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Computer Skills: Paper 321/18/S07

What is Information and Communication Technology (ICT)?

Communication
Technology

To collect, store, process, search, retrieve, To deliver, disseminate, exchange, transmit,

and present electronic information to meet and receive electronic information in local,
the needs of various kinds of users, e.g., regional or global contexts, e.g., networks, fax
computer hardware & software, PDAs, machines, cell phones, email, satellites, GPS,
printers, groupware, smart cards…. Internet, telephony…
Computer
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, produce
information (output), and store the information for future use.

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Types of Computers

Type of computer Description Advantages Disadvantages

Mainframe computer These are extremely large Capable of processing Mainframes are so large
computers used in very big jobs, which that they take up almost a
organisations (such as banks make use of their large whole room.
and government memories and fast Complex to set up.
processor speeds.
departments) where very Expensive to operate and
Capable of complex maintain and they require
large amounts of data are
problem-solving that specialist staff to operate
processed.
would take smaller them.
computers much longer
to do.
Desktop or Personal This is a general purpose Spare parts are often cheap Lack of portability – heavy
computer (PC) computer made up of separate because they are and separate components
components: standardized. are connected by wires.
monitor They often have faster Files have to be copied and
keyboard processors than laptop stored on portable disks,
mouse computers for the same especially if you need to
price. take them with you.
processor and storage.
There are fewer problems
with overheating than
laptops because of their
larger size.
Laptop or notebook This is a computer where all Portability. Loss and theft are key
the components are together Users can work anywhere, disadvantages.
in a single unit. This means especially if they can Battery life is limited.
that they are portable; unlike access Wi-Fi and link to Keyboards and pointing
desktop computers, they can other media. devices are not as
be moved from one work area flexible as those on a
to another. desktop.
Laptops are more compact,
so overheating can be a
problem.
Like a laptop this is a small Portable and easy to use. Not all have 3G/4G access.
portable computer but the Quick to switch on. Touch-screen typing can be
biggest difference is that its Thousands of difficult.
user interface is all through downloadable Cannot make phone calls.
touch. applications
available.

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The computer system

The primary Components of a computer

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» Input devices.
» Central Processing Unit (containing the control unit and the arithmetic/logic unit).
» Memory.
» Output devices.
» Storage devices.

The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic and mechanical parts.
The major hardware components of a computer system are:

» Processor (CPU)

» Main memory

» Secondary memory

» Input devices

» Output devices

Input Unit
An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands,
and user responses into a computer.

Input device translate data from the form that humans understand to one that the computer can
work with. Most common are keyboard and mouse

» A keyboard is an input device that contains keys you press to enter data into the computer

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» A mouse is a pointing device that fits comfortably under the palm of your hand. It is a
pointing device which is used to control the movement of a mouse pointer on the screen to
make selections from the screen. A mouse has one to three buttons. The bottom of the
mouse is flat and contains a mechanism that detects movement of the mouse. Basically
there are three common types:

Mechanical Mouse

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of mouse. A
mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is that they tend to get dust
into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.

Optical Mouse

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a
mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its performance is affected by the
surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used for best results. The

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rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface may
reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

Cordless or Wireless Mouse

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such as IrDA
(infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It is used to improve
the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.

» Touchpad

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or control the
cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two buttons for right and left
click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that you do with a mouse, such as selecting
an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete, open a file or folder, and more.

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» Touch screen

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users to interact
or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the electronic devices come
with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating a graphical user interface. For
example, by touching, you can unlock your phone, open emails, open files, play videos, etc.
Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

» Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives the sound
vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording medium. The audio signals
are converted into digital data and stored in the computer.

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» Webcam

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera provided
on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can take pictures, and
can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are stored in the computer
memory and can be displayed on the screen if required.

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» Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a
light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on the display screen. Its
light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU. It is
not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if
needed.

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» Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus. It
enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil.
The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or display screen.
The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to
typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers.
Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings and send output to a
CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to
convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer processing.
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» Scanner

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document.
The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file and is displayed
on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to convert images
into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner
Flatbed Scanner

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the pane,
and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and
scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency
adapter while scanning transparent slides.

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Handheld Scanner

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat image that is
to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand should be steady while scanning;
otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode
scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.

Photo Scanner

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It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are required for
scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built software for cleaning and restoring
old photographs.

» Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a spherical
base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The movement of stick
controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

» Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

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MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a
character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive to
magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other organizations where
security is a major concern. The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing.
A document printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the
ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.

» Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed or
printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and
books into electronic files. It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner.
After copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color (black
and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark areas
are selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely used to convert
hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if
required like we edit documents created in MS Word.

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Example of Input Devices:-

1. Keyboard 2. Mouse (pointing device) 3. Microphone

4. Touch screen 5. Scanner 6. Webcam
7. Touchpads 8. MIDI keyboard 9. Bluetooth
10. Graphics Tablets 11. Cameras 12. Pen Input
13. Video Capture Hardware 14. Microphone 15. Trackballs
16. Barcode reader 17. Digital camera 18. Joystick
19. Gamepad 20. Electronic Whiteboard 21. MICR

Name Characteristics Image

The keyboard was first peripheral
device to be used with computers.
Keyboard
It helps to input text and numbers
into computer.

