GIS Data Models

UNIT 5 GIS DATA MODELS AND SPATIAL and Spatial Data

Structure
DATA STRUCTURE
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 GIS Data Models
Raster Data Models
Vector Data Models
Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models
Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster and Vector Data Models
5.3 Spatial Data Structure
Raster Data Structure
Vector Data Structure
5.4 Database Management System
5.5 Activity
5.6 Summary
5.7 Unit End Questions
5.8 References
5.9 Further/Suggested Reading
5.10 Answers

5.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read about the components, history and organisational aspects of
GIS in the previous unit. The ability of GIS to represent geospatial data
differentiates it from other information systems. Geospatial data is a
representative of both spatial and attribute data. For example, to define any
spatial feature like river, we need its location (where it is - latitude and
longitude) and characteristics like name, length, speed and direction of flow.
The location information of the river constitutes the spatial data whereas the
characteristics information represents attribute data. GIS is used to represent
spatial features on the surface of the Earth as map features on a plane
surface. Data models are used to represent spatial features in a GIS
environment. There are two types of data models namely, vector and raster data
models.
In this unit, we will discuss the basic concepts of raster and vector data models
in GIS along with their advantages and disadvantages. You will get an idea of
spatial data structures. As Database Management Systems (DBMS) represent the
dominant technology in GIS, we would like to briefly introduce you to the
fundamentals of DBMS with reference to GIS.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• describe raster and vector GIS data models;
• discuss advantages and disadvantages of raster and vector data models;
• explain topology, topological and non-topological data structures; and
• define database management system in GIS. 19
Fundamentals of Geographic
Information System 5.2 GIS DATA MODELS
Let us first discuss the concept of data model.
Data model is, basically, a conceptual representation of the data structures in a
database. Whereas data structures comprise objects of data, relationships
between data objects and rules which regulate operations on the objects. In
Models are the abstract
representation of the real other words, data model represents a set of rules or guidelines which are used
world in various forms like to convert the real world features into digitally and logically represented spatial
pictorial/graphical/ objects. In GIS, data models comprise the rules which are essential to define
sculpture. what is in operational GIS and its supporting system. Data model is the core
of any GIS which gives a set of constructs for describing and representing
selected aspects of the real world in a computer (Longley et al., 2005).
You have already read that in GIS data models, all real world features are
represented as points, lines or arcs and polygons. Data modellers often use
multiple models during the representation of real world in a GIS environment
(Fig. 5.1). First is reality, which consists of real world phenomena such as
natural and man-made features. Other three stages are conceptual, logical and
physical models. The conceptual model is the process of developing a graphical
representation from the real world. It determines the aspects of the real world
to include and exclude from the model and the level of detail to model each
aspect. It is human-oriented and partially structured. Logical model is the
representation of reality in the form of diagrams and lists. It has an
implementation-oriented approach. Physical model presents the actual
implementation in a GIS environment and comprises tables which are stored as
databases. Physical model has specific implementation approach.

Reality (real
world features)
Human-oriented
aspects of real
↓ world

Conceptual
model

Increasing
abstraction ↓
Logical
model

↓
Computer-oriented
aspects of real world
Physical
model
↓ ↓

Fig. 5.1: Stages of processing relevant to GIS data models

(source: modified after Longley et al., 2005)
Geospatial data is numerical representation which analyses and describes
real world features in GIS. The nature of geospatial database is a dynamic
rather than static and allows a range of functions such as organising,
storing, processing, analysing and visualising spatial data. Geospatial data
depicts the real world in two basic models such as the object-based model
20 and the field-based model as shown in Fig. 5.2.
 Real world
GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
Structure

