ScientiaHorticultura

e256(2019)108556

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Scientia Horticulturae
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scihorti

Review

Shade netting on subtropical fruit: Effect on environmental conditions, tree

physiology and fruit quality
Asanda Mditshwaa,⁎, Lembe Samukelo Magwazaa,b, Samson Zeray Tesfaya
a
Department of Horticultural Sciences, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209,
Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
b
Department of Crop Science, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01, Scottsville,
3209, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

ARTICLEINFO
ABSTRACT

Keywords:
EXtreme weather and climate events, such as very high temperatures, wind velocity and hail incidences that
Shade netting
Fruit quality occur due to climate change and global warming, have detrimental effects on subtropical fruit orchards. Shade
Light quality netting is one of the emerging techniques used by growers to protect their orchards against various biotic and
Microclimate abiotic stresses, such as excessive solar radiation, insects, hail as well as wind. There are di fferent shade netting
Storage disorders systems used in the fruit industry, these include insect proof screens, anti-hail and photoselective nets. This
review presents the studies assessing the influence of shade netting on orchard microclimatic conditions, tree
physiological parameters and fruit quality. Environmental conditions, such as air and canopy temperature, light
intensity and wind speed, are notably reduced by shade netting, while relative humidity is signi ficantly in-
creased. Depending on the shade net type, colour and shading intensity, relative humidity is increased by 3.2–
12.9%; light intensity, canopy temperature and wind velocity is decreased by 9 –46%, 1.3–7.6% and 2.5–17.1%,
respectively. Low bee activity and pollination services in trees grown under shade netting is a serious cause of
concern. On tree physiology, shade netting enhances photosystem II efficiency, with high leaf numbers being
common in subtropical trees grown under shade nets. Water use efficiency (WUE) is significantly improved under
shade netting, and it reduces external fruit disorders, such as fruit splitting and sunburn. Although the influence of
shade netting on phytochemical and nutritional attributes has been reported, there is little research on this area.
Shade net colour and shading intensity have considerable effects on tree physiology and external fruit quality. It
is crucial that each shade netting system is properly evaluated and analysed before being re- commended for
commercial use. The use of computational fluid dynamics for assessing, analyzing and im- proving the efficiency
of shade netting systems in subtropical orchards should be explored.

1. Introduction in tropical and subtropical fruit producing zones. Fruit yield and
quality are closely linked to the environmental conditions of the
The state of global climate has become a major concern in the orchard, which can be adversely affected by unfavourable conditions,
agricultural industry. Over the past 30 years, the global surface tem- such as excessive solar radiation, wind and hail.
perature has increased by appro Ximately 0.2 °C per decade (Hansen Amongst the extreme weather events, wind and hailstorm damage
et al., 2006). This has resulted to erratic and extreme weather varia- have been the most devastating environmental hazards in recent years.
tions, such as the dramatic decline in annual cold nights and the in- In instances where the storm occurs for a very short duration, the da-
crease in annual warm nights (Alexander et al., 2006; Howden et al., mage is always devastating, often causing fruit scars, as well as
2007). Between 1951 and 2003, the minimum daily temperature cracking and dropping in severe cases (Fig. 1). Weather surveys have
globally increased by almost 5 °C, while the maximum daily tempera- predicted that, if climatic changes lead to further increases in
ture slightly increased (Alexander et al., 2006). These changes have temperature, the annual hailstorm damage to the agricultural sector
resulted to extreme climatic and weather events such as hailstorms could increase by between 25% to 50% in 2050 (Botzen et al., 2010).
and El Niños, causing significant economic losses in the agricultural Poor fruit quality and the increased occurrence of rotting, and
sector (Hansen et al., 2006; Howden et al., 2007; Bal et al., 2014), diseases such as blight and canker, are very common in hail-damaged
particularly fruit (Bal et al., 2014).

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Mditshwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108556
Received 12 March 2019; Received in revised form 5 June 2019; Accepted 6 June 2019
Availableonline10June2019
0304-4238/©2019ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
A. Mditshwa, et al. ScientiaHorticulturae
256(2019)108556

Fig. 1. Citrus on the ground and badly damaged fruit after a severe hail storm (A) and (B) (Jansen, 2018); sunken scares on the upper exposed side of the fruit after
light hail (C) and yellowish leathery spot on unshaded fruit caused by sunburn (D) (Modified from Dreistadt, 2012).

Erratic and extreme weather events, particularly wind and hail storms,
Anti-hail nets are used to protect fruit trees from hail damage and high
have necessitated the need for effective contingency plans to be in-
wind velocity (Bosco et al., 2015). On the other hand, photoselective
corporated into fruit production systems. The plans are aimed at en-
nets are used in the orchard to discriminately filter the intercepted
suring that growers reduce the loss of yield and quality in order to
solar radiation (Shahak, 2006). The ability of photoselective nets to
meet the rising demand for fresh fruit by consumers. In addition, the
filter solar radiation is based on light dispersive and reflective elements
rising insurance costs have forced fruit producers to look for
used during their manufacturing.
alternative techniques to protect their orchards against environmental
Given the rising need to protect trees from harsh weather, there is a
hazards (Iglesias and Alegre, 2006). Some fruit industries have used
need to better understand the effects of shade netting on orchard en-
weather modification technologies to mitigate potential damages
vironmental conditions, tree physiology and quality of subtropical
resulting from weather events such as hail.
fruit. Also, with the increasing consumer preference for quality fruit, it
Antihail cannon, which uses shockwave generators, is one of the
is crucial that the effect of shade netting on internal and external fruit
technologies used for melting or preventing the formation of hailstorm
quality as well nutritional attributes is known and clearly understood.
linked to cumulonimbus clouds (Wieringa and Holleman, 2006; Şişu
Several research reviews exploring the influence of shade netting on
et al., 2011). Antihail rockets, which injects silver iodide reagent into
horticultural crops have been written, as indicated in Table 1. The
the clouds, have been used for decades as a protective measure to
published review articles have mainly focused on the use of shade
prevent or reduce the damage caused by hailstorm by preventing the
netting on apple fruit and vegetable production. Despite the increased
formation of hailstones (Potapov et al., 2007). Contrasting findings
usage of shade nets in subtropical fruit production, there is currently
regarding the effectiveness of some of these technologies have been
no published article exclusively reviewing their use and effect on sub-
reported, with large investments into equipment and professional per-
tropical fruit orchards. The aim of this article was therefore to review
sonnel having often prohibited their use (Wieringa and Holleman,
recent research on the use of shade netting on subtropical fruit pro-
2006). Owing to the uneconomically high insurance premiums for hail
duction systems and to establish its effects on tree physiology and fruit
damage, some growers have opted to use shade nets in their orchards
quality. Additionally, research gaps for future consideration regarding
(Iglesias and Alegre, 2006), which reduce hailstorm and wind damage,
the use of shade netting on subtropical fruit production are
as well as sunburn incidence. Hailstorm damage can result in an in-
highlighted.
cidence increase of 40 to 48% in high fruit drop and 92 to 98% in fruit
damage in uncovered trees, while shaded trees obtain maximum pro-
tection (Kiprijanovski et al., 2016). As a result, the production of sub- 2. Effect of shade netting on environmental conditions
tropical fruit under shade netting has significantly increased in recent
years. Depending on the manufacturing material used (mostly woven Slight changes in farming practices can have a considerable effect
polypropylene or knitted polyethylene material), shade nets have dif- on the agro-climatic or environmental conditions of the orchard. There
ferent radiometric, physical and mechanical properties (Appling, 2012; has been extensive research on the influence of shade netting on en-
Ilić and Fallik, 2017). There are different types of shade nets used in vironmental conditions in subtropical fruit orchards. A recent article
fruit industry, these include insect proof screens, antihail and photo- by Mahmood et al. (2018) reviewed the effects of shading and insect-
selective nets (Mahmood et al., 2018; Manja and Aoun, 2019). Insect proof screens on crop microclimate for selected fruit and vegetables,
proof screens are used to provide a physical barrier to pests, thereby while Mupambi et al. (2018) reviewed their effects on apple fruit.
protecting trees from insect vectored diseases (Valera et al., 2006). Environ- mental factors, such as light quantity and quality (Incesu et
al., 2016; Chang et al., 2016; Tinyane et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2018),
canopy and soil temperature (Meena et al., 2016; Tinyane et al., 2018;
Zhou et al.,

Table 1
Recently published literature reviews on the effect of shade netting on horticultural crops.

