33

Engineering Physics

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Before you start, make sure that you are confident in your knowledge and
understanding of the following points:
● Vector quantities have magnitude and direction whereas scalar
quantities have magnitude only.
displacement
● Velocity =
time
change in velocity
● Acceleration =
time
● The four equations of uniform acceleration for linear motion.
● Radians can be used to measure angles, s = r θ. 2π rad = 360°
● Torque is the turning effect (moment) of a force and is calculated by
multiplying the force by the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the force and the axis of rotation (pivot).
angular displacement 2π
● Angular velocity = = = 2π f
time T
1
● Kinetic energy, EK = m v 2
2
● Energy is the capacity to do work where work done = force × distance
moved in direction of the force = F × d
work done
● Power =
time
● Impulse = change in momentum and F t = Δp
● Momentum is always conserved when bodies interact provided there
is no external force acting.
● Heat = transfer of energy due to a temperature difference.
● Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in a gas.
● Internal energy is the sum of the random kinetic and potential
energies of the particles in a gas.
● The ideal gas equation, p V = n R T and gas laws (Boyle’s Law
V p
p V = constant, Charles’ Law = constant, Pressure Law = constant)
T T
enable the pressure, volume and temperature of gases to be
investigated and calculated.
● 1 mol of a gas contains 6.02 × 10 23 particles. 1
● The rms speed of particles in a gas is their average speed.
● The kinetic theory equation links the macroscopic properties
(pressure, volume, temperature) of a gas with the movement and
energy of the particles, p V = 1 N m (crms)2 and EK = 3 k T
3 2
 TEST YOURSELF ON PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
1 A bird of prey can spot a 5 cm long mouse on the ground from a height
of 100 m. What angle in radians is subtended at the bird’s eyes?
2 The Moon orbits the Earth once every 29 days with a radius of orbit of
380 000 km. What is the angular velocity of the Moon?
3 Baking powder is added to cake mixture and releases carbon dioxide
when activated. Use the gas laws to explain why a cake rises when
baked in the oven.
4 A deep-sea diver is working at a depth where the pressure is 2.8 atm.
She is breathing out air bubbles each of volume 2 cm3. If she moves
up to a depth of 10 m where the pressure is only 1.9 atm what would
now be the volume of each bubble? You should assume that each
bubble contains the same mass of air and that the temperature is not
changing.

●● Rotational dynamics
A large part of Year 1 of the A-level course involved the study of the
dynamics of objects in linear motion. The first half of the Engineering
Physics optional topic studies the forces and motion involved in rotating
objects. Some examples of rotational motion are:
● a gymnast performing a somersault
● the Earth spinning on its axis, taking almost 24 hours to complete one
full rotation
● a car wheel rotating on its axis
● a ball turning as it rolls down a hill.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

TRANSLATIONAL ROTATIONAL
MOTION MOTION

the box moves from the box spins

2 one point to another around

Figure 33.1 Comparing translational and rotational motion.

 (a) (b)

Rotational dynamics
Figure 33.2 (a) In translational motion, all points of the object travel along parallel
paths. (b) Most motion is a combination of translation and rotation.

Rotational motion
s Displacement, velocity and acceleration
1 2 Angular displacement
Angular displacement, θ, of a body is the angle in radians (degrees or
r
revolutions) through which a point or line has been rotated about an axis.
q
By definition, when we work in radians, the angle θ is defined by:
  θ= s
r
where s is known as the arclength, and r is the distance of the point from
the axis of rotation.
When we go right around the circle, s becomes the circumference 2πr so
Figure 33.3   θ = 2πr
r = 2π
Here we see that 2π radians = 360°.
Since we can go clockwise or anticlockwise, we need to define a direction
for angular displacement.

EXAMPLE
The Tour de France is a cycle race and involves cyclists cycling 3500 km
over 2 weeks. Calculate the number of complete rotations made by a
cyclist’s wheel during the race.