Object-based Field-based
model model

Object/feature Sampling location Image-grid matrix

tion In
gni te
eco rp
ct r tion ol
Obj
e
r p reta at
& inte io
n

Conversion
Vector model Raster model

Spatial
database

Fig. 5.2: Illustration representing an outline model (Source: Lo and Yeung, 2009)
Object-Based Model: The object is a spatial feature and has some
characteristics like spatial boundary, application relevant and feature
description (attributes). Spatial objects represent discrete features with well-
defined or identifiable boundaries, for example, buildings, parks, forest lands,
geomorphological boundaries, soil types, etc. In this model, data can be
obtained by field surveying methods (chain-tape, theodolite and total station
surveying, GPS/DGPS survey) or laboratory methods (aerial photo
interpretation, remote sensing image analysis and onscreen digitisation).
Depending on the nature of the spatial objects we may represent them as
graphical elements of points, lines and polygons.
Field-Based Model: Spatial phenomena are real world features that vary
continuously over space with no specific boundary. Data for spatial
phenomena may be organised as fields which are obtained by direct or
indirect sources. Source of direct data is from aerial photos, remote sensing
imagery, scanning of hard copy maps, and field investigations made at
The Digital Elevation
selected sample locations. We can obtain or generate the data by using
Model (DEM) consists of
mathematical functions such as interpolation, sampling or reclassification an array of uniformly
from selected sample locations. This approach comes under indirect data source. spaced elevation data. A
For example, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can be generated from topographic DEM is point based but it
data such as spot heights and contours that are usually obtained by indirect can be easily converted to
measurements. raster data by placing each
elevation point at the
Spatial database may be organised as either object-based model or the field- centre of a cell.
based model. In object-based databases, the spatial units are discrete objects 21
Fundamentals of Geographic which can be obtained from field-based data by means of object recognition and
Information System
mathematical interpolation. In the object-based model, spatial data is mostly
represented in the form of coordinate’s lists (i.e. vector lines) and generally called
as the vector data model. When a spatial phenomena database is structured on
the field-based model in the form of grid of square or rectangular cells then the
representation is generally called as the raster data model. Geospatial database
possess two distinct components such as locations and attributes. Geographical
features in the real world are very difficult to capture and may requires large
scale database. GIS can organise reality through the data models. Each model
tends to fit certain types of data and applications better than others. All spatial
data models fall into two basic categories: raster and vector.
Let us now discuss in brief about these two types of models.
5.2.1 Raster Data Models
You have been The raster data model is composed of a regular grid of cells in specific sequence
introduced to raster data and each cell within a grid holds data. The conventional sequence is row by row
in Unit 4 of MGY-001 which may start from the top left corner. In this model, basic building block is
and Unit 10 of MGY-002.
the cell. The representation of the geographic feature in this model is used by
coordinate, and every location corresponds to a cell. Each cell contains a single
value and is independently addressed with the value of an attribute. One set of
cells and associated value is a layer. Cells are arranged in layers. A data set can
be composed of many layers covering the same geographical areas e.g., water,
paddy, forest, cashew (Fig. 5.3). Points, lines and polygons representation in grid
format is presented in Fig. 5.4. The raster model, which is most often used to
represent continuously varying phenomena such as elevation or climate, is also
used to store pictures or satellite images and plane based images. A raster image
comprises a collection of grid cells rather like a scanned map or photo.

Column
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1
2
Resolution

3
4
5
6
7
R ow
8
9
10
11

(a)

Count

(b)
Fig. 5.3: Illustration of raster data; (a) raster grid matrix with their cell location and
22 coordinates, and (b) raster grid and its attribute table
 GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
Structure

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.4: Representation of raster gird format; (a) point (cell), line (sequence of cells), and
polygon (zone of cells) features and (b) no data cells (black in colour)

5.2.2 Vector Data Models

Vector data model comprises discrete features. Features can be discrete locations
or events (points), lines, or areas (polygons). This model uses the geometric
objects of point, line and polygon (Fig. 5.5). In vector model, the point is the
fundamental object. Point represents anything that can be described as a discrete
x,y location (e.g., hospital, temple, well, etc.). Line or polyline (sequence of
lines) is created by connecting the sequence of points. End points are usually
called as nodes and the intermediate points are termed as vertices. If we know
the start and end node coordinates of each line or polyline we can compute the
length of line or polyline. These are used to represent features that are linear in
nature e.g., stream, rail, road, etc. Polygon is defined in this model by a closed
set of lines or polylines. Areas are often referred to as polygons. A polygon can
be represented by a sequence of nodes where the last node is equal to the first
node. Polygons or areas identified as closed set of lines are used to define
features such as rock type, land use, administration boundaries, etc.

