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Moon phase effect on investor psychology and stock trading

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DOI: 10.1108/IJSE-04-2012-0134

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 International Journal of Social Economics
Moon phase effect on investor psychology and stock trading performance
Rayenda Brahmana Chee-Wooi Hooy Zamri Ahmad
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Rayenda Brahmana Chee-Wooi Hooy Zamri Ahmad , (2014),"Moon phase effect on investor psychology
and stock trading performance", International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 41 Iss 3 pp. 182 - 200
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IJSE
41,3 Moon phase effect on investor
psychology and stock trading
performance
182
Rayenda Brahmana, Chee-Wooi Hooy and Zamri Ahmad
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Received 27 July 2012
Revised 24 April 2013
Abstract
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Accepted 29 April 2013

Purpose – This article aims to examine how investor moods and aggressiveness differ in their state
and influence investor stock market performance associated with the moon phase. The mechanisms
and impact of full moon gravity on investor stock trading performance are explored through an
experimental approach and econometrics model.
Design/methodology/approach – A time-series quasi-experimental study, using the full moon
and new moon time periods, was coupled with a psychometric test of investors’ behaviours,
administered through an online survey, similar to a pre-post experiment. Confirmation of the results
was achieved by using an econometric model, adopted from Dichev and Janes.
Findings – This research found that investor psychology is influenced by the full moon, but no effect
was recorded during the new moon phase. Confirmed by the paired t-difference test, the small
correlation, in addition to the quantitative model, the results show the full moon impacts market
behaviour during its orbital phase. Consequently, the authors surmise that the full moon does influence
investor cognition and emotion disarray, mood disorders, and aggressiveness, resulting in poor stock
trading performance.
Practical implications – The need for an active investment strategy is the major implication of this
study. During the full moon phase, investors tend to be more aggressive and moody and seek hedonic utility
instead of the traditional economics utility, meaning that they tend to follow the sentiment of the market.
Originality/value – This paper fulfils an identified need to study how the full moon affects investor
stock trading performance.
Keywords Environmental economics, Social economy
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The effect of the moon’s gravitation on human behaviour has been an issue of fascination
for many years. Often called the “Transylvanian effect” (a psychology term to describe the
role of moon on human activities), intense debate has surrounded research of its link to
human behaviour. In the late 1970s, researchers Campbell and Beets (1978) concluded the
Transylvanian effect was a Type 1 error, but this was later refuted by Garzino (1982)
who countered that the finding of Campbell and Beet was a Type 2 error. In the end,
Campbell (1982) surmised that the study of the moon effect should be stopped because
regression of secondary data would not identify an effect of the moon on human behaviour.
However, the effect of full moon on financial markets was pioneered in a study by
International Journal of Social Dichev and Janes (2003); two decades after Campbell’s (1982) paper. By using a moon
Economics phase dummy in a regression model, Dichev and Janes (2003) found a significant
Vol. 41 No. 3, 2014
pp. 182-200 relationship between the occurrence of the full moon and market returns. However,
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0306-8293
secondary data was again used to conclude the effects of the moon on investor
DOI 10.1108/IJSE-04-2012-0134 behaviour, even though this methodology had already been discounted ten years earlier.
 Even though the Transylvanian effect still lacks a solid body of research, social Moon phase
science cannot ignore the role of the moon’s gravity on human behaviour because effect on investor
80 percent of the human body consists of water. The full moon phase produces a
“biological tide” inside the human body through its gravity, which corresponds to psychology
deviant human behaviour. Note that term “lunatic” literally describes human
irrationality which occurs during full moon phase.
Since the 1970s, a number of researchers have linked the moon effect with changes 183
in human behaviour. A social science study conducted by Huston and Passerello (1971)
investigated the implications of specific moon phases on human depressive and
emotional states. They concluded that the full moon phase affects human behaviour,
altering moods to be more depressed or emotionally disturbed. Another early study of
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the moon effect was Dewey (1971), who noted that more births occur during the waxing
phase than the waning phase of the moon, and death rates also increase after the full
moon. Other studies also show the effects of moon on generosity (Cunningham, 1979),
arson activities, violence (Katzeff, 1981), accidents at work (Nogueira, 1982), anxiety
and depression (Wilkinson, 1997), and the quality of life (Barr, 2000). These research
findings were empirically using experimental rather than using secondary data. Note
that experimental study is much robust than using secondary data because that
experimental study captures the real “treatment” of moon phase on human behaviour.
In financial research, the moon effect on stock market behaviour has
widely-diversified conclusions. For instance, Sivakumar and Satyanarayan (2009)
examined the relationship between the moon’s cycle and the Bombay Stock Exchange
returns over a period of 17 years, and surmised a significant link with the returns.
Gao (2009) also examined the relationship between the moon cycle and market returns
of two major Chinese stock markets over 16 years, and concluded that the lunar
phases did affect the stock returns. These studies showed that returns were relatively
higher during the new moon and relatively lower during the full moon.
On the other hand, conflicting results of an insignificant relationship between moon
phases and stock market returns are found in other research. For example, Yuan et al.
(2006) found that returns were lower during a day with a full moon than on a day with a
new moon, with the returns difference between 3 and 5 percent. Moreover, they argued
that moon cycles did not affect volatility and trading volumes. Herbst (2007) also found
an inconsistent association between the moon phases and market returns, and noted that
daily returns’ volatility movements did not correspond to the moon phases, nor was the
moon cycle a reliable prediction of returns or price volatility. The results of recent
research by Brahmana et al. (2011), which tested the full moon’s influence on seven stock
markets (Japan, the UK, the USA, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand),
are in line with Herbst (2007), with no effect of the moon on stock market behaviour.
Examining the relationship between moon phase and decision-making can be framed
by using stimuli-response theory (Dougherty et al., 2005), which addresses irrationality
as a result of a response to a trigger in our stimuli system. This research considers the
full moon as the trigger, cognition disarray and emotion as the stimulants, and mood
disturbance and aggressiveness as the responses. The consequence of these responses is
biased decision-making in stock trading (Figure 1).
To examine this relationship, this research is underpinned by four psychology
theories, namely, somatic market theory, Ellis’ ABC model, Forgas’ (1995) affection
infusion model (AIM), and cognitive process hypothesis. Ellis’ ABC model addresses the
 IJSE stimulating events that activate irrational behaviour in humans[1], and suggests that the
41,3 stimulant of full moon gravity changes investors’ rationality to hedonic, which affects
their decision-making in stock trading. In the somatic marker theory, strong threats
from the environment create body reactions that reinforce sustained panic (Tvede, 2002).
Hypothetically, it proposes that the full moon influences the cognition process, resulting
in biased decision-making. Forgas’s (1995) AIM describes how affection infuses into
184 human information processing and creates biased decision-making. The AIM process,
from a stimulation event (day with full moon) to the investor decision, is described in four
states, which are direct access process, motivational process, heuristic process, and
substantive process.
By combining elements of these theories, it is possible to describe how the full moon
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affects investor decision-making. First, investors are stimulated by the full moon’s
gravity. Receiving this stimulant, investors experience affection bias, and show
moon-induced mood behaviour in their investment decisions. The outcome is that their
affected decision-making generates lower stock trading performance. Hence, the
hedonic decision-making on stock trading is because of the full moon’s gravity, which
is line with the conclusions of Debondt and Thaler (1995).
This study not only attempts to explain irrational or hedonic decision-making,
but also to expand the research methodology. As literature review failed to uncover
existing financial research of the moon effect, the current research is novel in three ways.
First, the psychometric questions are adapted to form a questionnaire, and used in a time
series quasi-experimental format. Second, unlike previous research, this research is an
experimental study, strengthened with an econometrics approach (secondary data)
to confirm the results under falsified epistemology. Third, this research directly
surveyed investors, which made the data very robust.
Hence the aim of this study is to answer interesting but empirically challenging
questions: does the moon phase have an effect on an investor? Does it change the
aggressiveness or mood of investors? To answer these questions, this paper is organised
as follows: Section 1 is a brief introduction; Section 2 addresses the methodology;
experimental research is discussed in Section 3; Section 4 discusses the findings of the
quantitative approach; the robustness check is in Sections 5-7 are the results discussion
and conclusion, respectively.

