicates direct flight.
Aircraft may file along a direct course between NAVAIDs as long as the aircraft does not exceed the
limitations of the NAVAIDs being used to define the course. For example, an “L” class VORTAC is only
usable below 18,000 feet MSL and within 40 nautical miles of the station. NAVAID limitations can be
found in the front of the FLIP IFR Supplement.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

DEGREE-DISTANCE ROUTE DEFINITION

10-82. Degree-distance route definition is a military-only privilege that allows certain aircraft to exceed
the NAVAID limitations imposed by NAVAID-to-NAVAID filing restrictions. The specific procedures for
filing and using degree-distance route definitions are published in FAA Order 7110.65. The use of
degree-distance criteria is limited to aircraft performing specialized military missions.

RANDOM AREA NAVIGATION ROUTES

10-83. Random RNAV routes are direct routes flown between any two points, based on aircraft onboard
RNAV capability, and defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets
from established routes/airways at a specified distance and direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required
on all random RNAV routes within the National Airspace System. Factors that ATC will consider in
approving random RNAV routes include the capability to provide radar monitoring and compatibility with
traffic volume and flow. ATC will monitor each flight with radar; however, navigation on the random
RNAV route is the responsibility of the aviator. Paragraph 10-79 describes acceptable RNAV equipment.

SECTION VI – DEPARTURES

DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
10-84. DPs are designed to expedite clearance delivery, facilitate transition between takeoff and en route
operations, and ensure adequate obstacle clearance. DPs provide aviators with departure routing clearance
information in both graphic and textual form. To simplify clearances, DPs are established for the most
frequently used departure routes in areas of high traffic activity. A DP will normally be used where such
departures are available because this is advantageous to both users and ATC (Figure 10-5, page 10-18).
10-85. DPs can be found after the charted approaches for a particular airport/airfield in DOD FLIP
(Terminal) Low Altitude United States volumes. The aviator should remember the following points when
filing IFR out of terminal areas where DPs are in use:
• Aviators operating IFR aircraft from locations where DP procedures are in effect may expect an
ATC clearance containing a DP; the use of a DP requires aviator possession of at least the
textual description of the approved DP.
• If an aviator does not possess a preprinted DP or, for any other reason, does not wish to use a
DP, the aviator is expected to advise ATC; notification is accomplished by filing “NO DP” in
the remarks section of the filed flight plan or by advising ATC.
• When accepting a DP in the clearance, the aviator must comply with the DP.

DIVERSE DEPARTURE
10-86. An aviator may have to file a flight plan from an airfield where diverse departures are not
authorized. If so, the aviator is required to fly the approved DP assigned by ATC.
10-87. When an instrument approach is initially developed for an airport, the procedure designer also
does an assessment for departures. If an aircraft turns in any direction from a runway and is clear of
obstacles, that runway meets diverse departure criteria and no DP is developed. At busier airports, there
may be a need to develop DPs to increase efficiency and reduce communications and departure delays as
opposed to obstacle avoidance.
10-88. If no IFR DP is published, climb runway heading to 400 feet above the departure end of runway
elevation; turn in the shortest direction to the first filed point. This procedure keeps the aircraft clear of
terrain and obstructions as long as the climb is at 200 FPNM, unless the aircraft is required to level off by a
crossing restriction, until it reaches the minimum IFR altitude. The 40:1 OIS begins at the DER and slopes
upward at 152 FPNM until the aircraft reaches the minimum IFR altitude or entering the en route structure.

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Figure 10-5. Departure procedure

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

10-89. If diverse departures are not authorized, consider AIM information and make the following
checks:
• Before departing an airport on an IFR flight, consider the type of terrain and other obstacles on
or near the departure airport.
• Comply with nonstandard IFR minimums and DPs.
• Always follow the specific ATC departure instructions.
10-90. Aviators must be aware that diverse departure criteria are based solely on an aircraft’s ability to
operate within the standard departure envelope for that specific category of aircraft and do not consider
degraded climb capability because of equipment malfunction, terminal aid to navigation degradation, or
special aircrew qualification requirements. The AIM indicates that obstacle clearance responsibility rests
with the aviator when choosing to climb in visual conditions in lieu of flying a DP and/or depart under
increased takeoff minima rather than fly the DP.

RADAR CONTROLLED DEPARTURE

10-91. An aviator departing IFR from airports in congested areas normally receives navigational guidance
from departure control by radar vector. When the departure is to be vectored immediately following
takeoff, the aviator is advised before takeoff of the initial heading to be flown. This information is vital in
the case two-way radio communications are lost during departure.
10-92. Following takeoff, contact departure control on the assigned frequency when advised to do so by
the control tower. At this time, departure control verifies radar contact and gives headings, altitude, and
climb instructions to move the aircraft quickly and safely out of the terminal area. Fly the assigned
headings and altitudes until the controller provides aircraft position with respect to the route given in the
clearance, whom to contact next, and to “resume your own navigation.” Departure control vectors the
aircraft to either a navigation facility or an en route position appropriate to the departure clearance, or the
flight is transferred to a controller with further radar surveillance capabilities.
10-93. A radar-controlled departure does not relieve aviator responsibilities as PC. Be prepared before
takeoff to conduct navigation according to ATC clearance with navigation receivers checked and properly
tuned. While under radar control, monitor instruments to ensure continuous orientation to the route
specified in the clearance and record the time over designated checkpoints.

DEPARTURE FROM AIRPORTS WITHOUT AN OPERATING

CONTROL TOWER
10-94. When departing from airports that have neither an operating tower nor an FSS, telephone the flight
plan to the nearest ATC facility at least 30 minutes before the estimated departure time. If weather
conditions permit, the aviator could depart VFR and request IFR clearance as soon as radio contact is
established with ATC. If weather conditions make flying VFR undesirable, again telephone and request
clearance. In this case, the controller issues a short-range clearance, pending establishment of radio contact,
and might restrict the departure time to a certain period (for example, “Clearance void if not off by 0900”).
This authorizes departure within the allotted period and authorization to proceed according to the
clearance. In the absence of any specific departure instructions, the aviator is expected to proceed on
course via the most direct route.

SECTION VII – EN ROUTE

PROCEDURES
10-95. Procedures en route vary according to the proposed route, traffic environment, and ATC facilities
controlling the flight. Some IFR flights are under radar surveillance and controlled from departure to
arrival, while others rely entirely on aviator navigation. Where ATC has no jurisdiction, an IFR clearance

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will not be issued. ATC has no control over the flight nor does the aviator have any assurance of separation
from other traffic.

POSITION REPORTS
10-96. The aviator is required to furnish a position report over certain reporting points unless in radar
contact with ATC. Position reports are required over each compulsory reporting point (shown on the chart
as solid triangle figures ) along the route being flown, regardless of altitude, including those with a
VFR-On-Top clearance. Along direct routes, IFR flight reports are required over each point used to define
the route. Reports at reporting points (shown as open triangle figures ) are made only when requested
by ATC. Position reports should include the following items (inside back cover of IFR supplement):
• Identification.
• Position.
• Time.
• Altitude/FL.
• Type of flight plan.
• Next reporting point and ETA.
• The name only of the next succeeding (required) reporting point along the flight route.
• Pertinent remarks.
10-97. Submit en route position reports to ARTCC controllers via direct controller-to-pilot
communications channels. Use appropriate ARTCC frequencies listed on the en route chart.
10-98. Whenever an initial center contact is to be followed by a position report, the name of the reporting
point is included in the communication. Including the reporting point alerts the controller that information
is forthcoming (for example, “Cleveland Center, Army 12345 at HARWL intersection”).

ADDITIONAL REPORTS
10-99. The aviator will make the following reports to ATC or FSS facilities without a specific ATC
request (found in the FIH):
• When departing a previously assigned altitude/flight level for a newly assigned altitude/flight
level.
• When an altitude change will be made if operating on a clearance specifying “VFR-On-Top.”
• When unable to climb/descend at a rate of at least 500 feet per minute.
• When the approach has been missed (request clearance for specific action—to alternate airport,
another approach).
• When the change in the average TAS (at cruising altitude) varies by 5 percent or 10 knots
(whichever is greater) from the filed flight plan.

Note. Aviators of aircraft involved in instrument training at military terminal area facilities may
omit the reports in the next two bulleted sentences when radar services are provided.

• Upon reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared, report time and altitude or flight level.
• When leaving any assigned holding fix or point.
• After any loss of VOR, TACAN, ADF, LF navigation receiver capability in controlled airspace,
complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability, or impairment of air-to-ground
communications capability; reports include aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree to
which the capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the nature and
extent of assistance desired from ATC.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Note. Other equipment installed in an aircraft may effectively impair safety and/or the ability to
operate IFR. If such equipment (airborne weather radar) malfunctions and if the aviator judges
safety or IFR capabilities to be affected, reports are made as above.

• Any safety-of-flight information.

10-100. The following reports are required when the aviator is not in radar contact:
• When leaving FAF inbound on final approach (nonprecision approach) or when leaving the
outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound on final approach (precision
approach).
• Whenever it becomes apparent that a previously submitted estimate is in error by more than
three minutes, the aviator submits a corrected estimate.
10-101. Aviators encountering unforecast weather conditions or forecast hazardous conditions are
expected to forward a report of such weather to ATC. ICAO position reporting is found in the FIH, after
the FAA position reporting requirements.

PLANNING DESCENT AND APPROACH

10-102. ATC arrival procedures and cockpit workload are affected by weather conditions, traffic density,
aircraft equipment, and radar availability. When landing at airports with approach control services and
where two or more IAPs are published, aviators are provided, in advance of arrival, with information on
the type of approach to expect or if the aircraft will be vectored for a visual approach. This information is
broadcast either on ATIS or by a controller. It is not furnished when visibility is 3 miles or better and the
ceiling is at or above the highest initial approach altitude established for any low-altitude IAP for the
airport. Although this information helps plan arrival actions, it is not an ATC clearance or commitment and
is subject to change. Fluctuating weather, shifting winds, or blocked runways are conditions that may result
in changes to the approach information previously received. Advise ATC immediately if unable to execute
the approach or if another type of approach is preferred. If the destination is an airport without an operating
control tower but has automated weather data with broadcast capability, monitor the ASOS/AWOS
frequency to determine current weather. Advise ATC, once receipt of the broadcast weather is obtained,
and state future intent.
10-103. Upon deciding which approach to execute, plan for descent before reaching the IAF or transition
route depicted on the IAP. When flying the transition route, maintain the last assigned altitude until hearing
“cleared for the approach” and intercepting a segment of the approach. The aviator may “request lower” to
bring the transition route closer to the required altitude for the initial approach altitude. When ATC uses
the phrase, “at pilot’s discretion” in the altitude information of a clearance, the aviator has the option to
start a descent at any rate and may level off temporarily at any intermediate altitude. However, once
vacating an altitude, the aviator may not return to that altitude. When ATC has not used the term “at pilot’s
discretion” nor imposed any descent restrictions, initiate descent promptly upon acknowledgment of the
clearance.
10-104. Descend at an optimum rate (consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft) to 1,000
feet above the assigned altitude. Then attempt to descend at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 FPM until the
assigned altitude is reached. If unable to descend at a rate of at least 500 FPM or if necessary to level off at
an intermediate altitude during descent, advise ATC. When required for speed reduction, descend at an
optimum rate except when leveling off at 10,000 MSL during descent or 2,500 feet above airport elevation
(before entering a Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area).

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STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL ROUTES

10-105. STARs are established to simplify clearance delivery procedures for arriving aircraft at certain
areas having high-density traffic. A STAR serves a purpose parallel to that of a DP for departing traffic
(Figure 10-6, page 10-23). The following points regarding STARs are important to remember:
• All STARs are found in the TPP or http://www.naco.faa.gov/index.asp?xml=naco/online/d_tpp ,
along with IAP charts for the destination airport. The AIM also describes STAR procedures.
• If the destination is a location for which STARs are published, the aviator may be issued a
clearance containing a STAR whenever ATC deems appropriate; the aviator must possess the
approved textual description.
• It is the aviator’s responsibility to accept or refuse an issued STAR; if the aviator does not wish
to use a STAR, he or she should advise ATC by placing “NO STAR” in the remarks section of
the filed flight plan or when first contacting ATC by radio.
• When accepting a STAR in the clearance, the aviator must comply.

INOPERATIVE/UNUSABLE COMPONENTS SUBSTITUTION

10-106. The basic ground components of an ILS are the localizer, glide slope, outer marker, middle
marker, and inner marker (when installed). A compass locator or precision radar may be substituted for the
outer or middle marker. DME, VOR, or NDB fixes authorized in the standard IAP or surveillance radar
may be substituted for the outer marker.
10-107. In addition, IFR-certified GPS equipment, operated according to AC 90-94, may be substituted for
ADF and DME equipment, except during NDB IAP. Specifically, GPS can be substituted for ADF and
DME equipment when—
• Flying a DME arc.
• Navigating to/from an NDB.
• Determining the aircraft position over an NDB.
• Determining the aircraft position over a fix made up of a crossing NDB bearing.
• Holding over an NDB.
• Determining aircraft position over a DME fix.

HOLDING PROCEDURES
10-108. Holding is maneuvering an aircraft in relation to a navigation fix while the aviator awaits further
clearance. The standard no-wind holding pattern is flown by following a specified holding course inbound
to the holding fix. This procedure is done by making a 180-degree turn to the right, flying a heading
outbound to parallel the holding course, and making another 180-degree turn to the right to intercept and
following the holding course to the fix (Figure 10-7, page 10-24). The holding pattern is nonstandard when
turns are made to the left. Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, aviators are expected to hold in a standard
pattern. The standard no-wind length of the inbound leg of the holding pattern is one minute at or below
14,000 feet MSL and one-and-a-half minutes above 14,000 feet MSL. DME holding patterns specify the
outbound leg length. If holding at a DME fix without specified outbound leg length, use the timing
procedures listed above. Depending on traffic and weather conditions, holding may be required. The ATC
clearance always specifies left turns if a nonstandard pattern is to be flown.

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Figure 10-6. Standard terminal arrival route

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Chapter 10

STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN (NO WIND)

10-109. The standard holding pattern is a racetrack pattern (Figure 10-7). The aircraft follows the specified
course inbound to the holding fix, turns 180 degrees to the right, flies a parallel straight course outbound
for one minute, turns 180 degrees to the right, and flies the inbound course to the fix.

Figure 10-7. Standard holding pattern—no wind

STANDARD HOLDING PATTERN (WITH WIND)

10-110. When complying with the holding pattern procedures given in the AIM, aviators may not be able
to fly a symmetrical racetrack pattern when wind exists. Aviators are expected to—
• Compensate for the effect of a known wind except when turning.
• Adjust outbound timing to achieve a one minute (one-and-a-half minutes above 14,000 feet
MSL) inbound leg; see Figures 5-6 and 5-7, page 5-5, for examples of calculating outbound
time. See Figure 10-10, page 10-28, regarding when to start outbound time.
10-111. Figure 10-8, page 10-25, illustrates the asymmetrical track that an aviator must fly to compensate
for a left crosswind. The aviator can compensate for wind by applying drift corrections to the inbound and
outbound legs and time allowances to the outbound leg.

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Figure 10-8. Standard holding pattern with drift correction

DRIFT CORRECTIONS
10-112. Knowledge of drift correction and TAS relationship can be useful, especially when course
guidance is not available (for example, during the outbound legs of a holding pattern or procedure turn).
The following technique may be used to determine approximate drift correction when the crosswind
component is known: Divide crosswind component by aircraft speed in nautical miles per minute as shown
in the following example.

Example of Drift Correction

30 knots crosswind and 180 KTAS [3NM per minute]
30 ÷ 3 = 10 degrees drift correction.

10-113. The aviator should compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and
outbound legs. When the aircraft is outbound, triple the inbound drift correction; if correcting left by 8
degrees when inbound, correct right by 24 degrees when outbound as shown in the following example.

HOLDING INSTRUCTIONS
10-114. When the aircraft arrives at the clearance limit before receiving clearance beyond the fix, ATC
expects the aircraft to maintain the last assigned altitude and begin holding according to the depicted
holding pattern. If no pattern is depicted, the aviator begins holding in a standard holding pattern on the
course upon which the fix is approached. Immediately request further clearance. When no delay is
anticipated, ATC will issue holding instructions at least five minutes before estimated arrival at the fix.
When an aircraft is three minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been
received, the aviator is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft crosses the fix at or below the
maximum holding airspeed. If holding instructions are not received upon arrival at the fix, hold according
to procedures in FLIP. For two-way radio failure holding procedures, refer to the FIH.
10-115. Where a holding pattern is depicted, ATC clearances specify the direction of holding from the fix.
The clearance is given in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (N, NE, E, SE) along with the name of
the holding fix (for example, “Cleared to DARED, hold south as published.”).

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Chapter 10

10-116. When a holding pattern is not depicted, ATC clearances specify the direction of holding from the
fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points, the holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the
beginning of the transmission as the clearance limit), and the radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on
which the aircraft is to hold. ATC also provides the leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (leg
length is specified in minutes on aviator request or if deemed necessary by the controller), and the direction
of turn (for left turns, the aviator requests or the controller states direction if necessary).
10-117. Time to expect further clearance (EFC) and any pertinent additional delay information is issued
for either a charted or uncharted holding pattern. ATC instructions are also issued when a delay will exceed
one hour or a revised EFC is necessary. In a terminal area having a number of NAVAIDs and approach
procedures, a clearance limit may not indicate clearly which approach procedures to use. On initial contact,
or as soon as possible thereafter, approach control advises the aviator of the approach type anticipated.
Ceiling/visibility is reported as being at or below the highest circling minimums established for the airport
concerned. ATC transmits a current weather conditions report and subsequent changes, as necessary.
Aircraft holding while awaiting approach clearance are advised if reported weather conditions are below
minimums applicable to their operation. In this case, ATC issues suitable instructions to aircraft desiring to
continue holding or proceed to another airport. According to AR 95-1, aviators may initiate an approach
regardless of ceiling and visibility.

STANDARD ENTRY PROCEDURES

10-118. Entry procedures in the AIM evolved from extensive experimentation under a wide range of
operational conditions. By following these standardized procedures, the aircraft remains within the
boundaries of the prescribed holding airspace.
10-119. Reduce airspeed to holding speed within three minutes of ETA at the holding fix. Speed reduction
prevents overshooting the holding airspace limits, especially at locations where adjacent holding patterns
are close together. The exact time to reduce speed is not important as long as arrival at the fix occurs at the
preselected holding speed within three minutes of the submitted ETA. If speed reduction and preparation
for fix identification take longer, adjust entry to the pattern and report the amended ETA. The aviator
should advise ATC if the aircraft exceeds maximum holding speed. All aircraft may hold at the altitudes
and maximum holding airspeeds shown in table 10-3.

Table 10-3. Holding altitudes and airspeeds

Altitude (MSL) (feet) Airspeed (KIAS)

MHA–6,000 200
6,001–14,000 230
14,001 and above 265

10-120. Maximum holding airspeeds can be limited by the following:

• Maximum airspeed of 210 KIAS in holding patterns from 6,001 to 14,000 feet (as depicted by
an icon).
• Maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS in holding patterns (as depicted by an icon) that are generally
found on IAPs applicable to Category A and B aircraft only.
• Maximum airspeed of 310 KIAS in holding patterns at Air Force airfields and 230 KIAS in
holding patterns at Navy airfields unless otherwise depicted.
• Maximum airspeed of 100 KIAS in holding patterns during copter/short takeoff and landing
(STOL) only approaches.

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION ENTRY PROCEDURES

10-121. Entry procedures enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within protected
airspace. The FAA recommends parallel, teardrop, and direct entries into holding (see Figure 10-9).

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-9. Holding pattern entry procedures

Parallel Entry
10-122. When approaching the holding fix from sector (a) in Figure 10-9, turn to a heading to parallel the
holding course outbound on the nonholding side for about one minute. Turn in the direction of the holding
pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course
inbound.

Teardrop Entry
10-123. When approaching the holding fix from sector (b) in Figure 10-9, fly to the fix, turn outbound
using course guidance, when available, or to a heading for a 30-degree teardrop entry within the pattern
(on the holding side) for about one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the
inbound holding course.

Direct Entry
10-124. When approaching the holding fix from sector (c) in Figure 10-9, fly directly to the fix and turn to
follow the holding pattern. All turns during entry and while holding are made at 3 degrees per second, a
30-degree bank angle, or a bank angle provided by a flight director system.

TIME FACTORS
10-125. The holding pattern entry time reported to ATC is the initial time of arrival over the fix. Upon
entering a holding pattern, the initial outbound leg is flown for one minute at or below 14,000 feet MSL
and for one-and-a-half minutes above 14,000 feet MSL. Timing for subsequent outbound legs is adjusted,
as necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Aviators begin outbound timing over or abeam the fix,
whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when the turn to outbound
is completed (Figure 10-10). Timing inbound begins at the completion of the outbound-end turn, wings
level (see Figure 10-6, page 10-23, for identification of the outbound end).

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Chapter 10

Figure 10-10. Holding and outbound timing

10-126. ATC issues an EFC time in holding clearances. The purpose of the EFC time is twofold. First, the
EFC lets the aviator know how long that he or she is expected to remain in a holding pattern. Second, it
provides him or her with a clearance time to leave the holding pattern if two-way radio communications
failure occurs. ATC may provide an earlier clearance to depart the holding pattern and should provide a
clearance to depart as EFC time approaches. If an aviator does not receive further clearance before
reaching the EFC, he or she should request clearance to leave holding or a revised EFC time from ATC.
ATC must know the time leaving the holding fix before succeeding aircraft can be cleared to the airspace
that the aircraft has vacated. Leave the holding fix—
• When ATC issues either further clearance en route or approach clearance.
• As prescribed in part 91 (for IFR operations; two-way radio communications failure, and
responsibility and authority of the PC).

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

• After canceling the IFR flight plan, if holding in VFR conditions.

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT HOLDING

10-127. The same entry and holding procedures apply to DME holding except distances (nautical miles)
are used instead of time values. The length of the outbound leg is specified by the controller, and the end of
this leg is determined by the DME readout.

SECTION VIII – APPROACHES

PUBLISHED PROCEDURE COMPLIANCE

10-128. Compliance with procedures on approach charts provides necessary navigation guidance for
alignment with final approach courses as well as obstruction clearance. Under certain conditions, a course
reversal maneuver or procedure turn may be necessary. This procedure is not authorized when—
• “No PT” appears on the approach course on the plan view of the approach chart.
• Radar vectoring is provided to the final approach course.
• A holding pattern is published in lieu of a procedure turn.
• A timed approach is executed from a holding fix.
• Otherwise directed by ATC.

APPROACHES TO AIRPORTS
INSTRUMENT LETDOWN
10-129. Unless otherwise authorized, when an instrument letdown to an airport is necessary, aviators
should use a standard IAP prescribed for that airport. IAPs are depicted on IAP charts and found in the
TPP or DOD FLIP (Terminal).
10-130. ATC approach procedures depend on facilities available at the terminal area, the type of
instrument approach executed, and existing weather conditions. ATC facilities, NAVAIDs, and associated
frequencies appropriate to each standard instrument approach are given on the approach chart. Individual
charts are published for standard approach procedures associated with the facilities in Figure 10-11.

• NDB
• LDA*
• VORTAC
• RNAV
• ILS
• VOR
• LOC
• VOR/DME
• SDF**
• GPS

* Localizer-type directional aid

** Simplified directional facility

Figure 10-11. Facilities with standard approach procedures

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Chapter 10

Full Approach
10-131. An IAP can be flown as a full approach or with the assistance of radar vectors. When flown as a
full approach, aviators conduct their own navigation using routes and altitudes depicted on the instrument
approach chart. This procedure allows the aviator to make the transition from the en route phase to the
instrument approach and then to a landing with minimal assistance from ATC. A full approach is requested
by the aviator and is most often used in areas without radar coverage, providing the aviator with a means of
completing an instrument approach during a communications failure.

Radar Vectors
10-132. When an approach is flown with radar vectors, ATC provides guidance in the form of headings
and altitudes to position the aircraft to intercept final approach. The aviator resumes navigation, intercepts
the final approach course, and completes the approach using the IAP chart. This method is often more
expedient than the full approach and allows ATC to sequence arriving traffic. An aviator operating in radar
contact can generally expect assistance of radar vectors to the final approach course.

WITHOUT AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER

10-133. When approaching a facility without a control tower (Figure 10-12, page 10-31), monitor the
AWOS/ASOS (if available) for the latest weather conditions. When direct communication between the
aviator and controller is no longer required, the ARTCC or approach controller clears the aircraft for an
instrument approach and advises “change to advisory frequency approved.” Aviators should expeditiously
change to the CTAF frequency because the ATC facility will not have runway in use or airport traffic
information. If arriving on a cruise clearance, ATC will not issue further clearance for approach and
landing.
10-134. If an approach clearance is required, ATC authorizes the aviator to execute his or her choice of
standard instrument approach (if more than one is published) with the phrase “cleared for the approach”
and the communications frequency change required, if any. From this point, the aviator has no contact with
ATC and should close the IFR flight plan before landing, if in VFR conditions, or by telephone after
landing. Unless otherwise directed by ATC, the aviator is expected to execute the complete IAP shown on
the chart.
10-135. Inbound aircraft should initiate contact about 10 miles from the airport and continue to monitor the
appropriate frequency until after landing and clear of the movement area. If the aircraft has only one radio
capable of transmitting on the ATC and CTAF frequency, do not leave the assigned ATC frequency until
instructed to do so. Inbounds should—
• Report altitude, aircraft type, and location relative to the airport.
• Indicate whether landing or over flight.
• Request airport advisory (if UNICOM or FSS).
10-136. Make position reports at the following locations on the approach:
• When departing the final approach fix inbound.
• When established on the final approach segment or immediately upon being released by ATC.
• Upon completion or termination of the approach.
• Upon executing the missed approach procedure.
• When exiting the active runway.
10-137. Most VFR pilots operating in the vicinity of the airport will not be familiar with fix names.
Locations should be referred to in the simplest terms that the average VFR pilot will understand. For
example, use the terminology “5 miles east” instead of “Kirby Intersection.”

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-12. Approach procedure without an operating control tower

10-138. When self-announcing the aviator’s position, as in the example, the aviator uses the following
format:
• Name of the airport, followed by the word “traffic.”
• The aviator’s call sign.
• The aircraft type in terms that the average VFR pilot will understand.
• The aviator’s location in terms that the average VFR pilot will understand.
• The aviator’s intentions.
• Name of the airport repeated.

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Chapter 10

Example of CTAF Call

“Folsom Field traffic, Army 12345, white Cessna King—Air, 5 miles north on the straight-in GPS Runway
20, touch and go, Folsom Field.”

Approach Control Present

10-139. Radar approved for approach control service is used to provide vectors with published IAPs.
Radar vectors provide course guidance and expedite traffic to the final approach course of any established
IAP. Figure 10-13, page 10-33, shows an IAP chart with maximum ATC facilities available. Approach
control facilities provide radar services and clear arriving aircraft to an outer fix most appropriate to the
route being flown with vertical separation. If required, approach control facilities also issue holding
information. If radar handoffs are effected between ARTCC and approach control or between two
approach control facilities, aircraft are cleared to the airport or to a fix located so that the handoff is
completed before the time that the aircraft reaches the fix. When radar handoffs are used, successive
arriving flights may be handed off to approach control with radar separation in lieu of vertical separation.
After handoff to approach control, aircraft are vectored to the appropriate final-approach course. Radar
vectors and altitude/flight levels are issued, as required, for spacing and separating aircraft; therefore,
aircraft must not deviate from headings issued by approach control.
10-140. Normally, an aviator is informed when necessary to vector the aircraft across the final-approach
course. When the determined approach course crossing is imminent and the aviator has not been informed,
the controller should be questioned. Do not turn inbound on the course unless approach control issues a
clearance. The clearance includes the final vector for interception of the final approach course allowing the
aircraft to establish this course before reaching the FAF. If the aircraft is already inbound, the aviator is
issued clearance before reaching the FAF. After the flight is established inbound on the final approach
course, radar separation is maintained with other aircraft. The aircraft is expected to complete the approach
using the NAVAID designated in the clearance (ILS, VOR, NDB, or GPS) as the primary means of
navigation. After passing the FAF inbound, proceed direct to the airport and complete the approach or
execute the published missed approach procedure. Radar service is automatically terminated when the
landing is complete or the tower controller has the aircraft in sight, whichever occurs first.

LOW-ALTITUDE APPROACHES
10-141. Low-altitude approaches are used for aircraft to make the transition from a low-altitude
environment to final approach for landing. Low-altitude IAPs assist in guiding aircraft to the FAF on
course, on altitude, and in final-approach configuration. ATC usually provides radar vectors to final;
however, be prepared to execute the full procedure when appropriate. The two broad categories of
low-altitude approaches are course reversals and procedure tracks. Before reviewing each type in detail,
listed below are guidelines applying to low-altitude approaches.

INITIAL-APPROACH FIX
10-142. Most approaches begin at an IAF. ATC normally clears the aircraft to the appropriate IAF and
then for the approach. Unless ATC specifically clears the aircraft otherwise, the aircraft is expected to fly
to the IAF and execute the full IAP as published.

FINAL-APPROACH SEGMENT
10-143. Some approaches depict only a final-approach segment starting at the FAF. In these cases, radar is
required to ensure proper alignment with the final-approach course at the appropriate altitude. When ATC
clears for the approach, maintain the last assigned altitude until established on a segment of the published
IAP.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-13. Instrument approach procedure chart with maximum air traffic control facilities
available

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ESTABLISHED ON COURSE
10-144. Established on course is defined as being within that instrument maneuver course standard as
specified within the aircraft specific ATM. For example, a UH-60 aviator would be considered established
on course when within 2.5 degrees of course centerline IAW TC 1-237, Task 1178, Standard number 2.
For an instrument landing system (ILS) approach, intercept and maintain the localizer course within 2.5
degrees of course centerline (two dots on the horizontal situation indicator [HSI]).

COURSE REVERSALS
10-145. The two common types of course reversals are the PT and the holding in lieu of procedure turn.
Do not execute either procedure in the following situations:
• When ATC gives clearance for a straight-in approach.
• When flying the approach via No PT routing.
• When the aircraft is established in holding and subsequently cleared for the approach and the
holding course and procedure turn course are the same.
• When ATC provides radar vectors to the final-approach course.
• When ATC clears the aircraft for a timed approach (when the aircraft is established in a holding
pattern and the aviator is given a time to depart the FAF inbound).
10-146. In any of the previous bulleted situations, proceed over the FAF at the published FAF altitude.
Continue inbound on the final approach course without making a procedure turn, holding pattern, or any
other aligning maneuver until the aircraft reaches the FAF unless otherwise cleared by ATC. If necessary
to make additional circuits in a published holding pattern or to become better established on course before
departing the FAF, it is the aviator’s responsibility to request such maneuvering from ATC. Historically,
these restrictions have created confusion between aviators and controllers. If ever in doubt about what
ATC expects, query the controller.

PROCEDURE TURN
10-147. One of the most common types of low-altitude course reversals is the procedure turn. Procedure
turns are depicted in the plan view of U.S. Government charts with a barb symbol ( ), indicating the
direction or side of the outbound course on which the procedure turn or maneuvering is to be
accomplished. The absence of the procedure-turn barbed arrow in the plan view indicates that a procedure
turn is not authorized for that procedure. The procedure-turn fix is identified on the profile view of the
approach at the point where the IAP begins. The FAA recommends a maximum airspeed of 200 KIAS
during procedure-turn course reversals. Four common techniques for executing a procedure turn (course
reversal) are the following:
• Teardrop pattern.
• Standard 45-degree turn (45/180).
• The 80/260 course reversal.
• Holding/racetrack pattern (see standard holding pattern above).
10-148. The outbound course direction of turn, distance within which the turn must be completed, and
minimum altitude are specified in the procedure. However, the point at which the turn may be commenced
and the type and rate of turn are left to the discretion of the aviator.
10-149. Regardless of the method chosen, plan the outbound leg to allow enough time for configuration
and any descent required before the aircraft arrives at the FAF. Ensure that the outbound leg length is
adjusted so that the flight stays inside the “remain within distance” noted on the profile view of the
approach plate. Remain-within distance is measured from the procedure turn fix unless the IAP specifies
otherwise. Turn to intercept the procedure-turn course inbound at the completion of the outbound leg.
10-150. When the NAVAID is on the field and no FAF is depicted, plan the outbound leg so that the
descent to MDA can be completed with sufficient time to acquire the runway and position the aircraft for a

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

normal landing. Consideration should be given to configuring on the outbound leg to minimize aviator
tasking on final approach. When flying this type of approach, the aviator can consider the FAF to be the
descent point from the procedure-turn completion altitude. Establish approach configuration and airspeed
before departing procedure-turn completion altitude unless the aircraft operator’s manual procedures
require otherwise.
10-151. Begin timing once the aircraft is outbound abeam the procedure turn fix. If the abeam position
cannot be determine while in the turn, start timing after completing the outbound turn. Fly one to three
minutes for the outbound leg. Do not descend from the procedure-turn fix altitude (published or assigned)
until the aircraft is abeam the procedure-turn fix heading outbound. If determining when the aircraft is
abeam is not possible, start descent after completing the outbound turn. Do not descend from the procedure
turn completion altitude until the flight is established on the inbound segment of the approach.

Teardrop Pattern
10-152. For the teardrop entry, start timing at A for two minutes from A to B (Figure 10-14). Reduce
airspeed to holding speed in this interval. At B, enter standard-rate turn for a 30-degree change of heading.
Time is one minute from B to C. At C, enter standard-rate turn for a 210-degree change of heading, rolling
out on the reciprocal of the original entry heading.

Figure 10-14. Teardrop pattern

Standard 45-Degree Turn (45/180) and 80/260 Course Reversal

10-153. Two other methods used to accomplish a procedure turn approach are the 45/180 (Figure 10-15,
page 10-36) and 80/260 (Figure 10-16, page 10-36) course reversal maneuvers (table 10-4). Procedures for
flying each maneuver are identical with the exception of the actual course reversal.

Table 10-4. Course reversal steps

45/180 course reversal 80/260 course reversal

Start timing at A for 2 minutes from A to B (Figure 10-15). Start timing at A for 2 minutes from A to B (Figure 10-16).
At B, turn 45° (standard rate). After roll-out, fly 1 minute to C. At B, enter a left standard-rate turn for a heading change
of 80°.
At C, turn 180°.
At completion of turn, time 45 seconds from D to E. At the completion of the 80° turn at C, immediately turn
right for a heading change of 260°, rolling out on the
Start turn at E for a 45° change of heading to reciprocal of
reciprocal of the entry heading.
heading at beginning of maneuver.