It consists of 104 keys and 12

functional keys.

A mouse is an input device which

is also called as pointing device
because it helps to point data on
Mouse screen.

It also helps to select, highlight

content and drag-drop controls.

Input Devices Characteristics Image

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A trackball is also a pointing

Trackballs device which will work like a
mouse. It is mainly used for
gaming and entertainment purpose.

A digital pen is another input

device which is mostly used with
Digital Pens
tablets, PDAs, etc.

A digital pen is also called as a

Stylus which helps to write or draw
data over pad.

Scanners transform printed

material and photographs into a
Scanners
digital representation.

After scanning of printed material,

page is represented in memory as
an array of pixels.

Barcode reader helps to read

Barcode readers information which is printed as
bars in back of goods or items.

Barcode readers are most widely

used input devices which we can
see in most of products in our day
to day life.

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Voice recognition system

Voice Recognition interprets or receives dictation or
System spoken commands to authorize
user.

A touch screen is an input device

Touch screen which uses sensors to sense touch
of users to get input data.

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Image input devices

» Scanners
» Cameras and
» Webcams

Examples of automatic input devices:

» Optical character recognition (OCR)
» Optical mark reading (OMR)
» Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
» Barcode reader
» Radio-frequency identification (RFID) reader
» Magnetic stripe reader
» Smart card reader

Examples of input devices for sound and music

» Microphones
» MIDI keyboards and other MIDI instruments

Casing
A computer case (also known as a computer chassis, cabinet, box, tower, enclosure, housing,
system unit or simply case) is the enclosure that contains most of the components of a computer
(usually excluding the display, keyboard and mouse).
Cases for personal computers and notebooks fall into three major categories: desktop cases, tower
cases, and notebook cases.
Full Tower

Full-tower cases are generally big with a height that is about or more than 30 inches (more than 76
cm). The number of internal drive bays inside these cases can be between 6 and 10.

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Tower Computer Case

Mid-Tower

Another case that might be a step down, would be classified as a mid-tower case. Mid-tower cases
are the most widely used computer cases. Mid Tower cases are about 18 to 24 (45 to 60 cm) inches
high and they usually contain 2 to 4 internal drive bays and a similar number of external bays (for
CD/DVD readers and similar).

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Mid-Tower Computer Case

Mini-Tower

Mini-tower usually have up to 2 or sometimes 3 internal drive bays. Mini-cases normally

stand at a height of 12 to 18 inches (30 to 45 cm). Expandability is a problem with these
cases.

Mini-Tower Computer Case

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Slim Line Case

Slim Line Computer Case

Slim line cases are simply tower cases turned on their sideways. They can hold a monitor
on top of the case.

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The System Unit

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Inside the System Unit

Motherboard
The main circuit board which connects all the device on a microcomputer; also called main board
or system board. It is the key circuit board holding the essential processing parts of a computer. It
allows all the parts of your computer to receive power and communicate with one another. The
form factor describes the shape and layout of the motherboard. Attached directly to the motherboard
are the CPU, RAM, expansion cards, networking, video, and audio components.

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It holds together many of the crucial components of a computer, including the central processing
unit (CPU), memory and connectors for input and output devices.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) (Microprocessor)

The central processing unit (CPU) contains electronic circuits that cause processing to occur. The
CPU interprets instructions to the computer, performs the logical and arithmetic processing
operations, and causes the input and output operations to occur. It is considered the “brain” of the
computer.

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Microprocessor (on the motherboard)

Microprocessor (the bottom side up)

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The components of the CPU

Control Unit
The Control Unit contains the CPU’s instructions for command execution.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

When the CU encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic or logic, it passes control to the
ALU. The ALU contains an adder capable of combining the contents of two registers in
accordance with the logic of binary arithmetic.

Memory
This is the space where the CPU can hold whole programs and data being manipulated by these
programs. There are two types of memory – RAM and ROM

The main functions of the microprocessor (CPU) includes the following.

» Control use of the main storage in storing data and instructions (i.e. the ROM).
» Control the sequence of operations.
» Give commands to all parts of the computer system.
» Carry out processing.
Basically the CPU interprets and executes commands from the computer’s hardware and software.
It coordinates all the activities of the computer. The CPU can be considered as a traffic policeman
directing the flow of data around the CPU and around the computer.

CPU fan

A fan is a hardware device that keeps the overall computer or a computer device cool by circulating
air to or from the computer or component. During the operation of the computer heat is generated
enough to disable the delicate electronics. A CPU cooling fan is therefore necessary to dissipate
that heat, and to maintain the computers’ cooling systems can increase the component life spans.