1.1 Key terms definition

Before examining the moon effect on investor’s irrationality, the terms used in this
research are explained. The proxy of irrationality of investor is disarray of cognition and

Full
Moon

Trigger
Stimulants Responses Consequences

• Cognition Disarray • Moods Disturbances Stock Trading

• Emotion Disarray • Aggressiveness Performance
Figure 1.
Stimuli response model
Source: Adopted from Dougherty et al. (2005)
 disarray of emotion (Tvede, 2002). The disarray of cognition can be defined as the mental Moon phase
behaviour involving a pattern of deviation in judgment that occurs in a particular effect on investor
situation. It occurs as the outcome from a lack of an appropriate mental mechanism,
or from the misapplication of a mental mechanism[2]. Allinson and Hayes’ (1996) psychology
questionnaire of Cognitive Style Index (CSI) was used to measure the disarray of cognition.
The other proxy item, the disarray of emotion (known better as emotion), is a complex
physiological experience of an individual’s state of mind as a result of the interaction 185
between hormones or biochemicals and the environment (Warr, 1987). It is exhibited by
physiological arousal, expressive behaviour, and conscious experience, which are
associated with personality, disposition, and motivation[3], and in psychology,
an individual is considered to behave in certain ways as a result of their emotional
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disarray. The emotional health scale of Warr (1987) was adopted to measure the emotion.
The investor responses to the irrationality stimulants are aggressiveness and
mood disorders[4], which are measured in our research by Buss and Perry’s (1992)
scale of aggressiveness and the psychometric of the profile of moods state
(POMS). Buss and Perry’s scale divides aggressiveness into physical aggressiveness,
verbal aggressiveness, anger aggressiveness, and hostility aggressiveness[5]. Physical
aggressiveness is a measure of the tendency to use physical force when expressing anger
or aggression. Verbal aggressiveness is a personality trait that occurs when a person has
feelings of disagreement as the person perceives the aggressive inhibitors and
dis-inhibitors in a given situation, and is measured by the tendency to be verbally
argumentative. Anger aggressiveness is an automatic response to a not-tolerated type of
behaviour that can be shown by facial expression, body language, or physiological
responses as acts of aggression. It is measured by anger-related arousal and a sense of
control. Lastly, hostile aggressiveness refers to a behaviour which is intended to increase
social dominance, internal rejection, or denial. It is measured by feelings of resentment,
suspicion, and alienation – feelings that seriously undermine both physical and
psychological health.
This paper measures mood disturbance by adopting the psychometric of
POMS, a psychometric assessment of mood disturbance in six domains:
fatigue-inertia, vigour-activity, tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, tension, and
confusion-bewilderment[6]. We adopted the psychometric used by Cella et al. (1987) with
11 items to mimic the mood disorders precisely[7], instead of the version of POMS used
be McNair et al. (1989) with 65 items, or Shacham (1983) with 37 items.