Focus crop or fruit Scope of the review Reference

Field crops, vegetables & fruit Effects on crop microclimate and crop production Mahmood et al. (2018)
Vegetables Influence of light manipulation on harvest and postharvest quality Ilić and Fallik (2017)
Apples Tree physiology and fruit quality Mupambi et al. (2018)

2
A. Mditshwa, et al. ScientiaHorticulturae
Various tree crops, mainly apples Microclimate, fruit diseases and economical insect pests and beneficial insects 256(2019)108556
Manja and Aoun (2019)

3
 semi-arid climate, Zhou et al. (2018) found that, compared to photo-
selective nets, the photosynthetically active radiation in the unnetted
trees was 15.7%–62% higher. The researchers also found that the pearl
and yellow nets allowed more radiation to pass in the region of 500–
600 nm of the electromagnetic spectrum, while the red nets transmitted
more red light (600–800 nm).
As the search for shade nets that allow optimum light quantity and
quality while protecting the trees is ongoing, recent research has
shown that clear shade nets could be the optimal solution. Findings by
Incesu et al. (2016) have showed that, compared to the control
treatment, leno red (20%) and clear shade nets (13%) received 82% and
90% of pho- tosynthetically active radiation, respectively. On the other
hand, black net (75%) received 54% photosynthetically active radiation
compared to the unnetted trees. Based on these studies, there is
conclusive sci- entific evidence that photosynthetically active radiation
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram on the effect of shade netting on environmental
is reduced by shade netting, which could be linked to change of light
conditions. WS: wind speed; RH: relative humidity; CST: canopy and soil tem- quality as it passes through the net by altering light absorbance,
perature; LQQ: light quantity and quality. reflectance and transmittance (Basile et al., 2008). Moreover, shade net
type has an influence on photosynthetically active radiation with
bright coloured nets (such as pearl and red) allowing more radiation
2018), relative humidity (Wachsmann et al., 2014; Blakey et al., 2016;
transmission compared to their dark counterparts (Mahmood et al.,
Tinyane et al., 2018) and wind speed (Wachsmann et al., 2014; Blakey
2018). The varying photosynthetically active radiation under different
et al., 2016), have all been shown to be affected by shade netting
shade nets is largely attributed to the influence of the shade net colour
(Fig. 2) and are discussed further.
on the spectral quality of solar radiation. Moreover, the architecture as
well as the characteristics of the net can alter the light microclimate of
2.1. Light quantity and quality the orchard (Mupambi et al., 2018).

2.2. Canopy and soil temperature

Different regions of the radiation spectrum (400–700 nm) are
known for activating photoreceptors and regulating various plant
growth and development processes such as photosynthesis, photo- Temperature plays a considerable role in the physiological and
morphogenesis as well as biosynthesis of phytochemicals (Arena et al., biochemical processes during fruit growth and development. While
2016). For instance, red light has an enormous influence on morpho- the shade nets are always used for reducing radiation, wind speed and
genesis and it also plays a critical role in developing photosynthesis hail damage, their influence on canopy and soil temperature have been
apparatus (Urbonavičiūtė et al., 2007). On the other hand, blue light observed (Table 3). For instance, Jifon and Syvertsen (2003) demon-
regulates stomata opening, photomorphogenesis and chlorophyll strated that aluminet shade net decreased canopy temperature by al-
synthesis, while green light has an ability to penetrate deeper into the most 4 °C in ‘Ruby Red’ grapefruit. Tinyane et al. (2018) studied the
tree canopy, thereby stimulating carbon assimilation in the lower parts effect of red, blue and white shading nets (20% shading intensity) on
of the tree, thus, resulting to increased plant growth and development canopy temperature of ‘Hass avocado trees. The experimental results
(Terashima et al., 2009; Urbonavičiūtė et al., 2007; Arena et al., 2016). showed that the average canopy temperature was significantly
The transmission of photosynthetically active radiation, an important reduced in ‘Hass’ avocado trees grown under shade nets. They further
factor in the process of photosynthesis and morphogenesis, is the main reported that, although the nets had a similar shading intensity, shade
radiometric property influenced by shade nets (Arena et al., 2016; net colour had an influence on canopy temperature. The canopy
Manja and Aoun, 2019). temperature under white and blue nets reduced by more than 26%
Shade netting has an ability to manipulate the spectral quality and while red nets had only 7% reduction. Zhou et al. (2018) showed that,
improve the light penetration into the inner canopy, thereby creating a although the shade nets had no significant effect on canopy
conducive micro-environment for plant growth and development. temperature of ‘Valencia’ oranges, canopy temperature appeared to be
Appling (2012) indicated that although the quality of light passing lower under red, pearl and yellow nets. There is enough scientific
through the holes of the shade nets often remain unchanged, evidence that, in most instances, shade nets reduce canopy
depending on the type and colour of the shade net, the light hitting the temperature. Mahmood et al. (2018) in- dicated that shade netting
orchard floor could be spectrally modified and scattered on its exit. In reduces the incoming radiant energy, thus, it has a great potential of
a recent review, Ilić and Fallik (2017) argued that light scattering can reducing canopy temperature. Shade net properties, such as colour,
increase by more than 50% under coloured shade nets. The increased have an influence light infiltration into the canopy. Thus, the varying
scattering can also improve light penetration as well as canopy temperatures under various shade nets should be expected as
photomorphogenetic and physiological responses inside the canopy. some nets allow more red light while other allow blue or green light
This is attributed to the fact that light scattering plays a role in (Bande et al., 2013).
increasing diffuse radiation, thereby enhancing both the vertical and The effect of shade nets on surface soil temperature in subtropical
horizontal light penetration (Shahak et al., 2004). Table 2 presents fruit orchards has received little attention from researchers, with only
selected research on the effect of shade netting on light quantity and one study evaluating its effect, to the best of our knowledge. A study
quality. by Meena et al. (2016) found that shade net colour and % shading have
In a recent study on the effect of coloured shade netting on ‘Hass’ considerable effects on soil temperature, which was much lower under
avocado fruit, Tinyane et al. (2018) demonstrated that shade netting 50% black net than 35% green, 50% green and red shade nets. Un-
and shade net type have an effect on photosynthetically active radia- fortunately, the researchers did not assess the influence of shade nets
tion. The authors reported that, although the nets provided a similar on soil chemistry and root structure. There is growing scientific
shading intensity (20%), the photosynthetically active radiation in evidence that shade netting affects soil environment. A soil
knittex white, knittex blue and leno red nets was reduced by 25%, 26% temperature-linked increase of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
and 9%, respectively. Similarly, in a study assessing the effects of uptake under white nets has been reported in greenhouses (Cerny et
pearl, red and yellow polypropylene shading nets on orange trees al., 2003; Al-Helal and Abdel-Ghany, 2010). It is argued that certain
grown in a shade nets create a
Table 2
Effect of shade netting on light quantity and quality in subtropical fruit orchards.

Fruit Net type, colour Shading % Special finding References

Avocado Shading net, white 20% Reduced PAR by 25% Tinyane et al. (2018)
Shading net, blue 20% Decreased PAR by 26 Tinyane et al. (2018)
Shading net, red 20% Reduced PAR by 9% Tinyane et al. (2018)
Shading net, white 25% Lowered solar irradiance by 18-19% Blakey et al. (2016)

Mandarins Shading net, white 30% Received 65% PAR compared to control trees Germana et al. (2003)
Shading net, grey 50% Compared to the control, plants under gray net got 41% of the PAR Germana et al. (2003)
Shading net, black 70% Received only 32% of the PAR Germana et al. (2003)
‘ Shading net, white 20% PPF was significantly lower under shade nets Lee et al. (2015)

Pitaya Shading net, black 75% 75% shading net had lowest PPF compared to control and other nets Chang et al. (2016)
Blueberries Shade net, red 35% Shade net decreased PAR by 29% Retamales et al. (2008)
Valencia Photoselective, pearl, red and yellow 20% Control had up to 61.8% higher PAR than shade nets Zhou et al (2018)
Mango Shading net, black NA Black net had lower light intensity compared to control Abul-Soud et al. (2014)

Navel orange Shading net, red 20% Reduced PAR by 18% Incesu et al. (2016)
Shading net, black 75% Had a 46% reduction of PAR Incesu et al. (2016)
Shading net, aluminet 50% Reduced PAR by 25% Incesu et al. (2016)
Shading net, clear 13% Compared to control, it had 90% PAR Incesu et al. (2016)

PAR = photosynthetically active radiation; PPF = photosynthetic photon fluX.

conducive air and soil environment around the root system, thus pro-
2.4. Wind speed
moting nutrient absorption by the plant (Abul-Soud et al., 2014).