Point

Line

Polygon

Fig. 5.5: Vector model represents point, line and polygon features
23
Fundamentals of Geographic Points, lines and polygons are features which can be designated as a feature
Information System
class in a geospatial database. Each feature class pertains to a particular theme
such as habitation, transportation, forest, etc. Feature classes can be structured
as layers or themes in the database (Fig. 5.6). Feature class may be linked to an
attribute table. Every individual geographic feature corresponds to a record (row)
in the attribute table (Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6: Various themes organised as individual feature class

The simplest vector data model stores and organises the data without establishing
relationships among the geographic features are generally called as spaghetti
model. In this model, lines in the database overlap but do not intersect, just like
spaghetti on a plate. The polygon features are defined by lines which do not
have any concept of start and end node or intersection node. However, the
polygons are hatched or coloured manually to represent something. There is no
data attached to it and, therefore, no data analysis is possible in the spaghetti
model (Fig. 5.7) (Rolf, 2001).

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.7: Vector spaghetti data model; (a) Spaghetti data, (b) cleaned spaghetti data
and (c) polygons in spaghetti data

We have studied about the raster and vector data models. You will now learn, in
the following subsections, comparison of advantages and disadvantages of these
two data models.
You have learnt about the 5.2.3 Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models
basic introduction to the
comparison of Raster and As you know raster and vector data models are important in a GIS. Each one
Vector data in Unit 4 of
MGY-001.
has its own strength. A comparison between these two types of data models is
shown in Table 5.1.
24
 Table 5.1: Comparison between raster and vector data models GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
Structure
Properties Raster Vector

Data structure Simple and stored as Complex and stored as

pixels or array of cells x,y coordinate and also
representing a digital number. relational
Topological representation
is difficult
Storage Relatively large space required Relatively small space required
Data conversion Slow Fast
Access Requires high computer Do not require much high
processing power computer processing power
Analysis Easy for continuous data and It is complex and capable of
simple for many layer complex spatial analysis
combinations and is faster for especially network/overlay
simple analysis, takes less
time in analysis
Accuracy Representation of location by Produces high spatial
centre of the cell. So no accurate accuracy as the data is
representation of more than one discrete; representation of
feature covered under a cell. features are accurate
Accuracy depends on the size positively related with the
of the cell. High spatial variability large scale
like elevation is well represented
Visualisation Good for images but poor for Poor for continuous data but good
and output discrete data and network and for various kinds of maps
smooth boundaries are not well
represented as needed

5.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Raster and Vector

Data Models
The representation of raster and vector models for geospatial data has two
divergent views of the real world as well as data processing and analysis. To
solve different geospatial problems obviously these two models can be used. But
for the purpose of GIS applications geospatial data requirement should be
determined. In order to understand the relationships between data representation
and analysis in GIS, it is necessary to know the relative advantages and
disadvantages of raster and vector models. Both raster and vector models for
storing geospatial data have unique advantages and disadvantages. It is generally
agreed that the raster model is best suitable for integrating GIS analysis for
various resource applications (Burrough and McDonnell, 1998). Now-a-days
most of the GIS packages are able to handle both models.
Advantages of Raster Data
• data structure is simple
• good for representing continuous surfaces
• location specific data collection is easy 25
Fundamentals of Geographic • spatial analytical operations are faster
Information System
• different forms of data are available (satellite images, field data, etc.), and
• mathematical modelling and quantitative analysis can be made in easiest way
due to the inherent nature of raster images.
Disadvantages of Raster Data
• data volumes are huge
• poor representation for points, lines and areas
• cartographic output quality may be low
• difficult to effectively represent linear features (depends on the cell
resolution). Hence, the network analysis is difficult to establish
• coordinate transformation is difficult which sometimes cause distortion of grid
cell shape
• suffer from mixed pixel problem and missing or redundant data, and
• raster images generally have only one attribute or characteristic value for a
feature or object, therefore, limited scope to handle the attribute data.
Advantages of Vector Data
• data structure is more compact
• data can be represented with good resolution
• it can clearly describe topology. Hence, good for proximity and network
analysis
• spatial adjustment of the data is easy with the utilisation of techniques such
as rubber sheeting, affine, etc.
• graphic output in small scale as well as large scale gives a good accuracy
• geographic location of entities accurate
• modernising and generalisation of the entities are possible
• easy handling of attribute data, and
• coordinate transformation techniques such as linear transformation, similarity
transformation and affine transformation could be done easily.
Disadvantages of Vector Data
• data structures are complex
• overlay analysis is difficult in processing. Often, this inherently limits the
functionality for large data sets, e.g., a large number of features
• data collection may be expensive
• high resolution drawing, colouring, shading and also displaying may be time
consuming and unbearable
• technology of data preparation is expensive
26
• representation of spatial variability is difficult, and GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
• spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible. Structure