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Chipset
A chipset defines the processor type, type and capacity of RAM, and what internal and external
devices the motherboard will support. It serves as an electronic interface among the CPU, RAM,
and input/output devices.
Examples of Chipsets
» Northbridge
» South bridge
(See the chipsets on the motherboard above)

Peripheral Control cards (Expansion Slots)

This is a printed circuit board that plugs into a slot on the motherboard and enables a computer to
control a peripheral device. Also called an "interface card," "adapter" or "controller," all the printed
circuit boards that plug into a computer's bus are technically expansion cards, because they
"expand" the computer's capability. PCI and PCI Express are common expansion cards in use
today whilst before these there was the ISA.

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History: In older PCs, controllers for drives, input/output ports, display, network and sound all
resided on separate plug-in cards.

Expansions have the role of letting you install additional components to enhance or expand the
functionality of your PC. You can install a TV tuner, a video capture card, or a better soundcard,
etc. They come in the form of ISA slots and PCI slots (on older motherboards) or a scaled-down
version of PCI-Express slots (on newer motherboards). See the slots on the motherboard below:

ISA slots. These were the oldest expansion slots in the history of motherboards. They were found
in AT boards and are identified by black colour. Conventional display cards or sound cards were
installed in these slots. The full form of ISA is Industry Standard Architecture and is a 16- bit
bus.

PCI Slots. The full form of PCI is Peripheral Component Interconnect. The PCI slot is one of the
important motherboard components today and is vastly used to install add-on cards on the
motherboard. The PCI supports 64-bit high-speed bus.

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Expansion Cards
Special expansion cards are one way to add new types of ports to an older computer or to expand the
number of ports on your computer. Like other expansion cards, these cards clip into an open expansion
slot on the motherboard.

Figure: A typical Sound card which is slotted into an expansion slot

Heat Sink

A heat sink is a heat exchanger component attached to a device used for passive cooling. It is
designed to increase the surface area in contact with the cooling fluid surrounding it, such as the
air thus allowing it to remove more heat per unit time.
It is used to prevent overheating, instability, malfunction and damage to components such
processors, graphics cards, RAM which produce heat whilst working.

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The power supply

A power supply or PSU (power supply unit) is a hardware component of a computer that supplies
all other components with power. The power supply converts a 110-115 or 220-230
volt AC (alternating current) into a steady low-voltage DC (direct current) usable by the computer
and rated by the number of watts it generates.

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System memory
Memory refers to the computer chips that store information for quick retrieval by the CPU. This is
the retention of information electronically, on chips. There are two main types memory: RAM, which is
used for the short-term retention of information (until the power is turned off), and ROM, which is used
store programs that are seldom changed. Computer memory can be categorized into two types
– primary and secondary.

We will start by looking at primary memory in detail.

RAM Memory:
Random access memory (RAM) is a series of small cards or modules plugged into slots on the
motherboard. The CPU can request any data in RAM. It is then located, opened, and delivered to the
CPU for processing in a few billionths of a second. Since all the contents of RAM are erased when you
turn off the computer, RAM is the temporary or volatile storage location for the computer.

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Figure: A RAM Memory Module.

Random Access Memory types

» Dynamic Random Access Memory (Dynamic RAM)

Each memory cell in a DRAM is made of one transistor and one capacitor, which store one bit of
data. However, this cell starts losing its charge and hence data stored in less than thousandth of a
second. So it needs to be refreshed thousand times a second, which takes up processor time.
However, due to small size of each cell, one DRAM can have large number of cells. Primary
memory of most of the personal computers is made of DRAM.

» Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

Each cell in SRAM is made of a flip flop that stores one bit. It retains its bit till the power supply
is on and doesn’t need to be refreshed like DRAM. It also has shorter read-write cycles as
compared to DRAM. SRAM is used in specialized applications.

Functions of RAM are as follows:

» It stores data till it gets processed.

» It stores instructions for data processing.

» It acts as a working space where data processing takes place and intermediate results are
stored.

» It stores processed data/results before it is sent to output devices.

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Read Only Memory

ROM is referred as permanent memory, in which information stored is available even if computer
is turned off. Instructions stored in this memory can only be read and cannot be modified. Mostly
ROM has a start-up instruction which is executed every time when computer is switched on.

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, ROM can only be read by the
processor. New data cannot be written into ROM. Data to be stored into ROM is written during
the manufacturing phase itself. They contain data that does not need to be altered, like booting
sequence of a computer or algorithmic tables for mathematical applications. ROM is slower and
hence cheaper than RAM. It retains its data even when power is switched off, i.e. it is non-volatile.
ROM cannot be altered the way RAM can be but technologies are available to program these
types of ROMs –

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» PROM (Programmable ROM)

PROM can be programmed using a special hardware device called PROM programmer or PROM
burner.

» EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

EPROM can be erased and then programmed using special electrical signals or UV rays.
EPROMs that can be erased using UV rays are called UVEPROM and those that can be erased
using electrical signals are called EEPROM. However, handling electric signals is easier and safer
than UV rays.

Read Only Memory - Functions

» Checks if the rest of the memory is functioning
» Checks for all hardware devices available
» Check the operating system in hard disc
» Passes control to the OS.
An important use of ROM is to store the software that allows a machine to start up successfully.
This software is known as BIOS, or Basic Input and Output System, and it loads and runs the
boot file (the start-up instructions).