2. Methodology
This research utilises two methods, namely, time series quasi experimental and an
econometric model. The time series quasi experimental investigates the real behaviour
and its psychological role in decision-making during full moon and new moon periods,
whereas, the econometric model serves as the robustness assessment to support our
hypothesis testing.

2.1 Study 1: time series quasi experimental

The experimental part of the study tests whether the full moon increases investor
aggressiveness and mood disorders, which then influence stock trading performance. The
time series quasi method employed uses psychometric items in psychology by following
previous research in cognition disarray, emotion disarray, moods, and aggressiveness.
 IJSE Method and scenarios[8]. Because the manipulated variable in this research is the
41,3 moon phase, two experimental periods (Figure 2) were conducted. The first experiment
was conducted on 4 April 2011, during a new moon phase, and the second on the
18 April 2011, during a full moon phase. The initial sample reached 331 investors,
but several samples had to be eliminated as they failed to meet two criteria.
First, this research sampled only Malaysian nationals. Foreign investors, such as
186 Singaporeans, Indonesians, British, Arabs, Indians, and other nationalities were
excluded for the purpose of controlling the rational behaviour perception of investors
because the different culture and customs of non-Malaysian investors may influence the
heuristic or cognitive process. Second, this research only used the experiment subject
(sample) who completed the psychometric test in both periods to avoid bias of the
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results. If investors completed only one period (full moon or new moon), they were
excluded from the sample. The final tally of subjects who voluntarily participated in this
study is 202 investors from Bursa Malaysia.
Each subject was given a psychometric questionnaire, which used a four-point
scale, and was requested to complete the questionnaire only on the appointed dates.
The timeline of the research is outlined in the following sections.

3. Time series quasi experimental result

Before final analysis of the experimental study results, reliability and validity tests were
carried out to assess the goodness of the measures. The reliability test, in this study
Cronbach’s a, shows the consistency with which a measuring instrument measure the
concept under analysis. Meanwhile, the validity tests, composite reliability (CR) and an
average variance extracted (AVE), tell how well an instrument measures the particular
concept (Sekaran and Bougie, 2010).

INDEPENDENT MEDIATING DEPENDENT

VARIABLE VARIABLE VARIABLE

Aggressiveness

Cognition Physical

Verbal
Stock
Hostility
Trading
Anger Performance

Emotion

Mood State

MANIPULATED
Figure 2.
VARIABLE:
Research model
MOON PHASES
 3.1 Reliability analysis Moon phase
The psychometric questionnaire results show a Cronbach’s a value that is greater than effect on investor
0.6. A Cronbach’s a value higher than 0.6 is considered acceptable to confirm internal
consistency (Nunnally and Berstein, 1994). Next, we conduct validity analysis. The psychology
results for both analyses are presented in Table I.

3.2 Validity analysis 187

The following procedures test convergent validity, the degree to which multiple items that
measure the same concept are in agreement. CR and AVE were considered the
most relevant tests for this study type, and are recommended by Hair et al. (2010).
The loadings for all items exceed the required minimum values: 0.5 for the AVE threshold
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(Barclay et al., 1995), and a 0.7 for the CR (Hair et al., 2010). CR depicts the degree to which
the construct indicators indicate the latent variables. Table I shows CR in the “new moon”
period ranging from 0.7019 to 0.7639. Meanwhile, the CR in the “full moon” period range
from 0.7043 to 0.7721. AVE measures the variance captured by the indicators relative to
the measurement error. Table I shows the AVE in the “new moon” period ranging from
0.5185 to 0.6160. In the “full moon” period, the AVE values range from 0.5211 to 0.6310.
Therefore, the results show that all variables in this research are valid measures of their
respective constructs based on their parameter estimates (Chow and Chan, 2008).

3.3 Discriminant analysis

The discriminant validity of the measures (the degree to which items differentiate among
constructs or measure distinct concepts) was calculated by scrutinizing the correlations
between the measures of potentially overlapping constructs. Theoretically, the items
should load more strongly on their own constructs in the model. The average
variance shared between each construct and its measures should also be higher than the
variance shared between the construct and other constructs (Compeau et al., 1999). In short,
the average variance should be higher than the square of the correlation among items.