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Figure 10-15. 45/180 procedure turn

Figure 10-16. 80/260 procedure turn

10-154. Upon reaching the procedure-turn fix, turn in the shortest direction to intercept the procedure-turn
course outbound. Intercept and maintain the course outbound as soon as possible after passing the
procedure-turn fix. Do not descend from the fix altitude (published or assigned) until abeam the fix and on
a parallel or intercept heading to the outbound track. Do not descend from the procedure-turn completion
altitude until the aircraft is established on the inbound segment of the approach. At the appropriate time on
the outbound leg, begin the course-reversal maneuver. In both cases, comply with the published
remain-within distance.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Note. When flying procedure turns designed in FAA airspace, the aviator is not required to wait
until the aircraft is on a parallel or intercept heading to begin descent from the procedure turn fix
altitude; however, when the aviator flies these types of course reversals in ICAO airspace, this
procedure is mandatory because of different TERPS criteria.

HOLDING IN LIEU OF PROCEDURE TURN

10-155. Holding in lieu of procedure turn is another common way to execute a low-altitude course
reversal. Holding in lieu of procedure turn is depicted like any other holding pattern except the holding

pattern track is printed with a heavy black line ( ) in the plan view. The depiction of the
approach in the profile view varies, depending on where descent should begin. Enter and fly the holding in
lieu of procedure turn according to procedures previously described.
10-156. Descent from the minimum holding altitude is depicted two ways: descent at the holding fix
(Figure 10-17) or descent on the inbound leg (Figure 10-18). When a descent is depicted on the inbound
leg, the aircraft must be established on the inbound segment of the approach before the aviator begins the
descent.

Figure 10-17. Descent at the holding fix

Figure 10-18. Descent on the inbound leg

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Chapter 10

10-157. If cleared for the approach while holding in a published holding in lieu of procedure turn,
complete the holding pattern and commence the approach without making additional turns in the holding
pattern (altitude permitting). If an additional turn is needed to lose excessive altitude, request clearance
from ATC because additional circuits of the holding pattern are not expected by ATC. If the aircraft is at
an altitude from which the approach can be safely executed and the aviator is ready to turn inbound
immediately, he or she may request approval for an early turn from ATC.

PROCEDURAL TRACKS
10-158. There is no specific depiction for a procedural track, and it may employ arcs, radials, courses, or
turns. When a specific flight path is required, procedural track symbology is used to depict the flight path
between the IAF and FAF. The depiction, a heavy black line, shows the intended aircraft ground track
(Figure 10-19, page 10-39).
10-159. When over the IAF, turn immediately in the shorter direction to intercept the published track. If
the heading is within 90 degrees of the procedure track course, use normal lead points to intercept the
course. If the heading is not within 90 degrees of the course, overfly the fix and turn in the shorter direction
to intercept the procedure track course.
10-160. Conform to the specific ground track shown on the IAP. Where a teardrop turn is depicted, turn to
the inbound course at any time unless otherwise restricted by the approach plate (Figure 10-20, page 10­
40). Determine when to turn by using aircraft turn performance, winds, and the amount of descent required
on the inbound course; however, do not exceed the published remain-within distance.
10-161. A descent can be depicted at any point along the procedural track. When the descent is depicted at
the IAF, start descent when abeam or past the IAF and on a parallel or intercept heading to the procedural
track course. Except for initial descents at an IAF, be established on the appropriate segment of the
procedural track before descending to the next altitude shown on the IAP.
10-162. Low-altitude approaches may include arc-to-radial and radial-to-arc combinations. An arc-to­
radial altitude restriction applies only while the aircraft is established on that segment of the IAP. Once a
lead point is reached and a turn to the next segment is begun, consider the aircraft established on the next
segment and descend to the next applicable altitude. When an altitude restriction is depicted at a fix defined
as an intersection of a radial and an arc, the restriction must be complied with no later than the completion
of the lead turn associated with that fix. If the restriction is met during the lead turn, consider the aircraft
established on the next segment and continue to descend to the next applicable altitude restriction.
10-163. Maximum designed obstacle clearance is based on the ability to maintain the course centerline; use
position orientation and judgment to determine when to descend while attempting to intercept the
procedural track. Where a teardrop is depicted, do not descend from the turn altitude until established on
the inbound segment of the procedural track.

HIGH-ALTITUDE APPROACH
10-164. An en route descent or high-altitude instrument approach (Figure 10-21, page 10-41) enables an
aircraft to make the transition from a high-altitude structure to a position on and aligned with an inbound
course to the FAF, at FAF altitude in the final approach configuration. ATC will issue clearance for a
specific type of approach; omission of the clearance indicates that any published instrument approach may
be used. Unless ATC provides an appropriate clearance to deviate, fly the entire instrument approach
procedure starting at the IAF.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-19. Procedural track approach—arcing final

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Chapter 10

Figure 10-20. Procedural track approach—teardrop turn

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-21. High-altitude instrument approach plate

NON-DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT TEARDROP APPROACHES

10-165. Teardrop approaches are usually associated with VOR or NDB facilities.

Station Passage
10-166. When station passage occurs at the IAF, turn immediately in the shorter direction toward the
outbound course and attempt to intercept. Begin descent when the aircraft is established on a parallel or
intercept heading to the approach course and outbound from the IAF. When arriving at the IAF at an
altitude below that published, maintain altitude and proceed outbound 15 seconds for each 1,000 feet that
the aircraft is below the published altitude before starting the descent. When arriving at an altitude above
that published, the aviator should descend to the published IAF altitude before starting the approach. If
descent is required at the IAF, obtain clearance to descend in a holding pattern. Set the altimeter according
to FLIP.

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Chapter 10

Note. Use a descent gradient of 800 to 1,000 feet/nautical miles (8 to 10 degrees) to ensure that
the aircraft remains within protected airspace.

Fly Off
10-167. Some approaches use a fly-off (altitude or range) restriction before the aircraft starts descent.
Attempt to intercept the outbound course and comply with altitudes depicted on the approach chart unless
otherwise instructed by ATC. Because the aviator cannot be expected to determine accurate ground speed
during a constantly changing true airspeed descent, depicted range restrictions should not be shown on
non-DME teardrop high-altitude approaches. Penetration turns are annotated “left or right turn at
(altitude).” When a penetration-turn altitude is not published, start the turn after descending one-half the
total altitude between the IAF and FAF altitudes. One technique to determine the start-turn altitude is to
add the IAF and FAF altitudes and divide by two. Before reaching the penetration-turn altitude, set up the
navigation equipment to intercept the published inbound approach course. Recheck the altimeter and the
direction of the penetration turn.

Penetration Turn
10-168. Fly the penetration turn in the direction published. A 30-degree bank angle is used during the
penetration turn; however, bank may be shallower if undershooting course. If it is apparent that the aircraft
will undershoot the inbound penetration course, roll out on an intercept heading. Use normal inbound
course interception procedures to intercept the course.

Note. If a penetration-turn completion altitude is depicted, do not descend below depicted the
altitude until the aircraft is established on the inbound segment of the published approach
procedure. Obstacle clearance is based on attempting to maintain course centerline; an aviator
must use position orientation and judgment to determine when to descend while attempting to
intercept the course.

Descent
10-169. Continue descent to FAF altitude. Establish approach configuration and airspeed before reaching
the final approach fix unless the aircraft operator’s manual procedures require otherwise.

RADIAL APPROACHES
10-170. Radial approaches are associated with TACAN or VORTAC facilities. The entire approach track
is formed by one or more radials.

Crossing the Initial Approach Fix

10-171. When over the IAF, turn immediately in the shorter direction toward the approach course.
Intercept the published approach course using appropriate course-intercept procedures. When the heading
is within 90 degrees of the approach course, the aviator is not required to overfly the IAF and may use
normal lead points to intercept the course.

Descent
10-172. Start descent when the aircraft is abeam or past the IAF on a parallel or intercept heading to the
approach course. For DME approaches, crossing the arc is considered abeam the IAF. Intercept the course
and comply with altitudes depicted on the approach chart. Aircraft configuration and airspeed requirements
before the aircraft reaches the FAF are the same as non-DME teardrop.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

RADIAL AND ARC COMBINATION APPROACHES

10-173. Flight procedures are the same for both radial and arc combination approaches when using an arc
intercept. However, if established in a holding pattern and the IAF is located on an arc or a radial at a
distance less than required for a normal lead point, the aviator may turn early to intercept the arc. Start
descent when the aircraft is established on an intercept to the arc and abeam or past the IAF in relation to
the initial approach track. Aircraft configuration and airspeed requirements before the aircraft reaches the
FAF are the same as the non-DME teardrop. An arc or radial altitude restriction only applies while the
aircraft is established on that segment of the approach to which the altitude restriction applies. Once a lead
point is reached and a turn to the next segment is initiated, the aviator may descend to the next applicable
altitude restriction. These restrictions may be especially important to facilitate a reasonable rate of descent
to FAF altitude.

Note. When an altitude restriction is depicted at a fix defined as an intersection of a radial and
an arc, the restriction must be complied with no later than the completion of the lead turn
associated with that fix. If the restriction is met during the lead turn, consider the aircraft
established on the next segment and continue to descend to the next applicable altitude
restriction.

MULTIPLE FACILITY APPROACHES

10-174. The multiple facility type approach uses a combination of two or more VORs, NDB, and TACANs
to provide the track. Approach entry procedures are the same as prescribed for non-DME teardrop
approaches. The entire approach must be flown as depicted to comply with all course and altitude
restrictions. Aircraft configuration and airspeed requirements before the aircraft reaches the FAF are the
same as for non-DME teardrop approaches.

FINAL APPROACH
10-175. There are numerous types of differing final-approach guidance. In this chapter, final-approach
guidance is categorized as nonradar approaches, radar approaches, and procedures with a visual
component.

NONRADAR APPROACHES

Nonprecision
10-176. Nonprecision, nonradar approaches include VOR, TACAN, and NDB. Other approaches include
VOR/DME, localizer, back course localizer, and GPS.
10-177. The final approach starts at the FAF and ends at the MAP. The optimum length of the final
approach is 5 miles; the maximum length is 10 miles. According to AR 95-1, dual VOR equipment
requirements specified on approach charts do not apply to Army aircraft. Off tuning from the approach aid
to identify an approach fix is authorized. Dual VOR approach minimums apply.
10-178. Nonprecision approach procedures published with an ILS cannot always clearly depict the FAF
crossing altitude. Carefully review the IAP using the following guidance. The minimum altitude to be
maintained until crossing the fix following the glide-slope intercept point (normally the FAF will be the
next fix) is the published glide-slope intercept altitude, altitude published at that fix, or ATC assigned
altitude. For most nonprecision approaches, the glide-slope intercept altitude is the minimum FAF crossing
altitude.

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Chapter 10

Time
10-179. Avoid rapid descent requirements on final by crossing the FAF at the published altitude. Timing is
required when final approach does not terminate at a published fix as is the case with VOR, NDB, and
localizer. If timing is required for MAP identification, begin timing when passing the FAF or the starting
point designated in the timing block of the approach plate. This point is usually the FAF but may be a fix
not colocated with the FAF such as a LOM, NDB, crossing radial, DME fix, or outer marker. Time and
distance tables on the approach chart are based on ground speed; therefore, existing wind and TAS are
considered to accurately time final approach. If timing is published on the approach plate, such published
timing is a valuable backup in case of DME loss or other events precluding determination of the MAP; if
not, do not use timing to identify the MAP. If timing is not specifically depicted on the IAP, this is not an
authorized means of MAP identification. Timing is the least precise method for identification; therefore,
when it is not authorized for a particular approach because of TERPS considerations, timing information is
not published. If other means of identifying the MAP are published (DME), they become the primary
means to determine the MAP. When reaching the published DME depicting the MAP, do not delay in
executing the missed approach just because timing is not reached.

Minimum Descent Altitude

10-180. When a turn is required over the FAF, turn immediately and intercept the final-approach course to
ensure that obstruction clearance airspace is not exceeded. Do not descend to the MDA or step down fix
altitude until passing the FAF, if published.

Visual Descent Point

10-181. Arrive at MDA with enough time and distance remaining to identify the runway environment.
Depart MDA from a normal VDP to touch down at a rate normally used for a visual approach in the
aircraft.

Runway Environment
10-182. Descent below MDA is not authorized until sufficient visual reference with the runway
environment has been established and the aircraft is in a position to execute a safe landing. Thorough
preflight planning aids the aviator in locating the runway environment (lighting, final approach
displacement from runway). The definition of runway environment for nonprecision and precision
approaches is the same and consists of one or more of the following elements:
• Approach light system—the aviator may not descend below 100 feet above the TDZE using
approach lights as a reference unless red termination bars or red side-row bars are visible and
identifiable.
• Threshold, threshold markings, or threshold lights.
• Runway end identifier lights.
• Touchdown zone, touchdown zone markings, or touchdown zone lights.
• Runway or runway markings, and runway lights.
• Visual approach slope indicator.

Note. Most approach lighting systems serving runways where there is no electronic glide-path
guidance do not have red termination bars or red side row bars; therefore, one other element of
the runway environment must be sighted to descend below 100 feet above the TDZE.

Depending on the location of the MAP, descent from the MDA (once the runway environment is
sighted) has to be initiated before reaching the MAP to execute a normal (roughly 3 degrees)
descent to landing.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

10-183. In many cases, the minimum visibility required for the approach will not permit viewing of the
runway environment until the aircraft is beyond the VDP, accentuating the need to compute a VDP and
determine a point along the approach when the aviator no longer attempts to land. A common error is to
establish a high descent rate once the runway environment is in sight. This descent rate can go unnoticed
during an approach without visual glide-path guidance and may lead to a short and/or hard landing.
Caution is used to avoid accepting a long touchdown and landing roll.

Alignment
10-184. The final approach course on a nonradar final may vary from the runway heading as much as 30
degrees and still be published as a straight-in approach. The exception is a localizer approach.

Step-Down Fix
10-185. A step-down fix between the FAF and missed approach point is sometimes used. According to AR
95-1, dual VOR equipment requirements specified on approach charts do not apply to Army aircraft. Off-
tuning from the approach aid to identify an approach fix is authorized. Dual VOR approach minimums
apply. Fixes requiring radar for identification are depicted with the word RADAR appearing next to the
fix. Only ground-based radar, such as airport surveillance, precision, or air route surveillance radar, is used
to position the aircraft.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM APPROACH PROCEDURES

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

10-186. If predictive RAIM is not available, another navigation and approach system must be used,
another destination selected, or the trip delayed until RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. A
predictive RAIM check is accomplished before arrival to allow for crews to plan for an alternate means of
navigation. If a RAIM failure/status annunciation occurs before the final approach waypoint (FAWP), do
not commence the approach; coordinate for an alternate clearance.
10-187. If the receiver does not make the transition from armed to approach mode before the aircraft
reaches the FAWP (usually the transition occurs 2 nautical miles before), do not commence the approach.
If a RAIM failure/status annunciation occurs before the aircraft reaches the FAWP, do not descend to
MDA; instead, proceed to the missed approach waypoint (MAWP), via the FAWP, and perform a missed
approach. Contact ATC as soon as practical to coordinate for an alternate clearance.
10-188. If a RAIM failure occurs after the FAWP, the receiver, based on equipage, can continue operating
without an annunciation for up to five minutes to allow completion of the approach. Check the receiver
operator’s manual to ensure that the aircraft has this capability; if not and a RAIM flag/status annunciation
appears after the FAWP, climb to the missed approach altitude, proceed to the MAWP, and execute a
missed approach.

Flying the Approach

10-189. Do not fly the approach unless retrieved in its entirety from a current approved database.
Cross-check database waypoints against the published approach plate. If discrepancies exist, do not fly the
approach except when the FAWP altitude is raised above that shown on the published chart to ensure
adequate clearance at a step-down fix.
10-190. Before commencing the approach, determine which area of the TAA that the aircraft will enter,
using bearing and distance to the IF/IAF. Fly the full approach from an initial approach waypoint (IAWP)
or feeder fix unless specifically cleared otherwise. Entry from other than an IAWP does not assure terrain
clearance.
10-191. Some receivers automatically arm the approach mode, while others require manual arming.
Arming the approach mode switches the aircraft to terminal course deviation indicator scaling (+1 nautical

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Chapter 10

mile). If the IAWP is beyond 30 nautical miles from the airfield, course deviation indicator sensitivity will
not change until the aircraft is within 30 nautical miles of the airport reference point. Feeder route obstacle
clearance is predicated on terminal sensitivity and RAIM at the IAWP. For manual systems, aircrews must
ensure that the approach is loaded before being established on any portion of the approach.
10-192. When within 2 nautical miles of the FAWP with the approach mode armed, the receiver
automatically initiates a RAIM check and switches to approach sensitivity and RAIM (0.3 nautical miles).
Distance is provided based on active WP. Aviators must cross-check the active WP identifier to ensure SA.
Some operations (such as holding course-reversal maneuvers) may require manual intervention to stop or
resume automatic waypoint sequencing. Ensure that the receiver is sequenced to the appropriate waypoint,
especially if not flying the full procedure. If the aircraft is on vectors to final approach, ensure that the
receiver is set according to flight manual procedures. Being established on the final-approach course before
initiation of the sensitivity change at 2 nautical miles from the FAWP aids aviators in course deviation
indicator interpretation before descent to MDA/DA. Requesting or accepting vectors that causes the
aircraft to intercept the final approach course within 2 nautical miles of the FAWP is not recommended.
When the aviator receives vectors to final approach, most receiver operating manuals suggest placing the
receiver in nonsequencing mode before the aircraft reaches the FAWP and setting the course manually.
This setting provides an extended final approach course when vectors place the aircraft outside of any
existing segment aligned with the runway. Maintain altitudes until established on a published segment of
the approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside of the FAWP or step-down fixes are also considered.
10-193. Flying point to point on the approach does not assure compliance with published procedure;
proper RAIM sensitivity will not be available. The course deviation indicator sensitivity will not
automatically change to +0.3 nautical miles. Manually setting indicator sensitivity does not automatically
change RAIM sensitivity on some receivers.
10-194. Loss of final-approach guidance on an RNAV or a GPS approach procedure is annunciated
differently, depending on the particular avionics installation. In some aircraft, the CDI centers when the
“GPS Integrity” light illuminates and gives the illusion that the aircraft is on course. Ensure thorough
familiarity with aircraft failure annunciations, and discontinue approach immediately if course guidance is
questionable.

Final Approach
10-195. Do not descend to MDA, DA, or step-down fix altitude until passing the FAF. VNAV guidance
may be used to LNAV minimums; however, the aircraft must level off at the MDA if the runway
environment is not in sight. Because of temperature and pressure-altitude effects, aviators shall not use
VNAV guidance below published MDA or DA. Comply with step-down fixes depicted on the IAP. VNAV
guidance should provide clearance from all step-down fix altitudes; however, crews must monitor altitude
at step-down fixes to ensure compliance.

Missed Approach
10-196. To execute a missed approach, activate the missed approach after crossing the MAWP. GPS
missed approach procedures require aviator action to sequence from the MAWP to the missed approach
procedure. If the missed approach is not activated, the GPS receiver displays an extension of the inbound
final-approach course and displayed distance will increase from the MAWP. Do not activate the missed
approach before reaching the MAWP. Once the missed approach is activated, course deviation indicator
sensitivity is set to 1 nautical mile. Missed approach routings where the first track is via a course, rather
than direct to the next waypoint, require additional action from the aviator to set the course. Consult the
aircraft operator’s manual. Do not turn off the final-approach course before the aircraft crosses the MAWP.

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

10-197. The ILS is a precision, nonradar approach. In the United States, the glide slope, localizer, and
outer marker are required components for an ILS (Figure 10-22, page 10-47). If the outer marker is

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

inoperative or not installed, it may be replaced by DME, another NAVAID, a crossing radial, or radar if
these substitutes are depicted on the approach plate or identified by NOTAM. If the glide slope fails or is
unavailable, the approach reverts to a nonprecision approach system. If the localizer fails, the procedure is
not authorized. If the OM or one of its substitutes is not available, the procedure is not authorized.

Figure 10-22. Instrument landing system

Transition to the Instrument Landing System Localizer Course

10-198. The transition to the instrument landing system localizer course is performed by using radar
vectors or a published approach procedure. First, tune the ILS, as soon as practical during the transition,
and monitor the identifier during the entire approach. Set the published localizer front course in the course
selector window before attempting localizer interception. If the aviators is using a flight director system or
flight management system, the switches are positioned according to instructions in the aircraft operator’s
manual for intercept and final-approach modes of operation. Normally, manual selection of the final­

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Chapter 10

approach mode is delayed until the aircraft heading is within 15 degrees of the localizer course and the
course deviation indicator is within one dot of center. Use any available navigation facility (TACAN) to
aid in remaining position oriented in relation to the localizer course and glide-slope intercept point. The
glide slope has a usable range of 10 miles.

Accomplishing the Approach

10-199. Once the localizer course is intercepted, reduce heading corrections as the aircraft continues
inbound. Heading changes made in increments of 5 degrees or less usually result in more precise course
control. When on the localizer course, maintain glide-slope intercept altitude (published or assigned) until
intercepting the glide slope. Published glide-slope intercept altitudes may be minimum, maximum,
mandatory, or recommended altitudes and are identified by a lightning bolt ( ). When the glide-slope
intercept altitude is a recommended altitude, only comply with other IAP altitudes (FAF altitude for
example) until established on the glide slope. When on glide slope, cross-check the aircraft altitude with
the published glide-slope altitude at the outer marker/FAF to ensure that the aircraft is established on the
correct glide slope. Do not descend below a descent restrictive altitude (minimum or mandatory) if the
course deviation indicator indicates full-scale deflection. On approaches where the glide-slope altitude at
the outer marker/FAF is not published, use all means available to ensure that the aircraft is on the proper
glide slope and a normal descent rate is established. Airborne marker beacon receivers having a selective
sensitivity feature should operate in low-sensitivity position to ensure proper reception of ILS marker
beacons.

Using the Glide-Slope Indicator

10-200. Prepare to intercept the glide slope as the glide-slope indicator moves downward from its upper
limits. Determine the approximate rate of descent to maintain the glide slope. The vertical velocity required
depends on aircraft ground speed and ILS glide-slope angle. Slightly before the glide-slope indicator
reaches center position, coordinate pitch and power control adjustments to the desired rate of descent.
10-201. Pitch adjustments made in increments of 2 degrees or less usually result in more precise glide-path
control. As the approach progresses, smaller pitch and bank corrections are required for a given course or
glide-slope indicator deviation. During the latter part of the approach, pitch changes of 1 degree and
heading corrections of 5 degrees or less prevent overcontrolling.

Steering Commands
10-202. If using pitch and bank steering commands supplied by a flight director system, monitor flight-
path and aircraft performance instruments to ensure that the desired flight path is being flown and aircraft
performance is within acceptable limits. A dangerous error often occurs when the aviator is flying an ILS
approach on the flight director system: the aviator concentrates on the steering bars and ignores flight path
and aircraft performance instruments.

WARNING

Failure of the flight director computer (steering bars) may not

always be accompanied by the appearance of warning flags.

Cross-Check
10-203. Maintain a complete instrument cross-check throughout the approach, with increased emphasis on
the altimeter during the latter part. DA/DH is determined by the barometric altimeter. Establish a
systematic scan for the runway environment before reaching DA/DH.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Decision Altitude/Decision Height

10-204. DA/DH is the height at which a decision must be made during a precision approach to continue
the approach or execute a missed approach. Continued descent below DA/DH is not authorized until
sufficient visual reference with the runway environment has been established. A momentary deviation
below DA/DH without the runway environment in sight is only authorized with a proper missed approach
initiated at DA/DH.

RADAR APPROACHES

Precision and Surveillance Approaches

10-205. The two basic radar approaches are the PAR and ASR. The precision approach provides the
aviator with precise course, glide slope, and range information; the surveillance approach provides course
and range information and is classified as a nonprecision approach. Upon request, the controller provides
recommended altitudes on final approach to the last whole mile that is at or above the published MDA.
Recommended altitudes are computed from the start descent point to the runway threshold. At the MAP,
the straight-in surveillance system approach error may be as much as 500 feet from the runway edges.

Lost Communications
10-206. In preparation for radar approach, select a backup approach compatible with existing weather and
the aircraft, where available. Be prepared to fly this approach in case of radar failure or lost
communications. When experiencing lost communications, the aviator is automatically cleared to fly any
published approach unless the controller previously issued a specific lost-communications approach.
Attempt contact with the controlling agency if no transmissions are received for about one minute while
being vectored to final, 15 seconds while on final for ASR approach, and 5 seconds on final for PAR
approach.

Backup Approach
10-207. If unable to reestablish communications and maintain VFR, make the transition to backup
approach. Intercept the approach at the nearest point that allows a normal rate of descent without
compromising safety. Maintain the last assigned altitude or the minimum safe/sector altitude (emergency
safe altitude if more than 25 nautical miles from the facility), whichever is higher, until established on the
published approach.

No Backup Approach
10-208. If no backup approaches are compatible with the weather or the aircraft, the aviator advises the
controller, upon initial contact, of his or her intent in case of lost communications. If local conditions
dictate, the controller may specify the approach to fly when the aviator loses communications. The aviator
is responsible for determining the adequacy of any issued lost-communications instructions.

Voice Procedures
10-209. The radar approach is predicated on voice instructions from approach control or radar controller.
Repeat headings, altitudes (departing and assigned), and altimeter settings until the final controller advises
“do not acknowledge further transmissions.” During high-density radar operations, communication time is
limited. Keep transmissions brief and specific, commensurate with safety of flight. Do not sacrifice aircraft
control to acknowledge receipt of instructions.

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Chapter 10

Making the Transition to Final

10-210. The transition to final segment of the approach includes all maneuvering up to a point where the
aircraft is inbound and about 8 nautical miles from touchdown. A dogleg to final is considered to be part of
the transition to final segment.
10-211. During the transition to final approach, the radar controller directs heading and altitude changes,
as required, to position the aircraft on final approach. Turns and descents should be initiated immediately
after instructed. Perform turns by establishing a bank angle on the attitude indicator, which approximates a
standard rate turn for the TAS flown but does not exceed 30 degrees of bank. When aircraft or mission
characteristics dictate low turn rates, inform the controller; he or she can assist in clarifying lead points for
turns or corrections.
10-212. Weather information issued by the radar controller includes altimeter setting, ceiling, and
visibility. The controller is required to issue ceiling and visibility only when the ceiling is below 1,500 feet
(1,000 feet at civil airports) or below the highest circling minimum, whichever is greater, or if the visibility
is less than 3 miles. The controller furnishes pertinent information on known field conditions considered
necessary for safe aircraft operation. Request additional information, as necessary, to make a safe
approach. Use available NAVAIDs to remain position-oriented in relation to the landing runway and the
glide-slope intercept point. The controller advises of aircraft position at least once before starting final
approach.
10-213. Start the before-landing checklist (landing check), review approach minimums, and tune
navigation equipment to comply with lost communication instructions when practical. Determine the
approximate initial descent rate required on final approach by referring to the rate-of-descent chart located
inside the back cover of the DOD FLIP (Terminal) IAP volumes or by using one of the formulas for two
common glide slopes:
• A 3-degree glide slope equals ground speed multiplied by 10, then divided by 2, as shown in the
following example.
• A 2½-degree glide slope equals ground speed multiplied by 10, minus 100, then divided by 2.

Example of Glide-Slope Formula

For a final approach ground speed of 180 knots and a 3-degree glide slope, 180 times 10, divided by 2, equals
a 900 FPM rate of descent.

Accomplishing the Approach

Nonprecision (Airport Surveillance Radar)

10-214. The controller informs the aviator of the approach runway, the straight-in MDA (if a straight-in
approach is being made), and the MAP location and issues advance notice where the descent to MDA
begins. When the approach will terminate in a circling approach, furnish the controller with the aircraft
category. The controller will issue the circling MDA. Circling MDA for ASR approaches is found in the
DOD FLIP (Terminal) volumes. The circling MDA found on the individual IAP refers only to nonradar
approaches.
10-215. When the aircraft reaches the descent point, the controller advises descent to MDA. If a descent
restriction exists, the controller specifies the prescribed restriction altitude. When the aircraft is past the
altitude limiting point, the controller advises to continue descent to MDA. The descent rate should be
sufficient to allow the aircraft to arrive in time to see the runway environment and make a normal descent
to landing.
10-216. Because of possible different locations of the MAP, recommended altitudes may position the
aircraft at MDA at or slightly before reaching the MAP. Consider this in relation to the normal VDP
required for the aircraft. The controller issues course guidance, when required, and gives range information
each mile while the aircraft is on final approach. Approach guidance is provided until the aircraft is over

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

the MAP unless a discontinuation of guidance is requested. The controller informs the aviator when the
aircraft is at the MAP. Fly the aircraft at or above MDA until arrival at the MAP or until establishing visual
contact with the runway environment. The aviator may be instructed to report the runway in sight; if the
runway environment is not in sight, report it and missed approach instructions will be given. Depending on
MAP location, descent from the MDA (once the runway environment is in sight) is often initiated before
reaching the MAP to execute a normal (about 3 degrees) descent to landing.

Precision Approach Radar

10-217. The precision final approach, which normally occurs at 8 miles from touchdown, starts when the
aircraft is within range of the precision radar and contact is established with the final controller. About 10
to 30 seconds before final descent, the controller advises the aircraft that it is approaching the glide path.
When the aircraft reaches the point to start final descent, the controller states “begin descent.” At this point,
establish the predetermined rate of descent. Adjust power or use drag devices, as required, to maintain
desired airspeed or angle of attack. When the airspeed or angle of attack and glide path are stabilized, note
the power, attitude, and vertical velocity. Use these values as guides during the approach.
10-218. The controller issues course and glide-path guidance, and often informs the aviator of any
deviation from course or glide path. Controller terminology includes “on course,” “on glide path,”
“slightly/well above/below glide path,” or “slightly/well left/right of course.” Controllers may also issue
trend information to assist in conducting precision approach radar (PAR) approach. Examples of trend
information phraseologies used are the following: “going above/below glide path,” “holding above/below
glide path,” “holding left/right or course.” Trend information may be modified by using the terms “rapidly”
or “slowly” as appropriate. The terms “slightly” or “well” are used with trend information.
10-219. Corrections are made immediately after instructions are given or when deviation from established
attitude or desired performance is noted. Avoid excessive throttle, pitch, or bank changes. Normally, pitch
changes of 1 degree are sufficient to correct back to glide path.
10-220. Accurate heading control is important for runway alignment during the final approach phase.
When instructed to make heading changes, make them immediately. Heading instructions are preceded by
the phrase “turn right” or “turn left.” To prevent overshooting the desired course, the bank angle should
approximate the number of degrees to be turned, not to exceed a one-half standard-rate turn. At high final-
approach speeds, a large bank angle may be required to prevent a prolonged correction. In any case, do not
exceed the one-half standard-rate turn. After a new heading is directed, the controller assumes that it is
being maintained. Additional heading corrections are based on the last assigned heading.
10-221. The controller advises the aviator when the aircraft reaches the published DA/DH. DA/DH is
determined in the cockpit either as read on the altimeter or when advised by the controller, whichever
occurs first. The controller continues to provide advisory course and glide-path information until the
aircraft passes over the landing threshold, at which time the controller advises “over landing threshold.” To
provide a smooth transition from instrument to visual conditions, a systematic scan for runway
environment should be integrated into the cross-check before reaching DA/DH.
10-222. The controller ceases providing course and glide path guidance when—
• The aviator reports the runway/approach lights in sight.
• The aviator requests to or advises that he or she will proceed visually (“Cairns radar, runway in
sight, taking over visual.”).
10-223. An aviator’s report of “runway in sight” or “visual” alone does not constitute a request/advisement
to proceed visually, and the controller continues to provide course and glide-path guidance. If the decision
is made to discontinue the approach, based on aviator judgment or radar controller guidance, advise the
controller as soon as practical during execution of the missed approach.

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Chapter 10

No-Gyro Approach (heading indicator inoperative)

10-224. If the heading indicator fails during flight, advise the radar controller and request a no-gyro
approach. The final approach may be either precision or surveillance. Perform turns during the transition to
final by establishing an angle of bank on the attitude indicator that approximates a standard rate turn, not to
exceed 30 degrees of bank. Perform turns on final by establishing an angle of bank on the attitude indicator
that approximates a half standard-rate turn. If unable to comply with these turn rates, inform the controller
so that ATC may determine lead points for turn and heading corrections. Initiate turns immediately upon
hearing “turn right” or “turn left.” Stop the turn on receipt of “stop turn.” Acknowledge controller
commands to start or stop turns until advised not to acknowledge further transmissions. Do not use half
standard-rate turns on final approach until instructed; the controller may want standard-rate turns even on
final approach if abnormal conditions exist (such as strong crosswinds and turbulence).

OTHER APPROACHES
TIMED APPROACHES FROM A HOLDING FIX
10-225. Timed approaches from a holding fix are conducted when many aircraft are waiting for an
approach clearance. Although the controller will not specifically state “timed approaches are in progress,”
the assigning of a time to depart the FAF inbound (nonprecision approach), or outer marker or fix used in
lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach) indicates that timed approach procedures are being
used.
10-226. In lieu of holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the final-approach course to establish a
distance between aircraft, ensuring an appropriate time sequence between the FAF and outer marker or fix
used in lieu of the outer marker and airport. Each aviator in the approach sequence is given advance notice
about the time that he or she should leave the holding point on approach to the airport. When a time to
leave the holding point is received, the aviator should adjust the flight path to leave the fix as closely as
possible to the designated time. Timed approaches may be conducted when—
• A control tower is in operation at the airport where the approaches are conducted.
• Direct communications are maintained between the aviator and center or approach controller
until the aviator is instructed to contact the tower.
• If more than one missed approach procedure is available, none require a course reversal.
• If only one missed approach procedure is available, the following conditions are met:
Course reversal is not required.
Reported ceiling and visibility are equal to or greater than the highest prescribed circling minimums for the
IAP.
• When cleared for the approach, aviators should not execute a procedure turn.

APPROACHES TO PARALLEL RUNWAYS

10-227. Procedures permit ILS instrument approach operations to dual or triple parallel runway
configurations. Parallel approaches are an ATC procedure that permits parallel ILS approaches to airports
with parallel runways separated by at least 2,500 feet between centerlines. When parallel approaches are in
progress, aviators are informed that approaches to both runways are in use. During parallel approaches,
ATC diagonally separates or staggers aircraft; in simultaneous approaches, ATC directs aircraft side-by­
side on the approach (Figure 10-23, page 10-53).