High wind velocity within the canopy can have detrimental effects
on fruit quality as well as yield, the speed having a direct effect on the
2.3. Relative humidity
ability of pollinator communities, such as bees, to successfully
pollinate fruit crops (Young et al., 2018). A reduced wind speed is
Relative humidity (RH) is another important environmental factors
important for inhibiting the occurrence of certain diseases, such as
affecting fruit growth and development, which may influence fruit
Pseudomonas syr- ingae, which is prevalent in subtropical fruit trees
surface temperature and sunburn damage incidence in pomegranate
(Upper et al., 2003). Also, the use of water by fruit trees increases with
fruit (Yazici and Kaynak, 2009). Furthermore, the influence of relative
wind speed (Haijun et al., 2015). The relative humidity reduces while
humidity (RH) on disease development is well documented, its effect
the evapotranspira- tion tend to be very high under high wind speed.
having been evaluated in subtropical fruit orchards (Table 3). For ex-
The effect of shade nets on wind speed has previously been studied
ample, Blakey et al. (2016) reported lower RH in ‘Gem’ and ‘Carmen®-
(Table 3). Blakey et al. (2016) investigated air velocity in Carmen®-Hass’
Hass’ avocado trees grown under 30% crystal and 20% white shade
avocado trees grown under 20% white shade net. The results showed
nets, respectively. Conversely, Tinyane et al. (2018), who assessed
that the horizontal air velocity was reduced by more than 90% under
marketable yield and ripening patterns of ‘Hass’ avocado grown under white shade net. On the other hand, there was an 83% reduction in air
different shade nets and demonstrated that red, white and blue nets velocity under crystal net. Haijun et al. (2015) investigated the changes
had significantly higher RH compared to the open field. The RH in
in microclimate in a polyethylene screenhouse of ‘Grande Naine’
trees grown under shade nets was 3.24–12.9% more than the control bananas. They reported that wind speed reduced by 60% under
treat- ment, and although the nets had a similar shade intensity, the screenhouse compared to the control treatment. Likewise, Wachsmann
RH varied considerably amongst them. Fruit trees grown under white
et al. (2014) found an 85–90% reduction in wind speed of the shaded
shade netting system had the highest RH, followed by those covered
canopy compared to the unshaded trees. While the netting reduces
with blue net, with trees under red net having the lowest RH. It could
wind speed and fruit damage, its effects of various shade netting
be argued that the lower RH under red shade net is due to the higher
systems on pollinator communities, such as bee activity, needs to be
UV radiation which was reordered under this particular net.
assessed (Blakey et al., 2016). Wind speed is influenced by many
Wachsmann et al. (2014) investigated microclimate parameters, factors, including season, time of the day and shade net porosity
productivity and quality of ‘Ori’ mandarins grown under various anti- (Stamps, 2009), as well as the design char- acteristics, such as whether
hail nets. They reported a higher RH in red (25%) and yellow nets it is woven or knotted and the thread pat- tern (Mupambi et al., 2018).
(24%) compared their white (18%) and transparent (13%) counter- There is, therefore, a need to study the appropriate porosities for
parts. Abul-Soud et al. (2014) found that RH was much higher under shading nets before commercial re- commendations can be made.
dark coloured nets (such as black, blue and red) compared to white
nets, although the authors did not give the shading percentage of each
net. The RH variations amongst different shade netting systems is a
3. Effect of shade netting on tree physiology
very complex phenomenon which may be influenced by various
factors, including radiation change, air movement above and within
Minor variations in the microclimate of the orchard can have sig-
the orchard as well as evapotranspiration. The higher RH under shade
nificant effects on tree physiology, including photosynthesis and fruit
nets could be directly linked to reduced evapotranspiration (Elad et al.,
set. The effects of shade net color and shading intensity on tree phy-
2007; Blakey et al., 2016) and wind speed under such environments
siology of subtropical fruit have been studied (Table 4). Vegetative
(Tanny et al., 2006; Abul-Soud et al., 2014). Consequently, less irriga-
growth (Blakey et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2018), photosynthesis
tion requirements are to be expected under shade netting systems,
(Germana et al., 2003; İncesu et al., 2016), water use efficiency (Nicolás
which is very beneficial for fruit producers, particularly under water
et al., 2008; Wachsmann et al., 2014; Medina et al., 2002) as well as
scarce environments.
pollination and fruit set (Zilkah et al., 2013; Stones et al., 2017) are
some of the key physiological parameters that have been experimen-
tally shown to be influenced by shade netting, as indicated below.
 3.1. Vegetative growth

al. (2016) Blakey et al. (2016) Incesu et al. (2016)

Abul-Soud et al. (2014) Blakey et al. (2016) Zhou et al. (2018)
Tinyane et al. (2018) Vegetative growth is influenced by many factors, including tem-
perature and light intensity within the tree canopy. The effect of shade
netting on vegetative growth of nursery trees has previously been re-
References

ported. For instance, Incesu et al. (2016) investigated the effect of

nursery shading on vegetative growth and chlorophyll content of
‘Lane Late’ navel oranges. They reported that trees grown under the
aluminet and black shade nets, with 50% and 75% shading intensity,
respec- tively, had a higher leaf number compared to the control as
°C) and blue nets reduced temperature by 26% while red net had 7.4% reduction

well as the red leno and clear nets which had a shading intensity of
20% and 13%, respectively. Therefore, they concluded that, black and
temperature

aluminet shade nets were more efficient on producing seedling of

superior quality. Ozturk and Serdar (2011) investigated plant
leaf et

development and leaf characteristics of ‘SE 3- 12’ chestnut trees under

Meena

nursery conditions. The treatments included the open field and clear
was slightly higher under shade net Average leaf temperature was reduced by 1.83 – 3.33 °C Reduced rind and

shade net with 50% shading intensity. The authors reported that the
leaf length, diameter and area were much higher in trees grown under
shade net. They concluded that chestnut seedlings are capable of
healing their graft union, survive shadier environment and grow until
they reach re- productive phase.
The effect of shade netting on fruit trees at reproductive stage has
also received considerable attention from plant scientists. For example,
Retamales et al. (2008) investigated the effect of coloured shade nets on
environmental conditions and vegetative growth of highbush blue-
berries. To assess these effects, the authors used different shade nets
including red (35%) and black (50%) nets. The results showed that leaf
Response

length was higher in black net, followed by red net and unnetted con-
trol. Blakey et al. (2016) also studied the influence of shade netting on
vegetative growth of ‘Carmen®-Hass’ trees. The authors reported
higher leaf area in trees grown under white shade net (20% shading
White

Blue (20.1 °C) & black (21.7) Crystal (26 °C)

intensity) compared to the unshaded trees over two growing seasons.

Red (25 °C), white (20 °C) & blue net (20

The larger leaf area could be linked to longer leaf wetness duration,
which was 12% higher in the shaded trees than those in the open field.
Although longer leaf wetness can create a conducive environment for
developing fungal diseases, the higher RH under a shaded canopy can
be instru- mental for leaf growth.
Tree height is another aspect of vegetative growth that has been
Effect of shade netting on canopy and soil temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. Table 3

demonstrated to be influenced by shade netting. García-Sánchez et al.