AVE CR Cronbach’s a

4 April 2011 (new moon)

Cognition 0.5980 0.7130 0.9436
Emotion 0.5811 0.7220 0.6436
Anger 0.5663 0.7019 0.7347
Verbal 0.6117 0.7558 0.7572
Physical 0.5822 0.7360 0.7113
Hostility 0.6160 0.7639 0.6910
POMS 0.5185 0.6454 0.8331
Returns 0.5217 0.6757 0.6025
18 April 2011 (full moon)
Cognition 0.6112 0.7232 0.9436
Emotion 0.5922 0.7301 0.6436
Anger 0.5617 0.6943 0.7347
Verbal 0.631 0.7721 0.7572
Physical 0.5957 0.7465 0.7113
Hostility 0.6152 0.7601 0.6910 Table I.
POMS 0.5221 0.646 0.8331 Results of
Returns 0.5389 0.6899 0.6025 measurement model
 IJSE This study has two tables of discriminant validity: the discriminant of the full moon
41,3 set, and the discriminant of the new moon set (Tables II and III). For both sets, the AVE
by the indicators measuring the construct was higher than the squared correlations for
each construct, indicating adequate discriminant validity. In total, the measurement
model demonstrated adequate convergent validity and discriminant validity.

188 3.4 Experimental estimation

This research then proceeded to test the hypotheses using path analysis. As this
research is a time series quasi experimental, it has two groups of results. First,
the results during the full moon are introduced, followed by the results of the
psychometric questionnaire under the new moon phase.
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Figure 3 and Tables IV and VI present the results of the experimental under the full
moon phase. It is noteworthy that the R 2-values ranged from 0.151 to 0.212 suggesting
that the trading performance could be explained by the 15.1 percent aggressiveness.
Meanwhile, 13.6 percent of the anger aggressiveness, 16.2 percent verbal aggressiveness,
16.7 percent physical aggressiveness, 21.2 percent mood disorder, and 18.4 percent
hostility aggressiveness can be explained by the emotional and cognition decisions of the
investors. The value at the arrow (Figure 3) is the coefficient value for the model.
Table V shows the results of the experimental during the new moon phase, which
are also used as the control of this study. By comparing the results of the full moon
and the new moon phases, the study measures the existence of the moon effect on
investors’ behaviour. The statistical analysis procedural was identical to the full

Cognition Emotion POMS Physical Anger Hostility Returns Verbal

Cognition 0.598
Emotion 0.1716 0.5811
POMS 0.2914 0.1640 0.5185
Physical 0.3287 0.1190 0.0339 0.5822
Anger 0.2560 0.0548 0.1211 0.3505 0.5663
Hostility 0.2280 0.0847 0.1043 0.2767 0.3422 0.616
Table II. Returns 0.4817 0.0027 0.0900 0.0137 0.0121 0.0013 0.5217
The discriminant Verbal 0.1318 0.0188 0.0222 0.2034 0.3600 0.1521 0.0001 0.6117
analysis of full
moon data set Note: Diagonals represent the square the AVE, while the off-diagonals represent correlations

Anger Cognition Emotion Hostility Physical Returns Verbal POMS

Anger 0.6112
Cognition 0.0942 0.5922
Emotion 0.0001 0.0671 0.5617
Hostility 0.2034 0.0328 0.0299 0.631
Physical 0.1764 0.0595 0.0605 0.1218 0.5957
Returns 0.0202 0.0045 0.0384 0.0037 0.0253 0.6152
Table III. Verbal 0.2144 0.1102 0.0034 0.0708 0.1340 0.0014 0.5221
The discriminant POMS 0.0502 0.0692 0.4597 0.1600 0.1163 0.0276 0.0079 0.5389
analysis of new
moon data set Note: Diagonals represent the square of the AVE, while the off-diagonals represent correlations
 Moon phase
effect on investor
psychology

189
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Figure 3.
The full moon
research model
Notes: The value on the line is the b-coefficient value; the value inside the balloon is R2 -value

Hypotheses b SE t-statistics Decision

H1 Cognition ! POMS 0.226 0.081 2.800 Yes

H2 Cognition ! physical 0.227 0.143 1.584 No
H3 Cognition ! anger 0.294 0.125 2.354 Yes
H4 Cognition ! hostility 0.325 0.100 3.237 Yes
H5 Cognition ! verbal 0.390 0.122 3.197 Yes
H6 Cognition ! returns 20.027 0.067 2 2.400 Yes
H7 Emotion ! POMS 0.350 0.091 3.841 Yes
H8 Emotion ! physical 0.163 0.100 1.620 No
H9 Emotion ! anger 0.289 0.139 2.080 Yes
H10 Emotion ! hostility 0.212 0.109 1.979 Yes
H11 Emotion ! verbal 0.042 0.132 0.316 No
H12 Emotion ! returns 20.051 0.064 2 1.991 Yes
H13 POMS ! returns 20.308 0.107 2 2.875 Yes
H14 Physical ! returns 0.223 0.151 1.475 No
H15 Anger ! returns 20.247 0.173 2 2.429 Yes
H16 Hostility ! returns 0.145 0.142 2.020 Yes
H17 Verbal ! returns 0.045 0.116 0.390 No
Table IV.
Notes: The p , 1 per cent if t-statistic ,2.57; p , 5 per cent if t-statistic , 1.96 The results of full moon
 IJSE
b SE t-statistic Decision
41,3
Anger ! returns 0.285 0.178 1.604 No
Cognition ! anger 0.332 0.166 1.924 No
Cognition ! hostility 0.146 0.208 0.701 No
Cognition ! physical 0.193 0.157 1.232 No
190 Cognition ! returns 0.036 0.083 0.437 No
Cognition ! verbal 0.372 0.108 3.459 Yes
Cognition ! POMS 0.094 0.090 1.041 No
Emotion ! anger 2 0.095 0.228 0.414 No
Emotion ! hostility 0.135 0.206 0.658 No
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Emotion ! physical 0.196 0.148 1.320 No