The basic input-output system (BIOS) is the first thing you see when you turn on your computer. The
BIOS is special software that interfaces the major hardware components of your computer with the
operating system. It is usually stored on a Flash memory chip on the motherboard (which has its own
battery), but sometimes the chip is another type of ROM.

Figure: The BIOS chip

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When the computer is switched on, BIOS starts the boot file sequence, which:

» checks that all the hardware devices are attached and are working properly
» copies the operating system to the RAM
» stores the date, time and system configuration on a battery-powered non-volatile chip
known as a CMOS (a Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor).

Cache Memory

Small piece of high speed volatile memory available to the processor for fast processing is
called cache memory. Cache may be a reserved portion of main memory, another chip on CPU
or an independent high speed storage device. Cache memory is made of fast speed SRAMs. The
process of keeping some data and instructions in cache memory for faster access is called caching.
Caching is done when a set of data or instructions is accessed again and again.

Whenever the processor needs any piece of data or instructions, it checks the cache first. If it is
unavailable there, then the main memory and finally secondary memory is accessed.

The below table jots down the major differences between RAM and ROM:

S. No RAM ROM

1 It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile memory.

2 The contents are temporary; data is lost The contents are permanent; data is not lost
when electricity supply is lost. even when power is switched off.
3 Available in small storage capacity. Available in high storage capacity.

4 Processing speed is high. Processing speed is low.

5 User-defined programs can be stored. Generally, operating system supporting

programs can be stored.
6 It is of two types, SRAM and DRAM. It comes in different types such as PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory.

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Secondary Memory
Storage
This is long-term retention of information magnetically (on disks or tapes) or optically (on CD/DVDs). It
persists after you turn your computer off.
Storage devices
Distinguish clearly between
» Storage device = hardware with read/write heads. E.g. CD/DVD ROM Drive, USB port
» Storage media = material on which data is held. E.g. Memory stick, CD, DVD

If we need to store large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a cheaper and
permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory. Here we will discuss secondary
memory devices that can be used to store large amount of data, audio, video and multimedia files.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory:

» It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off

» It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
» It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are two types of
secondary memory – fixed and removable.

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Magnetic storage

Magnetic disks use magnetic particles to store items on a disk’s surface.

A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular platters that
magnetically store data, instructions, and information. Hard Drive – (long-term memory) holds all
of the information that needs to be stored between uses of the computer.

Hard Drive: The main storage area inside your computer (usually called a C: drive). The hard disk
or hard drive stores your computer's operating system, the programs that are installed on your
computer, and most of your files. It is the data center inside of the computer. Provides much greater
storage capacity than a floppy disk or USB flash drive. It is housed inside the system unit

Floppy disk or Stiffy

A floppy disk (3½ inch disk shown below) is an inexpensive portable storage medium. Also called
as diskette.

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Floppy drive

The floppy disk drive shown above is used for data transfer and software installations. The floppy
disk drive is also known as the A. Drive. It can store between 720Kb to 1.44Mb of data. It is
obsolete now and has been replaced by the memory sticks, CDs and DVDs.

Precautions needed with floppy disks

» Don’t place the disk on a device that has or generates a magnetic field e.g. a speaker.
» Don’t bend the disk.
» Don’t place the disk in hot or wet places.
» Only write on the disk with a soft-tip pen.

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» Don’t remove the disk from the drive when the disk’s drive light is on.

Magnetic tape
Tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic housed in a tape cartridge.
Tape drive

Optical storage

An optical disc is a portable storage medium that consists of a flat, round, portable disc made of
metal, plastic, and lacquer that is written and read by a laser.

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Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) or Compact Disc (CD)

CD-R, CD-RW (Compact Disc-Recordable), or DVD—information can be “written” or “burned”

on these devices. They hold lots of information and are used in the computer’s CD or DVD drive.

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CD Drive

CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read
and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a dollar.
CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive,
remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs −

» CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − the data on these CDs are recorded
by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.

» CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-
R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.

» CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these optical
disks again and again.

DVD Drive

DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data
held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity.
DVDs also come in three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.

CD/DVD-ROM drive (usually called a D: drive) to read the information on a CD/DVD.

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Care and Handling:

» Handle discs by the edge or the center hole. Do not touch the surface.
» Media, other than paper, must acclimate to room temperature and humidity prior to
use, usually 24 to 48 hours. This time can vary due to media type and temperature
variance.
» Do not write or apply label to surface of the disc. Chemicals in the ink and adhesive
can leach into the disc and cause damage. Apply label or writing to the clear center
portion of the disc.

The life expectancy of CDs and DVDs varies greatly from 2 years and up. Materials used in
the creation of this media and the equipment quality to write to this media fluctuate greatly.
It is best to test readability frequently and copy to a new media at a minimum every 3 to 5
years.