Net colour

(2015) investigated vegetative growth and production of ‘Fino 49’

lemon trees grown under shade nets. They reported that trees grown
under aluminized polypropylene shade screen (50% shading intensity)
were much taller compared to their open field counterparts. Similar
Unnetted field conditions

findings were reported by Zhou et al. (2018) who found that Valencia’
orange trees grown under red, pearl and yellow shade nets were taller
in comparing to the control trees. Shading has previously been shown
to enhance the accumulation of carbohydrates in the leaves (Raveh et
temperature

al., 2003), which could explain the high vegetative growth in shaded
37 °C
25 °C 23 °C

compared to unshaded trees. Factors such as shade net color and

27 °C

shade percentage have a considerable effect on vegetative growth,

29 °C
canopy

with Incesu et al. (2016) demonstrating that the leaf number in ‘Lane
Red’ grapefruit

late’ navel orange trees grown under 13% clear shade net was
ranate ‘Carmen®-Hass’ avocado ‘Lane Late’ navel orange ‘Ruby Maximum

comparable to those under the control treatment. This corroborates

‘Gem’ avocado ‘Kit’ mango

with the hypothesis that long-term exposure to excessive light

‘Hass’ avocado

intensities can be detrimental to chlorophyll and photosynthesis. The

high vegetative growth under shade netting, particularly dark
Fruit

coloured nets, is be linked to low photon fluency rate, which signals a

suboptimal light microclimate, a phenomenon that increases the
synthesis of hormones, thereby forcing the plants to allocate resources
Canopy and air temperature

to escape the shade environment and grow in a favourably

microclimate (De Wit et al., 2016).
Environmental factor

Soil temperature Relative humidity

3.2. Photosynthetic activity

Wind speed

The ability of shade nets to partially transmit and also diffuse ra-
diant light may play an important role during photosynthesis. Shade
nets are capable of reducing canopy temperature and
Table 4
Effect of shade netting on vegetative growth, tree gas exchange, photosynthesis rate, water use efficiency and pollination of subtropical fruit trees.

Parameter Net type, colour, shading % Fruit Response References

Vegetative growth Shading net; white (20%) ‘Carmen -Hass’

®
Increased leaf area Blakey et al. (2016)
avocado
Shading net; Aluminet (50%), black (75%) ‘Lane Late’ navel High leaf number Incesu et al. (2016)
orange
Photoselective net; red (20%), yellow (20%) ‘Valencia’ orange Taller trees Zhou et al. (2018)
Shade net; red (35%), black (50%) ‘Berkeley’ blueberries Black net had higher leaf length compared to Retamales et al. (2008)
red net and control
Shade net, clear (50%) ‘SE 3- 12’ chestnut Shoot length and total leaf area were higher Ozturk and Serdar (2011)
Shade net, aluminet (50%) ‘Fino 49’ lemon Taller trees García-Sánchez et al.
(2015)

Tree gas exchange Shading net; black (67%), grey (50%) ‘Primosole’ mandarins High CO2 exchange rate Germana et al. (2003) Jifon
Shading net; aluminet (50%) ‘Ruby Red’ grapefruit No effect on leaf internal CO2 partial pressure and Syvertsen (2003)

Photosynthesis rate Shading net; black (75%) ‘Lane Late’ navel Higher photosystem efficiency Incesu et al. (2016)
orange
Photoselective net; pearl and yellow (20%) ‘Valencia’ oranges High photosynthesis rate Zhou et al. (2018)
Shading net; black net (50%) ‘Murcott’ tangor Low photosynthetic rate Tsai et al. (2013)
Shading net; aluminet (40%) ‘Verna’ orange High rate of photosynthesis Alarcón et al. (2006);

Water use efficiency Shading net; white (18%) ‘Orin’ mandarin High WUE compared to unshaded trees Wachsmann et al. (2014)
Shading net; aluminet (50%) ‘Pera’ orange WUE was 13% higher in shaded plants Medina et al. (2002)
Shading net; aluminet (40%) ‘Verna’ orange High WUE Alarcón et al. (2006)
Shading net; aluminet (50%) ‘Ruby Red’ grapefruit Higher WUE in shaded compared to unshaded Jifon and Syvertsen (2003)
trees
Screenhouse; (25%) ‘Grande Naine’ banana Higher WUE Haijun et al. (2015)

Pollination and fruit set Shading net; white (20%) ‘Carmen®-Hass’ Low bee activity in shaded trees Stones et al. (2017)
Shading net; black (67%) ‘Primosole’ mandarins Low fruit set Germana et al. (2003)
Shading net; white (30%) ‘Triumph’ persimmon High rate of fruit set Zilkah et al. (2013)
Shading net; woven (10%), knitted (10%) ‘Grande Naine’ banana No significant difference in number of flowers Pirkner et al. (2014)
Shade net; transparent (26%) ‘Nam Dok Mai’ Shade netting had no effect on fruit set Juntamanee et al. (2013)
mangoes
Shade net; white (50%), gray (50%), black Berkeley’ blueberries Fruit set was higher under white net Retamales et al. (2008)
(50%), red (50%)

evapotranspiration, thus, increasing photosynthetic activity (Manja photosynthesis under yellow net could be linked to high transmission
and Aoun, 2019; Table 4). Germana et al. (2003) studied net carbon of
dioXide uptake in ‘Primosole’ mandarin trees grown under white
(shading 30% of incoming light), black (70%) and gray (50%) shade
nets. The ex- perimental results showed that carbon dioXide uptake
was highest in trees covered with black net compared to those under
gray and white nets. Raveh et al. (2003) and Medina et al. (2002) used
shading nets on ‘Murcott’ tangor and ‘Pera’ orange trees, respectively,
and reported a positive effect on carbon dioXide concentration and
uptake.
The influence of shade netting on chlorophyll content of
subtropical fruit trees has been reported. Incesu et al. (2016) observed
that navel orange seedlings grown under black (75%) and aluminet
(50%) shade nets had higher chlorophyll content while it was lower in
clear shade net and unnetted trees. Chang et al. (2016) investigated
changes in chlorophyll content of ‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya trees grown
under white (25%), black (50%) and black (75%) nets. They reported
that black net (75%) had the highest chlorophyll content followed by
black (50%), white (25%) net, while unnetted trees had the lowest
content. Similarly, in their study on photosynthetic response of ‘Pera’
orange trees under nursery shading conditions, Medina et al. (2002)
observed that chlor- ophyll a fluorescence was high in trees under
polypropylene shade net (50% shading intensity) compared to
unshaded trees. The high chlor- ophyll content in shaded trees is
mainly due to the reduced canopy temperatures under shading nets.
High air and canopy temperatures can have a devastating effect on
chlorophyll synthesis in plants (Yıldız and Terzi, 2007). Shade netting
creates a conducive environment for the synthesis of photosynthetic
enzymes, thus, increasing chlorophyll content per unit leaf area
(Manja and Aoun, 2019).
Zhou et al. (2018) reported that net photosynthesis was higher in
‘Valencia’ orange trees grown under red, pearl and yellow nets com-
pared to unnetted trees. They further found that the yellow net out-
performed the other nets in increasing photosynthesis. The higher
green light in the region of 500–600 nm, as opposed to red net which
allowed higher amount of red light (600–800 nm). As opposed to red
light, green light has the capability of penetrating deep inside the fo-
liage, thus, increasing photosynthesis (Arena et al., 2016). Incesu et al.
(2016) investigated the effect of nursery shading on photosynthetic
activity of ‘Lane Late’ seedlings. They reported that black shade net
(75% shading intensity) enhanced photosystem II and chlorophyll
content in orange tree leaves compared to trees grown under clear
(13%) and red (20%) nets. Similarly, Juntamanee et al. (2013) found
that mango trees grown under PVC shade net had higher net photo-
synthesis compared to their open field counterparts. Additionally, the
increased photosynthesis under shade nets have been strongly linked
to adequate net CO2 uptake as a result of optimal leaf temperature
and a low vapor pressure deficit brought about by shade nets
(Juntamanee et al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2018).