Emotion ! returns 2 0.166 0.077 1.156 No
Emotion ! verbal 2 0.154 0.112 1.374 No
Emotion ! POMS 0.654 0.060 10.908 Yes
Hostility ! returns 2 0.065 0.189 0.345 No
Physical ! returns 2 0.216 0.158 1.371 No
Verbal ! returns 0.013 0.133 0.101 No
POMS ! returns 2 0.131 0.109 1.201 No
Table V.
The result of new moon Notes: The p , 1 per cent if t-statistic ,2.57; p , 5 per cent if t-statistic , 1.96

moon procedure, but used a different set of data (the data was taken from the
psychometric questionnaire during the new moon phase).
To check for a mediation effect, the Sobel test was used to examine whether
a mediator variable significantly carries the influence of an independent variable to a
dependent variable, i.e. whether the indirect effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable through the mediator variable is significant. This analysis used
a free source software web-calculator, found at: http://quantpsy.org/sobel/sobel.htm
Influences on market returns during full moon. A close look on the findings surmises
that the coefficient value of the relationship between independent variable and full moon
returns varies. The effect on returns has a negative coefficient, indicating that the higher
levels aggressiveness, mood disorders, cognition and emotional decisions diminish
stock trading performance.
At the 5 percent significance level, all the trader responses were considered
significant and have an effect on stock market behaviour. However, two of Buss and
Perry’s (1992) aggressiveness measures have no significant influence on stock trading
performance, namely, physical aggressiveness and verbal aggressiveness. The disarray
of cognition and emotion of an investor during the full moon are shown to have a
significant role on their stock trading performance, which was significantly negative at
a 1 percent significance level. This suggests that an investor with greater cognition and
emotion disarray will have poorer stock trading performance.
Other measures also affected stock trading performance. During a trading day with a
full moon, investors were influenced by the mood disorders, anger aggressiveness, and
hostility aggressiveness in a negative relationship. This means that higher levels of mood
disorders and aggressiveness result in poorer stock trading performance of investors.
Influences on market returns during the new moon. The b-coefficient of the
new moon returns results are of similar magnitude to the full moon phase results,
however, all of the new moon model relationships were not significant, not even at
 10 percent level. Instead of a significant association to the new moon returns, the results Moon phase
show significance to the investor responses verbal aggressiveness and mood state. This effect on investor
strengthens the main hypothesis that cognition and emotional disarray affects investor
stock trading performance through aggressiveness and mood disorders, and it only psychology
occurs during the full moon phase. The lack of any evidence of significant influences on
new moon market returns, suggests investors’ decision-making was not biased during
days without full moon. Hence, this indicates their rationality in stock trading would not 191
be disturbed on a new moon day. These findings are in line with previous research,
such as Herbst (2007) and Brahmana et al. (2012).
Does mood play a role? The findings also show whether mood played important role on
stock trading performance in two different moon phases: full moon and new moon. The
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results document that investor mood decreases the stock trading performance during full
moon phase with a t-statistic of 2.875 and coefficient value of 0.308, indicating that a one
unit increase of mood would decrease stock trading performance by 0.308 units.
Conversely, new moon results show that mood has no role in inducing stock trading
performance. As there are no mood-disturbance factors (it was new moon phase), therefore,
stock trading performance was not associated with mood. These findings support our
hypothesis and previous research, such as Cunningham (1979).
Aggressiveness in moon-induced stock performance model. The impact of another
outcome of the irrationality stimulants, aggressiveness, on stock trading performance has
been examined. This research covers all the dimensions of aggressiveness characteristics,
which are physical, verbal, anger, and hostility. The physical and verbal aggressiveness
are the controls for the parsimony of the research because those two variables are related
to psychosocial (interaction). Anger and hostility are the main variables.
The results for the different aggressiveness dimensions in each moon phase
(full moon and new moon) are shown in Table IV. Physical aggressiveness, which is
more an act of aggressiveness, is not significantly associated to stock trading
performance at either moon phase. The same goes for verbal aggressiveness,
which shows no significant relationship to stock trading performance in either moon
phase. However, anger aggressiveness shows a significant relationship with a negative
coefficient value (2 0.247) and the t-statistic of 2 2.429. This result suggests that if the
anger aggressiveness increases one unit, it might lower the investor returns by 0.247.
When the dimension of aggressiveness is hostility, the association with stock trading
performance is significant at a 5 percent significance level. Note that these significant
relationships are only found during a full moon phase. Meanwhile, the new moon
research model showed anger aggressiveness and hostility aggressiveness, physical
aggressiveness, and verbal aggressiveness, did not significantly influence investor
stock trading performance. In short, aggressiveness has significant relationship to stock
trading performance during the full moon only, no significant association was measured
during the new moon phase. The influence of anger aggressiveness and hostility
aggressiveness on investors’ stock trading performance during the full moon phase is
congruous to previous research, such as Lieber (1978), Katzeff (1981) and
Kazemi-Bajestani et al. (2011) whose papers address full moon influences of
aggressiveness, and papers such as Dodge and Newman (1981) and Barber (2009),
who address how decision-making might be biased due to aggressiveness.
The mediating effect. This research also addresses the mediating effect of
aggressiveness and moods on the relationship between cognition disarray and stock
 IJSE trading performance, and between emotion and stock trading performance. First, it is
41,3 noteworthy that there is no mediating effect in the new moon model. This section
addresses only the results of full moon model. The findings in Table VI indicate that the
extent of collaboration mediated the relationship between the disarray of cognition and
emotion as well as the aggressiveness and mood disorders. The physical aggressiveness
has had neither a direct nor an indirect effect on stock trading performance because no
192 paths are found to be significant. Similarly, even though the disarray of cognition and
emotion plays an important role on verbal aggressiveness, it did not have a significant
effect on stock trading. The method suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986) was used to
assess if there is full or partial mediation.
The mediation effect check uses the Sorbel test, which reveals three important effects.
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First, the mood disturbances were the mediators on the relationship between the
independent variables (cognition and emotion disarray) and stock trading performance,
indicating a partial mediating effect. Second, two types of aggressiveness mediated the
relationship of the independent variables and stock trading performance in full
mediation, which are anger (in the relationship between emotion and stock trading
performance) and hostility (in the relationship between emotion and stock trading
performance, and also between cognition disarray and stock trading performance). The
cognition and emotion did not need the full magnitude of the aggressiveness to influence
the stock trading performance. Lastly, physical and verbal aggressiveness had no effect
whatsoever on the relationship.
As there was no hierarchical model on the data set of the new moon, we did not run the
Sorbel test to examine the mediation effect of the entire model. There were no effects of
disarray of cognition and emotion on aggressiveness and mood disorders. There was
also no effect detected on stock trading performance. Moreover, the aggressiveness and
mood disorders did not affect the stock trading performance. As, this did not fulfil the
hierarchical model requirement of Baron and Kenny (1986), we concluded that, unlike the
full moon phase, the new moon did not have any mediating effect on the relationships.
Behaviour disturbances during full moon and new moon. The study results suggest
there is evidence of behaviour disturbance during a full moon but not on a new moon. For
example, cognition disarray was significantly associated with most of the mediating
variables, such as mood disturbance, anger, hostility, and verbal aggressiveness during
the full moon phase. Similarly, investor emotion plays an important role on moods,