Answer
The radius of a bike wheel is 0.35 m. 3

s = 3500 × 103 m
r = 0.35 m

   θ = sr
3
= 3500 × 10
0.35
= 10 × 106 rad
 θ
number of rotations =
2π
6
= 10 × 10 rad
2π
= 1 591 549 rotations ≈ 1.6 × 106 rotations
This is the same as dividing the total distance travelled by the
circumference (2πr) of the wheel (i.e. 3 500 000 ≈ 1.6 × 106 rotations).
(2π × 0.35)

TIP
Radians are usually used when dealing with rotational motion.
Figure 33.3 on page 3 shows the definition of a radian and how it is
useful to work in radians when calculating the length of an arc. This is
because the arc length, s, is equal to the distance travelled by a point
as an object rotates.

Angular velocity

Angular velocity is analogous to linear velocity.

Velocity = displacement
time
or
v= s
t
And so angular velocity = angular displacement
time
or
ω = Δθ
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Δ t
A rotating object therefore has angular velocity, ω. Where the direction
is not specified this may be referred to as angular speed or angular
frequency.
We can express angular velocity in terms of the time taken to complete one
complete rotation.
ω= Δ θ 2 π
Δt = T = 2 π f
where θ = angular displacement and T = period of rotation = 1 where
f
f = frequency of rotation.
4 The units of angular velocity are radians per second (rad s–1) although
TIP angular speed is often expressed in terms of revolutions per minute (rpm or
There are 2π radians in a complete
rev s–1) or revolutions per second (rps or rev s–1).
rotation and 60 seconds in a
minute so to convert from rpm to
rad s–1 multiply by 2π . To convert
60
from rad s–1 to rpm multiply by 60
and divide by 2π.
 v For small angular changes in small times we can write
ω = Δθ

Rotational dynamics
Δt
Also, since s = r θ and v = s
t
v = r θ
t
=ωr
or
ω= v
r
This enables the linear velocity of a point to be related to the angular
v = rw
velocity. Maximum linear velocity is achieved in sports such as golf,
football, or volleyball by maximising the distance to the axis of rotation.
2
s v = rw
v = rw

r
q

w
r

Figure 33.5 A vinyl record has angular velocity, ω , when spinning clockwise
Figure 33.4 on a record player. It rotates from position 1 to position 2 in time, t. Its angular
displacement in this time is θ. Every point on the record has the same angular
velocity, ω , but the linear velocity depends on how far the point is from the axis of
rotation as v = r ω.

EXAMPLE
1 A bike wheel tyre with a diameter of 0.8 m is spinning with an angular
velocity, ω = 3.8 rad s–1.
a) Calculate the linear velocity of a point on the tyre.
Answer
5
v = r ω = 0.4 × 3.8 rad s–1 = 1.52 m s–1
b) Calculate the number of rotations the tyre completes in 1 minute.
Answer
f= ω
2π
–1
  = 1.52 rad s
2 π
  = 0.24 rps
0.24 rps × 60 s = 8.7 rpm
 2 Convert the following into rps.
a) 2 rad s–1
b) 15 rad s–1
Answer
2 = 0.32 rps
2π
15 = 2.39 rps
2π
3 Convert the following into rpm.
a) 2 rad s–1
b) 15 rad s–1
Answer
0.32 rps × 60 = 19.2 rpm
2.39 rps × 60 = 143 rpm
4 Convert the following into rad s–1.
a) 2500 rpm
b) 10 rpm
TIP Answer
To calculate the number of
rotations, divide the angular 2500 rpm × ( 2π ) = 262 rad s–1
60 s
displacement by 2π.
2π
θ 10 rpm × ( ) = 1.05 rad s–1
Number of rotations = 60 s
2π

Angular acceleration
We call the change in an object’s linear velocity, acceleration. Linear
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

acceleration is calculated using:

change in velocity
a=
time
= v–u
t
where the velocity changes from an initial velocity u to a final velocity v in a
time t.
Similarly, the angular velocity of an object can change – its angular velocity
can increase or decrease.