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-23. Parallel and simultaneous instrument landing system approaches

10-228. Simultaneous approaches are permitted to runways—

• With centerlines separated by 4,300 to 9,000 feet.
• Equipped with final monitor controllers.
• That require radar monitoring to ensure separation of aircraft on the adjacent parallel approach
course.
10-229. The approach procedure chart includes the note “simultaneous approaches authorized runways
14L and 14R,” identifying appropriate runways. When advised that simultaneous parallel approaches are in
progress, aviators must advise approach control immediately of malfunctioning or inoperative components.
10-230. Parallel approach operations demand heightened aviator SA. The proximity of adjacent aircraft
conducting simultaneous parallel approaches mandates strict compliance with all ATC clearances and
approach procedures. Aviators must pay particular attention to the following approach chart information:
name and number of approach, localizer frequency, inbound course, glide-slope intercept altitude, DA/DH,
missed approach instructions, special notes/procedures, and the assigned runway location and proximity to
adjacent runways. Aviators exercise strict radio discipline, which includes continuous monitoring of
communications and avoidance of lengthy, unnecessary radio transmissions.

SIDE-STEP MANEUVER
10-231. ATC may authorize a side-step maneuver to either one of two parallel runways that are separated
by 1,200 feet or less, followed by a straight-in landing on the adjacent runway. Aircraft that execute a
side-step maneuver will be cleared for a specific approach procedure and landing on the adjacent parallel
runway. For example, “Cleared ILS runway seven left approach, side-step to runway seven right.” Aviators
are expected to commence the side-step maneuver as soon as possible after the runway or runway
environment is in sight. Landing minimums to the adjacent runway are based on nonprecision criteria and
are higher than precision minimums to the primary runway but are normally lower than published circling
minimums.

CIRCLING APPROACH
10-232. Landing minimums are listed on the approach chart under “CIRCLING.” Circling minimums
apply when it is necessary to circle the airport or maneuver for landing or when no straight-in minimums
are specified on the approach chart. The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart
provide a minimum of 300 feet of obstacle clearance in the circling area (Figure 10-24, page 10-54).

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Chapter 10

During a circling approach, maintain visual contact with the runway of intended landing and fly no lower
than the circling minimums until in position to make a final descent for a landing. If the ceiling allows, fly
at an altitude that more nearly approximates the aircraft’s VFR traffic pattern altitude. This altitude makes
maneuvering safer and brings the view of the landing runway into a more normal perspective.

Figure 10-24. Circling approach area radii

10-233. Figure 10-25, page 10-55, shows patterns that can be used for circling approaches. Pattern “A” can
be flown when the final approach course intersects the runway centerline at less than a 90-degree angle and
the aviator sights the runway early enough to establish a base leg. When sighting the runway too late to fly
pattern “A,” circle as shown in “B.” Fly pattern “C” if desirable to land opposite the direction of the final
approach and the runway is sighted in time for a turn to downwind leg. If the runway is sighted too late for
a turn to downwind, fly pattern “D.” Regardless of the pattern flown, the aviator must maneuver the
aircraft to remain within the designated circling area.
10-234. Sound judgment and knowledge of the capabilities and performance of the aircraft are the criteria
for determining the pattern flown in each instance. It is necessary to consider all factors when an aviator
flies a circular approach to include airport design, ceiling and visibility, wind direction and velocity, final
approach course alignment, distance from the FAF to the runway, and ATC instructions.

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 Instrument Flight Rules Information and Procedures

Figure 10-25. Circling approaches

MISSED APPROACHES
10-235. A missed approach procedure is formulated for each published instrument approach allowing the
aviator to return to the airway structure while remaining clear of obstacles. The procedure is shown on the
approach chart in text and graphic form and should be studied and mastered before beginning the approach.
10-236. When the aviator initiates a missed approach procedure at the MAP, the aviator establishes a climb
pitch attitude while setting climb power. Configure the aircraft for climb, turn to the appropriate heading,
advise ATC that the aircraft is executing a missed approach, and request further clearances. If initiating the
missed approach before reaching the MAP (unless otherwise cleared by ATC), continue to fly the IAP as
specified on the approach plate at or above the MDA or DA/DH before beginning a turn. If visual
reference is lost while circling to land IFR, execute the appropriate missed approach procedure. Make the
initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and maneuver to intercept and fly the missed approach
course. Aviators should immediately execute the missed approach procedure when—
• The runway environment is not in sight.
• Unable to make a safe landing.
• Directed by the controlling agency.
10-237. Missed approach procedures are related to FAF location. When the FAF is not located on the field,
the missed approach procedure specifies distance from the facility to the MAP. The airport diagram on the
IAP shows the time from the facility to the missed approach at various ground speeds, which are
determined from airspeed, wind, and distance values. This time determines when to report and execute a
missed approach if applicable minimums are not available. Missed approach instructions are provided
before starting final approach of an ASR or a PAR approach.
10-238. If an aviator decides to execute a missed approach before reaching the missed approach point, the
aviator should continue along the IAP routing at or above the MDA/DA/DH until reaching the missed
approach point. Climb to the missed approach altitude while following the IAP routing. Do not initiate any
turns on the missed approach until reaching the missed approach point. If ATC issues a vector on the
missed approach, consider this the new clearance.

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Chapter 10

SECTION IX – LANDING
10-239. ATC provides current visibility reports appropriate to the runway in use. These reports may be in
the form of prevailing visibility, runway visual value (RVV), or RVR. However, only the aviator can
determine if flight visibility meets landing requirements indicated on the approach chart. If flight visibility
meets the minimum prescribed for the approach, then the approach may be continued to a landing. If flight
visibility is less than that prescribed for the approach, the aviator must execute a missed approach,
regardless of reported visibility.
10-240. The landing minimums published on IAP charts are based on full operation of all components and
visual aids associated with the instrument approach chart being used. Higher minimums are required with
inoperative components or visual aids. For example, if the approach lighting with sequenced flashing lights
(ALSF)-1 approach lighting system is inoperative, visibility minimums for an ILS are increased by
one-quarter mile. If more than one component is inoperative, each minimum is raised to the highest
minimum required by any single inoperative component. ILS glide-slope inoperative minimums are
published on instrument approach charts as localizer minimums. Consult the “Inoperative Components or
Visual Aids Table” (printed on the inside front cover of each TPP) or “Inop Components Table” in the
supplementary enclosures of the DOD FLIP (Terminal) IAP charts for a complete description of the effect
of inoperative components on approach minimums.

LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS

10-241. LAHSO includes landing and holding short of an intersecting runway or taxiway, or some other
predetermined point on the runway other than specifically on a runway or taxiway. Previously,
simultaneous operations on intersecting runways (SOIR) were used exclusively to describe simultaneous
operations on two intersecting runways–either two aircraft landing simultaneously or one aircraft landing
and another departing. The term LAHSO incorporates SOIR and is expanded to include holding short of a
taxiway and predetermined points on the runway. Additional operations are outlined in FAA Order 7210.3,
chapter 10.
10-242. U.S. Army aircraft are not authorized to accept LAHSO clearances because of safety concerns.
Army aircraft types were omitted from FAA Order 7210.3, chapter 10, for these reasons.

LANDING FEES
10-243. Check the FLIP for airfields of intended use to determine if a landing fee is charged. If so, have
sufficient funds but consider that CFR Title 14, Part 152, appendix D, paragraph 26 states, in part, that “All
facilities of the Airport developed with Federal aid and all those usable for the landing and taking off of
aircraft, will be available to the United States at all times, without charge, for use by government aircraft in
common with other aircraft, except that if use by government aircraft is substantial, a reasonable share,
proportional to such use, of the cost of operating and maintaining facilities so used, may be charged.” If
paying a landing fee, obtain a receipt. If possible, relay the person’s name, organization, airport name, and
telephone numbers to the USAASA, Airspace Support Division.

Note. If using fixed base operator (FBO) services or facilities, payment may be required.
Marshaling and use of restrooms and lounge are not considered landing fees.

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 Chapter 11
Emergency Operations

Changing weather conditions, ATC, aircraft, and aviators are variables that make
instrument flying an unpredictable and challenging operation. Safety of the flight
depends on the aviator’s ability to manage these variables while maintaining positive
aircraft control and adequate situational awareness. This chapter discusses
recognition and suggested remedies for emergency events related to unforecasted,
adverse weather, aircraft system malfunctions, communication/navigation system
malfunctions, loss of SA, and inadvertent instrument meteorological conditions
(IIMCs).

SECTION I – EMERGENCIES
11-1. An emergency can be either a distress or

urgency condition as defined in the pilot/controller

Contents
glossary:

Section I – Emergencies ............................. 11-1

• Distress—a condition of being

threatened by serious and/or imminent

Section II – Air Traffic Control Requirements
danger and requiring immediate
and Responsibilities ................................ 11-6
assistance.

• Urgency—a condition of being concerned about safety and requiring timely but not immediate
assistance; a potential distress condition.
11-2. Aviators do not hesitate to declare an emergency when faced with distress conditions such as fire,
mechanical failure, or structural damage. However, some are reluctant to report an urgency condition when
encountering situations that may not be immediately perilous but are potentially catastrophic. An aircraft is
in an urgency condition the moment that the aviator becomes doubtful about position, fuel endurance,
weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety. This is the time to request
assistance—not after the situation has developed into a distress condition.
11-3. The PC is responsible for crew, passengers, and operation of the aircraft at all times. Both AR 95-1
and FAR 91.3 allow deviations from regulations during emergencies. This leeway allows the PC to make
the best decision to ensure safety of all personnel during these contingencies. Also, by declaring an
emergency during flight, that aircraft becomes a priority to land safely. Aviators who become apprehensive
for their safety for any reason should request assistance immediately. Assistance is available in the form of
radio, radar, direction finding stations, and other aircraft.

UNFORECASTED ADVERSE WEATHER

INADVERTENT THUNDERSTORM ENCOUNTER
11-4. An aviator should avoid flying through a thunderstorm of any intensity. However, certain conditions
may be present that could lead to an inadvertent thunderstorm encounter. For example, flying in areas
where thunderstorms are embedded in large cloud masses may make thunderstorm avoidance difficult,
even when the aircraft is equipped with thunderstorm detection equipment. Aviators must be prepared to
deal with inadvertent thunderstorm penetration. At the very least, a thunderstorm encounter subjects the

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aircraft to turbulence that could be severe. The aviator, as well as the crew and any passengers, should
tighten seat belts and shoulder harnesses and secure any loose items in the cabin.
11-5. As with any emergency, the first order of business is to fly the aircraft. The aviator workload will be
high; therefore, increased concentration is necessary to maintain an instrument scan. Once in a
thunderstorm, it is better to maintain a course straight through the thunderstorm rather than turning around.
A straight course will most likely get the aviator out of the hazard in the least amount of time, and turning
maneuvers only increase structural stress on the aircraft.
11-6. Reduce power to a setting that will maintain a recommended turbulence penetration speed as
described in the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual, and try to minimize additional power adjustments.
Concentrate on keeping the aircraft in a level attitude while allowing airspeed and altitude to fluctuate.
Similarly, if using autopilot, disengage altitude and speed hold modes because they only increase the
aircraft’s maneuvering–which increases structural stress.
11-7. During a thunderstorm encounter, the potential for icing also exists. As soon as possible, turn on
anti-icing/deicing equipment, if the aircraft is equipped with it. Icing can be rapid at any altitude and may
lead to power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication.
11-8. Lightning is also present in a thunderstorm and can temporarily blind an aviator. To reduce risk, turn
up cockpit lights to the highest intensity, concentrate on flight instruments, and resist urge to look outside.

INADVERTENT ICING ENCOUNTER

11-9. Because icing is unpredictable, aviators may find themselves in icing conditions although they have
done everything to avoid the condition. To stay alert to this possibility while operating in visible moisture,
aviators should monitor the outside air temperature (OAT).
11-10. Anti-icing/deicing equipment is critical to safety of the flight. If anti-icing/deicing equipment is
used before sufficient ice has accumulated, it may not be able to remove all ice accumulation. Use of
anti-icing/deicing will reduce power availability. Refer to the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual for use
of anti-icing/deicing equipment.
11-11. Before entering visible moisture with temperatures at 5 degrees above freezing or cooler, activate
appropriate anti-icing/deicing equipment in anticipation of ice accumulation; early ice detection is critical.
Detecting ice may be particularly difficult during night flight. The aviator may need to use a flashlight to
check for ice accumulation on the wings, fuselage, landing gear, and horizontal stabilizer. At the first
indication of ice accumulation, the aviator must act to circumvent icing conditions. Options for action once
ice has begun to accumulate on the aircraft are the following:
• Move to an altitude with significantly colder temperatures.
• Move to an altitude with temperatures above freezing.
• Fly to an area clear of visible moisture.
• Change the heading, and fly to an area of known nonicing conditions.
11-12. If these options are not available, consider an immediate landing at the nearest suitable airport.
Anti-icing/deicing equipment does not allow aircraft to operate in icing conditions indefinitely; it only
provides more time to evade icing conditions.

PRECIPITATION STATIC
11-13. P-static occurs when accumulated static electricity discharges from extremities of the aircraft. This
discharge has the potential to create problems for the instrument aviator. These problems range from
serious, such as complete loss of VHF communications and erroneous magnetic compass readings, to the
annoyance of high-pitched audio squealing and St. Elmo’s fire.
11-14. P-static is caused when an aircraft encounters airborne particles during flight (rain or snow) and
develops a negative charge. It can also result from atmospheric electric fields in thunderstorm clouds.
When a significant negative voltage level is reached, the aircraft discharges it, creating electrical

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 Emergency Operations

disturbances. To reduce problems associated with P-static, the aviator ensures that the aircraft’s static
wicks are maintained and accounted for. Broken or missing static wicks are replaced before an instrument
flight.

AIRCRAFT SYSTEM MALFUNCTIONS

11-15. Preventing aircraft system malfunctions that might lead to an in-flight emergency begins with a
thorough preflight inspection. In addition to items normally checked before VFR flight, aviators intending
to fly IFR should pay particular attention to antennas, static wicks, anti-icing/deicing equipment, pitot tube,
and static ports. During taxi, verify operation and accuracy of all flight instruments. The aviator must
ensure that all systems are operational before departing into IFR conditions.

GENERATOR
11-16. Depending on aircraft being flown, a generator failure is indicated in different ways. Some aircraft
use an ammeter that indicates the state of charge or discharge of the battery. A positive indication on the
ammeter indicates a charge condition; a negative indication reveals a discharge condition. Other aircraft
use a loadmeter to indicate the load being carried by the generator. If the generator fails, a zero load
indication is shown on the loadmeter. As a minimum, a caution light is installed to indicate a generator
failure. Review the appropriate aircraft operator’s manual for information on the type of systems installed
in the aircraft.
11-17. Once a generator failure is detected, the aviator must reduce electrical load on the battery and land
as soon as practical. Depending on electrical load and condition of the battery, sufficient power may be
available for an hour or more of flight or for only a matter of minutes. The aviator must be familiar with
systems requiring electricity to run and which continue to operate without power. The aviator can attempt
to troubleshoot generator failure by following established procedures published in the appropriate aircraft
operator’s manual. If the generator cannot be reset, inform ATC of an impending electrical failure.

INSTRUMENT
11-18. System or instrument failure is usually identified by a warning indicator or an inconsistency
between indications on the attitude indicator, supporting performance instruments, and instruments at the
other pilot station, if so equipped. Aircraft control must be maintained while the aviator identifies the failed
components. Expedite cross-check including all flight instruments. The problem may be individual
instrument failure or a system failure affecting several instruments.
11-19. One method of identification involves an immediate comparison of the attitude indicator with
rate-of-turn indicator and VSI. Along with providing pitch-and-bank information, this technique compares
the static system with the pressure system and electrical system. Identify failed components, and use
remaining functional instruments to maintain aircraft control.
11-20. Attempt to restore inoperative components by checking the appropriate power source, changing to
a backup or alternate system, and resetting the instrument if possible. Covering failed instruments may
enhance the ability to maintain aircraft control and navigate the aircraft. ATC is advised of the problem
and, if necessary, declares an emergency before the situation deteriorates beyond the ability to recover.

PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM
11-21. A pitot or static system failure can also cause erratic and unreliable instrument indications. When a
static system problem occurs, it affects the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and VSI. In the absence of an
alternate static source in an unpressurized aircraft, the aviator could break the glass on the VSI. The VSI is
not required for instrument flight, and breaking the glass provides the altimeter and airspeed indicator a
source of static pressure. Breaking the glass could cause additional instrument errors.

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Chapter 11

COMMUNICATION/NAVIGATION
TWO-WAY RADIO FAILURE
11-22. Avionics equipment has become very reliable, and the likelihood of a complete communications
failure is remote. However, each IFR flight should be planned and executed in anticipation of a two-way
radio failure. At any point during a flight, the aviator must know exactly what route and altitude to fly and
when to continue beyond a clearance limit. The FIH describes procedures to be followed in case of two-
way radio communications failure.

COMMUNICATION/NAVIGATION MALFUNCTION
11-23. Reports are made to ATC or FSS facilities of any loss in controlled airspace of VOR, TACAN,
ADF, LF navigation receiver capability, complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability, or impairment
of air-to-ground communications capability. Reports include aircraft identification, equipment affected,
degree to which the capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and nature and extent
of assistance desired from ATC.

LOSS OF SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

11-24. SA is an overall assessment of environmental elements and how they affect flight. A
knowledgeable aviator makes proactive decisions. SA permits the aviator to make decisions ahead of time
and allows evaluation of several different options. Conversely, an aviator missing important pieces of the
puzzle makes reactive decisions. Poor SA means that this aviator lacks vision regarding future events; the
aviator is forced to make decisions quickly, often with limited options. During a typical IFR flight, an
aviator operates at varying levels of SA. An aviator may be en route to a destination with a high level of
SA when ATC issues an unexpected STAR. Because the STAR is unexpected and the aviator is unfamiliar
with the procedure, SA is reduced. However, after becoming familiar with the STAR and resuming normal
navigation, the aviator returns to a higher level of SA.
11-25. Factors reducing SA include distractions, unusual or unexpected events, complacency, high
workload, unfamiliar situations, and inoperative equipment. In some situations, a loss of SA may be
beyond an aviator’s control. With an electrical system failure and associated loss of an attitude indication,
an aviator may find the aircraft in an unusual attitude. In this situation, established procedures are used to
regain SA. Aviators must be alert to loss of SA especially when hampered by a reactive mindset. To regain
SA, reassess the situation and work toward understanding. The aviator may need to seek additional
information from other sources, such as navigation instruments, other crew members, or ATC.

INADVERTENT INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL CONDITION

11-26. Some aviators have the misconception that IIMC does not apply to an IFR flight. Two potential
scenarios are below:
• Aircraft has entered VMC during an IAP and while circling to land encounters IMC.
• During a nonprecision IAP, the aircraft is VMC while continuing at MDA and the aviator on the
controls has made the transition to visual too soon; as the aircraft is slowed for landing, it climbs
back up into IMC.
11-27. To survive an encounter with IIMC, an aviator must recognize and accept the seriousness of the
situation. The aviator needs to immediately commit to the instruments and perform recovery procedures
according to the appropriate ATM.

RECOGNITION
11-28. When an aviator is in IMC, he or she is unable to maintain aircraft attitude control by reference to
the natural horizon. During IMC encounters, whether inadvertent or intentional, the aviator is unable to

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 Emergency Operations

navigate or establish geographical positions by visual reference to landmarks on the surface. IIMC must be
accepted as a genuine emergency, requiring appropriate action. When IIMC is encountered, the crew must
commit to instruments and applicable recovery procedures.

MAINTAINING AIRCRAFT CONTROL

11-29. Once the crew members recognize the situation, they commit to controlling the aircraft by using
and trusting flight instruments. Attempting to search outside the cockpit for visual confirmation can result
in spatial disorientation and complete control loss. The crew must rely on instruments and depend on crew
coordination to facilitate that transition. Although the task at hand may appear overwhelming and the
situation may be compounded by extreme apprehension, the crew must consciously commit to maintaining
aircraft control.
11-30. The most important concern, along with maintaining aircraft control, is to initiate a climb
immediately. An immediate climb will provide a greater separation from natural and man-made obstacles,
as well as improve radar reception of the aircraft by ATC. An immediate climb should be appropriate for
the current conditions, environment, and known or perceived obstacles.
11-31. The five basic procedures listed below assist in maintaining aircraft control after encountering
IIMC with the most critical action being to immediately announce IIMC and begin a substantial climb
while procedures are being performed. These procedures are performed nearly simultaneously:
• Attitude – Level wings on the attitude indicator.
• Heading – Maintain heading; turn only to avoid known obstacles or as briefed for multiship
operations.
• Torque – Adjust torque as necessary for desired climb rate.
• Airspeed – Adjust airspeed as necessary.

Complete the IIMC recovery according to local regulations and policies.

11-32. The aviator must trust flight instruments concerning the aircraft’s attitude regardless of intuition or
visual interpretation. The vestibular sense (motion sensing by the inner ear) can confuse the aviator.
Because of inertia, sensory areas of the inner ear cannot detect slight changes in aircraft attitude nor can
they accurately sense attitude changes that occur at a uniform rate over time. Conversely, false sensations
often push the aviator to believe that the attitude of the aircraft has changed when, in fact it has not,
resulting in spatial disorientation.

ASSISTANCE
11-33. After aircraft control is stabilized, other duties can be performed such as the following:
• Changing the transponder to the appropriate code.
• Contacting ATC on guard (if the frequency is not known).
• Complying with local directives and guidance.
• Tuning required navigational radios.
• Preparing the crew for IAP to be performed.

RECOVERY
11-34. In case of IIMC, aviators must be prepared to execute preplanned recovery procedures according
to AR 95-1, the applicable ATM, and local rules and regulations. Aviators may have limited or multiple
options for recovery based on availability of approved IAP, NAVAIDs, and installed/operational aircraft
equipment. The first option is to use approved DOD/U.S. Government IAP. The second option is to use
FAA, ICAO, or host-nation IAP. Third, if operating in areas where no approved IAP exists, commanders
should contact USAASA, which can develop and approve IAP for those areas. While operating in areas
that do not facilitate the use of an approved IAP or flying aircraft that are not equipped to fly approved
IAP, the aviator can use an emergency GPS recovery procedure as a last resort. Commanders determine the

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 11-5

Chapter 11

need for an emergency GPS recovery procedure, task an instrument examiner to develop the procedure,
and have the procedure approved by the first 06 in the chain of command according to AR 95-1.
Emergency GPS recovery procedures should be used only for training during VMC or actual emergencies
when no other approved approach is available. The emergency GPS recovery procedure is developed using
a simple calculation that meets or exceeds TERPS requirements. ATMs provide more detailed instructions
for developing emergency GPS recovery procedures.

SECTION II – AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL REQUIREMENTS AND

RESPONSIBILITIES
11-35. ATC personnel can help aviators during in-flight emergency situations. Aviators should
understand the services provided by ATC and the resources and options available. These services enable
aircrews to focus on aircraft control and help them make better decisions in a time of stress.

PROVIDE INFORMATION
11-36. During emergency situations aviators should provide as much information as possible to ATC.
ATC uses the information to determine what kind of assistance it can provide with available assets and
capabilities. Information requirements vary depending on the existing situation. ATC requires at a
minimum, the following information for in-flight emergencies:
• Aircraft identification and type.
• Nature of the emergency.
• Aviator’s desires.
11-37. The aviator, if time and the situation permit, should provide ATC with more information. Figure
11-1 lists additional information that would help ATC in further assisting the aviator.

• Aircraft altitude
• Point of departure and destination
• Airspeed
• Fuel remaining in time
• Heading since last known position
• Visible landmarks
• NAVAID signals received
• Time and place of last known position
• Aircraft color
• Aviator reported weather
• Emergency equipment on board
• Number of people on board
• Aviator capability for IFR flight
• Navigation equipment capability

Figure 11-1. Additional ATC information

11-6 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Emergency Operations

REQUEST ASSISTANCE
11-38. When the aviator requests, or when deemed necessary, ATC can enlist services of available radar
facilities and DF facilities operated by the FAA and military services. ATC can also coordinate with other
agencies, such as the Federal Communications Commission and local authorities, and request their
emergency services and facilities.

RADAR ASSISTANCE
11-39. Radar is a invaluable asset that can be used by aviators during emergencies. With radar, ATC can
provide navigation assistance to aircraft and provide last-known location during catastrophic emergencies.
If a VFR aircraft encounters, or is about to encounter, IMC weather conditions, the aviator can request
radar vectors to VFR airports or VFR conditions. If the aviator determines that he or she is qualified for
and the aircraft is capable of conducting IFR flight, the aviator should file an IFR flight plan and request a
clearance from ATC to the destination airport as appropriate. If the aircraft has already encountered IFR
conditions, ATC can inform the aviator of appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude. If the
aircraft is below appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude and sufficiently accurate position
information has been received or radar identification is established, ATC can furnish a heading or radial on
which to climb to reach appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude.

EMERGENCY AIRPORT
11-40. ATC personnel consider the following factors when recommending an emergency airport to
aircraft requiring assistants.
• Remaining fuel in relation to airport distances.
• Weather conditions.

Note. Depending on the nature of the emergency, certain weather phenomena may deserve
weighted consideration. An aviator may elect to fly further to land at an airport with VFR
conditions instead of closer airfield with IFR conditions.

• Airport conditions.
• NAVAID status.
• Aircraft type.
• Aviator’s qualifications.
• Vectoring or homing capability to the emergency airport.
11-41. In addition, ATC and aviators should determine which guidance can be used to fly to the
emergency airport. The following options may be available:
• Radar.
• DF.
• Following another aircraft.
• NAVAIDs.
• Pilotage by landmarks.
• Compass headings.

EMERGENCY OBSTRUCTION VIDEO MAP

11-42. The emergency obstruction video map (EOVM) is intended to facilitate advisory service in an
emergency situation when appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude cannot be maintained.
The EOVM, and the service provided, are used only under the following conditions:
• The aviator has declared an emergency.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 11-7

Chapter 11

• The controller has determined an emergency condition exists or is imminent because of the
aviator’s inability to maintain an appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitude.

Note. Appropriate terrain/obstacle clearance minimum altitudes may be defined as minimum

IFR altitude (MIA), MEA, MOCA, or MVA.

11-43. When providing emergency vectoring service, the controller advises the aviator that any headings
issued are emergency advisories intended only to direct the aircraft toward and over an area of lower
terrain/obstacle elevation.

Note. Altitudes and obstructions depicted on the EOVM are actual altitudes and locations of the
obstacle/terrain and contain no lateral or vertical buffers for obstruction clearance.

RESPONSIBILITY
11-44. ATC, in communication with an aircraft in distress, should handle the emergency and coordinate
and direct the activities of assisting facilities. ATC will not transfer this responsibility to another facility
unless that facility can better handle the situation.
11-45. When an ATC facility receives information about an aircraft in distress, they will forward detailed
data to the center in the area of the emergency. Centers serve as central points for collecting information,
coordinating with SAR, and distributing information to appropriate agencies.
11-46. Although 121.5 megahertz and 243.0 megahertz are emergency frequencies, the aviator should
keep the aircraft on the initial contact frequency. The aviator should change frequencies only when a valid
reason exists. When necessary and if weather and circumstances permit, ATC should recommend that
aircraft maintain or increase altitude to improve communications, radar, or DF reception.

ESCORT
11-47. An escort aircraft, if available, should consider and evaluate an appropriate formation. Special
consideration must be given if maneuvers take the aircraft through clouds. Aircraft should not execute an
in-flight join up during emergency conditions unless both crews involved are familiar with and capable of
formation flight and can communicate and have visual contact with each other.

COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
11-48. When an IFR aircraft experiences two-way radio communications failure, air traffic control is
based on anticipated aviator actions. Aviator procedures and recommended practices are set forth in the
AIM, CFRs, and pertinent military regulations such as the FIH. When the aviator of an aircraft equipped
with a coded radar beacon transponder experiences a loss of two-way radio capability, the aviator is
expected to adjust the transponder to reply on Mode 3/A Code 7600. ATC takes the following actions, as
appropriate, if two-way radio communications are lost with an aircraft:
• For aircraft under immediate control jurisdiction, use all means available to reestablish
communications with the aircraft; these may include, but are not limited to, emergency
frequencies, NAVAIDs equipped with voice capability, FSS, and Aeronautical Radio
Incorporated (ARINC).
• Broadcast clearances through available means of communications including the voice feature of
NAVAIDs.
• Attempt to reestablish communications by having aircraft use its transponder or make turns to
acknowledge clearances and answer questions; request any of the following in using the
transponder:
Request aircraft to reply Mode 3/A IDENT.

11-8 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Emergency Operations

Request aircraft to reply on Code 7600 or, if already on Code 7600, appropriate stratum code.
Request aircraft to change to stand-by for sufficient time to ensure the lack of a target is the
result of requested action.
• Broadcast a clearance for aircraft to proceed to its filed alternate airport at the MEA if the
aircraft operator concurs.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 11-9

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 Appendix A
Instrument Flight Rules Operations

Planning for an IFR flight depends on the nature of the mission, type and number of
aircraft, distance to be flown, selected route, weather conditions, and navigational
facilities. The checklist presented in this appendix applies to instrument flight
planning within the United States. Aviator proficiency and judgment dictate
necessary modifications to these procedures and techniques. When assigned a
mission, the flight is planned to arrive at a fixed destination at a definite time. The
type of aircraft, load, and personnel onboard are often predetermined; however, when
aviators plan proficiency flights, they usually choose aircraft, destination, route, time,
and other factors that affect the flight. When possible, variable factors affecting the
mission are controlled to produce optimum flight conditions.

FLIGHT PLANNING
WEATHER BRIEFING SOURCES
A-1. All aviators are responsible and accountable for procurement and analysis of aeronautical weather
reports and forecasts, including recognizing critical weather situations and estimating visibility while in
flight. Local commanders establish policies specifying when DD Form 175-1 is required to be filed with
the DD Form 175 flight plan (AR 95-1). Weather information for DD 175-1 is obtained from a military
weather facility. If a military forecaster is not available, the PC will obtain a weather forecast according to
DOD/U.S. Government FLIP. Army priority for obtaining a formal DD 175-1 weather briefing is the
following:
• U.S. military weather forecaster.
• Combat weather team or supporting operational weather squadron (OWS).
• Other military or Government weather service.
A-2. If departing a location with no military or Government weather briefing and NOTAM services,
obtain information by—
• Contacting the OWS for that area (see FIH, section C).
• Obtaining real-time NOTAM updates at https://notams.jcs.mil .

Note. Current operational publications should be checked for procedures and listings.

WEATHER DATA BRIEFING

A-3. The weather briefing includes the forecast for destination and alternate airfields at ETA to include
the following elements of the forecast:
• Ceiling and visibility—applicable regulations should be checked for compliance; the destination
forecast determines the requirement for selecting an alternate. If minimum conditions specified
in AR 95-1 exist at the destination, an alternate airport is not required.
• Weather phenomena producing low ceilings and visibility.
• Hazards to flight such as thunderstorms, icing, gusty winds, and high-density altitude.
• Height of cloud tops.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 A-1

Appendix A

A-4. The weather briefing forecast covers en route conditions to destination and alternate airfields to
include the following elements:
• Hazards to flight.
• Freezing level.
• Height of cloud tops and bases.
• Flight-level winds and temperatures.
A-5. With the aid of a forecaster, a clear mental picture of the overall weather situation should be
obtained, including locations of frontal systems and high- or low-pressure areas. The rate and direction of
their movement and the associated weather conditions should be clearly understood.

AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
A-6. Check the aircraft logbook or other available source for onboard navigational equipment. Check for
restrictions that might affect the mission (such as oil samples due and inoperative equipment).

FLIGHT INFORMATION PUBLICATION RESEARCH

A-7. The list provided is not all-inclusive and should be modified according to pertinent publications:
• Check the appropriate en route supplement (IFR or VFR) for departure, destination, and
alternate if required.
• Check availability of fuel at destination and alternate.
• Check low-altitude en route chart for effective control zone hours.
• Check NOTAMs—flight information bulletins are no longer a source of NOTAM data.
• Review SIDs, published nonstandard DPs and weather minimums, and approach plate for
departure airfield; this information assists in maintaining obstruction clearance during the
takeoff and departure phases and aids in planning an orderly transition to the en route phase.
• Review approach plate for destination and alternate. Become familiar not only with the approach
planned but also other available approaches; check for outlying IAFs or published feeder routes
that may provide an orderly transition from en route to approach phases.

ROUTE SELECTION
A-8. Select the best route based on weather conditions and preferred routes. Check current operational
publications for listings. Deviate from preferred routes only when safety or the mission requires. Departure
and IAF and feeder route information are also considered. The closest available IAF or transition fix
should be planned because it is normally assigned by ATC.
A-9. File for direct flight only if the mission requires or if considerable savings of fuel or time can be
realized. If the flight penetrates uncontrolled airspace, ATC will not provide traffic separation.

ROUTE SURVEY
A-10. Conduct a route survey to destination and alternate airfields using navigational charts to determine
the following:
• Primary radio aids for en route navigation. List frequencies, station identifiers, courses, and
radials on the flight log.
• Supplementary radio aids to be used for position fixing and secondary navigation.
• Availability of ATC and weather radar en route.
• Distance between reporting points and total flight distance—total distance is computed from
takeoff to the destination airport via the flight planned route.
• MEA, MOCA, MAA, MRA, and MCA.

A-2 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Instrument Flight Rules Operations

ALTITUDE SELECTION
A-11. Select the best altitude for the flight based on the following:
• Weather conditions. Avoid altitudes where icing and turbulence will be hazardous.
• Direction. Unless otherwise required to avoid flight hazards or if requested by ATC, direction
of flight in controlled airspace is based on the hemispherical rule. Hemispherical rule application
in controlled airspace considers overall flight direction rather than individual legs that may vary
from easterly to westerly directions; in uncontrolled airspace, hemispherical rule is mandatory
for each individual leg.
• Odd altitudes apply to magnetic courses, from 0 to 179 degrees.
• Even altitudes apply to magnetic courses, from 180 to 359 degrees.
• MEA, MOCA, MAA, MRA, and MCA:
• Select altitudes that comply with published minimum altitudes applicable to the flight.
• On direct flights, determine minimum altitude based on charted obstacles and regulation
requirements; when direct routes are planned, there are two basic considerations: FAR
91.177 must be complied with to ensure obstruction clearance, and NAVAID ranges and
restrictions must be researched to ensure reception for the entire leg.
• Do not plan a flight at the MEA if the flight-level temperature will be significantly below
standard. Lowering of pressure levels in air significantly colder than standard results in true
altitude being significantly lower than indicated altitude; request an altitude assignment
above the MEA under these cold air temperature conditions.
• Aircraft performance and equipment. In selecting a flight altitude, consider the following:
• Optimum operating conditions for the aircraft.
• Oxygen availability.
• Radio equipment limitations (such as range and altitude).
• Air traffic control.
• Avoid relatively low altitudes that may conflict with approach control service in complex
terminal areas.
• Do not request unnecessary altitude changes.