t-statistic SE p-value Status

Cognition ! POMS ! returns 22.006 0.035 0.045 Partial

Emotion ! POMS ! returns 22.302 0.047 0.021 Partial
Cognition ! anger ! returns 21.222 0.059 0.222 Full
Emotion ! anger ! returns 21.178 0.061 0.239 Full
Cognition ! hostility ! returns 0.973 0.048 0.331 Full
Emotion ! hostility ! returns 0.902 0.034 0.367 Full
Cognition ! physical ! returns 1.080 0.047 0.280 No effect
Emotion ! physical ! returns 1.091 0.033 0.275 No effect
Cognition ! verbal ! returns 0.388 0.046 0.698 No effect
Table VI. Emotion ! verbal ! returns 0.246 0.008 0.806 No effect
The mediation effect on
full moon model Notes: The p , 1 per cent if t-statistic ,2.57; p , 5 per cent if t-statistic , 1.96
 anger, and hostility during the full moon. However, during a new moon, our results show Moon phase
only two significant associations. First, the relationship between cognition disarray and effect on investor
verbal aggressiveness is significant, and second, emotion was significantly associated to
mood disturbance. Note, that even though there are significant associations between psychology
dependent variables and independent variables in new moon model, no indication of
significant influence on stock trading performance was detected. New moon phase
might influence cognition to induce the verbal aggressiveness, and or influence emotion 193
to induce the moods, but these variables do not influence stock trading performance
during a new moon. To account for other factors that may influence the relationships of
cognition disarray, emotion, aggressiveness, and moods on the day the investors
(our sample) filled in the questionnaire, paired t-test was employed.
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4. Econometrics model results

The results of the quantitative model show the R 2-values, at 7.7 percent, imply that the
independent variables (tax dummy, moon dummy, Monday dummy, and lagged
returns) explain the dependent value. The F-value was significant at a 1 per cent level
signifying the model was robust enough. These data are shown in Table VII.
The Monday, moon, and lagged returns have effects on the market returns at a
1 percent significance level, but the role of the tax dummy for market behaviour was
rejected. Interestingly, the moon phase had a negative effect on market behaviour. If
there was a full moon the stock market would have negative returns, and the magnitude
of the full moon phase on market returns was very high with a coefficient value of 0.6.
In short, this quantitative model confirmed the time series quasi experimental
study, showing that the moon phase affects market performance. This is in line with
existing studies by Yuan et al. (2006) and Dichev and Janes (2003) who showed the
moon phase affects the market.