Angular acceleration, α , is the rate of

The angular acceleration is analogous to linear acceleration:
change of angular velocity or the change of change in angular velocity
6 angular acceleration =
angular velocity per second. time
Δω
α=
Δt
ω2 − ω1
=
t
 We use ω1 to signify the initial angular velocity and ω2 for the final angular
velocity.

Rotational dynamics
rad s–1
The units of angular acceleration are rad s–2 .
s
This equation is the rotational equivalent of v = u + a t and it can be
rearranged to give:
ω2 = ω1 + α t
This is our first rotational equivalent of the uniform acceleration formulae.
We saw above in the angular velocity section (and in the core circular
motion topic) that the linear speed of a point a distance r from the axis of
v
rotation is v = ω r, so ω = .
TIP r
Angular acceleration of a point = We can substitute this into the equation for linear acceleration to express the
linear acceleration divided by the acceleration of a point a distance r from the axis of rotation in terms of angular
distance of the point from the axis acceleration (α).
a
of rotation: α = (v – u)
r a=
t
(ω2 r – ω1 r)
=
t
a=αr

EXAMPLE Answer
1 The angular velocity of a spinning ball increases 50 000 m
u= = 13.9 m s–1
from 8 rad s–1 to 23 rad s–1 in 10 seconds. Calculate 3600 s
the angular acceleration. 13.9 m s–1
ω1 = u = = 61.8 rad s–1
Answer r 0.225 m
90 000 m
ω1 = 8 rad s–1 v= = 25 m s–1
3600 s
25 m s–1
ω2 = 23 rad s–1 ω2 = v = = 111.1 rad s–1
r 0.225 m
ω2 − ω1
α= ω2 − ω1 = 49.3 rad s–1
t
23 − 8 15 49.3
α= = = 1.5 rad s–2 × 60 s = 471 rpm
10 10 2π
2 A car is accelerating from the slip road of a b) Determine the angular acceleration of the
motorway from an initial speed of 50 km h–1 to wheels.
90 km h–1 over a time of 5 seconds. The diameter
of the wheels is 45 cm. Answer
a) Determine the change in angular speed of a ω2 − ω1 (111.1 – 61.8)
α= = = 9.9 rad s–2
point on the edge of a wheel in rad s–1 and rpm. t 5
7
 Equations of motion for uniform angular acceleration
On pages 6 and 7, the rotational equivalent of v = u + a t was shown to be:
ω2 = ω1 + α t(1)
The other three equations of uniform angular acceleration can be
obtained in a similar way to those for linear uniform acceleration.
(See pages 136–137 of the Student’s Book for details of these derivations.)
(ω + ω1)
For uniform angular acceleration, average angular velocity = 2
2
and angular displacement = average angular velocity × time, so
(ω  + ω 1) t
θ= 2 (2)
2
This is the second equation of uniform rotational acceleration.
To obtain the third equation of uniform rotational acceleration we can
substitute ω 2 from the first equation into the second equation to obtain:
(ω  + ω 1 + α t) × t
θ= 1
2

θ = ω1 t + α t 
2
(3)
2
1
The linear motion equivalent of this is s = u t + a t2.
2

MATHS BOX
The fourth equation of uniform rotational acceleration may be derived as
follows.
ω2 = ω1 + α t
→ (ω 2)2 = (ω1 + α t)2
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

= (ω1)2 + 2 ω1 α t + α2 t2
1
= (ω 1)2 + 2 α (ω 1 t + α t2)
2
Using equation (3),

θ = ω1 t + 1 α t2
2
(ω 2)2 = (ω 1)2 + 2 α θ(4)

The derivation of the fourth equation is shown in the Maths box and
by analogy with the linear motion equivalent v2 = u2 + 2as we can see it
8
will be
(ω 2)2 = (ω 1)2 + 2 α θ (4)
 Answer