3.3. Water use efficiency

The production, postharvest quality and economic viability of

sub- tropical fruit are highly dependent on water availability, with
high drought episodes having encouraged the search for effective
methods of improving water use efficiency (WUE), also called
transpiration effi- ciency, this being the ratio of carbon dioXide uptake
to transpiration (Roccuzzo et al., 2014). Reducing early transpiration
losses and direct soil water loss, as well as enhancing the water
storage capacity of the soil, are some of the efficient ways for
improving WUE (Medrano et al., 2015). Shade netting has been
demonstrated to have a positive effect of WUE of subtropical fruit,
with Alarcon et al. (2006) and Nicolás et al. (2008) indicating that nets
can be employed as an effective method for mitigating erratic and
adverse weather conditions in orchards. Shade nets have the
capability to efficiently distribute radiant light and reduce wind
velocity, thereby decreasing evaporative demand and enhancing
WUE (Nicolás et al., 2008). Moreover, the relatively high reduction
of
transpiration rate under shade nets increases water availability, thus,
grown under 17% white shade net had higher fruit set percentages
minimizing water stress during vegetative and reproductive period
compared to those under 67% black shade net. The authors also found
(Manja and Aoun, 2019).
that trees under 17% white net blossomed earlier and had a superior
Wachsmann et al. (2014) found that ‘Ori’ mandarins grown under
number of flowers compared to other treatments. Owing to the manu-
white (18%) and transparent (13%) shade nets had higher WUE com-
facturing material used, many shade nets scatter radiation. Thus, the
pared to the unshaded trees or those planted under yellow (24%) or
diffused light encourages flowering (Wong, 1994; Gu et al., 2002;
red (25%) nets. Similarly, a higher WUE was reported in ‘Pera’ oranges
Stamps, 2009), with white shade nets possibly increasing light scat-
planted under 50% aluminet shade nets compared to unshaded trees
tering while maintaining the light spectrum, resulting in high
(Medina et al., 2002). Blakey et al. (2016) also indicated that ‘Carmen®-
flowering and fruit setting (Nissim-Levi et al., 2008).
Hass’ avocado trees planted under 20% white shade net had 29% less
Pollination is severely compromised under very high air and
water requirement in order to maintain the adequate soil matric water
canopy temperature, as pollen tends to dry under such conditions,
potential. Regardless of the colour and shading factor of the shade net,
thereby discouraging wild bees’ visitations to the orchard (Salazar-
the WUE is remarkably increased under shade netting, and based on
Garcia et al., 2013). High canopy temperatures are known for reducing
the currently available data, it could be concluded that light coloured
stigmatic receptivity, while low temperature increases it (Hedhly et al.,
shade nets are more effective in improving WUE. Medina et al. (2002)
2003). Also, increased air and canopy temperatures during
argued that there is a negligible water deficit in trees growing under
reproductive phase have been reported to reduce the germination
shade nets as a result of reduced air and canopy temperatures, as well
capacity of pollen is some fruit trees. For example, Pham et al. (2015)
as main- tenance of stomatal aperture.
investigated the effect of temperature on pollen germination and
The increased WUE under shaded trees is also linked to improved
pollen tube of four longan fruit cultivars. The results showed that
root production and efficiency for water and nutrient uptake. Studies
exposing ‘Choompoo’, ‘Fuk How’, and ‘Duan Yu’ trees to more than 35
by Cerny et al (2003) and Al-Helal and Abdel-Ghany (2010) reported
°C during reproductive phase has a devastating effect on pollen
that plants grown under shade netting have increased uptake of
germination. Similarly, Distefano et al. (2018) reported that 25 °C
nutrient such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Fine roots are
during flower bud development was the optimal temperature for
very effi- cient in water uptake (King et al., 2002), and the effect of
pollen germination and flower maturation in ‘Comune’ clementines.
shade nets on their growth has been reported. Zhou et al. (2018)
EXposing the trees to 30 °C resulted to poor pollen germination and
investigated phy- siological traits and root growth of orange trees
flower bud growth as well as low flower ma- turation. The authors
grown under red, pearl and yellow photo-selective nets. They reported
further indicated that unconducive canopy tem- perature may impair
that root number of trees covered with pearl net was more than 130%
the self-incompatibility reaction in female re- cipient at stylar level;
lower compared to other nets. However, trees grown under yellow
thus, resulting in few pollen tubes reaching the ovary.
and pearl nets had longer and deeper root system. Overall, they
The high fruit set in shaded trees could be attributed to reduced
concluded that shading netting has a positive effect on plant WUE.
canopy temperatures during flower induction and fruit setting
The authors further in- dicated that, due to strong shoot-root
(Germana et al., 2003; Zilkah et al., 2013). Juntamanee et al. (2013)
interaction, yellow nets could be more effective in increasing WUE.
studied fruit setting trends in mango trees grown under a transparent
Similarly, Alarcón et al. (2006) and Haijun et al. (2015) reported a
screenhouse. There authors found that fruit setting between control
higher WUE in ‘Verna’ lemon and ‘Grande Naine’ banana trees grown
and shaded trees was almost similar. This comparable fruit set
under reflective aluminised poly- propylene and high-density
between the treatments could be due to the fact that shade netting did
polyethylene screenhouse compared to the unshaded trees. The
not affect canopy temperature. A study by García-Sánchez et al (2015)
superior plant WUE of shaded trees is strongly linked to high carbon
demon- strated that the number of fruit per tree and yield are reduced
dioXide uptake, sap flow and evapotranspiration under shade nets
in Fino 49’ lemon trees grown under 50% aluminet shade net. The
(Alarcón et al., 2006; Haijun et al., 2015).
authors concluded that shade netting could increase fruitlets
abscission. The use of shade netting as a thinning method is common
3.4. Pollination and fruit set
in organic farming (Manja and Aoun, 2019). This is achieved by
covering fruit trees with shade nets during flowering. Due to increased
Pollination is the critical process in fruit production, as it has a di-
risk of fruitlet abscission or fruit drop, it is critical that the shade
rect effect on fruit set and yield, with spatial and temporal variability netting systems are optimized before they are applied at commercial
in fruit size and yield being partly attributed to pollination shortfalls
scale. Retamales et al. (2008) evaluated the influence of white, gray, red
(Cunningham et al., 2016; Peña and Carabalí, 2018). Reduced popu-
and black nets on fruit set- ting of highbush blueberries. The
lations of well-known pollinators, such as butterflies, hoverflies and experimental results showed that blueberries covered with white net
wild bees, have become a major concern for fruit production (Aizen (50%) had higher fruit set compared to other shade nets. The high fruit
and Harder, 2009; Carvalheiro et al., 2013). Invasive species, climate set under some shade nets could be linked to greater transmission of
change and increased use of pesticides for orchard management have light into lower leaves of the trees, increased water availability and
been linked to poor pollen production and lower pollen viability
carbon dioXide uptake; thus, allowing efficient production of
duration (Brown et al., 2016), with the landscape surrounding the
carbohydrates and fruit setting.
orchard having a considerable effect on the pollination process (Grass
Stones et al. (2017) recommended that, in order to improve bee
et al., 2018).
activity and overall pollination services in netted avocado orchards,
The effect of shade netting on pollination and fruit set has pre-
the shade nets must be at least 1 m above the canopy, and the trees
viously been assessed, with Blakey et al. (2016) and Stones et al. (2017)
must be nicely pruned, as enclosed and overgrown trees reduce bee
reporting reduced bee activity in ‘Carmen®-Hass’ avocados planted activity. In terms of colour, only white shade nets have been shown to
under 20% white shade nets compared to unshaded trees. Notably, bee increase flowering and fruit set in subtropical fruit.
activity was slightly increased under shade nets after mid-morning
when the air temperatures start to rise, a finding that is linked with 4. Effect of shade netting on fruit quality
reduced fruit set resulting from poor pollination, as reported by Zilkah
et al. (2013) in ‘Triumph’ persimmon trees. Pirkner et al. (2014) in- Fruit quality is determined by both external and internal factors,
vestigated the effect of woven and knitted nets (with 8–13% shade including the physicochemical, sensory and nutritional attributes
intensity) on banana production. They reported that, regardless of (Mditshwa et al., 2017). Climatic conditions of the orchard, such as
shade intensity, shading had no effect on the number of flowers per light intensity and temperature, have a considerable effect on fruit
hectare. Germana et al. (2003) observed that ‘Primosole’ mandarins quality (Rehman et al., 2015; Caleb et al., 2015; Magwaza et al., 2017).
 A.
M
dit
sh
wa
, et
al.