Solid state storage

Solid-state storage media are electronic and made as integrated circuits or chips, currently using
FLASH technology which, like ROM, holds data that are non-volatile, but can be erased and
rewritten.
They are very small and portable, and are usually more robust than HDD or optical media. They
include:
» USB flash drives (memory sticks or pen drives)
» Flash memory chips
» Memory cards

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These are miniature mobile storage media are rewriteable media usually in the form of a flash
memory card, USB flash drive, or a smart card.

Memory stick

USB drive (also known as, flash drive, thumb drive, or jump drive)—these drives are small,
light, and portable, yet hold substantial amounts of data. This device plugs into the computer’s
USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports. Small and lightweight enough to be transported on a keychain
or in a pocket

Memory cards

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A smart card stores data in a thin microprocessor embedded in the card

Care of Storage Media

» Do not expose a magnetic media to strong magnetic fields.
» Do not expose a media to excessive heat.
» Do not drop, bend or scratch the media
» Do not remove a media from the drive when it is still being accessible by the computer

Output unit
Output devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which
converts the electronically generated information into human readable form. The different types
of devices are:

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» Monitor, e.g. a CRT or LCD screen

» Multimedia projector
» Printer or plotter, e.g. laser, inkjet and dot matrix
» Loud speakers and headphones
» Actuators make physical changes; they include:
 Light bulb or LED
 Heater
 Solenoid
 Relay or contactor
 Motor
 Buzzer and similar actuators such as bell, beeper or siren.

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Output Devices Characteristics Image

A monitor is most common type of output

Monitor device.

It is also called as “Visual Display Unit”.

The inputs given by keyboard or any

other input devices will get displayed on
monitor.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Flat panel

display monitors are commonly used
monitors.
Printers are most common type of output
devices which are used to take a hard
copy of any digital document.
Printers The two types of printers are impact and
non-impact printers.

Non-impact printers such as laser and

inkjet printers are less noisy, more
reliable and faster and also offer high
quality compared to impact printers.

Sound Systems
Sound systems are output devices which
are used to get multimedia content such
as voice, music, etc., as output. Some of
examples of sound systems are speakers,
headphones, and microphones.

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Computer Ports

A port is a connection or a jack provided on a computer to connect external or peripheral devices

to the computer, for example, you will need a port on your device to connect a keyboard, mouse,
pen-drives, etc. So, it acts as an interface or a point of attachment between computer and external
devices. It is also called a communication port, as it is the point where you plug in a peripheral
device to allow data transfer or communication between the device and computer. Generally, they
present on the back or sides of the computer.

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Computer software
Software is the set of instruction that tells the computer what to do and when to do it. The computer
uses this instruction to manipulate data, and enhance the proper functioning of the hardware
components. It is designed to exploit and provide the potential capabilities of the hardware to the
user. It converts data into information and allows users to use the computer in different ways.

System Software

System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware to provide basic
functionality and to provide a platform for running application software. System software acts
as interface between hardware and user applications. An interface is needed because hardware
devices or machines and humans speak in different languages.
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Based on its function, system software is of four types −

» Operating System
» Language Processor
» Device Drivers

Operating System

System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their inter-operability
to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is the first software to be
loaded into computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is called booting. OS
manages a computer’s basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving files from storage
devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.

Operating system is a software that controls system’s hardware and interacts with user and
application software.

Functions of the operating system

Process management: - Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also
provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes.

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Memory management: - Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-
allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.

File management: - It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage, retrieval,
naming, sharing, and protection of files.

Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module also
responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation and
de-allocation of the devices.

I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the peculiarities of that
hardware devices from the user.

Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which includes primary
storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in primary
storage or cache so that a running program can reference it.

Security – Some security is provided with different access levels for different users by the use of
passwords. The system will also remind users to change their passwords at regular intervals and
prevent easy-to-guess passwords from being used.

Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the and acting system
resources to process that commands.

Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share memory, hardware
devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through the network.

Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users.

Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, and

another software resource of the various users of the computer systems.

Spooling – To offset differing speeds of devices/slowness of printers and allow for queuing in a

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network environment, all print output is directed to a disc file. When the printer becomes available,
the file is output to the printer as a background job in a continuous run. High priority print jobs
can override the normal order priority.

Dealing with interrupts. Every time an unusual event occurs, an “interrupt” signal is generated
which the O/S must prioritize. (E.g. last printed line not completed, user command coming in on
the keyboard).

Automatic job scheduling – All jobs entered into a multiprogramming environment are given a
priority. The operating system picks which job to run next dependent on priorities or whether a job
is runnable (see later).
House Keeping operations – These are routines enabling the user to manage files and include
copying, renaming, deleting, moving, sorting. Make a folder/directory, format a disc, inspect disc
usage are other features.
.
Interface - provide an interface for the user that either GUI or Command Line

Examples of Operating Systems

Windows − Windows is a GUI operating system first developed by Microsoft in 1985. The latest
version of Windows is Windows 10.

Unix
Linux − Linux is an open source operating system mostly used by mainframes and
supercomputers. Being open source means that its code is available for free and anyone can
develop a new OS based on it.