5. Robustness: t-difference test

The time series quasi experimental results show that investor behaviour tends to
exhibit more irrational cognitive and emotion responses during the full moon phase.
The econometric model confirms the full moon, on a close orbital path to earth, has an
impact on stock market performance. To further check robustness the paired t-test was
conducted to investigate whether cognition and emotion disarray, aggressiveness,

Variable Coefficient SE t-statistic

Tax 20.1148 0.1187 2 0.9674

Moon 20.5965 0.1546 2 3.8579 * * *
Monday 20.2255 0.1701 2 2.3251 * *
RM(21) 0.1310 0.0611 2.1444 * *
R2 0.0771
Adjusted R 2 0.0626
F-statistic 5.3230
Prob. (F-statistic) 0.0004 Table VII.
The quantitative
Notes: The p , 1 per cent if t-statistic ,2.57; p , 5 per cent if t-statistic , 1.96 model result
 IJSE mood disorders, and the stock trading performance of investors during the full moon
period were significantly different to investor psychology during a new moon.
41,3 This test produces two important findings: first, it shows the correlation of the full
moon data set and the new moon data set; second, it documents the significant
differences. In terms of correlation, the range from 2 0.244 to 0.065 is considered very
small. And this suggests that the psychology of investors during a full moon, is
194 different, or not correlated with their psychological thinking during new moon.
In terms of significant difference, the full moon effect on physical aggressiveness is not
significantly different compared to the new moon’s effect on physical aggressiveness.
Meanwhile, the psychology of investors during a full moon, (verbal aggressiveness,
hostility aggressiveness, anger aggressiveness, mood disorders, cognitive disarray,
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and emotion disarray) is significantly different to the psychology of investors during a

new moon. Not only are differences in psychology displayed by investors during a full
moon compared with a new moon, differences are also seen in stock trading performance
(Table VIII).

6. Discussion
The results presented in this paper correspond with existing theories. First, cognition
disarray influences the aggressiveness of investors and their stock market trading
performance during the full moon; they are more aggressively verbal, hostile, and angry.
But the cognition did not have an impact on physical aggressiveness. Such a result is in
line with the “gravoreceptors” hypothesis of Campbell (1982), who suggested the role of
the moon phase on humans is different from its role on the ocean. An object with
momentum and accelerating experiences a stronger force of gravity from the earth than
from the moon. For example, when playing tennis the earth’s gravity gives a 5,012 times
stronger pull than the moon’s gravity (see the classical work of Lieber (1978)). This
argument explains why there is no effect of physical aggressiveness in this study.
Unlike the physical aggressiveness results, other aggressiveness dimensions
affected by the full moon also influence stock trading performance with the result of
negative returns. Wilkinson (1997) stated that the full moon phase affects anxiety
feelings, depression, and regret avoidance, which are embodied in aggressiveness
manners. Higher levels of irrationality muddled investors’ thinking and degraded their
judgment, which translates into poor stock market performance.
The moods disturbance variable has a significant and negative impact on investor
stock trading performance. As moods are the sentiment for human behaviour, being in

Mean Paired sample t-statistic Correlation

Physical aggressiveness 0.07158 0.962 2 0.055

Verbal aggressiveness 0.04947 2.176 * * 0.065
Hostility aggressiveness 0.01684 2.181 * * 2 0.112
Anger aggressiveness 0.08000 2.901 * * * 2 0.038
Mood disorder 0.00729 3.889 * * * 2 0.244
Cognition of behavioural 0.09219 2.660 * * * 2 0.035
Emotion of behavioural 0.09219 2.844 * * * 2 0.108
Table VIII. Returns 20.24909 24.853 * * * 2 0.233
The paired t-test
and correlation Notes: The p , 1 per cent if t-statistic ,2.57; p , 5 per cent if t-statistic , 1.96
 a bad mood during a full moon affects the stock trading style of investors and the market Moon phase
performance. Previous work by Barr (2000), who noted that the moon is a comprehensive effect on investor
source of moods and increases the psychotic disorders of humans, supports this finding.
The same conclusions can be made from the results of the quantitative method in the psychology
interactive regression model. The full moon phase is significantly and negatively related
to market returns. The findings confirms earlier work of Sivakumar and Satyanarayan
(2009) who conclude that the moon cycle is linked to market returns, and DeBondt and 195
Thaler (1995) who suggest that the finance theory is based on participants’ psychology.
Further explanation of these findings draws on four existing theories: somatic
marker theory, Ellis’ ABC model, Forgas’ (1995) affect infusion model, and cognition
process hypothesis.
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Somatic marker
Based on somatic marker theory, the full moon is the somatic marker of investor’s
behaviour. Because gravity of the full moon disturbs investors’ decision-making
mechanisms, they make biased decisions. This, coupled with cognition and emotion
disarray, means investor’s stock trading performance is negatively influenced through
mood state and aggressiveness.

Ellis’ ABC model

The relationship between moon, human psychology, and investment decision-making
can also be explained using Ellis’ ABC model. The relationship is analysed as follows.
First, the full moon gravity causes humans to bias decision-making. This is known
as an activating event (the A from ABC). Next, combining the biased decision-making
and the beliefs of the human physiological system produces a phase where humans
experience cognition and emotion disturbance. In this phase, investors change their
utility objective from rational utility to hedonic utility. This is the B of Ellis’ ABC model.
As the belief and foundation of decision-making has been changed from rational to
hedonic, investors make trades based on their feelings or moods. This is the C of Ellis’
ABC model, known as the “consequence phase”.