DEPARTURE
A-12. Plan departures to comply with SIDs at airports where established. ATC normally employs SIDs,
because it may assign a departure other than the one requested. Check availability of departure control
(conventional or radar). Note appropriate frequencies. Study the local area chart, if published, or the
departure area on the en route chart. Be familiar with radio facilities and intersections within the departure
area.

PERFORMANCE PLANNING CARD

A-13. Consult the aircraft operator’s manual to determine the performance planning card (PPC)
information required to include TAS, Vne, cruise power setting, and cruise fuel consumption. Compute and
file the TAS accurately. Later in flight, compute TAS to verify preflight calculations. If the actual TAS
varies more than 10 knots from the filed TAS, notify ATC of the difference.

GROUND SPEED
A-14. Compute ground speed for each leg of the flight by combining forecast winds with the planned
course and TAS (see Chapter 5).

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 A-3

Appendix A

ESTIMATED TIME EN ROUTE

A-15. Based on ground speed and distance, compute estimated time en route (ETE) for each leg of the
flight between reporting points (see Chapter 5). On the initial leg, allow sufficient additional time for the
planned departure and climb to flight altitude. If en route climbs are made at reduced airspeed, allow
additional time for significant changes on the leg. Compute total ETE for the flight. This is the estimated
time required en route from the airport of departure to the destination airport based on the flight plan route.
Remember that the ETE is exclusive of the time required for planned en route delays. The ETE to the
alternate airfield should include time from the—
• MAP to the missed approach holding point to include one circuit in the holding pattern.
• Missed approach holding point to the alternate including approach and landing time.

FUEL
A-16. Compute the fuel-on-board flight plan entry by subtracting the warm up, takeoff, and taxi fuel
allowance (see the aircraft operator’s manual) from the total fuel onboard (see Chapter 5). Divide this
quantity by the cruise consumption rate. The cruise consumption rate is determined by cruise conditions
and aircraft gross weight as explained in the aircraft operator’s manual. Compute total fuel required for the
flight based on the appropriate consumption rate specified in the operator’s manual and include allowance
for the following:
• Warm up and taxi.
• Initial climb (consult aircraft operator’s manual for extended climbs).
• En route cruise to destination and alternate. Allow time, in addition to ETE, for known en route
delays required by the mission; en route ATC delays usually cannot be anticipated. Also allow
time for the approach.
• Fuel reserves required for IFR flight.
A-17. Compute surplus fuel by subtracting total fuel required from total fuel capacity. Surplus fuel is
important because en route traffic delays and holding at the destination are not provided for in the fuel
requirements. The purpose of reserve fuel is for unforeseen circumstances; do not plan to use reserves for
routine delays.

TERMINAL AREA
A-18. If an area chart is published for the destination, study it carefully to become familiar with radio
facilities, intersections, published transitions, and STARs. Study all published destination approaches that
the aircraft is equipped to make. Become familiar with the following:
• Transitions.
• Final approach courses.
• Procedure turns.
• Approach minimums (DA/DH or MDA, ceiling, and visibility).
• Restrictions, warning, caution, and notes.

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT PLAN

A-19. Army aviators use a military flight plan according to DOD FLIP. FAA flight plans may be used in
lieu of military forms when aviators depart from U.S. installations not having a military base operations
facility.

SAMPLE INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES PLANNING

REQUIREMENTS
A-20. Table A-1 provides techniques used in planning and preparation of flight under IFR conditions. It is
not all-inclusive or aircraft specific but provides a starting point of common aircraft items.

A-4 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Instrument Flight Rules Operations

Table A-1. Sample instrument flight rules planning requirements

Aircraft Capabilities
Installed navigation equipment (ADF, VOR, PPC data (hover, cruise airspeed/fuel flow, arrival)
DME, GPS)
Weight/balance (AR 95-1, Chapter 5) Anti-ice/deice equipment
Maintenance requirements (inspections, torque checks)
Aircrew Capabilities
Pilot takeoff minimums (AR 95-1, chapter 5)
Required publications (DA Pam 738-751; AR 95-1, Chapter 5)
Physical limitations (illness, crew endurance)
Weather Planning
Departure (AR 95-1, Chapter 5) En route
Arrival (AR 95-1, Chapter 5) Hazards to flight (TRW, icing, turbulence)
FLIP/NOTAM Research
En route supplement (airfield data, fuel, PPR, NAVAIDs)
En route chart (airways, direct routing, altitudes, course changes, MEA/MOCA changes)
IAP (approach selection, weather/visibility, alternate requirements)
FIH (lost communications, position reporting)
AP3 (theater-specific procedures)
GP (flight-plan preparation, aviator responsibilities, weather interpretation)
NOTAMs
Departure
Standard/nonstandard departures (IAP; AR 95-1, Chapter 5)
Weather requirements
Departure IAP for emergencies
En Route
Route selection (airways, direct routing, IAPs, transitions)
Altitudes (airway, hemispherical, ORTCA)
En route weather hazards (DD Form 175-1)
Course changes
MEA, MOCA, MRA changes
Arrival
IAP availability (based on weather [WX], NOTAMS, aircraft equipment)
Weather requirements
Transitions from en route phase
Alternate requirements (AR 95-1, Chapter 5)
Inoperative components
Estimated Time En Route Planning
Times based on ground speed according to winds for each leg of flight
Adjust for climbs/radar vectors
Missed approach/alternate planning
Calculate total time
Fuel Requirements
ETE-based
Alternate/missed approach planning
Reserve requirement (AR 95-1, Chapter 5)
Flight Plan Preparation
According to GP, Chapter 4; and AR 95-1, Chapter 5

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 A-5

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 Appendix B
Instrument Flight in a Theater of Operations

An Army aviator conducts a flight under instrument flight rules in an FAA or ICAO
environment. Conversely, an Army aviator may experience IIMC during the initial
entry phase of a combat operation and need to execute an emergency GPS recovery.
Instrument flight may be required in a theater of operation in which a country’s
aviation infrastructure ranges from fully intact and operational to completely
destroyed or nonexistent. This appendix provides information on what the aviator can
expect from ATC upon entry.

ATC OPERATIONS
B-1. Air traffic command and control is crucial to the effectiveness of aviation operations and must be
outlined, synchronized, and integrated effectively to meet the service or joint force commander’s
requirements. A typical theater of operation is composed of and operates as a joint force. These operations
are set forth in FM 3-52.3, which provides multiservice ATC procedures. An airspace integration entity
and Regional Air Movement Control Center (RAMCC), especially for nations with a nonfunctioning civil
ATC system, is created to ensure that ATC issues are handled competently. A command-and-control
relationship is identified between each of the four services and ATC. ATC operations occur during initial
entry, transition, and sustainment operations.

INITIAL ENTRY
B-2. The Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force—either jointly or on their own—can provide an initial
airfield ATC capability. Initial ATC forces are normally of short duration and require follow-on
sustainment (less than 14 days). An ATC team can usually complete an initial stand-up with limited IFR
capability within 12 to 72 hours, depending on the following factors:
• Joint force commander (JFC) risk acceptance.
• Flyability check.
• Required flight check.
B-3. All services can initially deploy systems that allow ATC radio communications and limited airfield
IFR airfield abilities. These systems are matched to very specific aircraft systems such as TACAN, the
Marine Corps ARA-63 airborne radar, Marine remote area automatic landing system (MRAALS), Army
NDB, or Air Force mobile microwave landing system (MMLS). The Marine Corps and Air Force special
tactics teams (STTs) have packable/portable airfield lighting systems organic to their units, allowing them
to provide a complete initial airfield operating package. The Navy has onboard ATC communications, IFR
capability, and lighting systems available on the amphibious assault ship, landing platform helicopter
(LPH), multipurpose amphibious assault ships (LHDs), and general-purpose amphibious assault ships
(LHAs). Initial service ATC capabilities are outlined in table B-1, page B-2.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 B-1

Appendix B

Table B-1. Initial air traffic control capabilities

Service Voice Communication Deployable Runway VFR Limited

(Secure) NAVAIDs Lighting IFR
VHF UHF FM
Army Yes Yes Yes NDB, PAR No Yes Yes
Air Force Yes Yes Yes MMLS, TACAN Yes Yes Yes
Marine Yes Yes Yes MRAALS, TACAN Yes Yes Yes
Corps
Navy* Yes Yes Yes PAR, ILS Yes Yes Yes
*Navy ship availability is based on the ship’s proximity, patrol area, and time on station/in assigned area.

B-4. The Marine Corps MRAALS is an all-weather instrument landing system. It transmits azimuth,
distance, and elevation data in the J-band (15.412 to 15.680 gigahertz) and DME/station identification data
in the D-band (962 to 1213 megahertz). It provides 40-degree azimuth and 20-degree elevation guidance
out to 10 nautical miles on final approach to aircraft equipped with the ARA-63 airborne radar system. It
also provides 360-degree DME and station identification information out to 40 nautical miles.
B-5. The Air Force MMLS is similar to an ILS. It has a glide-slope antenna, known as an elevation
station, and a localizer antenna, known as an azimuth station. Coverage extends to a distance of at least 15
nautical miles. MMLS has 200 discrete channels in the range of 5000 to 5150 megahertz.
B-6. Navy ATC facilities (sea-based) are resident in numerous ships capable of launching and recovering
aircraft. The two largest platforms are the aircraft carrier and large deck amphibious assault carrier. If an
Army aircraft experiences IIMC and is routed to a Navy ship, the aircraft is most likely to be sequenced to
a member of the large deck amphibious assault carrier ship class, specifically, an LHA, LHD, or LPH.
Smaller ships do launch and recover aircraft; however, capabilities are generally restricted to terminal
approach and landing on their specific platform.

ARMY NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

RADIO BEACON SET
B-7. The AN/TRN-30 radio beacon set transmits a homing signal, which is used in airborne
direction-finding equipment installed in Army aircraft. The radio beacon provides an amplitude-modulated
radio frequency signal on any one of 964 channels in the frequency range of 200 to 535.5 and 1605 to
1750.5, tunable in 500-Hertz increments. The RF output is automatically keyed into four-letter Morse code
characters selected by the operator or manually keyed.

Radio Beacon Set Version 1

B-8. The pathfinder configuration consists of both the 15-foot and 30-foot antenna configurations that the
AN/TRN 30 (V1) is capable of operating in. The power requirements are 24 volts direct current (DC). The
V1 beacon requires a cleared area of 128 feet in diameter. Operating in the 15-foot antenna configuration,
the beacon operates in the frequency range of 1605 to 1750.5 only and has a transmission range of 28
kilometers, or 15 nautical miles. Operating in the 30-foot antenna configuration, the beacon uses frequency
ranges of 200 to 535.5 and 1605 to 1750.5 and has a transmission range of 46 kilometers, or 25 nautical
miles.

B-2 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Instrument Flight in a Theater of Operations

Radio Beacon Set Version 2

Tactical Mode
B-9. The tactical configuration uses a 60-foot antenna configuration in the AN/TRN 30 (V2) radio beacon
set and is a semipermanent NAVAID. The power requirements are 28 volts DC. The V2 beacon tactical
configuration operates on the frequency range of 200 to 535.5 only and has a transmission range of 93
kilometers, or 50 nautical miles.

Semifixed Mode
B-10. The semifixed mode uses the 60-foot antenna configuration and continues to require 28 volts DC as
its power requirement. The frequency range in this mode of the V2 beacon remains 200 to 535.5, but the
transmission distance is 185 kilometers, or 100 nautical miles.

AIR TRAFFIC NAVIGATION, INTEGRATION, AND COORDINATION SYSTEM

B-11. The Air Traffic Navigation, Integration, and Coordination System (ATNAVICS) provides
continuous, near all weather, precision landing assistance and departure recovery capability at Army
tactical airfields and landing areas. In addition, the AN/TPN-31 provides area surveillance and aircraft
identification capability for a 25 nautical mile radius of all sites and a 10 nautical mile precision approach
radar capability. The system consists of three integrated radars: ASR, PAR, and SSR.

TRANSITION OPERATIONS
B-12. Transition operations are operations during the period that initial entry ATC resources require
replacement, replenishment, augmentation, or upgrade of ATC services until sustainment ATC forces are
established. Transitional ATC operations may be extended based on the intended time frame of the
operation or availability of airlift or sealift resources to deploy sustainment ATC forces. Initial ATC forces
require relief within 72 hours to reconstitute the initial entry capability and provide a sustained or more
capable conventional airfield environment. Timelines for replacement of initial ATC forces are situation
dependent.
B-13. Under ideal conditions, ATC operations flow from initial to sustained operations, without the need
for a distinct transition phase. After the initial entry phase, which lasts about 72 hours, there is a typical
timeline progression from initial through transition and into the sustained phase. This transition is shown in
table B-2.

Table B-2. Transition to sustained air traffic control operations

Action Timeline in Days

3-7 8-14 15-25 45+
Sustainment ATC forces and equipment arrive X
Air Force combat communications established X
Marine ATC established X
Army ATC established X
Transitional ATC begins X
Transition to sustainment forces begins X
Initial ATC forces relieved/forward deployment/reassigned X
Sustainment NAVAIDS operational X
GCA/radar approach control (RAPCON) operational X
PAR operational X
TACAN/NDB/MMLS operational X
PAR/GCA/TERPS approaches approved X
Host nation resumes ATC services X
Sustainment ATC redeploys X

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 B-3

Appendix B

SUSTAINMENT OPERATIONS
B-14. Sustained ATC operations occur when the desired operational capability is achieved. They terminate
when services are no longer required. Services can provide VFR and IFR service to all aircraft through
mobile control towers, radar systems, and communications connectivity. All forces are limited by the
extent that they can be resupplied/maintained. Navy shipboard systems (JP 3-04.1) are limited only by the
ship’s ability to remain on station and maintain the operational health of its systems. Air Force and Marine
ATC sustainment equipment provides complete ATC service to support a theater airbase mission; however,
it requires extensive airlift to deploy. Currently, the Army does not have the capability to provide an
approach control and airfield lighting. However, the Army can provide a fully instrumented airfield, which
includes a tower and radar services. Table B-3 shows service capabilities and references.

Table B-3. Service capabilities and references

Service Approach GCA Tower Reference

Army X X FM 3-04.120 and FM 3-52.3, Appendix B
Air Force X X X AFMAN 13-220
Marine X X X MCWP 3-25.8
Corps
Navy X X X JP 3-04.1
Army manuals: AKO.
Air Force manuals: http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/afpubs.asp.
Marine Corps manuals: https://www.doctrine.quantico.usmc.mil/.
Navy manuals: https://www.natec.navy.mil/.

B-15. ATC units begin transition and restoration back to civil ATC services as soon as possible after
conclusion of military operations. ICAO surveys airfields and ATC facility infrastructures to determine
needed improvements and ensure that these facilities meet ICAO standards and recommended practices
(SARPs). During the transition from military ATC personnel and equipment to host-nation or contracted
services, military ATC personnel continue to be present, providing oversight, quality-assurance evaluation,
procedures review, and host-nation agreements.

THEATER AIRSPACE COMMAND AND CONTROL

AIRSPACE CONTROL SYSTEM
B-16. There is a distinct difference between tactical flight procedures in a combat zone and IFR flight in a
sovereign nation’s airspace. During initial combat operations, Army ATS units establish IFR procedures
within a combat zone under supervision and control of the combined forces air component commander
(CFACC). Many of these procedures are published in loose-leaf format or an Aviator Procedures Guide
(APG) rather than in the DOD FLIP. As the theater matures and civil authorities begin to reestablish
airspace control, tactical flight procedures or FAA-developed approaches may be replaced by host-nation
procedures. At the same time, the APG or loose-leaf procedures may be replaced by published FLIP
procedures. This maturing of the airspace control system is either ongoing in a number of theaters of
operation or complete. FLIP account managers and unit operations officers must be aware of the status of
airspace control in their area of responsibility (AOR) and obtain sufficient FLIP products to operate in and
around the theater. AR 95-1 requirements to use DOD/United States Government FLIP for all Army
missions are not waived during contingency operations. Unprepared units may find it difficult or
impossible to conduct IFR flight operations.

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE FOREIGN CLEARANCE GUIDE

B-17. Another source of information for operating outside of continental United States (OCONUS) or
during contingency operations is the Department of Defense Foreign Clearance Guide (DOD 4500.54-G)
accessible with a user name and password at https://www.fcg.pentagon.mil/. The DOD FCG, which may

B-4 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Instrument Flight in a Theater of Operations

contain sensitive information, is based on bilateral arrangements between the United States and foreign
government officials and is not releasable outside the United States government unless approved by a
competent authority. This document provides necessary information for aircraft international mission
planning and execution, personnel travel to foreign countries, as well as general information on foreign
locations. Because the DOD FCG is directive for all DOD and DOD-sponsored travel abroad, travelers
must ensure that they comply with this guide.

THEATER OF OPERATION PROCEDURES

B-18. The pace of operating tempo (OPTEMPO) and deployments to contingency operations continues to
challenge the capabilities of Army aviation and ATS units across the force. Before deploying to an
operational area, operations officers and FLIP account managers must complete several steps to ensure
continued support. The unit’s FLIP account changes to support operations in areas away from home
station. United States Army units should contact the USAASA FLIP manager to suspend or curtail United
States FLIP distribution amounts before deploying from home base and upon arriving or receiving a valid
APO mailing address for the new location. Point of contact information is in the front of DOD FLIP
publications or at [email protected]. Traditional distribution methods for DOD FLIP
products often are not feasible in fast-moving contingency operations caused by mail system delays. To
overcome this delay, USAASA may set up FLIP distribution points in the theater of operations to ensure
unit access to required FLIP information and/or FLIP information, which can be downloaded from
https://164.214.2.62/products/digitalaero/index.cfm#plan. Specific procedures for a given theater of
operations or country are found in the appropriate DOD FLIP Area Planning publication (Iraq information
is located in AP/3), and new information is updated/posted according to the print cycle.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 B-5

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 Appendix C
Weather Reports and Risk Management

SECTION I – WEATHER REPORTS USED FOR PLANNING

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE FORM 175-1

C-1. Unless directed by higher headquarters or local operating procedures, all entries in individual blocks
are at the discretion of the briefer, based on aircrew requirements and the weather situation. Entries on the
DD Form 175-1, or equivalent briefing form, must be horizontally and vertically consistent, showing sound
meteorological reasoning. For example, if a weather warning or advisory for surface wind is indicated in
block 11, the surface wind forecast in block 9 should reflect the warning or advisory wind criteria, along
with the warning or advisory number entered in block 13. Enter all times in UTC, all winds in five digits
(six for wind speeds over 99 knots), and record all heights in hundreds of feet with the surface level as
SFC.

PART I - TAKEOFF DATA

C-2. Enter the general forecast for takeoff one hour either side of the estimated time of departure (ETD).
Figure C-1 reflects part I of the flight weather briefing. Table C-1, page C-2, explains these blocks.
Meteorological codes can be found in AFMAN 15-124.

Figure C-1. Takeoff data

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-1

Appendix C

Table C-1. Takeoff data block explanation

Block No. and Explanation

1. Date
Enter UTC departure date in the format needed for operational use & communication with command
and control (C2) systems (YYMMDD, DD/MMM/YYYY, & YYYY/MM/DD).
2. ACFT type/no.
Enter aircraft type (UH-60, CH-47) & radio call sign, mission #, or last three digits of tail #.
3. Dep PT/ETD
Enter ICAO ID# & ETD. Enter departure grid point or latitude/longitude for locations not having
location identifiers.
4. RWY temp
Enter runway temperature (prefixed with + or -, as applicable) & designate ºF/C used.
5. Dew point
Enter dew-point temperature (prefixed with + or -, as applicable) & designate ºF/C used.
6. Temp deviation
Enter temperature deviation in ºC unless requested in Fahrenheit.
7. Pres alt
Enter pressure altitude in feet, prefixed with + or -, as applicable.
8. Density alt
Enter density altitude in feet, prefixed with + or -, as applicable.
9. SFC wind
Enter surface wind direction in magnetic heading for missions departing the airfield & in true direction
for missions departing another airfield. Designate “M” for magnetic or “T” for true. Enter surface wind
direction to nearest 10° in 3 digits & surface wind speed (including gust) in 2 or 3 digits. Ensure that
wind entries use a minimum of 5 digits (3 digits for direction & 2 digits for speed). Surface winds have
2 digits to represent gusts, while winds aloft use 3 digits for speed when winds exceed 99 kt. Enter
VRB for forecast variable wind direction & CALM when winds are forecast to be calm.
10. Climb winds
Enter true direction & representative wind or winds from takeoff to cruise altitude. Input wind direction
to nearest 10° in 3 digits & wind speed in 2 or 3 digits to nearest 5 kt. Input climb winds in layers if
significant differences exist (wind speed changes of ≤ 20 kt &/or wind direction changes ≤ 30°& wind
speed expected to be more than 25 kt) from 1 stratum to another.
11. Local weather watch/ warning/ advisory
Enter any known forecast/observed weather watch, warning, or advisory valid for ETD +/- 1 hour.
When watch, warning, & advisory data for a location are not available (remote briefing), enter check
with local flight agencies. Inform aircrew that status of local weather watches, warnings, &/or
advisories is undeterminable, & recommend checking with local ATC or airfield operations.
12. RSC/RCR*
Enter latest reported RSC/RCR for departure airfield, if available. Runway condition codes can be
found AFMAN 15-124. When the RSC/RCR is not available, enter N/A.
13. Remarks/takeoff ALTN FCST
Enter remarks on weather affecting takeoff & climb (such as inversions, icing, turbulence, and low-
level wind shear). Ensure that briefing contents & local TAF are consistent. If requested, enter forecast
for specific takeoff alternate & time.
*RSC-Runway Surface Condition; RCR- Runway Condition Reading

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

PART II – EN ROUTE AND MISSION DATA

C-3. Enter data for the duration of the mission and entire route of flight. Brief hazards for the specific
mission, if applicable, and en route that are within 25 miles either side of the route and within 5,000 feet
above and below the planned flight level. Insert or attach forecasts for drop zones, ranges, or low-level
routes that apply to the specific mission. Figure C-2 reflects part II of the flight weather briefing. Table C-2
explains the blocks.

Figure C-2. En route and mission data

Table C-2. En route and mission data block explanation

Block No. and Explanation

14. Flight level/winds/temp
Enter planned flight level in hundreds of ft in 3 digits (280 for 28,000 ft, 080 for 8,000 ft). Enter true
wind direction at flight level in tens of degrees and speed to nearest 5 kt. Enter forecast flight-level
temperature in °C (prefixed with + or -, as applicable). For significant wind-speed direction changes,
break forecast into legs (BLV-MXF 27025/-15). Otherwise, brief a representative wind & temperature
for entire route (32020/-18).
15. Space weather
Check appropriate block indicating frequency (FREQ), GPS, & radiation (RAD) that apply to mission.
Indicate boundaries of degradation (UHF 20N180W to Paya Lebar). When weather forecasters use a
High Altitude Radiation Dosage Chart, 10.0 to less than 100.0 millirems per hour constitute marginal,
& 100.0 millirems per hour & greater constitute severe. A second option is to check appropriate blocks
& attach applicable space weather charts to DD Form 175-1. Indicate attachments by writing SEE
ATTACHED in block 15 (Figure C-2), & check “Yes” in block 34 (Figure C-4).
16. Solar/lunar
Enter location specified by aircrew, beginning morning nautical twilight (BMNT), sunrise (SR), sunset
(SS), ending evening nautical twilight (EENT), moonrise (MR), moonset (MS), & percentage of moon
illumination (ILLUM).
17. Clouds at flight level
Check appropriate block for flight level. “Yes” implies flight in clouds at least 45% of the time; “No,” in
clouds<1%, or “In & Out,” in clouds between 1% & 45%.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-3

Appendix C

Table C-2. En route and mission data block explanation

Block No. and Explanation

18. Obscurations at flight level restricting visibility
Check appropriate block. If “Yes,” enter forecast obscurations type (such as fog, haze, and smoke)
that could potentially restrict in-flight visibility along planned route or mission flight level. Specify
intensity and location if applicable.
19. Minimum ceiling
Enter lowest ceiling en route for mission (if applicable) in hundreds of ft AGL & geographical location
(060 ft BLV-MXF). For minimum ceiling over mountainous or hilly terrain, or in thunderstorms, indicate
010 ft BOSTON MTS or 020 ft SW KY TSTMS.
20. Maximum cloud tops
Enter maximum tops of cloud layers (exclusive of thunderstorm tops) with more than 4/8 coverage in
hundreds of ft MSL and geographical location.
21. Minimum freezing level
Enter height and geographical location of lowest freezing level en route for mission (if applicable) in
hundreds of ft MSL. If lowest freezing level is at surface, enter SFC & geographical location.
22. Thunderstorms
Enter name & date-time group (DTG) of thunderstorm product used (Air Force Weather Agency
(AFWA)/OWS products, radar summary, satellite imagery, or National Weather Service (NWS) or
foreign weather service in-flight weather advisories). Enter type, extent, maximum tops, &
geographical location of thunderstorms affecting route or mission.
23. Turbulence
Enter name and DTG of turbulence forecast product used (such as AFWA/OWS products or NWS or
foreign in-flight weather advisories). Enter type, intensity, levels, & locations of turbulence affecting
route or mission.*
24. Icing
Enter name and DTG of icing forecast product used (such as AFWA/OWS products or NWS or foreign
in-flight weather advisories). Enter type, intensity, levels, & locations of icing affecting route or specific
mission.**
25. Precipitation
Enter type, intensity, character, & geographical location of precipitation areas affecting route/mission,
& precipitation encountered at flight level not at surface.
* Not associated with thunderstorms.
**Like AFWA & OWS forecast products, in-flight weather advisories should be used as guidance when preparing the en
route forecast. Carefully evaluate & temper all available data (such as radar, PIREPs/air reports [AIREPs], upper air
soundings, and online resources) to determine potential effects on the mission & aircraft. Weather personnel must alert
aircrews to all existing in-flight weather advisories, even if not used as a basis for the forecast, affecting the mission. If
the weather briefer disagrees with the advisory, annotate in block 35 (Figure C-4). Whether the condition described is
potentially hazardous to a particular flight is for the aviator to evaluate based on experience, mission, & operational
limits of the aircraft. See the FAA AIM for detailed information on NWS in-flight weather advisories.

PART III - AERODROME FORECASTS

C-4. Brief the worst conditions expected during the valid period for the destination and alternate
aerodrome. The forecaster ensures that the aircrew is briefed and fully understands the entire weather
situation at the destination and alternate airport/location. The need for and selection of an alternate is an
aviator decision. The forecaster enters forecasts for subsequent stops and alternates on request, advising the
aviator of updates as necessary. Figure C-3, page C-5, shows part III of the flight weather briefing. Table
C-3, page C-5, explains the blocks.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Figure C-3. Aerodrome forecasts

Table C-3. Aerodrome forecasts block explanation

Block No. and Explanation

26. DEST/ALTN
Enter appropriate station identifier for destination (DEST) or alternate (ALTN) aerodrome forecast.
Designate DEST or ALTN used. Place conditions described by a TEMPO group under appropriate station
identifier, line through DEST/ALTN, & enter TEMPO in the block. In Army multistop missions, if the forecast
for all stops is similar, enter A/S (for all stops) & the worst condition and location expected along the route.
These entries imply that conditions at all other stops are the same or better.
27. Valid time
Briefings for Army missions require a valid time from ETA through 1 hour after ETA. For A/S entries, valid
times are determined from original ETD to last stop, ETA plus 1 hour.
28. SFC wind
Enter true wind direction if destination is an airfield other than own. If flight departs from & terminates at
own airfield with no intermediate stops, enter wind direction. Designate M for magnetic or T for true. Enter
wind direction to nearest 10° & speed (including gusts) to nearest whole knot. For A/S missions, enter
highest wind speed expected (including gusts) & location.
29. VSBY/WEA
Enter lowest prevailing visibility & weather expected during the valid period. Represent in SM for CONUS &
overseas U.S. locations, & in meters for other overseas locations, unless otherwise specified by aircrew.
30. Cloud layers
Enter lowest prevailing sky condition expected during the valid period. Weather briefer must fully evaluate
all NWS probability groups (PROB30/40%) & indigenous variations of the TAF code. If necessary, use
Remarks section to record the briefer assessment & translation of these conditions.
31. Altimeter/RWY TEMP/PRES ALT
Enter lowest altimeter setting expected during the valid period in all cases except where impossible to
obtain or determine. Enter forecast runway temperature (RWY TEMP), & designate ºF/C used (prefixed
with + or -, as applicable). Enter forecast pressure altitude (PRES ALT) for arrival time at the destination.

PART IV - COMMENTS/REMARKS
C-5. Figure C-4, page C-6, reflects part IV of the flight weather briefing. Table C-4, page C-6, explains
the blocks.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-5

Appendix C

Figure C-4. Comments/remarks

Table C-4. Comments/remarks block explanation

Block No. and Explanation

32. Briefed RSC/RCR
Check appropriate block, & enter latest available RSC/RCR value briefed to aircrew for destination &
alternate in Remarks section.
33. PMSV
Enter Pilot-To-Metro Service (PMSV) frequency &/or phone patch number of weather unit providing brief. If
requesting pilot (weather) reports (PIREPs) for specific areas, enter areas in Remarks (Request PIREP
DURGC [during climb]).
34. Attachments
Check appropriate block, indicating if attachments are provided with briefing.
35. Remarks
Enter other significant data (data for which there was insufficient space in other blocks & specialized
mission forecasts). Weather briefings provided electronically (faxed, posted on Web page, or e-mailed)
must include following statement: Call (airfield weather forecaster) at DSN ###-#### or commercial (###)
###-#### for weather update. Include data on how to get weather support at the next location (for weather
updates/briefs at Lawson AAF, call 28th OWS at DSN 965-0588 or commercial at 1-803-895-0588).

PART V - BRIEFING RECORD

C-6. Figure C-5 reflects part V of the flight weather briefing. Table C-5, page C-7, explains the blocks.

Figure C-5. Briefing record

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Table C-5. Briefing record block explanation

Block No. and Explanation

36. WX briefed time
Enter time that brief was provided. For briefings sent electronically, enter time that brief was faxed, posted
on a Web page or local LAN or passed to a central dispatch facility (such as AMOCC). Append an E in
front of time (E1045Z) if crew was not verbally briefed. If calling later for verbal briefing, put a (/) after E
time & enter verbal brief time (E1045Z/1100Z).
37. Flimsy briefing no.
If a flight weather briefing folder, flimsy, or computer flight plan (CFP) was prepared, enter folder, flimsy, or
CFP identification number.
38. Forecaster’s initials
Enter initials of weather briefer/forecaster preparing & disseminating briefing.
39. Name of person receiving briefing
(Remote briefings only). If available, enter receiver’s name &, if applicable, military grade.
40. Void time
Add 1:30 to weather briefed time. For Army briefings sent electronically, calculate void time from E time
(block 36). If crew calls later for verbal briefing, recalculate void time from verbal briefing time & enter new
void time after the first time (1145Z/1230Z).
41. Extended to/initials
When asking for an extension, recheck weather entries, rebrief, & indicate required changes (highlight/bold
if electronic, green ink if paper). Enter initials of forecaster providing extension. Extensions follow same
rule as void time.
42. WX rebriefed time/initials
(Not required for Army; Army equivalent is “extended to.”) If weather rebriefed is different from that
originally briefed, indicate changes to original weather entries as specified in block 41 & enter rebrief time
& initials of forecaster providing rebrief.
43. WX debrief time/initials
Enter time & initials of debriefing forecaster.

METEOROLOGICAL AVIATION REPORT

C-7. The meteorological aviation report (METAR) is the weather observer’s interpretation of weather
conditions at a given site and time. The METAR is used by aviators and the NWS to determine the
airport’s flying category and to produce the terminal area forecast (TAF). Flying categories consist of
VFR, marginal visual flight rules (MVFR), and IFR.
C-8. Although the METAR code is being adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make
modifications or exceptions to the code for use in that particular country. The United States reports
temperature and dew point in degrees Celsius and continues to use current units of measurement for the
remainder of the report.
C-9. The elements in the body of a METAR report are separated by a space. The only exception is
temperature and dew point, which are separated by a solidus (/). An element not occurring or not observed
is omitted. Figure C-6, page C-8, denotes elements of a METAR.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-7

Appendix C

Figure C-6. Meteorological aviation report

TYPE OF REPORT
C-10. The two types of reports are the METAR and aviation selected special weather report (SPECI). The
METAR is observed hourly between 45 minutes after the hour until the hour. It is transmitted between 50
minutes after the hour until the hour and encoded as a METAR even if it meets SPECI criteria (table C-6).
It is a nonroutine aviation weather report taken when any SPECI criteria have been observed.

Table C-6. Special weather report criteria

Report Element and Criteria

Wind
Wind direction changes by 45º or more in less than 15 minutes, & wind speed is 10 kt or more throughout
wind shift.
Visibility
Surface visibility decreases to less than or, if below, increases to equal or exceed 3, 2, or 1 mile or lowest
standard IAP minimum as published in the National Ocean Service U.S. Instrument Procedures. If not
published, use ½ mile.
Ceilings
The ceiling forms or dissipates below or, if below, increases to equal or exceed 3,000, 1,500, 1,000, or 500
feet or lowest standard IAP minimum as published in the National Ocean Service U.S Instrument
Procedures. If not published, use 200 ft.
RVR Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout
Changes to above or below 2,400 ft. When observed or when disappears from sight (ends).
Thunderstorm Squalls
Begins or ends. When they occur.
Precipitation Sky Condition
When freezing precipitation or ice pellets
A layer of clouds or obscuring phenomenon aloft that forms
begin, end, or change intensity or hail
below 1,000 ft.
begins or ends.
Volcanic Eruption Aircraft Mishap
Upon notification of an aircraft mishap, unless of an
When an eruption is first noted.
intervening observation.
Miscellaneous
Any other meteorological situation designated by the agency or, in observer’s opinion, is critical.

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION STATION IDENTIFIER

C-11. The METAR code uses ICAO four-letter station identifiers that follow the type of report. In the
contiguous United States, the three-letter identifier is prefixed with K (for example, Los Angeles [LAX]
becomes KLAX). Elsewhere, the first one or two letters of the ICAO identifier indicate in which region of
the world and country (or state) that the station is located. Pacific locations—such as Alaska, Hawaii, and
the Mariana Islands—start with P, followed by an A, an H, or a G respectively. The last two letters reflect

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

the specific reporting station identification. For example, Anchorage (ANC) becomes PANC; Canadian
station identifiers start with C, and Mexican and western Caribbean station identifiers start with M. For a
complete worldwide listing, see ICAO Document 7910.

DATE AND TIME OF REPORT

C-12. The date and time that the observation is taken are transmitted as a six-digit date-time group
appended with Z to denote Universal Time Coordinated (UTC), also known as Zulu (Z) time or Greenwich
Mean Time (GMT). The first two digits are the date followed with two digits for the hour and two digits
for the minutes. A corrected report bears the time of the previously distributed erroneous report.