Microsoft Disk operating System (MS DOS)

Ubuntu

Mobile OS

An operating system for smartphones, tablets and other mobile devices is called mobile OS. Some
of the most popular OS for mobile devices includes−
 Android − this is a Linux-based OS by Google and is the most popular mobile OS
currently.

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 Windows Phone 7 − It is the latest mobile OS developed by Microsoft.

 Apple iOS − this mobile OS is an OS developed by Apple exclusively for its own mobile
devices like iPhone, iPad, etc.
 Blackberry OS − this is the OS used by all blackberry mobile devices like smartphones
and playbooks.

Boot-Up Process
A PC cannot do anything useful unless it is running its operating system - software that acts as a
supervisor for all its software applications. It sets the rules for using memory, drives, and other
hardware devices on the computer. Before a PC can run the operating system, it needs some way to
load it from disk into RAM. The way to do this is with the bootstrap – a small amount of code that is
executed on startup or system boot. The bootstrap is aptly named because it lets the PC do something
entirely on its own 5, without any outside operating system. The boot-up sequence of events is as
follows:

1. The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides the
most basic information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto device
recognition) capability and a few other items.

2. The BIOS triggers a test called a power-on self-test (POST) to make sure all the major components
are functioning properly. You may hear your drives spin and see some LEDs flash, but the screen, at
first, remains black.

3. The BIOS has the CPU send signals over the system bus to be sure all of the basic components are
functioning. The bus includes the electrical circuits printed on and into the motherboard, connecting
all the components with each other.

4. The POST tests the memory contained on the display adapter and the video signals that control the
display. This is the first point you’ll see something appear on your PC’s monitor.

5. During a cold boot the memory controller checks all of the memory addresses with a quick
read/write operation to ensure that there are no errors in the memory chips. Read/write means that data
is written to a bit and then read back from that bit. You should see some output to your screen - on
some PCs you may see a running account of the amount of memory being checked.

6. The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the system’s RAM. That
ends the POST and the BIOS transfers control to the operating system. Generally, the critical parts of
the operating system - the kernel - are maintained in RAM as long as the computer is on. This allows
the CPU to have immediate access to the operating system, which enhances the performance and
functionality of the overall system.

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Language Processor

As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all user instructions
into machine understandable language. When we talk of human machine interactions, languages
are of three types −
» Machine-level language − this language is that is made up of a string of 0s and 1s that the
machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
» Assembly-level language − this language introduces a layer of abstraction by
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote a long
string of 0s and 1s. For example, the word “READ” can be defined to mean that computer
has to retrieve data from the memory. The complete instruction will also tell the memory
address. Assembly level language is machine dependent.
» High level language − this language uses English like statements and is completely
independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages are easy to create,
read and understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source code.
Set of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine code. System
software that converts source code to object code is called language processor. There are three
types of language interpreters−
» Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.
» Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.
» Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go rather
than line by line.

Device Drivers

System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is
called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to
be attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a
new device, you need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

Utility Software

Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called utility software. It
is generally used for diagnostic purposes. Examples of utility software include:

» Anti-virus applications protect your computer from the damage that can be caused by
viruses and similar programs.
» Compression utilities make files smaller for storage (or sending over the Internet) and then
return them to normal size.

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» Data recovery utilities attempt to restore data and files that have been damaged or
accidentally deleted.
» Disk defragmenters reorganize the data stored on disks so that it is more efficiently
arranged.
» Firewalls prevent outsiders from accessing your computer over a network such as the
Internet.
» Disc management routines - creating folders, copying/deleting/moving/renaming files and
sort programs
» System Restore

Application software
A program or group of programs designed to allow end users to accomplish one or more specific
(non-computer related) tasks.

Examples of Computer Application Software

» Word processing
» Spreadsheet
» Presentation
» Database
» Desktop Publishing
» Graphic Editor
» Auto CAD

Word Processing

Word processing is a software program capable of creating, storing, and printing documents. This
document can also be saved for modification at a later time or to be opened on any other computer
using the same word processor. Some common word processing packages are MS-Word,
WordPad, WordPerfect, Google docs, etc.

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A word processing package allows you to −

» Create, save and edit documents

» Format text properties like font, alignment, font color, background color, etc.
» Check spelling and grammar
» Add images
» Add header and footer, set page margins and insert watermarks

Spreadsheet

Spreadsheet is a software that assists users in processing and analyzing tabular data. Data is
always entered in a cell (intersection of a row and a column) and formulas and functions to
process a group of cells is easily available. Some of the popular spreadsheet software include MS-
Excel, Quattro, Google Sheets, etc. Here is a list of activities that can be done within a spreadsheet
software −

 Simple calculations like addition, average, counting, etc.

 Preparing charts and graphs on a group of related data
 Data entry
 Data formatting
 Cell formatting
 Calculations based on logical comparisons

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Presentation

Presentation software enables user to demonstrate information broken down into small chunks
and arranged on pages called slides. A series of slides that present a coherent idea to an audience
is called a presentation. The slides can have text, images, tables, audio, video or other multimedia
information arranged on them. MS-PowerPoint, OpenOffice Impress, Lotus Freelance, etc. are
some popular presentation packages.