Check Your Progress I Spend

5 mins
1. What are raster and vector GIS models? Give an example of objects
representing point, line or polygon?
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5.3 SPATIAL DATA STRUCTURE

Structures that provide information required for computer to reconstruct
spatial data model in digital form are defined as spatial data structure.
Many GIS software have specific capabilities for storing and manipulating
attributes data in addition to spatial information. However, basic spatial data
structures in GIS are mainly vector and raster.
5.3.1 Raster Data Structure
Raster or grid data structure refers to the storage of the raster data for data
processing and analysis by the computer. There are mainly three commonly
used data structures such as cell-by-cell encoding, run-length encoding, and
quadtree (Chang, 2010).
Cell-By-Cell Encoding Data Structure
This is the simplest raster data structure and is characterised by subdividing a
geographic space into grid cells. Each pixel or grid cell contains a value. A grid
matrix and its cell values for a raster are arranged into a file by row and column.
Fig. 5.8 shows the cell-by-cell encoding data structure. Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs) are the best examples for this method of data structure. In Fig. 5.8,
value 1 represents the gray cells and 0 has no data. This cell-by-cell encoding
method can also be used for storage of data in satellite images. Most of satellite
images consist of multispectral bands and each pixel in a satellite image has more
than one value. Mainly three formats such as Band Sequential (BSQ), Band
Interleaved by Lines (BIL), and Band Interleaved by Pixels (BIP) are used to
store data in a multiband/multispectral imagery.
You have already read
about types of data
formats i.e. BSQ, BIL
and BIP in Unit 6 of
MGY-001

Fig. 5.8: Cell-by-cell encoding data structure

27
Fundamentals of Geographic Run-Length Encoding Data Structure
Information System
Run-Length Encoding (RLE) algorithm was developed to handle the problem that
a grid often contains redundant or missing data. When the raster data contains
more missing data, the cell-by-cell encoding method cannot be suggested. In
RLE method, adjacent cells along a row with the same value are treated as a
group called a run. If a whole row has only one class, it is stored as the class
and the same attributes are kept without change. Instead of repeatedly storing
the same value for each cell, the value is stored once together with the number
of the cells that makes the run. Fig. 5.9 explains the run-length encoding
structure of a polygon. In the figure, the starting cell and the end cell of the each
row denote the length of group and is generally called as run. RLE data
compression method is used in many GIS packages and in standard image
formats.

Row 4 1,8

Row 5 4,7

Row 6 4,7

Row 7 7,7

Row 8 7,7

Row 9 8,10

Row 10 8,10

Fig. 5.9: Run-length encoding data structure

Quadtree Data Structure

To compress the data as well as to save the space in original grid, quad tree
data structure can be used (Fig. 5.10). A quadtree works by dividing a grid into
four quadrants for the available data. The available data quadrant is again split
into four half-size quadrants and so on until the individual pixel is reached. The
attribute data for all the pixels of the quadrant remains the same even if it is
divided.