Table 5
The effect of shade netting on subtropical fruit quality.

Parameter Fruit Net type, colour (% shading) Response References

Fruit size and total yield ‘Hass’ avocado Shading net; white (20%) and blue (20%) Higher yield compared to control & red net (20%) Tinyane et al. (2018)
Primosole’ mandarins Shading net; black (67) Low yields Germana et al. (2003)
‘Carmen®-Hass’ avocado Shading net; white (20%) High yield and large fruit Blakey et al. (2016)
‘Gem’ avocado Shading net; crystal (30%) High yield and large fruit Blakey et al. (2016)
‘Ori’ mandarins Shading net; white (18), transparent (13%) High yield Wachsmann et al. (2014)
‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya Shading net; black (50%) High fruit weight Chang et al. (2016)
‘Mridula’ pomegranate Shading net; red (50%) Increased fruit weight and yield Meena et al. (2016)

Colour development ‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya Shading net; black (50% & 75%) Quick colouration Chang et al. (2016)
‘Ponkan’ mandarins Shading net; white (20%) No effect on color Lee et al. (2015)
Murcott’ Tangor Fruit Shading net; white (20%), green (30%), black (50%) No effect on coloration Tsai et al. (2013)
‘Mridula’ pomegranate Shading net; red (50%) and green (50%) Better colour development Meena et al. (2016)
Shade net; transparent (26%) ‘Nam Dok Mai’ mangoes Shade netting delayed colouration Juntamanee et al. (2013)

Internal quality ‘Ori’ mandarins Anti-hail net; white (18%), transparent (13%), red (25%), Higher TSS/TA Wachsmann et al. (2014)
yellow (24%)
‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya Shading net; white (25%), black (50% & 75%) Lower TSS under 75% black net Chang et al. (2016)
‘Ponkan’ mandarins Shading net; white (20%) No effect on TSS & TA. High juice content and reduced granulation Lee et al. (2015)
8 incidence
Murcott’ Tangor Fruit Shading net; white (20%), green (30%), black (50%) No effect on TSS, TA or TSS/TA Tsai et al. (2013)
‘Mridula’ pomegranate Shading net; black (50%) Low acidity Meena et al. (2016)
‘Hybrid 59’ & ‘Hybrid 29R’ Shading net; white (50%) No effect on TSS Walsh et al. (2006)
‘Berkeley’ blueberries Shade net; red (35%), black (50%) No effect on TSS Retamales et al. (2008)

EXternal disorders and diseases ‘Carmen®-Hass’ avocado Shading net; white (20%) Low wind damage and sunburn Blakey et al. (2016)
‘Hass’ avocado Shading net; white (20%) & blue (20%) Reduced sunburn Tinyane et al. (2018)
‘Gem’ avocado Shading net; crystal (30%) Low wind damage and sunburn Blakey et al. (2016)
‘Hass’ avocado Shading net; red (20%), white (20%), pearl (20%) Low anthracnose incidence under red net Tinyane et al. (2018)
‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya Shading net; black (50%) Low fruit splitting & sunburn incidence Chang et al. (2016)
‘Ponkan’ mandarins Shading net; white (20%) Low sunburn incidence Lee et al. (2015)
Murcott’ Tangor Fruit Shading net; white (20%), green (30%), black (50%) Completely suppressed sunscald Tsai et al. (2013)
‘Hybrid 59’ & ‘Hybrid 29R’ Shading net; white (50%), white sarlon hailguard, translucent Reduced yellow crinkle disease and fruit spotting bug damage under Walsh et al. (2006)
fruit fly net white net
‘Nam Dok Mai’ mangoes Screenhouse; transparent (26%) Inhibited thrip damage and anthracnose disease Juntamanee et al. (2013)

Phytochemical and nutritional attributes ‘Hass’ avocado Shading net; white (20%) Low concentrations of α–tocopherol & total phenolics Tinyane et al. (2018)
‘Mridula’ pomegranate Shading net; green (35% & 50%), black (50%), red (50%) Low vitamin C content Meena et al. (2016) S
‘Mridula’ pomegranate Shading net; green (35% & 50%), black (50%), red (50%) Low antioXidant activity compared to control Meena et al. (2016) ci
‘Mridula’ pomegranate Shading net, green (35%) High total phenolics content Meena et al. (2016) e
‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya Shading net; white (25%), black (50%), black (75%) High betacyanins content in fruit under 50% black net Chang et al. (2016) nt
ia
H
or
ti
c
ul
tu
ra
e
2
5
6
A. Mditshwa, et al. ScientiaHorticulturae
256(2019)108556