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Database

Software that manages storage, updating and retrieval of data by creating databases is
called database management system. Some popular database management tools are MS-Access,
MySQL, Oracle, FoxPro, etc.

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Desktop Publishing Software

Used to produce high-quality printed documents such as magazine, greeting card, posters, etc.

Allows you to use different typefaces, specify various margins and justifications, and embed
illustrations and graphs directly into the text. Examples are QuarkXPress, Corel Draw and MS
Publisher

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Software Licensing

Software license is a legal instrument (by way of contract law) governing the usage or
redistribution of software. The license allows an individual or group to use a piece of software.

Some licenses are based on the number machines on which the licensed program can run whereas
others are based on the number of users that can use the program.

Types of Software License

Proprietary Software

Software that can be used only by obtaining license from its developer after paying for it is
called proprietary software. An individual or a company can own such proprietary software. Its
source code is often closely guarded secret and it can have major restrictions like:

» No further distribution
» Number of users that can use it
» Type of computer it can be installed on, example multitasking or single user, etc.
For example, Microsoft Windows is a proprietary operating software that comes in many
editions for different types of clients like single-user, multi-user, professional, etc.

Shareware/Demoware

Refers to copyrighted commercial software that is distributed without payment but needs to be
paid for after a stipulated period of time is called shareware. It is on trial basis and is limited by
functionality, availability, or convenience.

Freeware

Computer software that is available for use with no cost or for an optional fee. Freeware is different
from shareware, where the user is obliged to pay. Examples of freeware are Google Chrome,
Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, Skype, etc.

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Open Source Software (OSS)

OSS is also a free software.

OSS can be defined as computer software for which the human-readable source code is made
available under a copyright license (or arrangement such as the public domain) that meets the Open
Source. OSS permits users to use, change, and improve the software, and to redistribute it in
modified or unmodified form.

License Key

A software license key is a pattern of numbers and/or letters provided to licensed users of a
software program.

License keys are typically created and delivered via a license generator once a software user has
paid for the software and has agreed to the conditions of use and distribution as legally specified
in the software license.

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License Key

Software Piracy

This refers to unauthorized copying of software. It is a way of obtaining software without the
permission of the software holder. Some common types of software piracy include:
Counterfeit Software

A type of software piracy that occurs when fake copies of software are produced using a CD burner
to copy the software
Counterfeit software is usually sold at prices well below that of the retail price of the legitimate
software

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OEM Unbundling

Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) unbundling is a type of software piracy that occurs
when OEM-packaged software is separated from the hardware it originally came bundled with, at
the OEM or retail level of sale.
Soft-lifting

A type of software piracy that occurs when users share their software with other users who are not
authorized to have access by the End-User License Agreement (EULA).

The most common type of soft-lifting occurs when a person does legitimately purchase software
but installs it onto multiple computers which is a violation of the licensing agreement.
Hard Disk Loading

A type of software piracy that occurs when hardware dealers install an unauthorized copy of
commercial software onto a computer system.

In many cases consumers will not receive any manuals or original CD of the software but the
hardware dealer may charge for the illegal software in the total system purchase price. (True –
when you buy a new machine with OS and Applications which after a period the software will give
warnings and eventually stop opening.)
Internet Software Piracy

A type of software piracy that occurs when software, which is illegally obtained through Internet
channels, usually through peer-to-peer file sharing systems or downloaded from pirate Web sites
that make software available for download for free or in exchange for users who uploaded software

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Summary
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources

» e.g.CPU, memory, I/O devices

2. Operating system

» e.g. Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users

3. Application programs – which define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve
the computing problems of the users

» e.g. Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games

4. Users
» e.g. People, machines, other computers

Computer security
These are techniques developed to safeguard data and information stored on computers.
Potential threats include the destruction of data and information by viruses.

Computer viruses

Computer viruses are unwanted software programs or pieces of code that interfere with the
functioning of the computer. They spread through contaminated files, data, and insecure networks.
Once it enters your system, it can replicate to produce copies of itself to spread from one program
to another program and from one infected computer to another computer. So, we can say that it is
a self-replicating computer program that interferes with the functioning of the computer by
infecting files, data, programs, etc.

Alternatively, a virus can be defined as ….

A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For example, a virus might
attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet program runs,
the virus runs, too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak
havoc.

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Types of Viruses

» Overwrite Virus
It is the simplest computer virus that overwrites the code of the host computer system's file
with its own malicious code. The content of the infected file is replaced partially or
completely without changing the size of the file. Thus, it destroys the original program
code by overwriting it with its defective code. The infected files must be deleted or replaced
with a new copy as this virus cannot be removed or disinfected.
» Macro Virus
Macro virus alters or infects the macros of a document or data file. It is embedded as a
macro in a document and adds its codes to the macros of the document. The virus spreads
when infected documents or data files are opened in other computers.
It also spreads through software programs, which execute macros such as Ms Word, Ms
Excel. Each time a document is opened using these programs, other related documents will
also get infected.
» Boot Virus
Boot virus or boot sector virus alters the boot sector program stored in the hard disk or any
other storage device such as floppy disks. It replaces the boot sector program with its own
malicious version. It infects the computer only when it is used to boot up the computer. If
it enters after the boot-up process, it will not infect the computer. For example, if someone
forgets to remove the infected memory stick when the PC is turned off and then turns on
this PC, it runs the infected boot sector program during the booting process.
» Resident Virus
The resident virus stays permanently in the primary memory (RAM) of the computer.
When you start the computer, it becomes active and corrupts the files and programs running
on the computer.
» File Infector Virus
It is one of the commonly found computer viruses. It mainly infects the executable files;
the files with .com or .exe extensions. The virus becomes active when the infected file is
executed. The active virus overwrites the file partially or completely. Thus it may destroy
the original file partially or completely.