MODIFIER (AS REQUIRED)

C-13. The modifier element, if used, follows the date-time element. The modifier AUTO identifies an
automated weather report with no human intervention. If AUTO is shown in the body of the report, AO1 or
AO2 will be encoded in the remarks section of the report to indicate the type of precipitation sensor used at
the station. The remark AO1 indicates a report from a station without a precipitation discriminator, and an
AO2 remark indicates a report from a station with a precipitation discriminator. The absence of AUTO
indicates that the report was made manually or the automated report had human augmentation/backup. The
modifier COR identifies a corrected report that is sent out to replace an earlier report with an error
(METAR KLAX 140651Z COR…).

WIND
C-14. Wind element is reported as a five-digit group (six digits if speed is over 99 knots). The first three
digits are the direction from which the wind is blowing in tens of degrees referenced to true north.
Directions less than 100 degrees are preceded with a zero. The next two digits are the average speed in
knots or, if over 99 knots, the next three digits (340105KT). Abbreviation KT is appended to denote the
use of knots for wind speed. Other countries may use kilometers per hour or meters per second.
C-15. If the wind speed is less than 3 knots, the wind is reported as calm (00000KT). If the wind is gusty,
10 knots or more between peaks and lulls, G denoting gust is reported after the speed followed by the
highest gust reported (08012G25KT). If the wind direction is variable by 60 degrees or more and the speed
is greater than 6 knots, a variable group consisting of the extremes of the wind directions separated by V
follows the wind group (08012G25KT 040V120).
C-16. The wind direction may also be considered variable if wind speed is 6 knots or less and varying in
direction (the 60-degree rule does not apply). Variable wind speeds is indicated with the abbreviation VRB
(VRB04KT).

Wind Remarks
C-17. Facilities with a wind recorder or automated weather reporting system report peak winds exceeding
25 knots in the Remarks element of the report following the event. The peak wind remark includes three
digits for direction and two or three digits for speed, followed by the time in hours and minutes of
occurrence. If the hour can be inferred from the report time, only the minutes are reported (PK WND
28045/15).
C-18. A wind shift is indicated by a change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes
with sustained winds of 10 knots or more. When a wind shift occurs, WSHFT is included in the Remarks
element followed by the time that the wind shift began. If the hour can be inferred from the report time,
only the minutes are reported. The contraction FROPA is entered following the time if the wind-shift is the
result of a frontal passage (WSHFT 30 FROPA).

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-9

Appendix C

VISIBILITY
C-19. Prevailing visibility is reported in statute miles or fractions of statute miles, as needed, followed by
SM. Other countries may use meters or kilometers. Prevailing visibility is considered representative of the
visibility conditions at the observing site. Prevailing visibility is the greatest visibility equaled or exceeded
throughout at least half the horizon circle, which need not be continuous. When visibilities are less than 7
miles, the restriction to visibility is shown in the weather element. Observations of volcanic ash,
low-drifting dust, sand, or snow (regardless of visibility) are shown in the weather element.

Visibility Remarks
C-20. If tower or surface visibility is less than 4 statute miles, the lesser of the two is reported in the body
of the report; the greater is reported in the Remarks element (TWR VIS 1 1/2 or SFC VIS 1 1/2).
Automated reporting stations show visibility less than 1/4 statute mile (M1/4SM) and visibility 10 statute
miles or greater. For automated reporting stations having more than one visibility sensor, site-specific
visibility (which is lower than the visibility shown in the body) is shown in the Remarks element (VIS 2
1/2 RWY 11).
C-21. When the prevailing visibility rapidly increases or decreases by 1/2 statute mile or more during the
observation and average prevailing visibility is less than 3 statute miles, the visibility is variable. Variable
visibility is shown in the Remarks element with minimum and maximum visibility values separated by a V
(VIS 1/2V2).
C-22. Sector visibility is shown in the Remarks element when it differs from the prevailing visibility and
either the prevailing or sector visibility is less than 3 miles (VIS NE 2 1/2).

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (AS REQUIRED)

C-23. RVR, when required, is reported in the following format:
• R – Identifies the group.
• “35” – Runway heading.
• L – Identifies the parallel runway designator, if needed.
• 4500V6000FT – Identifies the visual range in feet (meters in other countries) and any variation
required.
C-24. RVR is shown in a METAR/SPECI if the airport has RVR equipment and whenever the prevailing
visibility is 1 statute mile or less and/or the RVR value is 6,000 feet or less.

Note. When RVR varies by more than one reportable value, the lowest and highest values are
shown with V between them.

C-25. When RVR observed is above the maximum value that can be determined by the system, it should be
reported as P6000 where 6,000 is the maximum value for this system. When RVR observed is below the
minimum value that can be determined by the system, it should be reported as M0600 where 600 is the
minimum value for this system.

WEATHER PHENOMENA
C-26. Weather phenomena in the METAR can be broken down into two parts. The qualifiers, the first part,
are intensity, proximity, and/or descriptors. Actual weather descriptions, the second part, are precipitation,
obscurations, and other weather conditions. Additional weather information—weather begins/ends and
hailstone size—may be included in the Remarks.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Qualifiers

Intensity
C-27. Intensity may be shown with most precipitation types light (-), moderate, and heavy (+). When more
than one type of precipitation is present, intensity refers to the predominant precipitation (+TSRA is a
thunderstorm with heavy rain and not a heavy thunderstorm with rain).

Proximity
C-28. Proximity is reported only for weather phenomena occurring in the vicinity of the airport. Airport
vicinity is defined for obscuration to be between 5 and 10 miles of the usual observation point and
precipitation just beyond the observation point up to 10 miles and is denoted by VC. Intensity and VC are
never shown in the same group, for example—
• VCSH indicates showers in the vicinity of the airport.
• VCFG indicates fog in the vicinity of the airport.

Descriptor
C-29. Eight descriptors (table C-7) further identify weather phenomena and are used with certain types of
precipitation and obscurations. TS and SH are used with precipitation and may be preceded with an
intensity symbol.

Table C-7. Descriptor qualifiers

Descriptor Descriptor
Describes fog that has little Low When dust, sand, or snow is raised by
MI Shallow DR
vertical extent (less than 6 ft) drifting wind to less than 6 ft
Describes fog that has little
When dust, sand, snow, and/or spray is
BC Patches vertical extent & reduces BL Blowing
raised by wind to a height of 6 ft or more
horizontal visibility
SH Showers TH Thunderstorm
FZ Freezing PR Partial

Weather Descriptions
C-30. If more than one significant weather phenomenom is observed, entries are listed in order of
decreasing predominance, and, except precipitation, separate weather groups are shown in the report. No
more than three weather groups are used to report weather phenomena at or in the vicinity of the station. If
more than one type of precipitation is observed, the appropriate contractions are combined into a single
group with the predominant type being reported first. In such a group, any intensity refers to the first type
of precipitation in the group (refer to Tables C-9 through C-11 while reading the remainder of this section).
Examples include the following:
• TSRA indicates thunderstorm with moderate rain.

• +SHRA indicates heavy rain showers.

• -FZRA indicates light freezing rain.

Precipitation
C-31. Precipitation is any form of water particle, whether liquid or solid, that falls from the atmosphere and
reaches the ground. Table C-8, page C-12, shows precipitation types.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-11

Appendix C

Table C-8. Precipitation types

Precipitation
DZ Drizzle SG Snow grains GR Hailstones*
RA Rain IC Ice crystals GS Small hail or snow pellets*
SN Snow PL Ice pellets UP Unknown precipitation**
*Refers to hailstone size.
**Used only at automated sites when light precipitation is falling but precipitation discriminator cannot determine type. This
situation usually occurs when rain and snow are falling at the same time.

Obscurations
C-32. Obscurations are any atmospheric phenomena, other than precipitation, that reduce horizontal
visibility. Table C-9 shows the types of obscuration.

Table C-9. Obscuration types

Obscuration
BR Mist* DU Dust HZ Haze VA Volcanic ash
FG Fog** SA Sand PY Spray FU Smoke
*Indicates mist restricting visibility & used only when visibility is from 5/8 mile to 6 miles.
**Indicates fog restricting visibility & used only when visibility is less than 5/8 mile.

Other Weather Conditions

C-33. The other weather phenomena are reported when they occur. Table C-10 shows these other types of
weather phenomena.

Table C-10. Other types of weather phenomena

PO Dust/Sand whirls FC Funnel cloud SS Sandstorm

SQ Squall* +FC Tornado or Waterspout DS Dust storm
*Denotes sudden increase in wind speed of at least 16 kt, speed rising to 22 kt or more, & lasting at least 1 minute.

Weather Begins/Ends
C-34. The Remarks element shows the beginning and ending times of any type of precipitation or
thunderstorms. Types of precipitation may be combined if beginning or ending times are the same
(RAB05E30SNB30E45). Because the METAR is generated every hour, only minutes are used to denote
beginning (B) and ending (E) times. Refer to table C-8 for precipitation types.

Hailstone Size
C-35. When hailstones are shown in the body of a report, the largest hailstone size is shown in the Remarks
element in 1/4-inch increments and identified with the contraction GR (GR 1 ¾). Hailstones less than 1/4
inch are shown in the body of a report as GS, and no remarks are entered indicating hailstone size.

SKY CONDITION
C-36. Sky condition is reported in amount/height/type format. It can also be reported in indefinite
ceiling/height (vertical visibility) format.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Amount
C-37. A clear sky, a layer of clouds, or an obscuring phenomenon is reported by one of six sky-cover
descriptions. The summation of the cloud layers from below and at higher levels determines what sky
covers are reported. The amount of sky cover is reported in eighths of the sky (table C-11).

Table C-11. Reportable descriptions for sky cover

Reportable descriptions Meaning Summation amount

*SKC or CLR Clear 0 or 0 below 12,000 feet
FEW Few >0 but < 2/8
SCT Scattered 3/8 – 4/8
BKN Broken 5/8 – 7/8
OVC Overcast 8/8
VV Vertical Visibility (indefinite ceiling) 8/8
*SKC will be reported at manual stations. The abbreviation CLR shall be used at automated stations when no clouds below
12,000 ft are detected.

Note. For aviation purposes, ceiling is defined as the height AGL of the lowest broken or
overcast layer aloft or vertical visibility into an obscuration.

Height
C-38. Cloud bases are reported with three digits in hundreds of feet AGL (SCT020). Clouds above 12,000
feet cannot be detected by automated reporting systems. At reporting stations located in the mountains, if
the cloud layer is below the station level, the height of the layer is shown as three solidi (SCT///).

Type (as Required)

C-39. If towering cumulus (TCU) or cumulonimbus (CB) clouds are present, they are reported after the
height representing their base. Examples of these reports are SCT040TCU or BKN025CB.

Indefinite Ceiling/Heights (Vertical Visibility)

C-40. The height into an indefinite ceiling is preceded with VV followed by three digits indicating the
vertical visibility in hundreds of feet AGL (VV002). Indefinite ceiling indicates total obscuration.

Partial Obscurations
C-41. The amount of obscuration is reported in the body of the METAR when the sky is partially obscured
by a surface-based phenomenon by indicating the amount of obscuration as FEW, SCT, or BKN followed
by three zeros. The type of obscuring phenomenon is stated in the Remarks element and precedes the
amount of obscuration and three zeros. For example, if fog is hiding >1/8 to 2/8 of the sky, it is coded in
the body of the METAR as FEW000. Because fog is partially obscuring the sky, a remark is required (FG
FEW000).
C-42. Sky covers and ceiling, as determined from the ground, represent—as nearly as possible—what the
aviator should experience in flight. An aviator flying at or above a reported ceiling layer (BKN or OVC)
should see less than half of the surface below. An aviator descending through a surface-based total
obscuration should first see the ground directly below from the height reported as vertical visibility into the
obscuration. However, because of the differing viewpoints of the aviator and the observer, observed values
and what the aviator sees do not always exactly agree.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-13

Appendix C

Additional Sky-Condition Remarks

C-43. These remarks are included when—
• The ceiling is below 3,000 feet and is variable; the remark ceiling (CIG) is shown in the
Remarks element, followed by the lowest and highest ceiling heights, separated with a V (CIG
005V010).
• An automated station uses meteorological discontinuity sensors; site-specific sky conditions that
differ from the ceiling height in the body of the report are shown in the Remarks element (CIG
002 RWY 11).
• A layer is varying in sky cover; the variability range is shown in the Remarks element. If there is
more than one cloud layer of the same coverage, the variable layer is identified by including the
layer height (BKN014 V OVC).
• Significant clouds are observed; the following cloud types are described in the Remarks
element:
• Towering cumulus, TCU, and direction from the station (TCU W).
• Cumulonimbus, CB; or cumulonimbus mammatus (CBMAM); direction from the station;
and direction of movement (if known). If the clouds are beyond 10 miles from the airport,
DSNT indicates that they are distant (CB DSNT E or CBMAM E MOV NE).
• Altocumulus castellanus, ACC; standing lenticular (stratocumulus, SCSL; altocumulus,
ACSL; or cirrocumulus, CCSL); or rotor clouds, ROTOR CLD; describe the clouds (if
needed) and the direction from the station (ACC NW or ACSL SW).

TEMPERATURE/DEW POINT GROUP

C-44. Temperature/dew point is reported in a two-digit form in whole degrees Celsius separated by a
solidus (/). Temperatures below zero are prefixed with an M, which indicates a negative reading. If
temperature is available but dew point is missing, temperature is shown followed by a solidus. If
temperature is missing, the group is omitted from the report.

ALTIMETER
C-45. The altimeter element is reported in a four-digit format representing tens, units, tenths, and
hundredths of inches of mercury prefixed with A. The decimal point is not reported or stated.

Altimeter Remarks
C-46. When pressure is rising or falling rapidly at the time of observation, Remarks element shows
PRESRR or PRESFR respectively. Some stations also include the sea-level pressure (which is different
from altimeter). It is identified in the Remarks element as SLP followed by the sea-level pressure in
hectopascals (SLP982).

REMARKS (AS REQUIRED)

C-47. Remarks (RMK) are included, when appropriate, in the order presented in table C-13, page C-21.
Time entries are shown as minutes past the hour if the time reported occurs during the same hour the
observation is taken. If the hour is different, hours and minutes are shown. Locations of phenomena within
5 statute miles of the point of observation are reported as at the station. Phenomena between 5 and 10
statute miles are reported as in the vicinity, VC. Phenomena beyond 10 statute miles are shown as distant
(DSNT). Direction of phenomena is indicated with the eight points of the compass. Distance remarks are in
statute miles except for automated lightning remarks that are in nautical miles. Movements of clouds or
weather are indicated by the direction toward which the phenomenon is moving.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Categories of Remarks
C-48. There are two categories of remarks. One category is automated, manual, and plain language. The
other category is additive and automated maintenance data.

Automated, Manual, and Plain Language Remarks

C-49. This group of remarks is generated from either manual or automated weather reporting stations and
generally elaborates on parameters reported in the body of the report. Table C-12 shows examples of these
type of remarks and their meaning.

Table C-12. Automated, manual, and plain language remarks

Example Remark Remark meaning

Mt. Augustine volcano 70 miles SW erupted 231505 large ash cloud
Volcanic Eruptions
extending to approximately 30,000 ft moving NE
Tornado, Funnel Cloud, or
TORNADO B13 6 NE
Waterspout
AO1 or AO2 Automated Station Type
PK WND 28045/15 Peak Wind
WSHFT 30 FROPA Wind shift
TWR VIS 1 ½ or SFC VIS 1 ½ Tower Visibility or Surface Visibility
VIS 1/2V2 Variable Prevailing Visibility
VIS NE 2 ½ Sector Visibility
VIS 2 ½ RWY 11 Visibility at Second Site
OCNL LTGICCG OHD or FRQ LTGICCCCG W Lightning
RAB05E30SNB20E55 Beginning and Ending of Precipitation
Beginning and Ending of
TSB05E30
Thunderstorm
TS SE MOV NE Thunderstorm Locations
GR 1 ¾ Hailstone Size
VIRGA NE Virga (see note)
CIG 005V010 Variable Ceiling Height
FU BKN000 Obscurations
BKN014 V OVC Variable Sky Condition
CB W MOV E or CBMAM S MOV E or TCU W or ACC NW or ACSL
Significant Cloud Types
SW-W
CIG 002 RWY 11 Ceiling Height at Second Location
PRESRR or PRESFR Pressure Rising or Falling Rapidly
SLP982 Sea-Level Pressure
(ACFT MSHP) Aircraft Mishap
NOSPECI No SPECI Report Taken
SNINCR 2/10 Snow Increasing Rapidly
Any other information that will affect aviation operations Other Significant Information
Note. Virga is precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporating before reaching the ground. It results when air below the
cloud is very dry. Virga associated with showers suggests strong downdrafts with possible moderate or greater turbulence.

Additive and Automated Maintenance Data Remarks

C-50. Additive data groups are reported only at designated stations. Maintenance data groups are reported
only from automated weather reporting stations. Additive data and maintenance groups are not used by the
aviation community. The example shows the METAR along with what the aviator hears. The aviator will
not hear any remark information. Optional phrases are in parentheses.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-15

Appendix C

“Jackson (Tennessee), (one two five zero observation), wind three three zero at one eight, wind
variable between two niner zero and three six zero, visibility one half, runway three one RVR,
two thousand six hundred, moderate snow, blowing snow, fog, indefinite ceiling eight hundred,
temperature zero, dew point minus three, altimeter two niner niner one.”

TERMINAL AREA FORECAST

C-51. A TAF (Figure C-7) is a concise statement of expected meteorological conditions within a 5 statute
mile radius from the center of an airport’s runway complex during a 24-hour time period. Some
airfields/airports cover a larger area, such as Cairns (KOZR) TAF, which is valid to a radius of 15 statute
miles. TAFs use weather codes found in METAR weather reports. U.S. Air Force generated TAFs include
forecast elements for icing, turbulence, maximum/minimum temperature, and minimum altimeter.

Figure C-7. Terminal area forecast

C-52. The NWS requires that an airport have two consecutive METAR observations, not less than 30
minutes apart nor more than one hour apart, before a TAF is issued. After it is issued, the forecaster uses
available weather data sources to maintain the TAF. If, during this time, part or all of the METAR is
missing, the forecaster can use other weather sources to maintain the TAF. However, if the forecaster feels
that these sources do not provide necessary information, the forecaster will discontinue the TAF.
C-53. International and U.S. military TAFs also contain forecasts of maximum and minimum temperature,
icing, and turbulence. These three elements are not included in N3WS-prepared TAFs. For forecast icing
and turbulence, see the in-flight aviation weather advisories located at the National Weather Service Web
site http://aviationweather.gov/.

TYPE OF REPORT
C-54. This element denotes the TAF type. Two types of TAF reports are a routine forecast, TAF, and an
amended forecast, TAF AMD. An amended TAF is issued when the forecaster feels that the TAF is not
representative of current or expected weather conditions. An equal sign appears at the end of the TAF
report.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION STATION IDENTIFIER

C-55. The TAF code uses ICAO four-letter location identifiers. Paragraph C-11 contains more information
on ICAO identifiers.

DATE AND TIME OF ORIGIN

C-56. This element is the date and UTC that the forecast is prepared. The format is a two-digit date and
four-digit time followed by the letter Z. Routine TAFs are prepared and filed about one-half hour before
scheduled issuance times (111140Z for a forecast prepared on the eleventh day of the month at 1140Z or
050530Z for a forecast prepared on the fifth day of the month at 0530Z).

VALID PERIOD DATE AND TIME

C-57. The valid period of the forecast is a two-digit date followed by the two-digit beginning and two-digit
ending hours in UTC. Routine TAFs are valid for 24 hours and are issued daily at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z,
and 1800Z. Currently, most TAFs are changing over to three times a day at 0000Z, 0600Z, and 1800Z. All
ending times throughout the TAF of 00Z are indicated by the number 24; for example—
• Forecast valid from the eleventh at 12Z to the twelfth at 12Z is indicated by 111212.
• Forecast valid from the thirtieth at 00Z to the first at 00Z is indicated by 300024.
Amended, canceled, or delayed forecasts may have valid periods less than 24 hours; for example—
• Forecast valid from the twenty-third at 15Z to the twenty-fourth at 12Z is indicated by 231512.
• Forecast valid from the ninth at 10Z to the tenth at 06Z is indicated by 091006.
C-58. For airports with less than 24-hour observational coverage for which part-time terminal forecasts are
provided, the TAF is valid until the end of the scheduled forecast even if observations have ceased before
that time. Amendment not scheduled (AMD NOT SKED) or no amendment (NIL AMD) is issued after the
forecast information. Amendment not scheduled after closing time (AMD NOT SKED AFT Z) is used if
the observation times are known and judged reliable. During the time that the station is closed and a TAF is
issued, there is no forecast as indicated by NIL (no TAF) after the valid date and time group. Only after
two METARs observations are disseminated is a TAF issued. Amendment limited to clouds, visibility, and
wind (AMD LTD TO CLD VIS AND WIND) is used at observation sites having part-time manual
augmentation, meaning that there will be amendments only for clouds, visibility, and wind and not for
thunderstorms or freezing/frozen precipitation.

WIND FORECAST
C-59. The surface wind forecast is the wind direction in degrees from true north (first three digits) and
mean speed in knots (last two or three digits if 100 knots or greater). KT denotes the units of wind speed in
knots. Wind gusts are noted by the letter G appended to the mean wind speed followed by the highest
expected gust (two or three digits if 100 knots or greater). Calm winds are encoded as 00000KT. A
variable wind is encoded as VRB when wind direction fluctuates because of convective activity or low
wind speeds (3 knots or less). Examples include 13012KT, 18010KT, 35012G26KT, or VRB16G28KT.

VISIBILITY FORECAST
C-60. The prevailing visibility is forecasted in whole and fractions of statute miles followed by SM to note
the units of measurement (5SM). Statute miles followed by fractions of statute miles are separated with a
space (1 1/2SM, 2 1/4SM). Forecasted visibility greater than 6 statute miles is indicated by coding P6SM.
If prevailing visibility is 6 statute miles or less, one or more weather phenomena must be included in the
significant weather forecast. If volcanic ash is forecasted, the visibility must also be forecasted even if the
visibility is greater than 6 statute miles. Sector or variable visibility is not forecasted.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-17

Appendix C

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER FORECAST

C-61. Expected weather phenomena are coded in TAF reports using the same format, qualifiers, and
phenomena contractions as METARs (except unknown precipitation [UP]). Obscurations to vision are
forecasted whenever the prevailing visibility is forecasted to be 6 statute miles or less. Precipitation and
volcanic ash will always be included in the TAF regardless of the visibility forecasted; for example—
• FM2200 18005KT 1SM BR SKC.
• FM0100 12010KT P6SM -RA BKN020.
• FM1500 22015KT P6SM VA SCT100.
C-62. If no significant weather is expected to occur during a specific time in the forecast, the weather
group is omitted. However, if after a period in which significant weather has been forecasted, a change to a
forecast of no significant weather (NSW) appears as the weather included in becoming (BECMG) or
TEMPO groups. NSW is not used in the initial time period of a TAF or in FM groups (FM0600 16010KT
3SM RA BKN030 BECMG 0810 P6SM NSW).
C-63. If the forecaster determines weather that affects aviation is within the vicinity of the airport, the
forecaster will include those conditions after the weather group. The letters VC describe conditions that
will occur within the vicinity of an airport (5 to 10 statute miles) and are used only with fog, showers, or
thunderstorms (such as P6SM VCFG, 5SM BR VCSH, and P6SM VCTS).

SKY CONDITION FORECAST

C-64. TAF sky condition forecasts use the METAR format. Cumulonimbus (CB) clouds are the only cloud
type forecasted in TAFs. Examples include BKN100, SCT040 BKN030CB, or FEW008 BKN015.
C-65. When the sky is obscured because of a surface-based phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV) into the
obscuration is forecasted. The format for vertical visibility is VV followed by a three-digit height in
hundreds of feet. Partial obscurations are not forecasted. Remember that a ceiling is the lowest broken or
overcast layer or vertical visibility (VV008).

NONCONVECTIVE LOW-LEVEL WIND-SHEAR FORECAST (OPTIONAL DATA)

C-66. A forecast of nonconvective low-level wind shear is included immediately after the cloud and
obscuration group when wind-shear criteria have been or will be met. The forecast includes the height of
the wind shear followed by the wind direction and wind speed at the indicated height. Height is given in
hundreds of feet AGL up to and including 2,000 feet. Wind shear is encoded with the contraction WS,
followed by a three-digit height, solidus (/), and winds at the height indicated in the same format as surface
winds (WS020/36035KT). The wind-shear element is omitted if not expected to occur.

FORECAST CHANGE INDICATORS

C-67. If a significant change in any of the elements is expected during the valid period, a new time period
with the changes is included. The following change indicators are used when either a rapid, gradual, or
temporary change is expected in some or all of the forecasted meteorological conditions.

From Group
C-68. The “From” (FM) group is used when a rapid and significant change, usually occurring in less than
one hour, in prevailing conditions is expected. Appended to the FM indicator is the four-digit hour and
minute that the change is expected to begin. The forecast is valid until the next change group or until the
end of the current forecast.
C-69. The FM group will mark the beginning of a new line in a TAF report. Each FM group shall contain a
forecast of wind, visibility, weather (if significant), sky condition, and wind shear (if warranted). FM
groups will not include the contraction NSW. The following are examples of FM groups:
• FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM SCT040 BKN250.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

• FM0200 32010KT 3SM TSRA FEW010 BKN030CB.

Becoming Group
C-70. The BECMG group is used when a gradual change in conditions is expected over a period not to
exceed two hours. The time when the change is expected to occur is a four-digit group containing the
beginning and ending hours of the change that follows the BECMG indicator. The gradual change will
occur at an unspecified time within the period. Only the changing forecasted meteorological conditions are
included in BECMG groups. Omitted conditions are carried over from the previous time group (FM2000
18020KT P6SM BKN030 BECMG 0103 OVC015).
C-71. This BECMG group describes a gradual change in sky condition from BKN030 to OVC015. The
change in sky conditions occurs between 01Z and 03Z. Refer to the FM2000 group for the wind and
visibility conditions. The forecast after 03Z will be as follows: 18020KT P6SM OVC015. The report will
read as in the following example.

FM0400 14008KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007KT=

This BECMG group describes a gradual change in wind direction only beginning between 08Z and 10Z.
Refer to the previous forecast group (in this case, the FM0400 group) for the prevailing visibility, weather,
and sky conditions. The forecast after 10Z will be 32007KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080.

Temporary Group
C-72. The temporary (TEMPO) group is used for temporary fluctuations of wind, visibility, weather, or
sky condition expected to last for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), and expected to occur
during less than half the time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by a four-digit group giving the
beginning and ending hours of the time period during which the temporary conditions are expected. Only
the changing forecasted meteorological conditions are included in TEMPO groups. The omitted conditions
are carried over from the previous time group such as in the following example.

FM1000 27005KT P6SM SKC TEMPO 1216 3SM BR.

This temporary group describes visibility and weather between 12Z and 16Z. The winds and sky condition
have been omitted. Go back to the previous forecast group (FM1000) to obtain the wind and sky condition
forecast. The forecast between 12Z and 16Z is 27005KT 3SM BR SKC. The report will read as in the
following example.

FM0400 14008KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007KT=

C-73. This temporary group describes visibility, weather, and sky condition between 04Z and 08Z. The
winds have been omitted. Go back to the previous forecast group (FM0400) to obtain the wind forecast.
The forecast between 04Z and 08Z is 14008KT 3SM TSRA OVC030CB.

PROBABILITY FORECAST
C-74. The probability (PROB30 or PROB40) forecast describes the probability or chance of thunderstorms
or other precipitation events occurring, along with associated weather conditions (wind, visibility, and sky
conditions). The probability forecast will not be used in the first six hours of the TAF. Probability forecasts
are not used in U.S. Air Force generated TAFs. Probability forecasts will be seen in TAFs generated by the
NWS.
C-75. The PROB30 or PROB40 group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or precipitation is in
the 30 percent to less than 40 percent or 40 percent to less than 50 percent ranges, respectively. If the

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-19

Appendix C

thunderstorm or precipitation chance is greater than 50 percent, it is considered a prevailing weather

condition and is included in the significant weather section or the TEMPO change indicator group.
PROB30 or PROB40 is followed by a four-digit time group giving the beginning and ending hours of the
period during which the thunderstorms or precipitation is expected.
C-76. An example is FM0600 0915KT P6SM BKN020 PROB30 1014 1SM RA BKN015; this example
depicts a 30 percent to less than 40 percent chance of 1 statute mile, moderate rain, and a broken cloud
layer (ceiling) at 1,500 feet between the hours of 10 to 14Z. Another example is FM0000 14012KT P6SM
BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 3SM TSRA BKN030CB; in this example, there is a 40 percent to less
than 50 percent chance of visibility 3 statute miles, thunderstorms with moderate rain showers, and a
broken cloud layer (ceiling) at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus between the hours of 00 to 04Z.

SECTION II – EN ROUTE WEATHER REPORTS

AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVING SYSTEM

C-77. ASOS is sponsored by the FAA, NWS, and DOD. A total of 569 FAA-sponsored and 313
NWS-sponsored ASOSs are installed at airports throughout the country.
C-78. Automated observing systems provide aviators and other users with airport weather observations
(temperature, dew point, wind, altimeter setting, visibility, sky condition, and precipitation) and critical
aviation weather parameters (the runway touchdown zone on the airport) when and where needed. The
systems work nonstop, updating observations every minute, 24 hours a day, every day of the year. By
providing atmospheric information at increasing locations, these systems improve aviation mission safety
and efficiency and weather forecasts and warnings.
C-79. The automated observing system routinely and automatically provides computer-generated voice
directly to aircraft in the vicinity of airports using FAA VHF ground-to-air radio or attached to the ATIS
broadcast. The same information is available via landline, and most data is found on the national weather
data network.

AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVING SYSTEM

C-80. AWOS is a suite of sensors that measures, collects, and disseminates weather data. The information
assists meteorologists, aviators, and flight dispatchers in preparing and monitoring weather forecasts,
planning flight routes, and providing takeoff and landing information. AWOSs supply a minute-to-minute
update usually provided to aviators by a VHF radio on frequencies between 118 and 136 megahertz.
AWOSs are categorized as Federal or non-Federal. Federal AWOSs are purchased and maintained by the
FAA. Nonfederal AWOSs are purchased and maintained by state, local, and private organizations. The
sensors measure weather parameters such as wind speed and direction, temperature and dew point,
visibility, cloud heights and types, precipitation, and barometric pressure. The AWOS does not predict
weather, but many send current information to weather offices where forecasts are produced using
compiled information. Every hour on the hour, AWOS data is made available to off-site users by those
AWOSs on Service A (long line telephone communication) or satellite uplink.
C-81. Six AWOS types are available; each includes a different sensor array. Table C-13, page C-21, lists
the differences in models, which correspond to systems described in FAA Advisory Circular 150/5220­
16C. Federal AWOSs are all AWOS III. The AWOS data acquisition system (ADAS) for the Federal
AWOS is a powerful microprocessor-based computer system that collects and processes data from AWOS.
It then formats the data for output and dissemination into the NAS.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Table C-13. Automated weather observing system models

Broadcast Information AWOS Types

I II III III-P III-T III-P-T
Wind speed X X X X X X
Wind gust X X X X X X
Wind direction X X X X X X
Variable wind direction X X X X X X
Temperature X X X X X X
Dew point X X X X X X
Altimeter setting X X X X X X
Density altitude X X X X X X
Visibility X X X X X
Variable visibility X X X X X
Sky condition X X X X
Cloud height and type X X X X
Present weather X X
Precipitation identification X
Thunderstorm & lightning detection X
Present weather & lightning detection X

SECTION III – WEATHER RISK MANAGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING

C-82. Many weather providers and weather products make it difficult for aviators to screen out
nonessential data, focus on key facts, and correctly evaluate the risk. The perceive-process-perform risk
management framework is a guide for preflight weather planning and in-flight weather decision making:
• Perceive weather hazards that could adversely affect the flight.
• Process information to determine whether hazards create risk, which is the potential effect of a
hazard not controlled or eliminated.
• Perform by acting to eliminate the hazard or mitigate the risk.

PREFLIGHT WEATHER PLANNING

PERCEIVE – UNDERSTANDING WEATHER INFORMATION
C-83. When planning a mission, first check if weather conditions are suitable by collecting information
about current and forecast conditions along the intended route and then develop an understanding of
weather conditions expected along the flight route. If no military weather information is available at the
point of departure, other resources are accessible to aviators. This information becomes even more crucial
when weather becomes questionable.

Television and Internet

C-84. For long-range weather planning, many aviators start with televised weather such as The Weather
Channel (TWC). TWC is not an FAA-approved source of weather information, but its television and
Internet offerings provide tactical and strategic summaries and forecasts (up to 10 per day). The data is
compact and easy to use and can supplement approved sources; for example, one TWC Internet page
includes a weather map with color-coding for IFR and MVFR conditions at airports around the country.
This and other TWC features provide a useful first snapshot of weather conditions needing to be evaluated
more closely. The National Weather Service’s Aviation Weather Center is another useful source of initial
weather information. The AIRMET and SIGMET watch boxes quickly provide a list of marginal or
instrument weather areas.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-21

Appendix C

C-85. A printed version of the FSS briefing package is available by obtaining a standard briefing for the
route on the DUATS. Free and accessible to all aviators via the Internet at www.duat.com or
www.duats.com, this resource provides weather information in an FAA-approved format and records the
transaction as an official weather briefing. Printing out selected portions of the DUATS computer briefing
provides for closer study and easy reference when an aviator speaks with an FSS briefer.
C-86. Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS) is a joint effort of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) Forecast Systems Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)
Research Applications Program (RAP), and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)
Aviation Weather Center (AWC). Available at http://adds.aviationweather.noaa.gov, ADDS combines
information from NWS aviation observations and forecasts, making the data available on the Internet,
along with visualization tools, for practical flight planning.

Operational Weather Squadron

C-87. OWSs are located worldwide to be the primary 24-hour weather-briefing source. Contact the OWS
responsible for the area. Local base/post weather flights may also assist the aviator if higher priority
tasking and local mission support allow. Contact information is listed in the FIH, section C. When talking
to a military forecaster, provide the following information at least two hours before the desired brief time:
• Name of person calling.
• Aircraft type and call sign.
• VFR or IFR and proposed altitude.
• ETD for departure point and ETA for destination and alternates.
• Route.
• En route stops, if applicable (in order, with ETAs).