Although studies on shade netting have largely focused on its effect on 4.2. Colour development
orchard microclimate and tree physiology, its influence on fruit quality
has also received attention from horticulturists and postharvest phy- Colour development has a large influence on fruit market value,
siologists (Table 5). Total yield and fruit size (Germana et al., 2003; with insufficiently colour in fruit being generally not acceptable to
Blakey et al., 2016; Stones et al., 2017), colour development (Lee et al., consumers (Mditshwa et al., 2017). Fruit color development is influ-
2015; Chang et al., 2016;), internal quality (Wachsmann et al., 2014; enced by various factors, including canopy temperature and light in-
Chang et al., 2016), external disorders and diseases (Walsh et al., 2006; tensity. As abovementioned, these factors are enormously influence by
Blakey et al., 2016) as well as phytochemical and nutritional attributes shade netting. Thus, depending on net type and shading intensity,
(Meena et al., 2016; Tinyane et al., 2018) have been assessed in sub- shade netting can either improve or suppress fruit colouration. Chang
tropical fruit grown under shade netting, as indicated below. et al. (2016) studied pigmentation of ‘Shih Huo Chuan’ pitaya fruit
grown under different shade nets. They observed that fruit covered
with 50% and 75% black shade nets turned red much earlier compared
4.1. Total yield and fruit size to un- netted fruit and those grown under 25% white net. The
increased colour development under these shade nets coincided with
Shade netting has been demonstrated to have a considerable influ- high betacyanins accumulation, a water soluble betalain pigment.
ence on the total yield and fruit size of subtropical fruit. Blakey et al. Poor colour development in pomegranate fruit grown in the open
(2016) and Stones et al. (2017) observed that ‘Carmen®-Hass’ and ‘Gem’ field, compared to trees grown under shade nets, has previously been
avocado trees planted under 20% white and 30% crystal shade nets, reported (Meena et al., 2016), and is strongly linked to low anthocya-
respectively, had higher yield compared to their unshaded counter- nins concentration due to very high temperature. High air and canopy
parts. Moreover, larger fruit were more prevalent under shade netting, temperatures decrease the expression of genes responsible for co-
with 30% crystal shade net increasing class 1 fruit by 5.9%–23%, re- ordinative regulation of anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway (Huang
sulting in a financial benefit of $2570 to $9285 over three years com- et al., 2009; Lin‐Wang et al., 2011). In their studies on fruit colouration
pared to the unshaded trees. The authors strongly linked the low dynamics under shade netting, Juntamanee et al. (2013) and Tsai et al.
yields of unshaded trees to frost incidence, which occurred during (2013) reported that transparent (26% shade intensity) and white
flowering, with the ability of the shade nets to increase the minimum (50%) shade net had marginal effect on the peel colouration of ‘Nam
temperatures of the orchard possibly playing an important role. Dok Mai’ mango and ‘Murcott’ tangor fruit, respectively. This is con-
Recent studies by Tinyane et al. (2018) have also found that 20% white trary to the well-known influence of coloured shade nets which induce
and 20% blue shade nets significantly increased the marketable yield of cooler soil temperature, widen the difference between day and night
‘Hass’ avo- cado fruit, which ranged between 85–95% compared to temperature, thereby improving anthocyanin accumulation and colour
only 64% in the open field. Notably, low yields have been reported in development (Manja and Aoun, 2019). Although reduced photo-
‘Primosole’ mandarins planted under dark coloured nets, such as 50% synthetically active radiation under shade nets could be detrimental
grey and 67 black nets (Germana et al., 2003), the lower yield possibly for fruit coloration, the effect of reduced soil and canopy temperatures
being linked to reduced light radiation and therefore lower under such conditions can become the most dominant factor; thus, re-
photosynthesis. sulting to increased anthocyanin accumulation and better fruit colour.
This hypothesis could be corroborated by the findings of Additionally, shade netting may increase the penetration of green light
Wachsmann et al. (2014), who reported higher yields in ‘Orin’ man- into inside canopy (Arena et al., 2016), thus, potentially increasing
darins grown under transparent (7%) and white (18) nets compared to anthocyanin synthesis and enhancing colouration.
those under red (25%) and yellow (24%) nets. However, lower yields García-Sánchez et al. (2015) reported superior color development in
and reduced fruit mass has also been reported under light coloured lemon fruit trees covered with shade nets compared to the open field.
shade nets, with Walsh et al. (2006) indicating that fruit mass and total The authors argued that the shade net-induced cooler microclimate
yield of ‘Hybrid 29’ and ‘Hybrid 59’ papayas was reduced by almost creates a conducive environment for chlorophyll degradation and car-
50% on trees grown under 50% white shade enclosed nets. The lower otene accumulation in the fruit peel. Therefore, they concluded that,
yields were strongly linked to poor pollination under shade netting, the decrease in canopy temperature, as a result of shade netting, en-
with the physical barrier provided by netted enclosures discouraging hancing the degreening process. Although nets provide a physical
the pollinators from accessing the flowers. barrier to adverse environmental conditions, it could be argued that
Shade netting has been shown to influence the duration the fruit they have a highly desired effect on the biosynthesis of fruit pigments,
trees take to reach maturity as well as ripening. Pirkner et al. (2014) such as anthocyanins, carotenoids as well as betalain.
investigated the effect of various shade nets on average harvest date of
banana fruit. The trees were grown under four different nets, 4.3. Internal quality
including woven (8%), woven (10%), knitted (10%) and knitted (13%).
The re- sults showed that trees covered with 8% woven and 10% Although shade netting is used to minimize the adverse effects of
knitted nets had the same harvest date. Moreover, even though the high solar radiation and wind velocity, their effect on internal quality
effect was not statistically significant, the ripening was notably delayed and organoleptic properties of subtropical fruit has been reported.
under 10% woven shade net. The effect of shade netting on average Total soluble solids (TSS) and titratable acidity (TA) are the major
harvest date has also been assessed in citrus fruit. García-Sánchez et al. factors affecting taste of various horticultural crops. The effect of
(2015) conducted a comparative study on changes in maturity index various shade net types on TSS, TA, TSS/TA ratio and other internal
(10*TSS/ TA) of ‘Fino 49’ lemon trees grown in the open field and fruit parameters is presented in Table 5. Researchers have shown that
under aluminet shade net (50% shade intensity). They observed that shade netting may stimulate variable responses in terms of internal
lemon fruit har- vested from shaded trees had lower maturity index quality. Wachsmann et al. (2014) used anti-hail nets on mandarins and
compared to their open field counterparts. The lower maturity index reported higher TSS/ TA ratio in fruit grown under nets. The authors
and delayed ripening in fruit grown under shade nets could be linked also demonstrated that the TSS/TA ratio was influenced by shade net
to metabolic effects of canopy temperature on the degradation of colour and shading in- tensity. TSS/TA ratio in fruit grown under 7%
organic acids (Sweetman et al., 2014). Various studies have transparent nets was much lower compared to the ones covered with
demonstrated that canopy shaded fruit are generally lower in TSS and 25% white net. Chang et al. (2016) investigated internal quality of ‘Shih
anthocyanins and higher in TA; thus, have lower maturity index Huo Chuan’ pitaya fruit grown under various shade nets, including
(Bergqvist et al., 2001; Feng et al., 2014). 25% white, 50% black and 75% black net. They reported that the TSS
content was lower in
fruit covered with 75% black shade net compared to unnetted

9
A. Mditshwa, et al. ScientiaHorticulturae
256(2019)108556
fruit and those grown under nitrate has been reported to factor in sunburn development,
be viewed as a sustainable and
25% white net. Interestingly, inhibit granulation disorder in the reduced light intensity under
environmental friendly
photosynthetically active various citrus species (Singh and shade netting minimizes the
technique for controlling
radiation and canopy Singh, 1981; Kotsias, 2004). In- adverse effects of radiation; thus,
sunburn and sunscald
temperature were much lower terestingly, shade netting has resulting to low sunburn. Based
incidence. However, in order to
under 75% shade net compared been linked to increased uptake on the findings from these
achieve 0% sunburn or sunscald
to other treatments. Light of nu- trients such as nitrogen studies, shade netting should
incidence, the shading intensity
intensity is known for playing and potassium (Al-Helal and
of the net should be carefully
an important role in TSS Abdel-Ghany, 2010), owing to
evaluated before being adopted
accumulation of various longer root system under some
for commercial application.
horticultural fruit crops (Feng et shade netting systems (Zhou et
Fruit splitting disorder is
al., 2014). It could be argued that al., 2018). Therefore, the reduced
another preharvest disorder
the reduced TSS content under granulation incidence in fruit
affecting various subtropical
certain shade netting systems is grown under shade nets could
fruit species, and may result to
due to low light in- tensity; thus, be due to high uptake of micro-
yield loses of up to 30% (Cronjé
inhibiting the accumulation of and macroelements.
et al., 2013). However, there is
primary and secondary
very limited research as- sessing
metabolites, particularly 4.4. External disorders and diseases
the potential of shade netting as
carbohydrates.
a viable orchard management
Some researchers have EXternal fruit quality plays tool for controlling fruit splitting
reported that TSS and TA an important role when disorder in subtropical fruit. To
contents may be unresponsive to consumers are deciding to the best of our knowledge, only
shade netting. For example, purchase fresh fruit. Regardless Chang et al. (2016) assessed the
Retamales et al. (2008) of the superior internal quality, effect of shade netting on fruit
demonstrated that 35% and 50% mechanically damaged and splitting disorder. They
shade intensity of white, gray externally disordered fruit is evaluated three shade nets,
and black nets had no effect on often rejected by consumers, this including 25% white, 50% black
TSS content of highbush being caused by environmental as well as 75% black net, on fruit
blueberries. On the other hand, factors, such as high wind speed, splitting incidence of pitaya
García-Sánchez et al (2015) light intensity and temperature. fruit. Their findings showed a
reported that aluminet shade Environmental factors, slight de- crease in fruit splitting
nets had no effect on TSS and particularly relative humidity, incidence for fruit grown under
TA content of lemon fruit. The also play a cri- tical role in 50% black shade nets. Splitting
marginal effect of certain shade influencing disease development incidence in fruit grown under
nets on TSS and TA could be in subtropical fruit. Generally, 25% white and 75% was slightly
linked to their capability of fruit trees that are exposed to high compared to their open
enhancing light transmission relative humidity of less than field counterparts. The authors
into various canopy posi- tions. 70% during fruit setting and also observed that shade netting
The increased transmission of ripening are less susceptible to generally reduced peel thickness
green light in fruit trees covered disease development compared as well as the height to width
with certain shade nets (Zhou et to those exposed to higher levels ratio of the fruit. However, this
al., 2018), and its effect on of relative humidity (Ghini et al., reduction in peel thickness and
carbon assimilation as well as 2011). EXperimental studies have height to width ratio was less
the accumulation of secondary been under- taken to assess the pronounced in fruit grown
plant compounds is well influence of shade netting on under 50% black shade net
documented (Terashima et al., external fruit disorders and compared to those covered with
2009; Feng et al., 2014). disease development of 75% black shade net, which had
The effect of shade netting subtropical fruit. For example, more splitting incidence. Peel
on internal fruit disorders such Blakey et al. (2016) reported low thickness and height to width
as granulation has previously wind damage and sunburn ratio of the fruit have enormous
been studied. Lee et al. (2015) incidence in ‘Carmen®- Hass’ and influence on the sus- ceptibility
used white shade nets on ‘Gem’ avocados grown under of fruit to splitting (Cronjé et al.,
mandarins and reported that 20% white and 30% crystal shade 2013). In fact, Morgan et al.
higher juice percentage but nets, respectively, compared to (2005) argued that increasing
lower granulation incidence in the unshaded fruit. Lee et al. peel thickness of the split-prone
fruit grown under nets. The (2015) studied the sunburn cultivars could decrease
incidence of granulation of incidence of ‘Ponkan’ mandarins splitting disorder. Increased cell
citrus fruit is strongly associated grown under 20% white shade enlargement during fruit growth
with relatively high net and unshaded conditions. and development may weaken
temperatures during flowering They also found that shade the coherence between cells;
and fruit set (Ritenour et al., netting significantly minimized thus, leading to thinner cell wall
2004). On the other hand, the sunscald incidence. The and splitting (Chang et al., 2016).
experimental research has authors further argued that, Warm temperatures, high
demonstrated the role played by although sunburn was reduced relative humidity as well as
the plant nutritional status in under shade netting, the level of increased supply of water are
relation to granulation incidence scattered radiation under the well known for accelerating
(Wang et al., 2014). Foliar nets was still high, thereby fruit growth, and po- tentially,
application of nutrients such as inducing the disorder. EXcessive splitting (Cronjé et al., 2013). It
zinc, boron and potassium solar radiation is the leading could be argued that the fruit