Forgas’ (1995) affect infusion model (FAIM)

The results are in line also with FAIM. As the full moon influences the investor through
its gravity (direct access process), it disturbs the human biological and physiological
systems (motivational process), which then leads to human irrationality. This
irrationality produces heuristic bias (heuristic process). Lastly, confusion within the
human leads to the biased decisions (substantive process). Our findings appear to follow
the same process, with the full moon influencing the mood state and cognition disarray
(direct access and motivational). The mood state and cognition disarray influences
investor aggressiveness, and mood disturbance (heuristic process). In the end, it affects
the stock trading performance (a proof of substantive process).

Cognition process hypothesis

The fourth theory that validates our results is the cognition process, which includes
four stages of how external factors influence human behaviour:
(1) sensing;
(2) neural code;
 IJSE (3) cognitive code; and
41,3 (4) memory stage, where it postulates that the cognition process is driven by
senses.
For instance, if the behaviour is irrational, it is because the cognition process was
interrupted by incoming stimuli. Elaborating further, the sensing stage is a moment
196 where the senses received the stimulus, which in this case is the full moon gravity. The
stimulus is encoded in our brain during the neural code stage, and then transforms into
energy in our physiological system, where, in this research, the energy influences
cognition disarray and emotion. In the final stage, investor behaviour is affected by
these psychological factors (cognition, emotion, mood, and aggressiveness), causing
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poor stock trading performance. This theory also underpins the hypothesis that the
full moon affects the human cognition and emotion processes through mood
disturbance and aggressiveness, which in turn negatively influence stock trading
performance.

7. Conclusion
In summary, this study has investigated the postulation of Campbell (1982) who
suggested the study of the moon phases be stopped. Contradicting Campbell’s assertion,
our results reveal that the effect of the full moon on human behaviour should be further
investigated, especially in the area of behavioural finance. By combining time-series
quasi experimental research with the traditional quantitative approach under
falsification epistemology, this research has determined that the full moon affects
investor behaviour. Moreover, the use of secondary data in previous studies failed to
catch the moon effect because many scholars neglected the fact that the moon effect lasts
for several days (a day before and after).
Cognition and emotion disarray, aggressiveness, and mood disorders have all been
shown to play a role in influencing investors’ decision-making and generating low
market returns through the time-series quasi experimental. Interestingly, these
relationships only occur on full moon phase days. Hence, it is reasonable to draw the
conclusion that the full moon phase manipulates investors’ emotion and cognition,
producing aggressiveness and mood disorders, which through biased decision-making
negatively impact stock trading.
The traditional quantitative model arrived at the same conclusion, finding investors
tended to have lower returns if the trading day was under the orbital of a full moon.
Moreover, the t-test results confirm the entire set of studies show that the mood
disorders, aggressiveness, and market returns during a full moon are significantly
different to the non-full moon phase.
In conclusion, this study has successfully argued that further experimental research
is needed to investigate the moon effect on investor behaviour, contributing to the body
of knowledge and industrial practice. Advancing the body of knowledge, the existence
of moon effects on investor behaviour bridges the underlying assumption of traditional
finance (rational behaviour assumption) into behavioural finance, changing it from
utility maximisation to hedonic utility. These findings remark that psychological
biases might occur to disturb rational decision making in investment. For industrial
practice, if the moon effect on investor’s irrationality is true, equity analysts should be
able to construct securities evaluations based on the phases of the moon.
 Notes Moon phase
1. Refer to DeBondt and Thaler (1995), Tvede (2002) and Brahmana et al. (2012) for the effect on investor
explanation of using psychology theory in finance.
psychology
2. For the development and use of Allinson and Hayes (1996) work, refer to Allinson et al.
(2000), Hayes et al. (2004) and Cools and Bellens (2012).
3. Refer Van Katwyk et al. (2000) and Shockley et al. (2012) for the use of the RSI of Warr (1987).
197
4. In finance, we see aggressiveness as the outcome of irrationality resulting in trader
overconfidence or risk-value trade-off. Please refer to Benos (1998) for finance or Forman
(1981) for psychology.
5. Refer to Bryant and Smith (2001) and Saleem et al. (2012) for the use of AGGR psychometric
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of Buss and Perry (1992).

6. Refer to Baker et al. (2002) and Tinlin et al. (2012) for the use of POMS questionnaire.
7. We did pre-test of McNair et al. (1989) and Cella et al. (1987) items by using students as
respondents. We found two important issues. First, McNair et al. (1989) was too lengthy and
students lost interest in responding. Second, we did cross loading factor analysis and most of
the items (42 items) did not pass the criteria. Then, we conducted the Cella et al. (1987) metric,
which is more concise. Note that the POMS test arrived at the same conclusion when
measuring mood state.
8. We adopt Cunningham (1979) and Bollen et al. (2011) in constructing our experimental
research. Instead of data mining like Bollen et al. (2011), we did replicate and modify
Cunningham (1979) quasi experimental intuitively.

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Corresponding author
Rayenda Brahmana can be contacted at: [email protected]

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