Federal Aviation Administration

C-88. The FAA FSS is a source of comprehensive weather information. FSS creates briefing packages
derived from NWS data and other flight planning sources. FSS offers four basic briefing packages:
• Outlook (for flights more than six hours away).
• Standard (for most flights).
• Abbreviated (to update specific items after a standard briefing).
• Telephone information briefing service (TIBS), which provides recorded weather information.
C-89. The specific weather information packaged in a standard briefing includes a weather synopsis, sky
conditions (clouds), and visibility and weather conditions at the departure, en route, and destination points.
Also included are adverse conditions, altimeter settings, cloud tops, dew point, icing conditions, surface
winds, winds aloft, temperature, thunderstorm activity, precipitation, precipitation intensity, visibility
obscuration, PIREPs, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, convective SIGMETS, and NOTAMs, including any TFRs.
C-90. A FSS weather briefing can be difficult to absorb via telephone. Pictures display complex, dynamic
information such as cloud cover and precipitation; therefore, it is helpful to begin the preflight planning
process by viewing weather products from a range of providers. The preflight planning process develops
an overall mental picture of current and forecast weather conditions and identifies areas that require help
from the FSS briefer.

Flight Service Station Briefing

C-91. If a local military weather forecaster and OWS are not available, contact an FSS. Once the weather
conditions for the trip are assessed, call FSS. If a DUATS briefing is obtained or the weather situation and
mission are simple, an abbreviated briefing is appropriate. If not, ask for a standard briefing. Armed with
information obtained from the self-briefing process, the aviators finds it easier to absorb new information
from the briefer and can ask questions that are more relevant and specific. Guidelines for obtaining weather
data from FSS include the following:

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

• Contact the right FSS. When dialing the standard number from a cellular phone, the caller is
connected to the FSS associated with the cellular telephone’s area code, not necessarily to the
FSS nearest to present position; when using a cellular telephone outside its normal calling area,
check the airport/facility directory for the specific telephone number of the nearest FSS.
• Identify what is needed so that the right briefing package (outlook, standard, or abbreviated) is
requested.
• Use the standard flight plan form (FAA Form 7233-1) to provide background to the briefer;
review the form before calling, and develop estimates for items such as altitude, route, and
estimated time en route to ensure receipt of accurate information.
• Be honest about any limitations in skill or aircraft capability.
• Inform the FSS specialist if new to the area or unfamiliar with the typical weather patterns,
including seasonal characteristics; if unfamiliar with the area, have VFR or IFR navigation
charts available while talking to the specialist to help sharpen the mental picture of the location
of weather hazards in relation to the departure airport, proposed route of flight, and destination.
• Ask questions, and clarify any unclear item. Less experienced aviators are sometimes less
assertive; smart aviators ask questions to resolve ambiguities in the weather briefing. The worse
the weather, the more data needed to develop options.
• Obtain all weather information needed; if flying in IMC or MVFR that could deteriorate, do not
end the briefing without identifying which direction (north, south, east, west) to turn to fly
toward for better weather and how far it is to reach.

PROCESS—ANALYZING WEATHER INFORMATION

C-92. After obtaining weather information, study and evaluate the information and how it relates to the
circumstances. Aviator training includes weather theory and use of weather products in aviation; however,
it takes continuous study and experience to develop skills in evaluating and applying weather data to a
specific flight. Approach the task of practical, real-world weather analysis with certain concepts in mind.

Weather Elements
C-93. Six basic elements of weather are the following:
• Temperature (warm or cold).
• Wind (a vector with speed and direction).
• Moisture (or humidity).
• Clouds.
• Precipitation.
• Pressure.
C-94. Temperature differences (uneven heating) support development of low-pressure systems, which can
affect wide areas. Surface low-pressure systems usually have fronts associated with them. A front is the
zone between two air masses that contain different combinations of the basic elements. Because weather is
associated with fronts, which are, in turn, associated with low-pressure systems, possible conditions are
revealed by identifying where the low-pressure systems are in relation to the route.

Effects of Weather
C-95. Temperature, wind, and moisture combine to varying degrees to create conditions that affect
aviators. The range of possible combinations is nearly infinite, but weather affects aviators in only three
ways. Specifically, basic weather elements can—
• Reduce visibility.
• Create turbulence.
• Reduce aircraft performance.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-23

Appendix C

Evaluate Weather
C-96. Review weather data in terms of how current and forecast conditions will affect visibility,
turbulence, and aircraft performance for the specific flight. For example, suppose the mission is to fly from
Cincinnati Municipal Airport (KLUK) to Ohio State University Airport in Columbus, Ohio (KCMH). The
departure from KLUK is around 1830Z and flies VFR at 5,500 MSL. ETE is about one hour. See table
C-14 for the weather briefing.
C-97. Aviators have the option of receiving this information in plain English format, if preferred, rather
than in code. Whichever format is selected, the first step is to view the weather data in terms of the three
specific ways that weather can affect flight: ceiling visibility, aircraft performance, and turbulence.

Table C-14. Weather briefing

Weather Briefing
METARs:
KLUK 261410Z 07003KT 3SM -RA BR OVC015 21/20 A3001
KDAY 261423Z 14005KT 3SM HZ BKN050 22/19 A3003
KCMH 261351Z 19005KT 3SM HZ FEW080 BKN100 OVC130 22/17 A3002
TAFs:
KLUK 261405Z 261412 00000KT 3SM BR BKN015
TEMPO 1416 2SM -SHRA BR
FM1600 14004KT 5SM BR OVC035
TEMPO 1618 2SM -SHRA BR BKN015
FM1800 16004KT P6SM BKN040
FM0200 00000KT 5SM BR BKN025
TEMPO 0912 2SM BR BKN018
KDAY 261303Z 261312 06003KT 5SM BR SCT050 OVC100
TEMPO 1315 2SM -RA BR BKN050
FM1500 15006KT P6SM BKN050
TEMPO 1519 4SM -SHRA BR BKN025
FM1900 16007KT P6SM BKN035
FM0200 14005KT 5SM BR BKN035
FM0600 14004KT 2SM BR BKN012
KCMH 261406Z 261412 19004KT 4SM HZ SCT050 BKN120
FM1800 17006KT P6SM BKN040
TEMPO 1922 4SM -SHRA BR
FM0200 15005KT 5SM BR BKN035
FM0700 14004KT 2SM BR BKN012
WINDS ALOFT (Direction/Speed [in knots] at Various Altitudes [in feet]):
3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000 21000 24000 27000
CMH 1910 2108+15 2807+10 2712+05 2922-07 2936-17 2945-32 2945-40 3138-51
CVG 2310 2607+16 2811+11 2716+06 3019-05 2929-16 2934-30 2932-40 2936-52

C-98. The aviator can organize the information from the weather brief (table C-14) into a locally produced
table, as depicted in table C-15, page C-25, that allows for easier comparisons. The column headings in the
top row, arranged to match the order in which the briefing information is presented, assist in quickly
identifying specific weather hazards possible on the trip. The aviator may convert Zulu (UTC) times to
local times.

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

Table C-15. Derived mission information

Current Conditions
Visibility &
Turbulence Ceiling & Visibility Trends
Performance
Place Time Ceiling
Temp/Dewpt
Wind Visibility Weather (feet in Altimeter
(°C)
hundreds)
KLUK 1410Z 07003KT 3SM RA, BR OVC015 21/20 A3001
KDAY 1432Z 14005KT 3SM HZ BKN050 22/19 A3003
FEW080,
KCMH 1351Z 19005KT 3SM HZ 22/17 A3002
OVC130
Forecast Conditions
Turbulence Ceiling & Visibility
Place Time Ceiling (feet in
Wind Visibility Weather
hundreds)
KLUK FM1800Z 16004KT P6 SM BKN040
KDAY TEMPO 1519Z -- 4SM -SHRA BKN025
FM1900Z 16007KT P6 SM -- BKN035
KCMH FM1800Z 17006KT P6 SM -- BKN040
TEMPO 1922Z -- 4SM -SHRA, BR --
Winds Aloft
Visibility &
Turbulence
Performance
Altitude
Place Wind
(in feet)
(direction/ Temp °C
knots)
CVG 6,000 260/07 16
CMH 6,000 210/08 15

Ceiling and Visibility

C-99. The first columns to view are the weather data elements reporting ceiling and visibility. In the case
of the proposed VFR flight from KLUK to KCMH, current visibility at the departure and destination
airports is marginal and the small temperature/dew point spread should trigger a mental red flag for
potentially reduced visibility. The forecasts call for conditions to improve at the departure airport, KLUK,
by the time of planned takeoff (1830Z).
C-100. It is possible to encounter marginal conditions, including light rain showers, en route and also at
the destination (KCMH). Because the forecast ceilings will probably not allow VFR flight at the planned
altitude (5,500 feet MSL), this part of the analysis indicates terrain and obstacle avoidance planning
(discussed in the next section) will be necessary if this flight departs at the originally scheduled time.

Aircraft Performance
C-101. Current and forecast temperatures for departure, en route, and destination points are reviewed for
possible adverse effect on aircraft performance. In high temperatures, knowledge and planning for the
effects of high-density altitude—especially on takeoff, climb, and landing—are imperative. If temperatures
are low and flight is planned in the clouds, pay special attention to known or forecast icing and freezing
levels.
C-102. In the sample VFR flight from KLUK to KCMN, temperatures on the surface and at the planned
altitude are moderate. In those conditions, performance problems associated with density altitude or icing
are not likely.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-25

Appendix C

Turbulence
C-103. Review wind conditions for departure airport, en route, and destination airport. A mental picture
of vertical wind profiles is also required to select the best altitudes for cruise flight and to determine
whether wind shear is present.
C-104. For the sample flight from KLUK to KCMH, the chart format shows that there are light southerly
surface winds at the departure and destination airports. Winds aloft will also be light but from a westerly
direction. There are no indications for wind shear or convective activity (thunderstorms); therefore, it is
safe to conclude that turbulence is not likely to be a hazard.

PERFORM – MAKING A WEATHER PLAN

C-105. The third step is to perform an honest evaluation of crew/aircraft capability and the challenge
posed by the particular set of weather conditions. Aviators should consider the adequacy of the combined
crew-aircraft team. For example, the crew may be very experienced, proficient, and current, but its weather
flying ability is limited by the aircraft model. On the other hand, the aircraft may be technically
advanced—with moving map GPS, weather data link, and autopilot—but the crew does not have much
weather flying experience. An airplane’s capability can never fully compensate for lack of experience. The
crew must be fully proficient in the use of onboard equipment and verify proper function.
C-106. Self-check the decision (regardless of experience). If the result of the evaluation process leaves
any doubt, then develop safe alternatives. Think of the preflight weather plan as a strategic, overarching
exercise. The goal is to ensure that all of the weather-related hazards for this particular flight are identified
and that ways to eliminate or mitigate each one are planned. There are several items to include in the
weather flying plan.

Escape Options
C-107. A good aircrew knows where to find good weather within the aircraft’s range and endurance
capability. The aircrew must know where it is, which direction to turn to get there, and how long it will
take to get there. When the weather is IMC (ceiling less than 1,000 feet or visibility less than 3 statute
miles), identify an acceptable alternative airport for each 25 to 30 nautical-mile segment of the route.

Reserve Fuel
C-108. Identifying the location of VFR weather does no good unless there is adequate fuel to reach it.
Flight planning for only a legal fuel reserve could significantly limit options if weather deteriorates. More
fuel means access to more alternatives and frees the aircrew from the worry (and distraction) of fuel
exhaustion when weather has already increased the cockpit workload.

Terrain Avoidance
C-109. Recognize altitude limitations to avoid encountering terrain and/or obstacles. Consider a terrain
avoidance plan for any flight involving the following conditions:
• Weather at or below MVFR (ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 feet; visibility 3 to 5 miles).
• A temperature/dew-point spread of 4°C or less.
• Any expected precipitation.
• Operating at night.
C-110. Identify the MSA for each segment of the flight. All VFR sectional charts include a maximum
elevation figure (MEF) in each quadrangle. The MEF is determined by locating the highest obstacle
(natural or manmade) in each quadrangle and rounding up 100 to 300 feet. Charts for IFR navigation
include an MEA and an MOCA. Jeppesen (civilian) charts depict a minimum off route altitude (MORA),
while FAA/NACO charts show an OROCA that guarantees a 1,000-foot obstacle clearance in
nonmountainous terrain and a 2,000-foot obstacle clearance in mountainous terrain. In addition, many GPS

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

navigators (panel mounted and handheld) include a feature showing the MSA, en route safe altitude (ESA),
or MEA relative to the aircraft’s position. If there is access to such equipment, an understanding of how to
access and interpret the information regarding safe altitudes is necessary.

Passenger Plan
C-111. A number of weather accidents have been associated with external or peer pressures such as
reluctance to disappoint passengers eager to make or continue a mission. There is almost always pressure
to launch and pressure to continue. Even the small trip to the hangar can create pressure to avoid wasted
time. For this reason, weather planning should include briefing the passengers (and anyone waiting at the
destination) in addition to preflighting the aircraft. By jointly planning for weather contingencies and
briefing passengers before boarding the aircraft, the aviator will be under less pressure to continue in
deteriorating weather conditions. Suggestions include the following:
• Understand the minimums that help build the toughest go/no-go and continue/divert decisions
well in advance of any flight.
• Understand that the presence of others can influence decision making and willingness to take
risks; emphasize to passengers that safety is the priority.
• Establish weather checkpoints every 25 to 30 nautical miles along the route, at which to
reevaluate conditions; if possible, have passengers assist by tracking progress and conditions at
each weather checkpoint.
• Use preestablished minimums to determine exactly what conditions will trigger a diversion at
any given weather checkpoint; let passengers know what these conditions are.
• Decide specific actions to take if diversion is required at any particular point, and inform
passengers during the briefing; preflight is the time to make alternative arrangements if weather
conditions worsen.
• Inform personnel at the destination that plans are flexible and they will be kept informed; be
sure they understand that safety is the priority and that a delay or cancellation is possible if
weather becomes a problem.
• Wait out bad weather, especially involving weather fronts; bad weather normally does not last
long, and waiting just a day can often make the difference between attempting a high weather
risk flight and a flight that falls within safety guidelines.

IN-FLIGHT DECISION MAKING

PERCEIVE—OBTAINING IN-FLIGHT WEATHER INFORMATION
C-112. Often, weather is not forecast to be severe enough to cancel the mission so aviators often choose to
take off and evaluate the weather in flight. It is not necessarily incorrect to take off and evaluate the
situation, but it is important to stay alert to weather changes. Aviators and their aircraft operate in (rather
than above) most weather. At typical aircraft speeds, a 200-mile trip can leave a two- to three-hour weather
information gap between the preflight briefing and the actual flight. Therefore, this gap makes in-flight
updates vital.

Visual Updates
C-113. Survey the weather, and determine whether conditions around the aircraft match conditions
reported or forecasted. Sometimes there are local deviations in weather conditions (such as isolated cells
and fog) that may not be immediately known to the weather briefer or may not appear on weather-product
depictions, especially if there is no weather-reporting capability at the departure point. Next Generation
Weather Radar (NEXRAD) information is at least 6 to 10 minutes old when it reaches the display—and is
older still by departure time.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-27

Appendix C

En Route Weather Conditions

C-114. To monitor conditions en route, aviators can listen to ATIS and ASOS/AWOS broadcasts along
the route. These broadcasts help update and corroborate preflight weather information about conditions
along the route of flight.

En Route Flight Advisory Service or Flight Watch and Pilot-To-Metro

C-115. Available on 122.0 CONUS from 5,000 AGL to 17,500 MSL (124.67 at higher altitudes), EFAS
(addressed as Flight Watch) is a service that provides en route aircraft with timely and meaningful weather
advisories pertinent to the type of flight intended, route of flight, and altitude. Request permission from
ATC to leave the frequency to contact EFAS, and then provide EFAS with the aircraft identification and
name of the VOR nearest to the position of the aircraft. Consult the FIH for current Pilot-to-Metro Service
frequencies and instructions.

Air Traffic Control

C-116. Monitoring ATC frequencies along the way keeps the aircrew abreast of changing weather
conditions. Monitor if other aircraft along the route are requesting diversions. Aviators can also request
information on the present location of weather, which the controller will try to provide if workload permits.
When requesting weather information from ATC, be aware that radar, the controller’s primary tool, has
limitation, and that operational considerations (use of settings that reduce the magnitude of precipitation
returns) will affect what the controller sees on radar.

Datalink and Weather Avoidance Equipment

C-117. Radar and lightning detectors, available in some aircraft for many years, contribute significantly to
weather awareness in the cockpit. An increasing number of aircraft are now equipped with weather data
link equipment, which uses satellites to transmit weather data—such as METARs, TAFs, and NEXRAD
radar—to the cockpit. It is often shown as an overlay on the multifunction display (MFD). Handheld
devices with weather data link capability are also a popular source of en route weather information.

PROCESS—EVALUATING AND UPDATING IN-FLIGHT CONDITIONS

Visual Updates
C-118. Humans are conditioned to believe what they see. The eyes perceive weather during flight, but
prior visual experience largely determines our ability to see things. Like other sensory organs, the eye
responds best to changes. It adapts to circumstances that do not change or those that change in a gradual or
subtle way by reducing its response. Just as the skin becomes acclimated to the feel of clothing, the eye
becomes accustomed to progressive small changes in light, color, and motion so that it no longer visualizes
an accurate picture. In deteriorating weather conditions, reduction in visibility and contrast occurs quite
gradually and it may be some time before the aviator senses that weather conditions have deteriorated
significantly. Therefore, aviators must learn how to look past the visual illusion and see what is really
there.

In-Flight Weather Information

C-119. In-flight weather information obtained from ATIS and ASOS/AWOS broadcasts can contribute
useful pieces to the en route weather picture; however, this information is only a weather snapshot of a
limited area. ATIS and ASOS/AWOS broadcasts are primarily intended to provide information on
conditions in the airport vicinity.
C-120. The information reported is derived from an array of sensors. While designed to be as accurate as
possible and becoming increasingly sophisticated, these automated systems actually monitor a very small
area on the airfield and report only what the sensors can see. For example, sensors measuring visibility

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

actually measure a section of air less than 24 inches wide. Even a dense fog on a portion of the airfield will
go undetected by the system unless the fog obscures the sensors. The system will not identify an
approaching thunderstorm until it is almost directly over the automated site’s ceiling instruments.

En Route Flight Advisory Service

C-121. If deteriorating conditions are suspected or encountered while en route, contact EFAS–Flight
Watch or PMSV for additional information. EFAS can be a helpful resource, but interpreting and applying
the information received while flying the aircraft—especially in adverse or deteriorating conditions with no
autopilot—can be difficult. The aviator needs to understand where the weather is in relation to present
position and flight path, where it is going, and how fast it is moving. It is good practice to have an
aeronautical chart, with the route clearly marked, readily available before calling Flight Watch/PMSV. The
chart helps the aviator visualize where weather conditions are located in relation to current position and
intended route of flight and determine whether (and where) a deviation from the original plan is required.

Air Traffic Control

C-122. Radar identifies only entities that reflect energy, including precipitation, the density of which is
indicated by the strength of the return. Radar does not detect turbulence, but its existence may sometimes
be implied by the intensity of a precipitation return: the stronger the return, the more likely the presence of
turbulence. In addition, icing is not directly evident but may be inferred by the presence of moisture,
clouds, and precipitation at temperatures at or below freezing.
C-123. ATC radar capacity is limited by the kind of equipment in use. Older radars only depict primary
radar returns, and controllers using these units often use a device known as circular polarization (CP) to
reduce the magnitude of precipitation returns so that aircraft targets are more clearly visible. In these cases,
the weather information displayed is reduced and understated. In general, TRACON radar systems have
greater weather capability than ATTC radar with respect to depicting weather. Terminal ATC facilities
equipped with the latest radar systems can measure precipitation intensity and display it to the controller in
six levels of intensity (table C-16).

Table C-16. Radar system precipitation intensity levels

Level Intensity Level Intensity

1. Light precipitation 4. Heavy rain
2. Light to moderate rain 5. Very heavy rain; hail possible
3. Moderate to heavy rain 6. Very heavy rain and hail; large hail possible

C-124. Interpreting weather information from ATC is facilitated through a thorough understanding of
pilot-controller communications. In recent years, several general aviation accidents have occurred in which
the effectiveness of information provided by ATC was diminished because aviators and controllers
interpreted the same terms in different ways. Never make assumptions regarding ATC-provided en route
information. Be specific, and do not hesitate to ask questions to clarify points not understood.

Datalink and Weather Avoidance Equipment

C-125. The quality of datalink and weather avoidance equipment information depends heavily upon
update rate, resolution, and coverage area. When an aviator is flying an aircraft that has datalink
equipment, safe and accurate interpretation of information received depends on understanding of each of
these parameters.
C-126. Data link does not provide real-time information. Although weather and other navigation displays
can give aviators an unprecedented quantity of high-quality weather data, their use is safe and appropriate
only for strategic decision making (attempting to avoid the hazard altogether). Data link is not accurate or
current enough to be safely used for tactical decision making (negotiating a path through a weather hazard

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-29

Appendix C

area such as a broken line of thunderstorms). Be aware that onboard weather equipment can
inappropriately influence the decision to continue a flight. No matter how thin a line of storms appears to
be or how many holes appear on the display, there is no safe path through them.

PERFORM—PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

C-127. During the preflight planning process, the aircrew develops a strategic, overarching flight plan
based on weather data and analysis. During the en route phase, use the data and analysis to make tactical
weather decisions. Tactical weather flight requires perception of the conditions, processing (interpreting)
their effect on the flight, and performing by taking appropriate action at each stage. Steps include the
following:
• Reassess weather on a continuous basis; designate specific fixes (airports) on or near the flight
path as weather checkpoints, and use in-flight resources to get updated information.
• Take action if deteriorating weather is suspected:
• Trust the eyes if weather conditions appear to be deteriorating.
• Contact EFAS/PMSV for detailed information.
• Proceed to the nearest airport if clouds form at a lower altitude, or if there are gray or black
areas ahead, hard rain or moderate turbulence, or clouds forming above that require
descent; reevaluating and implementing a new plan are easier from the safety of an airport.
• Contribute to the system by making PIREPs. Format is not important; offer the information, and
the specialist will put it into the appropriate format for distribution.

Air Traffic Control

C-128. If ATC help is necessary to avoid or escape bad weather, ask sooner rather than later. Guidelines
include the following:
• Be sensitive to ATC communications workload, but keep controllers advised of weather
conditions; tell the controller if deviation is required to avoid a weather hazard.
• Navigational guidance information issued to a VFR flight is advisory; suggested headings do not
authorize violation of regulations and do not guarantee clearance of all weather.
• Ask questions, and ask for clarification if a point is not understood.
• Do not assume that the controller is knowledgeable about the flight:
• If ATC is needed to avoid convective weather, inform the controller that the aircraft has no
onboard weather avoidance equipment.
• If given to another controller while on a suggested heading for weather avoidance, confirm
that the next controller knows the original request was for weather avoidance assistance;
for example, the initial call might be: “Center, Army 12345, level 5,000, 020 heading for
weather avoidance.”
• Never assume that “cleared direct when able” means flying a direct course at that time will
keep the aircraft clear of weather; to ATC, “direct when able” means to fly direct when able
to navigate directly to the fix. When in doubt, ask if a direct course will keep the aircraft
clear of moderate and heavy radar return areas indicative of thunderstorm activity.
• Words such as showers and precipitation are misleading. Some aviators mistakenly assume
that these words indicate areas of rain with no thunderheads present. Do not proceed into
areas of showers or precipitation without clarifying the level of precipitation or a descriptor
such as light, moderate, or heavy; the difference between Level 1 precipitation and Level 4
precipitation can be fatal.

POSTFLIGHT WEATHER REVIEW

C-129. After a challenging flight in weather, an aviator’s initial impulse may be to go home and unwind;
however, the immediate postflight period is one of the best opportunities to increase weather knowledge

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 Weather Reports and Risk Management

and understanding. Studies show that aviators sometimes fly into bad weather because they lack relevant
experience and did not recognize certain weather cues that might create a safety hazard to the flight. Make
it a point to learn something from every weather encounter. At the end of a flight involving weather,
mentally review the flight and reflect on what was learned from the experience. A possible postflight
weather after action report (AAR) can consist of the following questions:
• What weather conditions/hazards existed, and how did they affect this flight? (Examples include
turbulence and winds, ceilings and visibility, and aircraft performance.)
• How did the conditions encountered during this flight compare to information obtained in the
preflight briefing?
• Which sources of preflight weather information provided the best (or most useful, most
accurate, most relevant) data for this flight?
• Which sources of en route weather information provided the best (or most useful, most accurate,
most relevant) data for this flight?
C-130. Aviators can also develop weather experience and judgment by observing and analyzing the
weather every day. Look out the window or go outside to observe the clouds. What are they doing? Why
are they shaped as they are? Why is their altitude changing? This simple habit helps develop the ability to
read clouds and understand how shape, color, thickness, and altitude can be valuable weather indicators.
As cloud-reading skill develops, try to correlate temperature, dew point, humidity, and time of day to the
types of clouds forming. Take note of the wind, and try to visualize how it wraps around the tree or whips
around the corner of a building. This exercise increases awareness of wind at critical points in the flight.
Developing weather knowledge and expertise helps keep the crew and passengers safe.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 C-31

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 Appendix D
Internet Resources
D-1. The list provided in table D-1 is not meant to be all inclusive. This appendix provides a starting point
for aviators to obtain the latest, accurate information needed to conduct flight operations. Bookmarked web
sites addresses do change periodically. Some of these sites are nongovernmental; Web sites without .mil or
.gov extensions should be used with discretion by the aviator.

Table D-1. Internet resources for flight operation planning

Proponent Internet Address

Air Force
Publications http://www.e-publishing.af.mil/afpubs.asp
Weather Agency https://login.afwa.af.mil/front_door/knock.cgi
AOPA
Web site http://www.aopa.org/
Online Courses http://www.aopa.org/asf/online_courses/
Army
USAASA http://www.usaasa.belvoir.army.mil/
ASOS/AWOS
Trainer’s Tool Box http://www.nws.noaa.gov/asos/toolkt.htm
FAA http://www.NWS.noaa.gov/asos/index.html
DUATS
CSC DUATS http://www.duats.com/
(CPU-26A/P)
Emulator http://www.csgnetwork.com/e6bcalc.html
FAA
Air Traffic Publications http://www.faa.gov/atpubs/
FLIP
FAA http://www.naco.faa.gov/index.asp?xml=naco/online/d_tpp
NGA http://164.214.2.62/products/digitalaero/index.html
General
AVweb http://www.avweb.com/
FAA http://www.faa.gov/
Whittsflying (Gene Whitt’s Web site) http://www.whittsflying.com/
GPS
U.S. Army program manager site (GPS) https://gps.army.mil/gps/menu.cfm
ICAO
ICAO http://www.icao.int/
NOTAMs
DOD https://www.notams.jcs.mil/
FAA https://www.notams.faa.gov/

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 D-1

Appendix D

Table D-1. Internet resources for flight operation planning

Proponent Internet Address

Planning
enflight http://www.enflight.com/index.php
FAA https://pilotweb.nas.faa.gov/distribution/atcscc.html
Baseops Network http://www.baseops.net/
Distance calculations http://www.fai.org/distance_calculation/
Fuel http://usapc.army.mil/
RVSM
FAA http://www.faa.gov/ats/ato/rvsm_documentation.htm
Training
Aeromedical http://usasam.amedd.army.mil/RT/req_training.htm
Tutorials http://stoenworks.com/Tutorials/
Flight Simulator Navigation http://www.navfltsm.addr.com/index.htm
Approach charts http://www.volpe.dot.gov/opsad/iapchart.html
Weather
Intellicast http://www.intellicast.com/Aviation/
METAR/TAF information http://metar.noaa.gov/index.jsp
NOAA National Weather Center Aviation
http://aviationweather.gov
site
Pilot’s Guide FAA/NWS http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/pilot.htm

D-2 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Appendix E
Aircrew Coordination and Instrument Flight

This appendix describes the background of crew coordination development, crew

coordination elements, basic qualities, and objectives as found in the Army Aircrew
Coordination Training Enhancement (ACTE) Program. The focus is crew
coordination as it applies to instrument flight.

Note. Digitization of crew compartments has expanded and redefined the lines of responsibility
for each crew member. The ability of either crew member to perform most aircraft/system
functions from his or her crew station breaks down the standard delineation of duties, allowing
the crew added capabilities in training and combat. A crew member can attempt to resolve an
unforeseen circumstance without the assistance of another crew member; therefore, good
communication among crew members is necessary. The PC must brief specific duties before
stepping into the aircraft.

CREW COORDINATION BACKGROUND

E-1. Many aircraft accidents result from one or more crew coordination errors committed before or during
the mission. Often, an accident is the result of a sequence of undetected crew errors that combines to
produce a catastrophic result. Continued research shows that even when accidents are avoided, crew
coordination errors result in degraded mission performance. A systematic analysis of error patterns
indicates specific areas that crew-level training could improve. Improved training can reduce the
occurrence of such errors and can break the chain of errors that cause accidents and poor mission
performance.

CREW COORDINATION ELEMENTS

E-2. Broadly defined, aircrew coordination is the interaction between crew members necessary for safe,
efficient, and effective performance of tasks. The essential elements of crew coordination include the
following:
• Communicate positively. Good cockpit teamwork requires clear communication among crew
members; when the sender directs, announces, requests, or offers information, the receiver
acknowledges the message while the sender confirms it based on the receiver’s
acknowledgment.
• Direct assistance. A crew member directs assistance when he or she cannot maintain aircraft
control. (During ITO, pilot on the controls [P*] calls for the copilot to call out airspeed, torque,
and climb rate); he or she also directs assistance when aircraft systems are not operating
properly and assistance is required of the other crew member.
• Announce actions. Effective and well-coordinated actions in the aircraft require all crew
members to be aware of expected crew movements and unexpected individual actions; each
crew member announces actions affecting the duties of other crew members.
• Offer assistance. A crew member provides assistance or information, when requested.
• Acknowledge actions. Communications in the aircraft must include supportive feedback to
ensure that crew members correctly understand announcements or directives.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 E-1

Appendix E

• Be explicit. Crew members use clear terms and phrases and positively acknowledge critical
information. Avoid using terms having multiple meanings, such as “Right,” “Back up,” or “I
have it.” Also avoid statements such as “Do you see that?” or “You are coming in a little
fast/slow.”
• Provide aircraft control and obstacle advisories. Although the P* is responsible for aircraft
control, other crew members should provide aircraft control information regarding airspeed,
altitude, or heading.
• Coordinate action sequence and timing. Proper sequencing and timing ensures that the actions
of one crew member will mesh with the actions of another crew member.

CREW COORDINATION BASIC QUALITIES

E-3. Crew coordination elements are further broken into a set of 13 basic qualities. Each basic quality is
defined in terms of observable behaviors that support the elements.

FLIGHT TEAM LEADERSHIP AND CREW CLIMATE

E-4. Aircrews have a designated leader with clear lines of authority and responsibility. The PC sets the
tone for the crew and maintains the working environment. Effective leaders use their authority but do not
operate without the participation of other crew members. When crew members disagree on a course of
action, they must effectively resolve the disagreement. Specific goals include the following:
• The PC actively establishes an open climate in which crew members talk freely and ask
questions.
• Crew members value each other for their expertise and judgment; they do not allow differences
in rank and experience to influence their willingness to speak up.
• Alternative viewpoints are normal and part of crew interaction; crew members must handle
disagreements in a professional manner, and avoid personal attacks or defensive posturing.
• The PC actively monitors attitudes of crew members and offers feedback, when necessary; each
crew member should display appropriate concern for balancing safety with mission
accomplishment.

PREMISSION PLANNING AND REHEARSAL

E-5. Premission planning includes all preparatory tasks associated with planning the mission. These tasks
include planning for VFR or IFR flight. They also include assigning crew member responsibilities and
conducting all required briefings and back briefs. Premission rehearsal involves the crew collectively
visualizing and discussing expected and possible events for each phase of the mission. Specific goals
include the following:
• The PC ensures that all actions, duties, and mission responsibilities are clearly assigned to
specific crew members. Each crew member actively participates in the mission planning process
to ensure a common understanding of mission intent and operational sequence; the PC
prioritizes planning activities so that critical items are addressed within the available planning
time.
• Crew members identify alternate courses of action in anticipation of potential weather changes.
Crew members must be prepared to implement contingency plans when required. Crew
members mentally rehearse the entire mission by visualizing and discussing potential problems,
contingencies, and responsibilities.
• The PC ensures that crew members take advantage of periods of low workloads to rehearse
upcoming flight segments; crew members continuously review remaining flight segments to
identify and implement required adjustments.

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 Aircrew Coordination and Instrument Flight

DECISION MAKING
E-6. Decision making is the act of rendering a solution to a problem and defining a plan of action; it must
involve risk assessment. The quality of decision making and problem solving, throughout the planning and
execution phases of the mission, depends on information available, time constraints, and level of
involvement and information exchange among crew members. Although the entire crew should be
involved in the decision making and problem-solving process, the PC is the decision maker. Specific goals
include the following:
• Under high stress, crew members rely on a pattern-recognition decision process to produce
timely responses. They minimize deliberation, consistent with available decision time. Crew
members focus on the most critical factors influencing their choice of responses. They
efficiently prioritize their specific information needs within the available decision time.
• Under moderate to low stress, crew members rely on an analytical decision process to produce
high-quality decisions. They encourage deliberation when time permits. Arriving at the most
unbiased decision possible, crew members consider all important factors influencing their choice
of action. They consistently seek all available information relative to factors being considered.

WORKLOAD PRIORITY
E-7. This quality addresses the effectiveness of time and workload management. It assesses the extent to
which the crew, as a team, avoids distractions from essential activities, distributes and manages workload,
and avoids individual task overload. Specific goals include the following:
• Crew members are able to identify and prioritize competing mission tasks. They appropriately
delay low-priority tasks until those tasks do not compete with more critical tasks. Crew members
consistently avoid nonessential distractions so that they do not affect task performance.
• The PC actively manages distribution of mission tasks to prevent overloading any crew member,
especially during critical phases of flight. Crew members watch for workload buildup on others
and react quickly to adjust distribution of task responsibilities.
• The PC ensures that all crew members do not focus on the same urgent task, such as an
emergency procedure, leaving no one to fly the aircraft.

UNEXPECTED EVENTS
E-8. This quality addresses crew performance under unusual circumstances that may involve high levels
of stress. Technical and managerial aspects of coping with the situation are important. Specific goals
include the following:
• Crew actions reflect extensive rehearsal of emergency procedures in prior training and
premission planning and rehearsal. Crew members coordinate their actions and exchange
information with minimal verbal direction from the PC.
• Each crew member appropriately adjusts individual workload and task priorities with minimal
verbal direction from the PC. The PC ensures that each crew member is used effectively when
responding to the emergency and that the workload is efficiently distributed.