Rotational dynamics
EXAMPLE
1 A wheel is rotating at 100 rev min–1(rpm). If it is ω 1 = 0 rad s–1
brought to rest in 15 revolutions what is the angular 2π
acceleration? ω 2 = 2500 × ( )
60
Answer = 261.8 rad s–1
2π t = 3.0 s
ω1 = 100 rpm × ( )
60 ω 2 – ω 1
10 π   α=
= rad s–1 t
3 261.8 – 0 rad s–1
= 10.47 rad s–1   = = 87.3 rad s–2
3.0 s
θ = 15 × 2π (b) C
 alculate how many revolutions the drill
= 30 π = 94.2 rad makes before it reaches top speed, assuming a
constant acceleration.
ω2 = 0 rad s–1
Answer
(ω 2)2 = (ω 1)2 + 2 α θ We can use any of the uniform acceleration equations
0 = (10.47 rad s–1)2 + (2 α × 94.2 rad) to calculate angular displacement.
109.7 Using, (ω 2)2 = (ω 1)2 + 2 α θ
α = – 
188.5
= –0.58 rad s–2 (261.82 – 0)
= 392.6 radians
(2 × 87.3)
2 An electric drill bit rotating clockwise takes 3.0 s to
angular displacement
speed up to 2500 rpm from rest. Number of rotations =
a) Calculate the drill’s angular acceleration. 2 π
392.6 radians
=
2 π
= 62.5 rotations
= 62 complete rotations

Graphs of angular motion

Angular displacement, angular velocity and angular acceleration can be
plotted on graphs to show how they change with time.

Displacement–time graphs
The minute hand moves around an analogue clock face at a steady rate.
Its angular displacement can be plotted on a graph as it takes 1 hour to
complete a whole rotation.
q
2π
angular displacement/radians

t
0.5 1
time/hours
Figure 33.6 Angular velocity against time for the minute
hand of a clock.
 The angular velocity can be calculated from the gradient of the angular
displacement against time graph.
Δy
For the minute hand of a clock the angular velocity =
Δ x
Δθ 2π
= = = 1.75 × 10–3 rad s–1
Δt 3600
If the graph is a curve then drawing a tangent to the curve at that point
gives the instantaneous angular velocity at that moment in time.

Velocity–time graphs
Figure 33.7 shows the angular velocity of a spinning roulette wheel.
2 We can use the graph to describe the motion of the wheel. For the first
w /rev s–1

2 seconds, the angular velocity increases at a constant rate from 0 rev s–1 to
1
2 rev s–1. The roulette wheel accelerates uniformly. Between 2 and 4 seconds
0
the wheel spins at a constant angular velocity of 2 rev s–1.
0 1 2 3 4
We can use the graph to calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel as
t/s
Figure 33.7
angular acceleration is equal to the gradient of the graph:
Δω Δy
α= =
Δx
Δt
To calculate the angular acceleration for the first 2 seconds we convert
rev s–1 to rad s–1:
2 rev s–1 = (2 × 2π) = 12.6 rad s–1
Δy
gradient =
Δx
12.6 rad s–1
= = 6.3 rad s–2
2s

We can also use the graph to calculate the number of complete rotations
TIP
the wheel makes in 4 seconds as we know that angular displacement = area
When calculating the gradient
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

use the largest triangle possible. under the graph as θ = ω t.

Examiners prefer you to use a First we calculate the area from t = 0 s to t = 2 s
triangle with a base of at least
8 cm where at all possible. = 12 × 2 × 2 = 2 revolutions
Now we calculate the area from t = 2 s to t = 4 s
= 2 × 2 = 4 revolutions
Total number of revolutions completed in the first 4 seconds
= 2 + 4 = 6 revolutions.

10
TIP
The gradient of an angular velocity against time graph gives the
angular acceleration. If the gradient is negative the object is
decelerating.
If the graph is a curve then drawing a tangent to the curve at that
point gives the instantaneous angular acceleration at that moment
in time.
 Rotational dynamics
EXAMPLE 2 Figure 33.9 shows how angular displacement
1 a) Describe the motion shown by the graph in changes with time.
Figure 33.8 as fully as you can.
8

θ/rad
w /rad s–1

t/s
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
t /s
–4  
  Figure 33.9

  –8
Sketch a graph to show how the velocity changes with
Figure 33.8 Angular velocity–time graph for a ship’s
propeller. time for this object.