b1 b2

28 Fig. 5.10: Quadtree data structure

5.3.2 Vector Data Structure GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
As you know description of geographical phenomena explained in the form of Structure
point, line, or polygons is called as vector data structure. Vector data structures
are now widely used in GIS and computer cartography. This data structure has
an advantage in deriving information from digitisation, and is more exact in
representation of complex features such as administration boundaries, land
parcels, etc. In early GIS, vector files were simply lines and were having only
starting and ending points. The vector file consists of a few long lines, many
short lines, or even a mix of the two. The files are generally written in a binary
or ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) code which
refers to a set of codes used to represent alpha numerical characters in computer
data processing. Therefore, a computer programmer needs to follow the line
from one place to another in the file to enter the data in system. This
unstructured vector data are called as cartographic spaghetti. Vector data in the
spaghetti data model may not be usable by GIS. However, most of the systems
still use this basic data structure because of their standard format (e.g., mapping
agency’s standard linear format).
To express the spatial relationships more accurately between the features, the
concept of topology has evolved. Topology can explain the spatial relationships
of adjacent, connectivity and containment between spatial features. Topological
data are useful for detecting and correcting digitising errors e.g., two streams do
not connect perfectly at an intersection point. Therefore, topology is necessary
for carrying out some types of spatial analysis such as network and proximity.
There are commonly two data structures used in vector GIS data storage viz.
topological and non-topological structures.
Let us now discuss about the two types of data structure.
a) Topological Data Structure
Topologic data structure is often referred to as an intelligent data structure
because spatial relationships between geographic features are easily derived when
using them. Because of this reason topological vector data structure is important
in undertaking complex data analysis. In a topological data structure, lines cannot
overlap without a node whereas lines can overlap without nodes in a non-
topological data structure (e.g., spaghetti).
The arc-node topological data structure is now used in most of the systems. In
the arc-node data structure, the arc is used for the data storage and it also
works when it is needed to reconstruct a polygon. In file of arcs, point data is
stored and linked to the arc file. Arc is a line segment and its structure is given
in Fig. 5.11. Node refers to the end points of the line segment. The arc has
information not only related to that particular arc but also to its neighbours in

  Arc file

Arc From To PL PR N1
N1x N1
N1y N2x N2y

1 N1 N2 A B x y x y

Fig. 5.11: Topological structure of the arc 29

Fundamentals of Geographic geographic space. It includes the arc number of the next connecting arc and the
Information System
polygon number i.e. A: the left polygon (PL) and B: the right polygon (PR). The
arc forms areas or polygons, and the polygon identifier number is the key for
constructing a polygon. Some important vector data structures are such as
Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) and
Coverage Data Structure.
i) Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
(TIGER)
It is an early application of topology in preparing geospatial data created by US
Bureau of Census as an improvement to the Geographic Base File/Dual
Independent Map Encoding (GBF/DIME) data structure. This data structure or
format was used in the 2000 census by US Bureau of the Census. In the
TIGER database, points are called 0-cells, lines 1-cells, and areas 2-cells
(Fig. 5.12). Each 1-cell represents a direct line which starts from one point and
ending at another point. The line comprises both sides of the data. Each 2 and
0-cells share of the information of the 1-cells associated with it. The main
advantage of this data structure is that the user can easily identify an address on
either the right side or the left side of a street or road.

Fig. 5.12: Topology in TIGER database

ii) Coverage Data Structure
Coverage data structure was practised by many GIS companies like ESRI, in
their software packages in 1980s to separate GIS from CAD (Computer
Aided Design). A coverage data structure is a topology based vector data
structure that can be a point, line or polygon coverage. A point is a simple
spatial entity which can be represented with topology. The point coverage
data structure contains feature identification numbers (ID) and pairs of x, y
coordinates, as for example A (2, 4) (Fig. 5.13). Data structure of line
coverage is represented in Fig. 5.14. The starting point of the arc is called
from node (F-Node) and where it ends to node (T-Node). The arc-node list
represents the x, y coordinates of the nodes and the other points (vertices)
that generate each arc. For example, arc C consists of three line segments
comprising F-Node at (7, 2), the T-Node at (2, 6) and vertex at (5, 2).
Fig. 5.15 shows the relationship between polygons and arcs (polygon/arc
list), arcs and their left and right polygons (left poly/right poly list), and the
nodes and vertices (arc-coordinate list). Polygon ‘a’ is created with arcs
A,B,G,H and I. Polygon ‘c’ surrounded by polygon ‘a’ is an isolated
polygon and consists of only one arc, i.e. 8. ‘o’ is the universal polygon which
covers outside the map area. Arc A is a directed line from node 1 to node 2
30
and has polygon ‘o’ as the polygon on the left and polygon ‘a’ as right polygon. GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
The common boundary between two polygons (o and a) is stored in the arc- Structure
coordinate list once only, and is not duplicated (Chang, 2010).