STATEMENTS AND DIRECTIVES

E-9. This quality refers to the completeness, timeliness, and quality of information transfer. It includes
crew use of standard terminology and feedback techniques to verify information transfer. Emphasis is on
the quality of instructions and statements associated with navigation, obstacle clearance, and instrument
readouts. Specific goals include the following:
• Crew members consistently make recommended callouts; statements and directives are always
timely.
• Crew members use standard terminology in all communications; statements and directives are
clear and concise.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 E-3

Appendix E

• Crew members actively seek feedback from unresponsive crew members to obtain
acknowledgement and understanding of intent; crew members can request additional
clarification when necessary.

MISSION SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

E-10. Mission situational awareness considers the extent to which crew members keep each other informed
regarding aircraft status and mission. Information reporting helps the aircrew maintain a high level of SA.
The information reported includes aircraft position and orientation, equipment and personnel status,
environmental and battlefield conditions, and changes to mission objectives. SA by the entire crew is
essential to safe flight and effective crew performance. Situational awareness is enhanced by the following:
• Crew members routinely update each other and highlight and acknowledge changes; they take
personal responsibility for scanning the entire flight environment, considering their assigned
workload and areas to scan.
• Crew members actively discuss conditions and situations that can compromise SA; these
include—but are not limited to—stress, boredom, fatigue, and anger.

DECISIONS AND ACTIONS

E-11. This quality addresses the extent to which crew members are kept informed of decisions and actions
by other crew members. Crew members should respond verbally or by appropriately adjusting their
behaviors, actions, or control inputs to clearly indicate that they understand when a decision has been made
and what it is. Failure to do so may confuse fellow crew members and lead to uncoordinated operations.
Specific goals include the following:
• Crew members announce decisions and actions, stating rationale and intentions as time permits;
the P verbally coordinates the transfer of, or inputs to, controls before action.
• Crew members acknowledge announced decisions or actions and provide feedback on how these
decisions or actions will affect other crew tasks if necessary, they promptly request clarification
of decisions or actions.

SUPPORTING INFORMATION
E-12. This quality addresses the extent to which supporting information and actions are sought from the
crew by another crew member, usually the PC. Crew members should feel free to raise questions during the
flight regarding plans, revisions to plans, actions to be taken, and status of key mission information.
Specific goals include the following:
• The PC encourages crew members to raise issues or offer information about safety or the
mission; crew members anticipate impending decisions and actions and offer information as
appropriate.
• Crew members always request assistance from others before they become overloaded with tasks
or before they must divert attention from a critical task.

CREW MEMBER ACTIONS

E-13. This quality addresses the extent to which crew members cross-check each other to break the
sequence of events (error chains) that leads to accidents or degraded mission performance. Crew members
must be capable of detecting each other’s mistakes. Cross monitoring is particularly important when crews
are tired or overly focused on critical task elements and, thus, prone to mistakes. Specific goals include the
following:
• Acknowledging crew error is a common occurrence, and active involvement of the entire crew
is required to detect and break error chains leading to accidents; crews constantly watch for
errors affecting flight safety or mission performance by monitoring their own performance as
well as the performance of others. When noting an error, quickly and professionally inform and
assist the crew member committing the error.

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 Aircrew Coordination and Instrument Flight

• The crew thoroughly discusses the two-challenge rule before mission execution. When required,
effectively implement the two-challenge rule with minimal compromise to flight safety.

CREW SUPPORTING INFORMATION

E-14. This quality addresses the extent to which crew members anticipate and offer supporting information
and actions to the decision maker, usually the PC, when a decision must be made or an action taken. A
specific goal for crew members is to anticipate the need to provide information, warnings, or assistance to
the PC or P* during critical phases of flight. They provide required information in a timely manner.

ADVOCACY AND ASSERTION

E-15. This quality concerns the extent to which crew members are proactive in advocating a course of
action they consider best, even when others may disagree. Specific goals include the following:
• Maintaining a professional atmosphere, crew members state the rationale for recommended
plans and courses of action, as time permits; they request feedback to ensure that others
correctly understand their statements or rationale. Time permitting, other crew members practice
good listening habits and wait for explanations before commenting on recommended plans or
courses of action.
• The PC actively promotes objectivity in the cockpit by encouraging other crew members to
speak up when they disagree with senior members; every crew member displays a sense of
responsibility for adhering to flight regulations, operating procedures, and safety standards.

CREW-LEVEL AFTER-ACTION REVIEWS

E-16. This quality addresses the extent to which crew members review and critique their actions during or
after a mission segment and during periods of low workload or mission debriefing. Specific goals include
the following:
• The crew critiques major decisions and actions by identifying options and factors omitted and
outlining ways to improve crew performance in future missions.
• The critique of crew decisions and actions is professional. Allegations are avoided; the emphasis
is on education and improvement of crew performance.

CREW COORDINATION OBJECTIVES

E-17. Crew coordination elements and basic qualities are measured to determine if the program objectives
have been met. The five crew coordination objectives are the following:
• Establish and maintain team relationships. A positive working relationship allows the crew
to communicate openly and freely and operate in a concerted manner.
• Conduct mission planning and rehearsal. Explore all aspects of the assigned mission, and
analyze each segment for potential difficulties and possible reactions in terms of mission
requirements.
• Establish and maintain workloads. Manage and execute the mission workload effectively and
efficiently with redistribution of task responsibilities as the mission situation changes.
• Exchange mission information. Establish intracrew communications using effective patterns
and techniques that allow for the flow of essential data among crew members.
• Cross monitor performance. Cross monitor actions and decisions of other crew members to
reduce the likelihood of errors affecting mission performance and safety.

STANDARDIZED COCKPIT PROCEDURES

E-18. Clearly defining a division of cockpit responsibilities ensures that duties that may distract the P* are
transferred to the pilot (P). Clear division of cockpit responsibilities is of particular importance during the
arrival and departure phases of flight. Because of different cockpit designs, units should modify these

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 E-5

Appendix E

procedures based on unit aircraft equipment. All Army aircraft require two pilots for IMC flight.
Appropriate verbiage and responsibilities serve as a guide to fully integrate the actions of the P* and P.

PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
E-19. The P* is responsible for flying the aircraft. If autopilot equipped and it is coupled, the P* is
responsible for ensuring that the autopilot correctly captures and maintains selected altitudes and courses.
Unless required by a safety consideration, the P* shall avoid tasks that distract from the primary
responsibility of flying by directing the other crew members to accomplish these tasks. Distracting tasks,
especially those associated with departure and arrival, should be performed by the P, if possible. Managing
the workload placed upon the P during periods of high cockpit workload is responsibility of the P*.
E-20. The P is responsible for cross monitoring the P* and accomplishing tasks that may distract the P*
from his or her duties. The primary duty of the P is to keep the P* free to fly the aircraft. Basic P duties
include the following :
• Maintain radio communications.
• Navigate – know at all times the position of the aircraft.
• Verify all navigational fixes for the flight.
• Change NAVAID and communications radio frequencies.
• Change transponder codes.
• Copy clearances, local weather broadcasts, and other flight information.
• Read and complete checklist items as required.
• Set/adjust pages, switches, and systems as required.
• Operate the FMS/GPS/onboard navigational system at the direction of the P* or as required for
the flight.
• Change aircraft configuration at the direction of the P*, such as the following:
• Power and propeller settings.
• Flap selection.
• Operating the gear handle.
• Operating the weather avoidance equipment.
• Set and arm altitude on the altitude preselector (if installed).
• Take the following actions during IFR operations:
• Ensure the correct altimeter setting and cross monitor the P* to assist in avoiding a
misreading.
• Note takeoff time.
• Assist P* in determining correct holding entry.
• Calculate and monitor times for holding and approaches.
• When on approach, watch for the runway environment.
• Be prepared to direct and assist the P* with the missed approach procedure, if required.

MANAGEMENT

Flight Director Panel

E-21. The P* and P must coordinate efforts to manage the flight director system. The P* determines and
directs the P accordingly. The P makes changes to the altitude controls as required by newly assigned
altitudes without direction of the P*. The P does not make other changes to the P*’s flight director system
without P*’s direction. If the P is unable to assist, the P* may make minor changes to the flight director
system. Examples include:
• Arming the approach mode.
• Selecting IAS or vertical speed (VS).

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 Aircrew Coordination and Instrument Flight

• Selecting heading (HDG) or NAV.

• Selecting standby (STBY).
E-22. Changes to status of the flight director system coupled to the autopilot are announced and mutually
verified. When a selection is initiated, it is announced to the other pilot. P* announces when the flight
director captures a selected mode.

Power Levers (Fixed Wing)

E-23. The P* does not relinquish control of the power levers to the P. The P is limited to assisting the P*
by setting and maintaining the takeoff power as briefed. During the takeoff roll, if there is a need to abort
the takeoff, the P* retards the power levers.

DEVIATIONS
E-24. Certain circumstances may require deviation from guidelines conveyed in this manual. Such
deviations, when clearly communicated among the crew members, reflect good resource management and
coordinated crew actions.

CHECKLISTS
E-25. The P and P* should use the challenge and response method of reading the checklist. This is the
most positive way to proceed through a checklist because it allows for both pilots to remain aware of all
checklist-related activities. Flexibility with this method is required. During periods of high cockpit
workload (taxiing, departures or takeoffs, traffic patterns, descents, and approaches), the P* may not be
able to respond in a quick and positive manner. As a result, the benefits of the challenge and response do
not justify the additional workload that it places on the P*. Under these circumstances, the checklist should
still be read aloud; however, the P now also provides the response. The P should only accomplish
noncritical functions with command or acknowledgment. The operation of systems—such as landing gear,
flaps, autopilot, FMS, and flight director mode selections—require P* participation, mandating a response
of “Confirmed.” For example, before landing, P initiates “Gear DOWN/confirm,” and P* responds
“Confirmed.”

STERILE COCKPIT
E-26. The definition of a sterile cockpit is that only conversation required for safe aircraft operation is
conducted. A sterile cockpit shall exist under the following conditions:
• From the start of the takeoff run through climb to a designated altitude, or the en route phase of
flight when cruise altitude is less than the designated altitude.
• During descent from a designated altitude or the en route phase of flight into the terminal area
for approach and landing.

TWO-CHALLENGE RULE
E-27. The two-challenge rule allows one crew member to automatically assume the duties of another crew
member who fails to respond to two consecutive challenges or when aircraft control is in question. (For
example, the P* becomes fixated, confused, or task overloaded or otherwise allows the aircraft to enter an
unsafe position or attitude.) The P first asks the P* if he or she is aware of the aircraft position or attitude.
If the P* does not acknowledge this challenge, the P issues a second challenge. If the P* fails to
acknowledge the second challenge, the P assumes control of the aircraft.
E-28. Do not assume two challenges have to be made before control transfer. The two-challenge rule is the
maximum. If the situation warrants, control transfer immediately or after one challenge. The pilot assuming
the controls makes this decision. Challenges can also come from other crew members.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 E-7

 Appendix E

STANDARD CREW TERMINOLOGY

E-29. To enhance communication and crew coordination, crews should use words or phrases that are
understood by all participants. They must use clear, concise terms that can be easily understood and
complied with in an environment full of distractions. Multiple terms with the same meaning should be
avoided. DOD FLIP and FAA manual 7110.65 contain standard terminology for radio communications.
Operator’s manuals contain standard terminology for items of equipment. Table E-1 is a list of other
standard words and phrases that crew members may use.

Table E-1. Examples of standard words and phrases

Word or Phrase Meaning

Abort To terminate a preplanned maneuver (for example, an aborted takeoff).
Affirmative Yes
Braking Announcement made by the P* who intends to apply brake pressure.
Immediate action command to perform a maneuver to deviate from the present ground
Break
track; will be followed by “RIGHT,” or “LEFT.”
Command by the P* for a specified procedure to be read from the checklist by another
Callout
crew member.
No obstacle present to impede aircraft movement along intended direction of flight or
while taxiing on the ground; followed by direction of movement (Clear right/left). Also,
Clear
when preceded by the number one or two, indicates that the engine area has been
visually checked for personnel or other hazards before engine start.)
Contact Traffic in sight or establish communication with.
Correct Confirms a statement as being accurate; do not use “right” to indicate correct.
Statement that the P* is taking positive action to correct an out-of-tolerance flight
Correcting
parameter (drift or altitude).
An alert of the unannounced movement of the aircraft on final approach or takeoff; will be
Drifting
followed by direction (drifting right or left).
Egress Immediate action command to get out of the aircraft.
Execute Initiate an action.
Expect Anticipate further instructions or guidance.
Fire light Announcement of illumination of the master fire warning light.
Go ahead Proceed with message.
Hold Command to maintain present position.
Used as a command or announcement by the rated crew member (RCM) assuming
I have the controls
control of the flight controls.
Inside Primary focus of attention is inside the aircraft.
Preceded by the word traffic, runway, obstacle, or descriptive term. Used to confirm that
In sight
an object is positively seen or identified.
Maintain Command to keep or continue the same.
Move Command to taxi the aircraft forward/backward, followed by distance. Also used to
forward/backward announce intended forward or backward movement.
My power The P* resumes control of the power levers from the P (fixed wing).
Negative “No” or “that is not correct.”
Negative contact Unable to establish communication with (followed by the name of the element).
No joy Traffic or obstacle not positively seen or identified.
Normal Condition as it should be. Airspeed check on takeoff roll.
Now Indicates that an immediate action is required
Outside Primary focus of attention is outside the aircraft.
Command to place the P*’s radio transmit selector switch to a designated position or to
Put me up
place a frequency in a specific radio.
Report Command to notify.
Right Used to indicate a direction to the right.
Roger Message received and understood.
Rotate The P callout when the aircraft has obtained takeoff decision speed (V1).

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 Aircrew Coordination and Instrument Flight

Table E-1. Examples of standard words and phrases

Word or Phrase Meaning

Say again Repeat transmission.
Command by the P* for the P to set takeoff power or maximum available power during a
Set power
go-around or missed approach (fixed wing).
Stand by Wait. Duties of a higher priority are being performed.
Stop Command to go no further; halt present action.
Traffic or obstacle positively seen or identified (will be followed by a repeat of the word
Talley
traffic or obstacle and the clock position).
Refers to any friendly aircraft that presents a collision hazard; will be followed by a clock
Traffic
position, distance, and reference to altitude.
Unable Indicates the inability to comply with a specific instruction or request.
Up on Indicates radio selected; followed by position number on ICS panel (Up on 3).
Verify Request confirmation of information.
Wilco I have received, understand, and will comply.
You have the controls Used as a command or announcement by the pilot relinquishing the flight controls.
Your power P returning control of the power levers to the P* (fixed wing).
You’re up Announces a specific radio or frequency selected. “You’re up on 121.7 on number one.”

CREW COORDINATION CALLOUTS

E-30. Bold type identifies the crew member who should initiate the call. In certain situations, it is initiated
by the first crew member to observe or notice the event—and then the roles are reversed.

TAKEOFF
E-31. Table E-2 applies to an instrument takeoff.

Table E-2. Rotary and fixed wing instrument takeoff callouts

Action P* Call/Response P Call/Response

XX% (P calls actual value on torque display;
Collective increase to climb power
Climb power continues to monitor and make calls as specified in
(Crew brief specifies value)
brief until climb airspeed reached)
10 KIAS from briefed climb
Roger 10 knots 10 knots prior
airspeed
Power levers advance Set power Power set
65 knots indicated (systems
Normal
normal)
Airspeed at V1 V1 Rotate
Abnormal or emergency condition
Aborting Abort, Abort
prior to V1 (identified by P)
Aborting (state
P* elects to abort prior to V1 Roger
problem)
Positive rate of climb (two After P call “Gear Positive rate
indications) up” “Gear is up” or “Gear did not retract”
Airspeed at 105 KIAS (flaps at
Flaps up Flaps up
takeoff position)

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Appendix E

CLIMB, CRUISE, AND DESCENT

E-32. If passing the 1,000-foot prior point and ATC communications are preventing the callout, either
crew member may raise the index finger in view of the other to indicate the 1,000-foot prior point (table
E-3, page E-10).

Table E-3. Climb/cruise/descent callouts

Action P* Call/Response P Call/Response

1,000 feet prior to level off Roger 1,000 to go
Climbing through transition altitude 29.92 set left 29.92 set right
Descending through transition altitude or XX.XX set (left or right as
Altimeter XX.XX
change to altimeter setting applicable)”

ALL PHASES OF FLIGHT

E-33. Table E-4 applies to phases of flight.

Table E-4. Examples of calls/responses for all phases of flight

Observation P* Call/Response P Call/Response

100 feet prior to any altitude Roger 100 to go 100 to go
Bank angle exceeds 30º Correcting Bank Angle
Airspeed deviates ± 10 KIAS Increasing (decreasing) airspeed Airspeed, XX knots low (high)
Altitude deviates ± 100 feet Increasing (decreasing) altitude Altitude, XX feet low (high)
Heading deviates ± 10º Correcting right(left)” Heading, XX degrees left (right)

INSTRUMENT APPROACH
E-34. Table E-5 applies to all instrument approaches except ground-controlled approach (GCA).

Table E-5. Examples of instrument approach calls/responses

Action P* Call/Response P Call/Response

Initial course/localizer movement Roger Course (localizer) alive
Course/localizer capture Roger Course (localizer) captured
Initial glide slope movement (precision
Roger Glide slope alive
approach)
Glide slope capture (precision approach) Roger Glide slope captured
FAF Time Time started
1,000 feet before DA/DH/MDA Roger 1,000 to go
500 feet before DA/DH/MDA Roger 500 to go
100 feet before DA/DH/MDA Roger 100 to go

MISSED APPROACH
E-35. These callouts (table E-6, page E-11) apply when—
• Aircraft has reached DA/DH, MAP, MAWP at the published MDA and appropriate visual
reference has not been called in sight.
• Wind shear is encountered and affects the safe operation of flight.
• If, after passing the FAF inbound, either the localizer, VOR, or GPS deviation indicator or glide
slope reaches full-scale deflection or if RAIM annunciation appears.

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 Aircrew Coordination and Instrument Flight

• If, on reaching DA/DH or MAP, the aircraft is not continuously in a position from which a
descent to land on the intended runway can be made at a normal rate using normal maneuvers
permitting touchdown to occur within the touchdown zone.
• If, while circling to land, visual contact with the runway environment is lost by both pilots.

Table E-6. Examples of missed approach calls/responses

Action P* Call/Response P Call/Response

DA/DH, Time’s up or
Straight-in approach–reaching missed Roger, missed approach
MAP, negative
approach point, runway environment (followed by missed approach
contact, missed
not in sight actions)
approach
Visual contact lost, executing Roger,
Circling approach–visual contact with
missed approach (followed by Visual contact lost,
runway lost (crew member monitoring
actions) execute missed
outside while circling initiates callout)
Roger, missed approach approach
Go around segment after P* initiates
Climb power Power set
the power application
After verifying two positive climb
Roger Positive rate
indications
Go-around segment after P* initiates
Set power Power set
the power application
After verifying two positive climb
Gear up Positive rate
indications
Flaps beyond approach Flaps approach Flaps approach
Airspeed reaches 105 KIAS Flaps up Flaps up
When time and altitude permit My power Your power

VISUAL TRANSITION FROM INSTRUMENTS

E-36. The P seeks outside references during the approach while cross-monitoring the P*’s instruments.
Should visual reference deteriorate after a sighting call is made, call “visual contact lost.” If the aircraft has
not reached the missed approach point, the approach may be continued to DA/DH/MDA. If the aircraft has
passed the MAP and visual contact is lost, call “missed approach,” and complete missed approach actions.
E-37. Indicate to the P* when making the transition from instruments by stating the clock position along
with a visual cue. The callout indicates that the P* can remain in constant visual contact with the runway
environment from callout to landing. The P* must call “visual” before the aircraft continues below
DA/DH/MDA. After such a call is made, the P assumes primary responsibility for monitoring instrument
reference to touchdown and immediately calls out any deviation from normal operations. While at MDA
on straight in or circling approaches, the P should call out any deviation in altitude or abnormal approach
speeds. If level at MDA, the P* stays level at this altitude until calling “leaving MDA.” During a circling
maneuver when the runway is on the P’s side, use appropriate callouts to direct the P* when to make turns
with respect to the landing runway, traffic, or any necessary deviations (see table E-7).

Table E-7. Examples of calls/responses for instrument reference to visual

Action P* Call/Response P Call/Response

Approach lights (or other features identifiable with
Appropriate visual On instruments (or
runway environment) in sight continue approach
references in sight other intentions)
(or other recommended action)
Runway in sight (clock position), take over
Runway in sight Runway in sight, visual
visually
P* departs MDA to land Leaving MDA Roger

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 E-11

Appendix E

APPROACH DEVIATIONS
E-38. Table E-8 shows examples of calls/responses for approach deviations. The two-challenge rule
applies to the callouts described in table E-8, page E-12.

Table E-8. Examples of calls/responses for approach deviations

Observation P* Call/Response P Call/Response

One dot (high/low) and
± one dot of glide slope Correcting (up/down)
increasing/decreasing
One dot (left/right) and
± one dot of localizer/VOR/GPS Correcting (left/right)
increasing/decreasing
5º (left/right) and
± 5º on NDB approach Correcting (left/right)
increasing/decreasing
± 10 kts from approach speed Increasing (decreasing) airspeed Airspeed ten knots low (high)
Rate of descent exceeds 1,000 ft Sink rate (amount) increasing
Reduce sink rate
per minute (decreasing/holding)

EMERGENCIES/MALFUNCTIONS
E-39. The primary action during emergencies or system malfunctions is to continue flying the aircraft.
Table E-9 provides suggested callouts for these events.

Table E-9. Examples of emergency calls/responses

Observation P* Call/Response P Call/Response

“Confirm engine number one/two
Confirm engine failure number
Loss of an engine has failed” or “Negative, number
one/two
(opposite) has failed”
Confirm or deny suspected
State conditions or indications
malfunction. (Make sure P*
Other system malfunctions that lead you to believe that
continues to fly and does not get
you have a problem
distracted by emergency.)
Fixed Wing Specific
Loss of an engine (one or two)
“I confirm engine number
by control pressures and/or Confirm engine number
one/two has failed,” or
instrument indications. Sequence one/two has failed
“Yes, number X prop feathered,”
begins after power is applied and Did the propeller feather?
or “No, it did not feather.”
aircraft stabilized.
Identify the number one/two P places index finger on
(appropriate) prop lever appropriate prop lever.
P* visually confirms the correct Number one/two prop lever
Propeller did not feather prop lever has been identified identified.
“I agree, feather the prop” or When directed by the P*, move
“Negative, reidentify the prop to feather.
number X prop.” Prop feathered.
Reaching designated airspeed,
Flaps up Flaps up
according to operator’s manual

E-12 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

SECTION I – ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

14 CFR Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations

AAF Army airfield
AAR after action report
AC advisory circular
ACC altocumulus castellanus (clouds)
acft aircraft
ACSL altocumulus (clouds)
ACTE Aircrew Coordination Training Enhancement
ADAS AWOS data acquisition system
ADDS Aviation Digital Data Service
ADF automatic direction finder
ADIZ air defense identification zone
A/FD Airport/Facility Directory
AFMAN Air Force manual
AFOD Army Flight Operations Detachment
AFSS automated flight service station
aft after
AFWA Air Force weather agency
A/G air/ground
AGL above ground level
AHP Army heliport
AIM Aeronautical Information Manual
AIMS ATCRBS, IFF, Mark XII identification system, and system
AIREP air report
AIRMET airman’s meteorological information
AKO Army Knowledge Online
ALSF approach lighting with sequenced flashing lights
alt altitude
ALTN alternate
ALTRV Altitude Reservation
AM amplitude modulation
AMD amended
AMDT amendment
AMOCC air mobility operations control center
ANDS acceleration–north/deceleration–south

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-1

Glossary

ANT antenna
AOPA American Owners & Pilots Association
AOR area of responsibility
AP Area Planning
APG Aviator Procedures Guide
appr approach
AR Army regulation
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated
ARNG Army National Guard
ARTCC air route traffic control center
ARTS automated radar terminal system
AS airspeed
A/S all stops
ASOS automated surface observation system
ASR airport surveillance radar
ATC air traffic control
ATCRBS Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System
ATCT airport traffic control tower
ATIS automatic terminal information service
ATM aircrew training manual
ATNAVICS Air Traffic Navigation, Integration, and Coordination System
ATS air traffic services
auto automated
AWC Aviation Weather Center
AWOS automated weather observing system
B beginning time
BC back course
bd board
BDL Bradley International Airport designator
BECMG becoming
BFO beat frequency oscillator
BIRDTAM bird activity NOTAM
BKN broken
BL blowing (dust, sand, snow, and/or spray)
BMNT beginning morning nautical twilight
BR mist
C Celsius
C2 command and control
C/A course acquisition
cal calibrated

Glossary-2 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

CAS calibrated airspeed

CAT clear air turbulence
cat category
CB cumulonimbus (clouds)
CBMAM cumulonimbus mammatus (clouds)
CCSL cirrocumulus (clouds)
CDI course deviation indicator
CDU control display unit
ceil ceiling
CFA controlled firing area
CFACC combined forces air component commander
CFIT controlled flight into terrain
CFP computer flight plan
CH compass heading; cargo helicopter; ceiling height (METAR code)
chan channel
CIG ceiling (height above ground level to base of clouds)
CLC course line computer
CLD clouds
CLR clear
con control
CONUS continental United States
COP changeover point
CP circular polarization
CPU central processing unit
CRAFT clearance, route, approach, frequency, and transponder (code)
CRS course
CTAF common traffic advisory frequency
CWA center weather advisory
D degrees; day
DA decision altitude; Department of the Army
DAFIF Digital Aeronautical Flight Information File
DC direct current
DD Department of Defense
dep departure
DER departure end of the runway
desg designation
DEST destination
DH decision height
DINS DOD Internet NOTAM Distribution System
dist distance

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-3

Glossary

DME distance measuring equipment

dn down
DOD Department of Defense
DOTD Directorate of Training and Doctrine
DP departure procedure
DR dead reckoning
DS dust storm
DSN defense switched network
dsnt distant
DT daylight saving time
DTG date-time group
DU dust
DUATS Direct User Access Terminal System
DURGC during climb
DZ drizzle
E ending time; east
EAS equivalent airspeed
EENT ending evening nautical twilight
EFAS en route flight advisory service
EFC expect further clearance
E-field electric field
EGI embedded global positioning system/inertial navigation system
elev elevation
EM electromagnetic
emerg emergency
EOVM emergency obstruction video map
ESA en route safe altitude
est estimated
ETA estimated time of arrival
ETD estimated time of departure
ETE estimated time en route
EUCARF European Central Airspace Reservation Facility
ex example
F Fahrenheit
FA area forecast
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAF final approach fix
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
FAT free air temperature
FAWP final approach waypoint

Glossary-4 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

FBO fixed base operator

FC funnel cloud

FCG Foreign Clearance Guide

fcst forecast

FDC flight data center

FG fog
FIH Flight Information Handbook
FIR flight information region
FL flight level
FLIP Flight Information Publication
flt flight
FM frequency modulation; field manual
fm from
FMC flight management computer
FMS flight management system
FOE fixation, omission, and emphasis
FPM feet per minute
FPNM feet per nautical mile
FR from
freq frequency
FROPA frontal passage
FSS flight service station
ft feet

FU smoke

FZ freezing

FZRA light freezing rain

G gust

GCA ground controlled approach

GCO ground communication outlet

GHz gigahertz
GLS GNSS landing system
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
gnd ground
GNSS global navigation satellite system
GP General Planning
GPS global positioning system

GR hailstones

GS small hail or snow pellets

GUS ground uplink station

gyr gyroscope

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-5

Glossary

gyro gyroscope
HAA height above airport
HAL height above landing
HAT height above touchdown
HDG heading
HEIL high intensity runway lights
HF high frequency
HFD Hartford
Hg mercury
HH Coast Guard helicopter
HIRL high intensity runway lights
HIWAS Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service
hr hours
HSI horizontal situation indicator
HZ haze
Hz hertz
IAF initial approach fix
IAP instrument approach procedure
IAS indicated airspeed
IAWP initial approach waypoint
IC ice crystals
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ID identification
IDENT identification
IF intermediate fix
IFE instrument flight examiner
IFF identification friend or foe
IFR instrument flight rules
IIMC inadvertent instrument meteorological condition
illum illumination (moon)
ILS instrument landing system
IMC instrument meteorological condition
inc increasing
inop inoperative
INS inertial navigation system
IP instructor pilot
IPH Instrument Procedures Handbook
IR IFR military training route
ISA International Standard Atmospheric
ITO instrument takeoff

Glossary-6 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

IVSI instantaneous vertical speed indicator

JFC Joint force commander
JP jet propulsion
KHz kilohertz
KIAS knots indicated airspeed
KM kilometers
kt knots
L left
LAA local airport advisory
LAAS local area augmentation system
LAHSO land and hold short operations
LDA Localizer-type directional aid
ldg landing
LF low frequency
LHA general-purpose amphibious assault ship
LHD multipurpose amphibious assault ship
LLWAS low-level wind shear alert system
LLZ localizer facility
L/MF low/medium frequency
LMM locator middle marker
LNAV lateral navigation
LOA letter of agreement
LOC localizer
LOM locator outer marker
LPH landing platform helicopter
LR lead radial
LTD limited
LTG lighting
lvl level
MAA maximum authorized altitude
MALS medium-intensity approach lighting system
MALSR medium-intensity approach lighting system with runway alignment
indicator lights
MAP missed approach point
MAWP missed approach waypoint
max maximum
MCA minimum crossing altitude
MCS master control station
MDA minimum descent altitude
MEA minimum en route altitude

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-7

Glossary

MEF maximum elevation figure

METAR meteorological aviation report
MF medium frequency
MFD multifunction display
M-field magnetic field
MH magnetic heading
MHz megahertz
MIA minimum IFR altitude
MIFG patches of shallow fog not deeper than 2 meters
MIN minute
MLS microwave landing system
MM middle marker
MMLS mobile microwave landing system
MN magnetic north
MOA military operations area
MOCA minimum obstruction clearance altitude
MORA minimum off route altitude
mov moving
MR moonrise
MRA minimum reception altitude
MRAALS Marine remote area automatic landing system
MS moonset
MSA minimum safe altitude
MSAW minimum safe altitude warning
MSHP mishap
MSL mean sea level
MTR military training route
MVA minimum vectoring altitude
MVFR marginal visual fight rules
N north
N/A not applicable
NACO National Aeronautical Charting Office
NAD North American datum
NAS National Airspace System
NATS North Atlantic Track System
NAUT nautical
NAV navigation
NAVAID navigational aid
NAVAIR Naval Air Systems Command
NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research

Glossary-8 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction

NDB nondirectional beacon
NEXRAD Next Generation Weather Radar
NFDC National Flight Data Center
NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
NM nautical miles
no number
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration
NOTAM notice to airmen
NRP national route program
NSA national security area
NSN national stock number
NSW no significant weather
NTAP Notices to Airmen Publication
NWS National Weather Service
NYC New York City
OAT outside air temperature
OBS omnibearing selector
OCONUS outside continental United States
ODALS outside directional approach lighting system
OIS obstacle identification surface
OM outer marker
onbd onboard
ops operations
OPTEMPO operating tempo
OROCA off route obstruction clearance altitude
OVC overcast
OWS operational weather squadron
P pilot not on the controls
P* pilot on the controls
PA pressure altitude
pam pamphlet
PANS-OPS Procedures for Air Navigation Services-Aircraft Operations
PAR precision approach radar
PC pilot-in-command
PCL pilot controlled lighting
PCN planning change notice
PIREP pilot weather report
PK peak
PL ice pellets

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-9

Glossary

PMSV Pilot-to-Metro Service

PO dust/sand whirls
POB persons on board
PPC performance planning card
PPS precise positioning service
PR partial
pres present; pressure
PRESFR pressure falling rapidly
PRESRR pressure rising rapidly
press pressure
prob probability (forecast)
P-static precipitation static
PT procedure turn
pt point
pub publication
pvt private
PY spray
QFE atmospheric pressure at field elevation
QNE standard altimeter
QNH atmosphere pressure at nautical height
R right
RA rain
rad radiation
RAIL runway alignment indicator lights
RAIM receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
RAMCC Regional Air Movement Control Center
RAP Research Applications Program
RAPCON radar approach control
RCL runway centerline lighting
RCM rated crewmember
RCO remote communications outlet
RCR runway condition reading
REIL runway end identifier lights
RF radio frequency
rgnl regional
RMI radio magnetic indicator
RMK remark
RNAV area navigation
Rotor CLD rotor cloud
RPM revolutions per minute

Glossary-10 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

RRS Wiregrass (Midland City, Alabama) VORTAC

RSC runway surface condition
RVR runway visual range
RVSM reduced vertical separation minumums
RVV runway visual value
RWY runway
S south
SA situational awareness
SARP standards and recommended practice
SCSL stratocumulus (clouds)
SCT scattered
SEC seconds
SFC surface
SG snow grains
SH showers (precipitation)
SHRA rain showers
SID standard instrument departure
SIGMET significant meteorological information
SKC sky clear
sked schedule
SLP sea-level pressure
SM statute mile
SN snow
SOIR simultaneous operations on intersecting runways
SPECI special weather report
SPS standard positioning service
SQ squall
SR sunrise
SS sunset
SSALR simplified short approach lighting system with runway alighment
indicator
SSALS simplified short approach lighting system
SSN social security number
SSR secondary surveillance radar
STAR standard terminal arrival route
STAT statute
STBY standby
STOL short takeoff and landing
STT special tactics team
SUA special-use airspace

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-11

Glossary

SVFR special visual flight rules (fixed wing)

T true
TAA terminal arrival area
TACAN tactical air navigation
TAF terminal area forecast
TAS true airspeed
TCH threshold crossing height
TCU towering cumulus (clouds)
TDZE touchdown zone elevation
TEC tower en route control
temp temperature
tempo temporary
TERPS terminal instrument procedures
TFR temporary flight restriction
TH true heading
TIBS telephone information briefing service
tkof takeoff
TN true north
TRACON terminal radar approach control
TS thunderstorms (precipitation)
TSO technical standard order
TSRA thunderstorm with rain
TTS time to station
TWC The Weather Channel
TWEB transcribed weather broadcast
twr tower
UCN urgent change notice
UH utility helicopter
UP unknown precipatation
UHF ultra high frequency
U.S. United States
USAASA United States Army Aeronautical Services Agency
USAAWC United States Army Aviation Warfighting Center
USAR United States Army Reserve
USNS United States NOTAM System
UTC universal time coordinated
V variable
VA volcanic ash
VAFTAD volcanic ash forecast transport and dispersion
var variation

Glossary-12 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

VC vicinity
VCFG fog in the vicinity
VCSH showers in the vicinity
VDP visual descent point
VFR visual flight rules
VHF very high frequency
vis visibility
VLF very low frequency
VMC visual meteorological conditions
VNAV vertical navigation
Vne velocity never exceed (airspeed)
VOR very (high frequency) omnidirectional range
VORTAC very (high frequency) omnidirectional radio range tactical air
navigation aid
VOT
VOR test facility
VR
VFR military training route
VRB
variable
VS vertical speed
vsby visibility
VSI vertical speed indicator
VV vertical visibility
VVI vertical velocity indicator
W without voice; west
w with
WA warning area
WAAS wide area augmentation system
wea weather
WMS wide-area master station
wnd wind
WGS World Geodetic System
WP waypoint
WRS wide-area ground reference station
WS report type designator for SIGMET
WSHFT wind shift
WST report type designator for convective SIGMET
wt weight
WW weather warning
WX weather
Y year
Z zulu (time)

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-13

Glossary

SECTION II – TERMS

aerodrome
Airfield; an area prepared for the accommodation (including any buildings, installations, and
equipment), landing and takeoff of aircraft.
agonic line
A line drawn on a map or chart joining points of 0 magnetic declination for a specified year date.
air route surveillance radar
Air route traffic control center radar used primarily to detect and display an aircraft’s position while
en route between terminal areas.
Airport/Facility Directory
An FAA publication containing information on all airports, communications, and NAVAIDs
pertinent to IFR flight; also known as A/FD.
annunciator
An electrically controlled signal board or indicator.
bezel
A rim that holds a transparent covering (as on a watch, clock, or headlight) or that is rotatable and
has special markings.
circling approach
A maneuver initiated by the aviator to align the aircraft with a runway for landing when a straight-in
landing from an instrument approach is not possible or is not desirable.
clearance limit
The fix, point, or location to which an aircraft is cleared when issued an air traffic clearance.
clearance void time
Used by ATC to advise an aircraft that the departure clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff is
not made prior to a specified time. The aviator must obtain a new clearance or cancel the IFR flight
plan if not off by the specified time.
common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF)
A designated frequency for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to
or from an airport that does not have a control tower or an airport where the control tower is not
operational. The CTAF is normally a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS frequency, or a tower
frequency. CTAF will be identified in appropriate aeronautical publications.
cruise clearance
Used in an ATC clearance to allow an aviator to conduct flight at any altitude from the minimum
IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specified in the clearance. Also authorizes an aviator to
proceed to and make an approach at the destination airport.
decision altitude
A specified altitude in the precision approach, charted in “feet MSL”, at which a missed approach
must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been established.
Also known as (DA).
DA will replace DH for Category I precision IAPs.

decision height

Glossary-14 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

A specified altitude in the precision approach, charted in “height above threshold (HAT) elevation”,
at which a decision must be made to either continue the approach or to execute a missed approach.
Also known as (DH).
ILS Category II and III approach DHs are referenced to AGL and measured with a radar altimeter.
deviation
A magnetic compass error caused by local magnetic fields within the aircraft. Deviation error is
different on each heading.
dew point
The temperature at which a vapor (as water) begins or would begin to condense.
doghouse
A mark on the dial of a turn-and-slip indicator that has the shape of a doghouse.
Doppler radar
A radar system that differentiates between fixed and moving targets by detecting the apparent
change in frequency of the reflected wave caused by motion of the target or the observer.
encoding altimeter
An altimeter that sends signals to the ATC transponder, showing the pressure altitude the aircraft is
flying.
established
To be stable or fixed as, for example, on a route, route segment, altitude, heading, or published
segment of the approach.
established on course
The aircraft must be within half scale deflection for ILS and VOR/DME/TACAN/RNAV/GPS, or
within ±5 degrees of the required bearing for NDB.
fixating
Staring at a single instrument, thereby interrupting the cross-check process.
flight level
A level of constant atmospheric pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury.
Each is stated in three digits that represent hundreds of feet. For example, FL 250 represents a
barometric altimeter indication of 25,000 feet; FL 355, an indication of 35,500 feet.
flimsy
A lightweight paper used especially for multiple copies.
height above airport
The height of the MDA above the published airport elevation. This is published in conjunction with
circling minimums; also known as HAA.
height above landing
The height above a designated helicopter landing area used for helicopter IAPs; also known as
HAL.
height above touchdown
The DH or MDA above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown zone (first 3,000 feet of the
runway). HAT is published on instrument approach charts in conjunction with all straight-in
minimums.
instrument approach procedure
A series of predetermined maneuvers for the orderly transfer of an aircraft under IFR from the
beginning of the initial approach to a landing or to a point from which a landing may be made
visually; also known as IAP.