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» Trojan horse
Trojan horse is a malware like a virus or a worm, but it is technically different from both.
It can't replicate like virus and worm. Trojan horse hides itself in a program. Once you
install any such program, the Trojan horse enters into your computer. It can provide
unauthorized access to your computer, send your files to other computers, and may delete
files or can make other unwanted changes in your computer.
» Polymorphic Virus
It creates its thousands of copies itself; in each copy, it changes the sequence and byte
values to evade detection by antivirus software. Even the best antiviruses may not be able
to detect this virus. Polymorphic viruses affect data types and functions and generally
spread through spam, infected sites, and while using other malware.
» Stealth Virus
It is a hidden computer virus, which specifically attacks operating system processes. It
usually hides itself in partitions, files or boot sectors and is capable of going unnoticed
during antivirus or anti-malware scans, i.e., it can avoid detection intentionally.
» Worm
Worm or an email virus (for the purpose of this guide) is not really a virus at all (in that it
is not self-replicating) but a chain letter phenomenon sent through email. The message will,
for some reason or other, tell you to pass this message on to as many people as possible.
Hoax virus alerts are typical examples of chain emails. These are distinct from viruses in
that they do not have host file like most other viruses but are carried on the internet and
can spread from one computer to another by themselves without the need for a user to assist
the process by giving someone an infected file or disk. They are usually spread through the
internet as an attachment.

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Symptoms of a Computer Virus

There are many warning signs or symptoms which show that a computer is infected with a virus,
some of which are as follows:

» Slow computer performance: The machine may work slowly, e.g., it will take more time
to open or shut down the computer or while opening a file, document, computer
application, etc. The operating system and internet speed may get slow.
» Frequent pop-ups: A virus may cause unusual frequent pop-ups on your window.
» Hard Drive issue: The hard drive may exhibit unusual high activity even when it is not in
use. It may cause unwanted changes to your hard drive and may freeze or crash this device.
» Frequent crashes: One may experience frequent sudden system crashes while playing
games, watching videos, or doing some other work using the infected system. A blue screen
appears when it crashes.
» Unknown programs: Unwanted programs may open or start automatically when you start
your computer. You can see these programs in your computer's list of active applications.
Sometimes, the window shuts down unexpectedly without any reason.
» Unusual activities: Your machine may perform differently, such as you may not be able
to log into your accounts, to delete the corrupt files, and Blue Screen of Death (BSOD)
may appear frequently, and more. Furthermore, the hardware, software, or OS may start
malfunctioning leading to crashing the system abruptly.
» Network issue: Sometimes, you experience high network activity even if you are not
connected to the internet and vice versa.
» Display problems: You may experience different colors in your display if your computer
is affected by a virus.
» Affected Applications: Some viruses are developed to affect specific applications.
Consequently, some applications may not work on your computer if it is infected.
» Printer Issues: A printer attached to an infected computer may print documents without
getting any command or in an inappropriate manner.

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» Strange messages: One may see strange messages on a computer screen such as error
messages, e.g., "cannot rename "folder" as a folder already exists with this name"

How Viruses are spread

Viruses are spread by running infected programs or opening infected files. This can occur by using
any of the following methods:
» Passing memory sticks from PC to PC
» Downloading (copying) infected files from the Internet
» Opening an email attachment
» Booting a PC with an infected bootable disk.
Computer viruses work in two phases: infection phase and the attack phase.
Infection phase: in order to infect a computer, a virus has to possess the chance to get executed
before it can infect the computer system and spread to others. Events that can trigger the execution
of virus are included above.
Attack phase: viruses do destructive things such as deleting files, erasing data on a hard disk,
sending random emails or slowing down the processor by sending millions of looped instructions.
Since most users will try their best to delete the virus once it launches the attack, most virus delay
revealing their presence by launching their attack only after they have had ample opportunity to
spread. This means the attack may be delayed for a long time after the infection.

Prevention of Computer Virus

Computer users can prepare for a viral infection by:
» Creating backups of legitimate original software and
» Back-ups of data files regularly so that the computer system can be restored if necessary.
» Install an up-to-date antivirus program

Antivirus software

A software that assists the Operating System in providing virus free environment to the users is
called antivirus. An anti-virus scans the system for any virus and if detected, gets rid of it by
deleting or isolating it. Examples are : Avaste , Kaspersky, AVG etc.

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