Answer Answer
The propeller is slowing down at a uniform rate until at
4 s it comes momentarily to a stop. It then continues
to accelerate with the same uniform acceleration until
it is rotating at a constant angular velocity of 8 rad s–1 v/rad s–1
in the opposite direction. Between 0 s and
8 s the graph shows uniform angular acceleration t/s
because it is a straight line and therefore has a
constant gradient.
(b) S
 ketch the corresponding angular  
acceleration–time graph for this motion. 3 Figure 33.10 shows how the angular acceleration
of an object varies with time. The initial angular
Answer velocity is 10 rad s–1. Draw the shape of the
Gradient of straight line section of the ω-t graph corresponding graph which shows how velocity
16 rad s–1 changes with time.
= = 2 rad s–2
8 s
5
4
2.5 3
2
2.0
1
α/rad s–2
a /rad s–2

1.5 0
–1 2 4 6 8
1.0 t/s
–2

0.5 –3
–4
0.0 11
0 2 4 6 8 10 12   –5

  t /s Figure 33.10
 Answer ii) ω2 = ω1 + α t
so the graph will be a straight line through the origin
10 with a gradient of 2 rad s–2.
12

angular velocity/rad s−1

10
8
w /rad s–1

6
0
2 4 6 8 4
t/s 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time/s
 
  –10
b) Determine the angular velocity after 5 seconds.
4 An object accelerates from rest with a uniform
angular acceleration of 2 rad s–2. Answer
a) Plot a graph to show how the object’s Reading off the graph when t = 5 s, ω = 10 rad s–1
i) displacement c) Calculate the number of complete rotations the
ii) velocity varies for the first 5 seconds of motion. object has made after 3 seconds.
Answer Answer
i) Angular displacement is given by Reading off the graph when t = 3 s, θ = 9 radians.
θ = ω1 t + 1 α t 2
Number of rotations = θ =
2 9
= 1.43
ω1 = 0 and α = 2 rad s–2 so the graph will be a 2π 2π
parabola with an increasing gradient. d) Add a line to show the displacement–time graph
for an object which has only half the acceleration
30
(α = 1 rad s–2).
angular displacement/rad

25
20 Answer
15 Curve starting at (0, 0) and passing through (2, 2),
10 (4, 8), and so on.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

5
0
–5 1 2 3 4 5 6

  time/s

TEST YOURSELF
Rotational motion
1 Two children sit on a carousel horse ride at the b) the linear velocity of a child sitting 2.00 m
12 funfair. One sits on a horse near the centre of the from the axis of rotation after 12 seconds.
ride and the other sits on a horse at the outer edge. 3 A centrifuge in a hospital lab is able to separate
Which child has blood into its constituent parts. It accelerates
a) the greater linear velocity uniformly from rest to 30 000 rpm in 20 seconds.
b) the greater angular velocity? Calculate
2 A playground roundabout is initially at rest when it is a) the average angular acceleration
given a constant angular acceleration of 0.05 rad s–2 b) the number of revolutions it has completed
for 12 seconds. Calculate 60 seconds after being switched on.
a) the angular velocity of the roundabout after
12 seconds
4 Figure 33.11 shows how the angular velocity varies 5 A flywheel is a heavy rotating disc used to store

Rotational dynamics
for a passenger on a roundabout. kinetic energy. A 2 m diameter flywheel is mounted
on a bus and is used to supply additional kinetic
energy when the bus is going uphill. If the flywheel
is accelerated from rest for 10 seconds at a rate of
0.21 rad s–2, calculate
tA tB tC tD
0 a) the angular speed of a point on the rim of the
w /rad s−1

tE t/s flywheel after 10 seconds

b) the angle through which that point will have
rotated.
6 A pulsar is a rapidly rotating neutron star that emits a
radio beam, emitting a radio pulse for each rotation of
the star. The period of rotation is found by measuring
the time period between pulses. A pulsar in the Crab
Figure 33.11 nebula has a period of rotation of T = 0.033 s that is
At what time is the angular acceleration increasing at the rate of 1.26 × 10–5 seconds per year.
experienced by the roundabout passenger a) What is the pulsar’s angular acceleration?
a) greatest b) In how many years from now will the pulsar stop
b) least rotating?