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-15

Glossary

isogonic lines
Lines drawn across aeronautical charts connecting points having the same magnetic variation.
Kollsman window
A barometric scale window of an altimeter referenced for changing altimeter settings.
lenticular
A type of cloud, shaped like a lens.
localizer
A directional radio beacon that provides to an aircraft an indication of its lateral position relative to
a predetermined final approach course.
lubber line
A fixed line on the compass of an aircraft that is aligned with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Mach number
The ratio of the velocity of a body (as an aircraft) to that of sound in the surrounding medium (as
air).
magnetic bearing
The direction to or from a radio transmitting station measured relative to magnetic north.
magnetic heading
The direction an aircraft is pointed with respect to magnetic north; also known as MH.
marker beacon
A transmitter that directs its signal upward in a small, fan-shaped pattern. Used along the flightpath
when approaching an airport for landing, marker beacons indicate, both aurally and visually, when
the aircraft is directly over the facility.
middle marker
VHF marker beacon used in the ILS. When the NDB compass locator is collocated with an MM, it
is shown as LMM on instrument approach charts.
millibar
A unit of atmospheric pressure equal to 1/1000 bar or 100 pascals.
minimum descent altitude
The lowest altitude, expressed in feet above MSL, to which descent is authorized on final approach
or during circle-to-land maneuver in execution of a standard IAP where no glide slope is provided;
also known as MDA.
missed approach
A maneuver conducted by an aviator when an instrument approach cannot be completed to a
landing. A pilot executing a missed approach prior to the missed approach point (MAP) must
continue along the final approach to the MAP. The pilot may climb immediately to the altitude
specified in the missed approach procedure.
missed approach point
A point prescribed in each instrument approach procedure at which a missed approach procedure
shall be executed if the required visual reference does not exist.
movement area
The runways, taxiways, and other areas of an airport/heliport that are used for taxiing/hover taxiing,
takeoff and landing aircraft, exclusive of loading ramps, and parking areas.

MULTICOM

Glossary-16 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Glossary

A mobile service, not open to public correspondence use, used for essential communications in the
conduct of activities performed by or directed from private aircraft.
outer marker
VHF marker beacon used in the ILS. When the NDB compass locator is collocated with an OM, it
is shown as LOM on instrument approach charts.
pascal
A unit of pressure in the meter-kilogram-second system equivalent to one newton per square meter.
pitot pressure
Ram air pressure used to measure airspeed.
pitot-static head
A combination pickup used to sample pitot pressure and static air pressure.
precipitation static
A form of radio interference caused by rain, snow, or dust particles hitting the antenna and inducing
a small radio-frequency voltage into it; also known as P-Static.
precision approach radar
An instrument approach in which ATC issues azimuth and elevation instructions for aviator
compliance, based on aircraft position in relation to the final approach course, glide slope, and
distance from the end of the runway as displayed on the controller’s radar scope; also known as
PAR.
radials
Courses oriented from a VOR or TACAN station.
relative bearing
The number of degrees measured clockwise between the heading of the aircraft and the direction
from which the bearing is taken.
reverse sensing
When the VOR needle indicates the reverse of normal operation. This occurs when the aircraft is
headed toward the station with a FROM indication or when headed away from the station with a TO
indication.
rigidity
The characteristic of a gyroscope that prevents its axis of rotation tilting as the Earth rotates.
rime
An accumulation of granular ice tufts on the windward sides of exposed objects that is formed from
supercooled fog or cloud and built out directly against the wind.
special-use airspace
Airspace in which certain activities are subject to restrictions that can create limitations on the
mixed use of airspace. Consists of prohibited, restricted, warning, military operations, and alert
areas.
St. Elmo’s fire
A corona discharge that lights up aircraft surface areas where maximum static discharge occurs.
standard rate turn
A turn of three degrees per second.
transmissometer
An instrument that measures the transmission of light through a fluid (as the atmosphere).
uncaging

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Glossary-17

Glossary

Unlocking the gimbals of a gyroscopic instrument, making it susceptible to damage by abrupt flight
maneuvers or rough handling.
UNICOM
A nongovernment air/ground radio communication station that may provide airport information at
public use airports.
VFR Over-The-Top
A VFR operation in which an aircraft operates in VFR conditions on top of an undercast.
VFR-On-Top
ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft to operate in VFR conditions at any appropriate VFR altitude.
victor airways
Except in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, the VOR airways are predicated solely on VOR or
VORTAC navigation aids; they are depicted in blue on aeronautical charts.
VOR test facility
A ground facility which emits a test signal to check VOR receiver accuracy. Some VOTs are
available to the user while airborne, while others are limited to ground use only.
waypoint
A designated geographical location used for route definition or progress-reporting purposes and
defined relative to a VOR/DME station or in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates; also known as
WP.
ZULU
Time zone indicator for Universal Time.

Glossary-18 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 References

The bibliography lists field manuals by the new number, followed by the old number, when applicable. These
publications are sources for additional information on the topics in this field manual. Most joint publications
can be found at http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/s_index.html. Most Army doctrinal publications are available
online at http://www.train.army.mil/. Federal Aviation Administration publications can be found online at
http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies. Air Force publications can be found online at http://www.e­
publishing.af.mil. Marine publications can be found online at https://www.doctrine.usmc.mil.

SOURCES USED
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.

AIR FORCE PUBLICATIONS (AIR FORCE MANUAL)

AFMAN 13-220, Deployment of Airfield Operations, 1 May 1997

AFMAN 15-124, Meteorological Codes, 30 October 2001

ARMY PUBLICATIONS
AR 95-1, Flight Regulations, 3 February 2006

AR. 95-2, Airspace, Airfields/Heliports, Flight Activities, Air Traffic Control, and Navigational Aids,

10 April 2007
DA PAM 25-30, Consolidated Index of Army Publications and Blank Forms, 1 January 2007
DA PAM 738-751, Functional Users Manual for the Army Maintenance Management System—
Aviation (TAMMS-A), 15 March 1999
FM 3-04.120, Air Traffic Services Operations, 16 February 2007
FM 1-230, Meteorology for Army Aviators, 30 September 1982
FM 1-564, Shipboard Operations, 29 June 1997
FM 3-04.301, Aeromedical Training for Flight Personnel, 29 September 2000
FM 3-52.3, Multi-Service Procedures for Joint Air Traffic Control {MCRP 3-25A; NTTP 3-563;
AFTTP(I) 3-2023}, 17 July 2003

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE PUBLICATIONS/JOINT PUBLICATIONS

DOD 4500.54-G, DOD Foreign Clearance Guide. 5 January 1992

DOD FLIP AP/1B, Military Training Route

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION)

PUBLICATIONS
AIM, Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM): Official Guide to Basic Flight Information and ATC
Procedures, 19 February 2006
FAA Advisory Circular 90-45A, Approval of Area Navigation Systems for use in the U.S. National
Airspace System, 21 February 1975
FAA Advisory Circular 150/5220-16C, Automated Weather Observing Systems (AWOS) for Non-
Federal Applications, 13 December 1999
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, 16 February 2006
FAA Order 7110.10, Flight Services, 3 August 2006
FAA Order 7210.3, Facility Operation and Administration, 3 August 2006

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 References-1

References

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO) PUBLICATIONS

ICAO Document 7910, Location Indicators, June 2006

MARINE PUBLICATIONS
Marine Corp Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 3-25.8, Marine Air Traffic Control Detachment
Handbook, 1 November 2004

JOINT PUBLICATION
JP 3-04.1, Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Shipboard Helicopter Operations. 10 December 1997.

DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.

ARMY PUBLICATIONS
DA Form 2028, Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE PUBLICATIONS/JOINT PUBLICATIONS

DD Form 175, Military Flight Plan
DD Form 175-1, Flight Weather Briefing
DD Form 1613, Pilot’s Compass Correction Card
DD Form 1801, DOD International Flight Plan

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION)

PUBLICATIONS
FAA Form 7233-4, International Flight Plan
FAA Form 7233-1, Flight Plan

READINGS RECOMMENDED
These sources contain relevant supplemental information.

AFMAN 11-217, Volumes 1 and 2, Instrument Flight Procedures, 3 January 2005

AR 34-4, Army Standardization Policy, 15 March 1984
AR 40-8, Temporary Flying Restrictions Due to Exogenous Factors, 17 August 1976
AR 40-501, Standards of Medical Fitness, 27 June 2006
AR 95-10, Department of Defense Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System {AF JMAN 11-208(I);
OPNAVINST 3721.20C}, 1 August 2004

AR 385-10, The Army Safety Program, 29 February 2000

AR 385-95, Army Aviation Accident Prevention, 10 December 1999

AR 600-105, Aviation Service of Rated Army Officers, 15 December 1994

AR 600-106, Flying Status for Nonrated Army Aviation Personnel, 8 December 1998

DOD FLIP, Planning and En Route Publications

FAA-H-8083-3A. Airplane Flying Handbook, 2004

FAA-H-8083-15. Instrument Flying Handbook, 2001

FAA-H-8083-21. Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, 2004

FAA-H-8083-25. Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, 2003

References-2 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 References

FAA-H-8261-1. Instrument Procedures Handbook, 2004

FAR Part 1. Definitions and Abbreviations, 1 March 1992
FM 1-02, Operational Terms and Graphics {MCRP 5-12A}, 21 September 2004
FM 1-100, Army Aviation Operations, 21 February 1997
FM 1-203, Fundamentals of Flight, 3 October 1988
FM 3-04.300, Flight Operations Procedures, 26 April 2004
FM 3-04.508, Aviation Life Support System Maintenance Management and Training Programs, 23
April 2004
FM 3-52, Army Airspace Command and Control in a Combat Zone, 1 August 2002
FM 3-100.2, ICAC2 Multiservice Procedures for Integrated Combat Airspace Command and Control
{MCRP 3-25D; NTTP 3-52.1(A); AFTTP(I) 3-2.16}, 30 June 2000
FM 5-19 (FM 100-14), Composite Risk Management, 21 August 2006
FM 7-0, Training the Force, 22 October 2002
FM 7-1, Battle Focused Training, 15 September 2003
FM 7-15, The Army Universal Task List, 31 August 2003
Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) 00-80T-112, NATOPS Instrument Flight Manual, 15
October 2002
TC 1-210, Aircrew Training Program Commander’s Guide to Individual, Crew, and Collective
Training, 20 June 2006
TC 1-211, Aircrew Training Manual Utility Helicopter, UH-1, 9 December 1992
TC 1-218, Aircrew Training Manual Utility Airplane C-12, 13 September 2005
TC 1-237, Aircrew Training Manual, Utility Helicopter, H-60 Series, 27 September 2005
TC 1-238, Aircrew Training Manual, Attack Helicopter, AH-64A, 23 September 2005
TC 1-240, Aircrew Training Manual, Cargo Helicopter, CH-47D, 12 September 2005
TC 1-248, Aircrew Training Manual, OH-58D, Kiowa Warrior, 12 April 2007
TC 1-251, Aircrew Training Manual, Attack Helicopter AH-64D, 14 September 2005
TM 1-1500-204-23-1, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (General Maintenance and Practices)
Volume 1, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-2, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Pneudralics Maintenance and Practices)
Volume 2, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-3, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Maintenance Practices for Fuel and Oil
Systems) Volume 3, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-4, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Electrical and Instrument Maintenance
Procedures and Practices) Volume 4, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-5, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Propeller, Rotor, and Powertrain
Maintenance Practices) Volume 5, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-6, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Hardware and Consumable Materials)
Volume 6, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-7, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Nondestructive Testing and Flaw
Detection Procedures and Practices) Volume 7, 31 July 1992

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 References-3

References

TM 1-1500-204-23-8, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance

(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Machine and Welding Shop Practices)
Volume 8, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-9, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Tools and Ground Support Equipment)
Volume 9, 31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-204-23-10, Aviation Unit Maintenance (AVUM) and Aviation Intermediate Maintenance
(AVIM) Manual for General Aircraft Maintenance (Sheet Metal Shop Practices) Volume 10,
31 July 1992
TM 1-1500-328-23, Aeronautical Equipment Maintenance Management Policies and Procedures. 30
July 1999
TM 1-1510-218-10, Operator’s Manual for Army C-12C, C-12D, C-12T1, and C-12C2 Aircraft. 4
September 2001
TM 1-1520-237-10, Operator’s Manual for UH-60A Helicopter, UH-60L Helicopter, EH-60A
Helicopter. 17 April 2006
TM 1-1520-238-10, Operator’s Manual for Helicopter, Attack, AH-64A Apache. 22 December 2005
TM 1-1520-240-10, Operator’s Manual for Army CH-47D Helicopter, 30 June 2006
TM 1-1520-248-10, Operator’s Manual for Army OH-58D Helicopter, 15 March 2005
TM 1-1520-251-10, Operator’s Manual for Helicopter, Attack, AH-64D Longbow Apache, 29 March
2002
TM 1-1520-253-10, Operator’s Manual for Army Models UH-60Q Helicopter, HH-60L Helicopter,
17 April 2006
TM 55-1520-210-10, Operator’s Manual for Army Model UH-1H/V Helicopters, 15 February 1988
Joint Pub 1-02, Department of Defense (DOD) Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 12 April
2001
NATO Standardization Agreement (STANAG) 2999, Use of Helicopters in Land Operations-
Doctrine-ATP-49(D), Volume 1, 18 May 2005
STANAG 3805, Doctrine for Joint Airspace Control-AJP-3.3-5(A), 5 April 2006

References-4 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Index

References are to page numbers except for illustrations, which are listed by figure or table
numbers.

errors, 1-4
attitude indicator, 1-17, 2-5

A fixed wing, 3-4

fixed wing, 3-3, 3-6

acceleration error, 1-14

radar, 1-7
rotary wing, 2-10, 2-12

Aeronautical Chart User

remote altimeter setting, 4­

22
automated flight service

Guide, 10-4
station (AFSS), 4-9, 9-2

rotary wing, 2-11

Aeronautical Information
Automated Surface

Manual (AIM), 10-3

altitude, 1-3

absolute, 1-3
Observing System (ASOS),

agonic line, 1-11

density, 1-3
C-20

Air Navigation, 4-1

indicated, 1-3
Automated Weather

air route traffic control center

mandatory altitude for the
Observing System

(ARTCC), 9-5
approach, 4-18
(AWOS), C-20

maximum altitude for the

automatic direction finder

air traffic control facilities, 9-6

approach, 4-18
(ADF), 7-4

air traffic control frequencies,

maximum authorized

9-1
autorotations, 2-23

altitude (MAA), 4-7

Air Traffic Control

minimum altitude for the
B
Requirements and
approach, 4-18

barometric pressure, 1-5

Responsibilities, 11-6
minimum crossing altitude

(MCA), 4-6
Basic Radio Principles, 7-1

aircraft approach categories,

4-20
minimum en route altitude
beat frequency oscillator

(MEA), 4-5
(BFO), 7-4

aircraft control
minimum obstruction

bank, 2-8
clearance altitude
C
friction, 2-8
(MOCA), 4-6
Calculator Side, 5-1

pitch, 2-8
minimum reception

power, 2-8
calibrated airspeed, 1-8

altitude (MRA), 4-6

trim, 2-8
off route obstruction
canceling an IFR flight plan,

Airport Surveillance Radar

clearance altitude
10-8

(ASR), 10-51
(OROCA), 4-7
changeover point, 4-9

airport/facility directory
pressure, 1-3
circling

(A/FD), 10-3
selection, A-3
approach, 10-3

true, 1-3
minimums, 4-19

airspace classification, 8-1

class A airspace, 8-1

angle of intercept, 7-21, 7-22
spproach, 10-54

class B airspace, 8-1

approach
cold weather altimeter

class C airspace, 8-2

circling ,10-3, 10-54
correction, 1-5

class D airspace, 8-3

lighting systems, 4-21
communications failure, 11-8

class E airspace, 8-3

low altitude, 10-34

class G airspace, 8-3

compass

missed, 10-56

compass-only turns, 2-20

airspeed
straight-in, 10-3

correction card (DD Form

calibrated, 1-8
timed approach from a

1613), 1-13

equivalent,1-8
holding fix, 10-53

locator, 7-4

indicated, 1-8
to parallel runways, 10-53

systems, 1-10

true, 1-8
to stall, 3-24

turn computation, 2-21

without an operating

airspeed indicator, 1-7

turn correction diagram, 2­

control tower, 10-30

fixed wing, 3-5

21

rotary wing, 2-11

approaches, 10-29

compass errors

alert area, 8-4

arc interception, 7-28
acceleration, 1-14

arc interception from a

deviation, 1-13

altimeter, 1-2

radial, 7-29
dip, 1-14

cold weather correction, 1­

radial interception from an

oscillation, 1-15

arc, 7-29
turning, 1-14

encoding, 1-6

area planning (AP), 10-1

variation, 1-11

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Index-1

Index

compulsory reporting point,

DD Form 175-1, C-1
estimated time en route

10-20
dead reckoning
(ETE), A-4

control sequence
computer, See CPU­
F
at airport with control
26A/P

tower, 9-6
FAA Form 7233-1, 10-7

decision altitude (DA), 1-5

at airport without control

federal airway

tower, 9-7
decision height (DH), 1-5
jet route, 8-5

controlled firing area (CFA),

declination, 1-11
preferred IFR route, 8-5

8-4
Department of Defense
tower en route control, 8-6

Foreign Clearance Guide,

victor airway, 8-5

course deviation indicator

(CDI), 7-7
B-4
final approach fix (FAF), 1-5,

departure
4-16

course intercept, 7-21

departure procedure, 10­

final approach guidance, 10­

course reversal, 10-34

17
44

45/180, 10-36
departure procedure chart,

80/260, 10-36
flight data center (FDC), 10­

4-11
13

CPU-26A/P, 5-1
diverse departure, 10-19

calculator side, 5-1

from airport without an
Flight Information Handbook

converting distance to
operating control tower,
(FIH), 1-5, 10-2

time, 5-12
10-19
Flight Management System,

distance conversion, 5-9

radar controlled, 10-19
1-20, 2-5

division, 5-12
Departures, 10-17
flight service station (FSS)

finding altitude for most

briefing, C-22

favorable wind, 5-16

determining the direction of a

finding amount of fuel

course line, 4-25
flux valve, 1-16, 1-20

burned, 5-7
Digital Aeronautical Flight
flying a DME arc, 7-30

finding fuel burn time, 5-6

Information File (DAFIF),
fog, 6-5

finding time for outbound

10-1

leg during holding, 5-4

Direct User Access Terminal
G
finding unknown wind, 5­
System (DUATS), C-22
general planning (GP), 10-1

15

distance comparison, 4-3

GPS, 7-11, 10-44, E-12

fuel consumption, 5-6

distance measuring
approach procedures, 10­

gallons and pounds

equipment (DME), 7-10

46

conversion, 5-6

final approach, 10-47

heading and ground

diverse departure, 10-19
flying the approach, 10-46

speed, 5-14
DME, 4-6, 4-7, 4-14, 7-2, 7­
local area augmentation

multiplication, 5-11
28, 10-24, 10-29, 10-43
system (LAAS), 7-13

radius of action, 5-17

drawing a course line from a

missed approach, 10-47

rate of fuel consumption,

known point, 4-26

navigation, 7-33

5-8

receiver autonomous

short time and distance, 5­

dynamic pressure, 1-7

integrity monitoring

E (RAIM), 7-12, 10-46

time and distance, 5-2

satellite requirement, 7-34

true airspeed, 5-8

E6B computer, See CPU­

wide area augmentation

true altitude, 5-10

26A/P

system (WAAS), 7-13

wind side, 5-13

electromagnetic (EM) wave,

gyroscopic systems, 1-16

crew coordination, E-5

7-1

callouts, E-9
embedded global positioning
H
cross-check, 2-5
system/inertial navigation
heading indicator

cross-check errors
system (EGI), 7-12
fixed wing, 3-6

emphasis, 2-7
Emergencies, 11-1
rotary wing, 2-12

fixation, 2-6
En Route, 10-20
height above airport (HAA), 4­

omission, 2-6
19, 4-20

en route flight advisory

D service (EFAS), C-28

height above landing (HAL),

En Route Weather Reports,

4-19, 4-20

DD Forms

1613, 1-13, 7-8

C-20
height above touchdown

175, 10-5, A-1

equivalent airspeed, 1-8
(HAT), 4-19, 4-20

175-1, A-1
helicopter procedures, 10-3

1801, 10-6

Index-2 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Index

high altitude approach, 10-40

ILS, 10-22, 10-53, 10-57
obstacle identification
high frequency (HF) radio, 7-2
inadvertent icing encounter,
surface, 8-8

11-2
racetrack procedure, 8-15

holding, 10-24
standard altimeter (QNE),

beginning inbound timing,

inadvertent instrument
8-19

10-28
meteorological condition
transition altitude, 8-19

beginning outbound
(IIMC), 11-4
transponder operating

timing, 10-28
inadvertent thunderstorm
procedures, 8-20

DME, 10-29
encounter, 11-1

drift correction, 10-25

isogonic line, 1-11

finding time for outbound

inclinometer, 1-18, 1-19

indicated airspeed, 1-8

J
leg during holding, 5-4

holding in lieu of
jet route, 8-5

inertial navigation system

procedure turn, 4-15,

(INS), 7-14, 7-31
K
10-34, 10-37

initial approach fix (IAF), 4-13,

kilometer, 4-3

holding instructions, 10-25

10-34

pattern entry procedures,

Kollsman window, 1-2

10-27
instantaneous vertical speed

procedure turn (PT), 10-34

indicator (IVSI), 1-9
L
standard entry
instrument approach
land and hold short

procedures, 10-26
procedure, 4-4, 4-11
operations, 10-57

standard holding pattern

airport diagram, 4-21
Landing, 10-57

(no wind), 10-24

circling minimums, 4-19

landing fee, 10-57

standard holding pattern

landing straight-in

(with wind), 10-24

minimums, 4-19
local area augmentation

timed approach from a

margin identification, 4-11
system (LAAS), 7-13

holding fix, 10-53

plan view, 4-13
loss of situational awareness,

homing to a station, 7-16

profile view, 4-16
11-4

horizontal situation indicator,

instrument landing system
low-level wind shear alert

1-20
(ILS), 7-2, 10-47
system (LLWAS), 6-7

Instrument Procedures

I
Handbook (IPH), 10-4

M
ice formation temperature
Maltese cross symbol, 4-16

instrument takeoff (ITO)

ranges, 6-5
fixed wing, 3-1
mandatory altitude for the

IFR, C-7
rotary wing, 2-8
approach, 4-18

canceling an IFR flight

International Civil Aviation
Maneuver Performance, 2-1

plan, 10-8
Organization (ICAO), 8-7
marginal visual flight rules

clearances, 10-8
45 Degree/180 Degree
(MVFR), C-7, C-26

flight plan, 10-4

Procedure Turn, 8-10

supplement, 10-2
maximum altitude for the

80 degree/260 degree
approach, 4-18

IFR clearances, 9-3

procedure turn, 8-11

altimeter setting
maximum authorized altitude

IFR en route high altitude

(MAA), 4-7

chart, 10-2
procedures, 8-19

altimeter use in flight, 8-20

measuring direction on the

IFR en route low altitude

earth

atmospheric pressure at

chart, 4-4, 10-2

distance, 4-3

field elevation (QFE), 8­

automated flight service

earth circumference, 4-3

19

station (AFSS), 4-9

speed, 4-4

atmospheric pressure at

hazardous inflight weather

nautical height (QNH),

measuring position on the

advisory service

8-19
earth

(HIWAS), 4-11

climb gradient, 8-8

decimal degrees, 4-2

legend, 4-5

departure procedures, 8-8

degrees and decimal

NAVAIDs and

departure rules, 8-9

minutes, 4-2

communication boxes,

departure with track

degrees, minutes, and

4-7

guidance, 8-9
seconds, 4-1

remote communications

holding, 8-17
equator, 4-1

outlet (RCO), 4-9

holding airspeed, 8-18

meridian, 4-1

transcribed weather

holding pattern length, 8­

broadcast (TWEB), 4­
meteorological aviation report

19

11
(METAR), C-7

maximum airspeed by

IFR supplement, 10-2

aircraft category, 8-10

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Index-3

Index

military operations area

Other Maneuvers, 2-23, 3-24
S
(MOA), 8-4
outer marker (OM), 4-16
Sources of Flight Planning

military training route (MTR),

Information, 10-1

8-4
P
special use airspace (SUA),

minimum altitude for the

pilot controlled lighting (PCL),
8-3

approach, 4-18
4-21
alert area, 8-4

minimum crossing altitude

pilot-to-metro service (PTMS),
controlled firing area

(MCA), 4-6
C-28
(CFA), 8-4

pitot-static systems, 1-1

military operations area

minimum descent altitude

(MOA), 8-4

(MDA), 1-5, 10-45

plotter, 4-23

prohibited area, 8-3

minimum en route altitude

plotting and measuring, 4-23
restricted area, 8-3

(MEA), 4-5
position reports, 10-20
warning area, 8-4

minimum obstruction
power control
special weather report

clearance altitude (MOCA),

fixed wing, 3-8
(SPECI), C-8

4-6
rotary wing, 2-12
St. Elmo’s fire, 6-6, 11-2

minimum reception altitude

precipitation static (P-static),
standard crew terminology, E­

(MRA), 4-6
11-2
8

minimum safe altitude (MSA),

precision approach radar
standard rate turn

4-14
(PAR), 10-52
fixed wing, 3-19

missed approach, 10-56

preferred IFR route, 8-5
rotary wing, 2-18

missed approach point

procedural tracks, 10-38
standard terminal arrival route

(MAP), 4-17, 10-44, 10-56,

(STAR), 10-22

E-10
procedure turn (PT), 4-15, 10­

34
standard terminal arrival

N prohibited area, 8-3

Route chart, 4-11

National Airspace System, 8­

push the head, pull the tail, 7­
standard wind drift correction,

1
16
7-21

National Airspace System

station passage, 7-25

(NAS)

R
statute mile, 4-3

off airways (direct), 10-16

radar altimeter, 1-7

step-down fix, 10-46

on airways, 10-15
radar approach, 10-50

straight climbs and descents

national security area, 8-5

ASR, 10-50

fixed wing, 3-12

nautical knot, 4-4

no-gyro approach , 10-53

rotary wing, 2-14

PAR, 10-50

nautical mile, 4-3

straight-and-level flight

radials, 7-6

Navigation Options in the

fixed wing, 3-2

National Airspace System,

radio magnetic indicator
rotary wing, 2-10

10-15
(RMI), 1-15

Straight-and-Level Flight, 2­

Navigation Procedures, 7-14

radio wave types
10

sky wave, 7-2

Navigation Systems, 7-3

straight-in approach, 10-3

space wave, 7-2

no-gyro approach, 10-53

surface wave, 7-1
structural icing, 6-5

nondirectional beacon (NDB),

receiver autonomous integrity
T
4-7, 7-3, 7-18, 7-25, 7-36,
monitoring (RAIM), 7-12,

TACAN, 4-7, 7-8, 7-25, 7-28,

10-23, 10-42, 10-44, B-1,

10-46

10-44, B-2

E-12
reduced vertical separation
40-degree azimuth error

Notice to Airmen System, 10­

minimums (RVSM), 10-14
lock-on, 7-9

11
regional air movement control
cone of confusion , -9

notices to airmen publication

center (RAMCC), B-1
teardrop procedure turn, 4-15

(NTAP), 10-4, 10-13

remote altimeter setting, 4-22
technical standard order

notices to airmen types, 10­

remote compass transmitter,
(TSO)

11
1-16
C-115a, 7-34

O restricted area, 8-3

C-129, 7-33

runway visual range (RVR), 4­

temporary flight restriction, 8­

off route obstruction

20
5

clearance altitude

(OROCA), 4-7

Index-4 FM 3-04.240 30 April 2007

 Index

terminal area forecast (TAF),

timed, 2-19

C-16
two-challenge rule, E-7

terminal arrival area, 4-16

U
terminal high and low altitude

booklets, 10-2
unusual attitudes

fixed wing, 3-24

terminal radar approach

rotary wing, 2-23

control, 9-4

threshold crossing height

V

(TCH), 4-16
vertical situation indicator, 1­

thunderstorms, 6-6
21

time and distance check from

vertical speed indicator (VSI),

a station, 7-26
1-8

fixed wing, 3-4

timed approaches from a

rotary wing, 2-11

holding fix, 10-53

vertical velocity indicator

touchdown zone elevation

(VVI), 1-8

(TDZE), 4-21

VFR, 7-14, 9-4, 10-8, 10-11,

tower en route control, 8-6, 9­

10-19, 11-7, C-30

VFR over-the-top, 10-11

tracking
VFR-on-top, 10-10

inbound, 7-18

VFR-on-top, 8-3

outbound, 7-19

to a station, 7-16
victor airway, 8-5

transmissometer, 4-20
visual descent point (VDP), 4­

17, 10-45

trim technique for fixed wing,

3-12
volcanic ash, 6-6

true airspeed, 1-8

VOR, 4-8, 7-5, 7-22, 9-1, 10­

15, 10-42, 10-44, E-12

turbulence , 6-3

certified checkpoint, 7-8

turn coordinator, 1-19

changeover point (COP),

fixed wing, 3-7

4-9

turn-and-slip indicator, 1-18

radials, 7-6

rotary wing, 2-12

receiver accuracy check,

turning error, 1-14

7-7

test facility, 7-8

turns
tracking, 7-7

changing airspeed for

VORTAC, 7-10, 7-31, 10­

fixed wing, 3-21

15, 10-43

changing airspeed for

rotary wing, 2-20

W
common errors for rotary
warning area, 8-4

wing , 2-22

common errors in fixed

weather briefing sources, A-1

wing , 3-22
Weather Reports Used For

compass only, 2-20

Planning, C-1

fixed wing, 3-19

Weather Risk Management

fixed wing climbing and

and Decision Making, C-21

descending, 3-21

wide area augmentation

holding in lieu of

system (WAAS), 7-13

procedure turn, 4-15

procedure turn (PT), 4-15,

wind drift, 6-2

10-34
angle, 6-2

rotary wing, 2-18

correction angle, 6-3

rotary wing climbing and

standard wind drift

descending, 2-22
correction, 7-21

steep turn in fixed wing, 3­

wind shear, 6-6

20
scenario, 6-7

teardrop procedure turn,

Wind Side , 5-13

4-15

30 April 2007 FM 3-04.240 Index-5

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 FM 3-04.240
30 April 2007

By order of the Secretary of the Army:

GEORGE W. CASEY, JR.

General, United States Army
Chief of Staff

Official:

JOYCE E. MORROW
Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army

0709901

DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and U.S. Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with
the initial distribution number (IDN) 114009, requirements for FM 3-04.240.
PIN: 083972-000