B
Point list

Pt. ID Coordinates
(x, y)
A
A (2, 4)
C
B (4, 6)

C (9, 2)

Fig. 5.13: Point coverage data structure

Arc-node-coordinate list

Arc ID F-node T-node

A 1 2
1
B 2 3
A
C 3 4
4 D 2
D 4 2

B Arc ID Coordinates
(x, y)
A (7,8) (7,6)
C 3
B (7,6)(7,2)

C (7,2)(5,2)(3,3)(2,6)

(2,6) (7,6)
D

Fig. 5.14: Line coverage data structure

31
Fundamentals of Geographic
Information System

Arc coordinate list Arc/polygon list

Arc ID Coordinates (x,y) Arc ID Poly ID

A,B,G,H,I a
A (3,8)(9,7)
C,D,E,F,G,H b

B (9,7)(9,4) I c

Left poly/right poly list

C (9,4)(9,1)
Arc ID Left Right
poly poly
D (9,1)(1,1)
A o a
B o b
E (1,1)(1,4)
C o b
D o b
F (1,4)(3,4)
E o b

G (3,4)(9,4) F o b
G o b
H (3,4)(9,8) H o b
I a c
I (5,7)(7,7)(7,5)(5,5)

Fig. 5.15: Polygon coverage data structure

b) Non-Topological Data Structure

Vector data structure that is common among GIS software is the Computer
Aided Design (CAD) data structure. Drawing Exchange Format (DXF) is
used in the CAD package (e.g., AutoCAD) for transferring of the data files.
DXF does not support topology and arrange the data as individual layers.
This structure consists of listing elements, not features, defined by strings of
vertices, to define geographic features, e.g., points, lines, or areas. There is
considerable redundancy with this data model since the boundary segment
32 between two polygons will be stored twice, once for each feature. This
format allows user to draw each layer by using different line symbols, colours GIS Data Models
and Spatial Data
and texts. In this structure, polygons are independent and difficult to answer Structure
about the adjacency of features. The CAD vector model lacks the definition
of spatial relationships between features that is defined by the topological data
model.
Shape file comprises points
Since 1990s almost all commercial GIS packages such as ArcGIS, MapInfo, (a pair of x, y coordinates),
lines (series of points),
Geomedia have adopted non-topological data structure. Shape file (.shp) is a
polygons (series of lines).
standard non-topological data format used in GIS packages. In ArcInfo There are no files to
coverage, the geometry of shape file is stored into two extension types such as describe the spatial
.shp and .shx. Shape file (.shp) stores the feature geometry and .shx file relationship between
maintains the spatial index of the feature geometry. The advantage of non- geometric objects and
polygon boundaries have
topological data structure, i.e. shape file, lies in quick display on the system than
duplicate in shape file.
the topological data. Many software packages such as ArcGIS, MapInfo uses
the .shp file format.
Check Your Progress II Spend
5 mins
1. What is topology? Explain topological and non-topological data structures.
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5.4 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Real world entities or objects can be stored into computer files which are simple
or well organised lists. The data record in a file contains all the appropriate
information for each entity. The data records may be of same or variable lengths.
Spatial databases contain many files with data on related aspects of the same Database is a collection of
entities or other connected or linked together. Proper organisation is important information that is
for storing these files in an appropriate way to model real world phenomena and organised in such a way
to ensure efficient storage and retrieval of data. A software package designed to that it can easily and
facilitate creation and maintenance of computerised database is called as a rapidly be accessed,
managed, and updated.
Database Management System (DBMS). There are many methods for
efficiently storing and retrieving the data and to model logically the real world
features i.e. hierarchical, network, relational, multidimensional and object-based
which are used now-a-days in GIS. The fundamental objective of the DBMS is
to make data quickly available to a multitude of users. The three primary facets
of database integrity are:
• protecting the existence of the database against deletion and corruption
• maintaining the quality of the database to facilitate the addition, removal, and
updating, if necessary
• ensuring the privacy of the database
The concepts of non-
A database is an integrated collection of data records, files, and other database spatial data structure
objects. There are many types of DBMS, ranging from small systems that run on database models in DBMS
personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes. A DBMS is a data will be explained in detail
manager that manages data in databases and is usually an inherent part of a in Unit 6 of MGY-003.
database product. For example, Microsoft Access in PCs is a single or small- 33
Fundamentals of Geographic group user DBMS. The set of rules for constructing queries is known as a query
Information System
language. Different DBMSs support different query languages, although there is
a semi-standardised query language called Structured Query Language (SQL).
Microsofts Mappoint, IBM’s Spatial DataBlade, Oracle Spatial are relational
database management systems having high-level programming interface which can
be linked to access and manage the spatial data. Many GIS utilise the DBMS as
part of their system because of the capability to handle data explicitly. The
hierarchical, network, relational, multidimensional and object oriented data
structures (non-spatial data structure database models) are often used in spatial
information systems.