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256(2019)108556
splitting incidence under some translucent fruit fly net. The re- which evaluated the effect of biosynthesis. The high phenolic
shade netting systems is due to searchers apportioned the fruit maturity and growing content under 50% red net could
very high photosynthesis rate; positive effect of shade netting location on phytochemical be linked to the ability of this
thus, the fruit peel fails to to its ability to exclude insect contents of ‘Wonderful’ particular shade netting system
contain the increasing pulp, vectors. Tanny and Cohen pomegranate, Mphahlele et al. to allow transmission of far-red
thereby splitting. It might be a (2003) indicated that insect (2014) reported that fruit grown and red light into the canopy, an
worthwhile to undertake proof screens are becoming under low altitude and important factor in the
studies looking at the effect of more popular due to their temperature had higher contents accumulation of phenolics acids
various shade netting systems capability to minimize insect of bioactive compounds in plants (Tegelberg et al., 2004).
on photosynthesis rate and its vectored diseases. Moreover, compared to those grown under In another study, Tinyane et
relationship to fruit splitting. the use of insect proof screens is high altitude and temperature. al. (2018) investigated the
The ability of shade netting to environmental friendly as it The authors at- tributed their accumula- tion of α–tocopherol
retard fruit splitting is a highly leads to less reliance on in- findings to the fact that the and total phenolics in ‘Hass’
desired phenomenon and secticides. In another study, biosynthesis of phytochemical avocado fruit. Their findings
could be beneficial to Juntamanee et al. (2013) compounds such as showed that α–tocopherol and
pomegranate orchards that are evaluated the effect of anthocyanins is strongly total phenolics contents were
much higher in trees grown
very susceptible to fruit transparent PVC plastic roofs regulated by temperature, with
under 20% red net compared
cracking. Fruit splitting on disease incidence in low average temperatures to those
disorder remains a major mangoes. They reported that during fruit maturation and covered with 20% white and 20%
concern, especially under high fruit grown under plastic roofs ripening leading to increased blue nets. The authors linked the
relative humidity conditions had 0% anthracnose and thrip enzymatic activities; thus, higher levels of α–tocopherol
such as shade nets. Fruit damage compared to more than increasing anthocyanin and total phenolics under red
splitting also attracts insects 30% damage in unshaded fruit. accumulation and other nets to the photo-protection
and pathogens, thereby Notably, unlike in the unnetted bioactive compounds. mechanism, as previously
increasing the disease pressure trees, the canopy relative hu- Although the phytochemical discussed by Munne-Bosch and
in the orchard. midity was lower in trees and nutritional attributes of sub- Alegre (2002). Although some
While shade netting is grown under plastic roofs. tropical fruit possess enormous studies have reported high
frequently used to protect fruit Relative humidity is well- benefits in human diet, the effect
from adverse environmental known for playing an of shade netting on these
factors, its effect on disease important in disease compounds has received little
development has also been development. The ability of attention from researchers.
reported. Walsh et al. (2006) certain shade net types to Meena et al. (2016) investigated
investigated the effect of shade minimize relative humidity as the impact of various shade nets,
netting on controlling well as the direct contact of including on 50% red, 50% black,
phytoplasma diseases of trees with rain drops is very 35% green as well as 50% green
papaya. They observed lower beneficial for plant and fruit net, on phytochemical and
in- cidences of yellow crinkle health. In a recent study, nutritional attributes of
disease and fruit spotting bug Tinyane et al. (2018) observed a ‘Mridula’ pomegranates. They
damage in trees grown under lower anthracnose incidence in reported that the antioXidant
50% white shade nets fruit grown under 20% red activity and vitamin C
compared to trees covered with shade net compared to those concentration were much lower
white sarlon hailguard and covered with 20% white and in fruit grown under shade
20% blue net after 28 netting compared to those in the
days of cold storage at 5.5 °C Orchard management open field. Amongst the shading
and shelf-life of five days. techniques and farming practices nets, the 50% black net had the
Notably, the lower anthracnose have con- siderable effects on the lowest contents of vitamin C and
incidence under red net phytochemical and nutritional antioXidant capacity. The
coincided with lower re- lative attributes of subtropical fruit. authors also noted that the total
humidity under this netting Also, climatic conditions, phenolic content was lowest
system. Moreover, the reduced particularly light and average under 50% black net, while it
an- thracnose incidence in fruit temperature, have a significant was highest in fruit trees covered
grown under red shade nets influence on phytochemical with 50% red shade net. The
corresponded with an increased composition and nutritional lower contents of vitamin C and
phenylalanine ammonia-lyase contents of horticultural fruit antioXidant capacity in fruit
(PAL) enzyme activity in the crops (Lee and Kader, 2000). For grown under 50% black net
pericarp, with the diffused red instance, high light intensity and could be linked to poor light
light possibly stimulating the low canopy temperature are quality, a major contributor to
expression of genes involved in strongly linked to increased the biosynthesis of various
PAL synthesis, further research ascorbic acid pool in citrus fruit bioactive compounds (Lee and
being needed to test this (Magwaza et al., 2017). Kader, 2000; Magwaza et al.,
hypothesis. Based on these Mditshwa et al. (2013) reported a 2017). Light quality and quantity
reports, shade netting is a viable lower vitamin C concentration in have a strong influence on the
tool for reducing fruit diseases, biosynthesis of phenolic
‘Bhagwa’ pomegranate fruit
however, selecting an appro- compounds (Cheynier et al.,
harvested from regions with low
priate net is very crucial. 2013; Johkan et al., 2013;
light intensity, this possibly
Tegelberg et al., 2004). It could be
being strongly due to low light
argued that the light quantity
4.5. Phytochemical and nutritional intensity, which has a large
attributes and quality was too low under
effect on ascorbic acid
50% black net to favor phenolic
biosynthesis. In their study

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256(2019)108556
nutritional contents in fruit nets. Although the installation crops with mango trees under Aizen, M.A., Harder, L.D., 2009. The global
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shade netting system is shade nets are still warranted. Improving water-use efficiency of and in- creased risk for the insurance
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evaluated before being disease pressure resulting from Manag. 82, 387–398. Hazards 52, 577–598.
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Navarro, A., Torrecillas, A., 2006. Baldock, K.C., Barron, A.B., Chauzat,
This will ensure that a major concern; the possible Improving water-use efficiency of M.P., et al., 2016. A horizon scans of
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Unrated Researchers Grant acids, amino acids and phenolic
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shade netting has a significant (CSUR: 105978) of the National S.Z., Savage, M.J., 2016. Growing from three apple (Malus× domestica)
influence on some quality Research Foundation of South Avocados Under Shadenetting. cultivars. Hortic. Res. 1, 14019.
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