5.5 ACTIVITY
You have read about the raster and vector models and how they work
theoretically. Now you should create spatial database using GIS software in
different formats and understand the differences.

5.6 SUMMARY
You have learnt the following in this unit:

• Real world features such as temples, parks, roads, railways, crop land, and
forest land are represented as point, line/polyline and polygon. Spatial
information of features or objects can be stored in a GIS using vector or
raster models. Spatial database of real world features need to be translated
into simplified representations which can be stored and updated in a system.

• Two data models, namely, vector data model which is used to symbolise
discrete features, and the raster data model, which is most often used to
represent continuously varying phenomena currently dominate the commercial
GIS software.

• Main advantage of vector model is easy access and complex analysis, while
raster model is useful for overlaying and spatial analysis.

• The raster data structure represents the information in the form of grid cells
or pixels which stands for picture element. Important raster data structures
viz. cell-by-cell encoding, run length encoding, and quadtree give an idea to
store the raster data information.

• The data structures are mainly topological, i.e. TIGER, coverage and non-
topological data structures under vector models.

• Database management system organises the spatial data in a systematic

pattern.

Spend
30 mins 5.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What are geospatial models? Explain raster and vector GIS models.

2) Explain the advantage and disadvantages of raster and vector GIS models.
Compare both the models.

34 3) Explain data structures in detail.

 GIS Data Models
5.8 REFERENCES and Spatial Data
Structure
• Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R. A., (1998), Principles of
Geographical Information Systems, Oxford University Press, New York.
• Chang, K.-t., (2010), Introduction to Geographic Information Systems,
Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
• Lo, C. P. and Yeung, K. W., (2009), Concepts and Techniques of
Geographic Information Systems, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
• Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., and Rhind, D. W.,
(2005), Geographic Information Systems and Science, John Wiley and
Sons, West Sussex.
• Rolf, A. D. B., (ed.). (2001), Principles of Geographical Information
Systems ?An Introductory Text Book, ITC, The Netherlands.

5.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Anjireddy, M., (2002), Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical
Information Systems, B. S. Publications, Hyderabad.
• De Mers, M. N., (2008), Fundamentals of Geographic Information
Systems, Wiley-India, New Delhi.

5.10 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) Raster data model represents the real world in a regular set of cells in grid
pattern whereas vector data model uses sets of coordinates and feature
characteristic (attribute) data to define discrete objects. We can guess
temples, post offices, hospitals, wells, buildings on large scale (i.e. 1:5000 or
less) as points, and line or polyline as railway, road, drainage and polygons
could be forest boundaries, rock type, etc.
Check Your Progress II
1) Topology is the spatial relations among geographical features, e.g., point,
line/polyline and polygon in GIS. It determines and describes the
relationships between connecting or adjacent features. There are two
types of vector data structures such as topological e.g., TIGER,
coverage and nontopological e.g., shape file.
Unit End Questions
1) Geospatial data models provide a method of representing geospatial
data in digital form. GIS models such as raster or vector are approaches for
storing the locational information of spatial features in a database. Raster
models use a grid-cell data structure to represent an object whereas vector
model implies the use of directional lines to characterise a geographic
feature.
2) Both the raster and vector models for storing geospatial data have unique
advantages and disadvantages. Raster models have simple data structure and
require a large space for data storage, while vector models are complex and
occupy small space.
35
Fundamentals of Geographic 3) Data structures are a method of storing data in a systematic way. There are
Information System
mainly two data structures used in GIS, namely, raster and vector. In raster
structure mainly three data structures, i.e. cell-by-cell encoding, run-length
encoding and quad tree while in vector, topological and non-topological data
structures are used to store the spatial data.

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