Torque and angular acceleration

Figure 33.12

13
To accelerate an object in a straight line, a resultant force must be applied.
Therefore to make a rotating object spin faster, a torque needs to be applied.

The turning effect of a force or torque is calculated by multiplying the force by the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the axis of rotation.
T=Fr
The units of torque are N m.
The amount of torque depends on where and in what direction the force is applied, as well
as the axis of rotation.
 (a) F (b) F (c)
Hinge
(axis of rotation)
r r
F
r

Door

Figure 33.13 (a) results in the largest torque as the force is applied furthest from the axis of rotation (the hinge). (b) results in a
smaller torque than in (a) as the line of action of the force is closer to the axis of rotation. (c) results in the smallest torque as the
force acts at an angle and so the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the axis of rotation is very small.

EXAMPLE
A series of spanners of different lengths is used to loosen a bolt, as shown
in Figure 33.14. Which combination of spanner length and force applies the
greatest torque to the bolt?
(a)
(a) (a) (b)
(b) (b)

FF F 2F
2F 2F
30°
30° 30°

LL L LL L

(c)
(c) (c) 30° (d)
(d) (d)
30° 30°
2F
2F 2F
2F
2F 2F

LL L LL L
22 2
(e)
(e) (e)

FF F
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

22 2
2L
2L 2L

Figure 33.14 Torque on a bolt.

Answer
The answer is (c).
Torque, the ‘turning effect’ produced by a force applied is calculated using
T = F × r. Each combination of spanner length and force produces a net
torque of LF except for answer (c):
T = L × 2F × cos 30 = 3LF
14

TIP
Torques are usually couples, i.e. two forces separated by a distance. The
second force has its reaction at the pivot and so does not result in a moment.
Without this second reaction force the object would accelerate linearly.
 Moment of inertia
TIP

Rotational dynamics
All objects have a resistance to having their motion changed – this is
The moment of inertia describes called inertia. Newton’s first law of motion is known as the law of
the tendency of a body to resist inertia: ‘An object will remain at rest or continue to move with constant
angular acceleration. It is a
velocity unless acted on by a resultant force’. Similarly, objects have
measure of how difficult it is to
resistance to having their rotational motion changed. This is called
change the angular velocity of an
object for a given torque. rotational inertia.
Moment of inertia is a measure
of how hard it is to set a body Formulae for moment of inertia
rotating. For a given torque, an In Figure 33.15 a point mass is set rotating about point P. The force, F,
object with a large moment of causes an acceleration but we want to calculate the angular acceleration.
inertia experiences a smaller
angular acceleration than a body From Newton’s second law
with a low moment of inertia. ΣF = m a
and using torque to calculate the angular acceleration
P
Fr = m r a
but
a=rα
r1 so
Fr = mr (r α)
α
= mr2 α
F m mr2 is called the moment of inertia, I, for a point mass, m, rotating about a
point at a distance r. The unit of moment of inertia is kg m2.
Figure 33.15
However, we usually are dealing with solid masses and so we have to sum
I is called the moment of inertia of the
up all the point moments of inertia.
object about the axis of rotation and
depends on the mass and distribution and
position of the masses relative to the axis of
rotation. The unit of I is kg m2.
EXAMPLE
In Figure 33.16, two 1 kg masses rotate about point P. The masses
are connected by a very strong light rod (i.e. we can neglect its mass).
Calculate the moment of inertia.
P
Answer
I = I1 + I2
1m
= m1 (r1)2 + m2 (r2)2
= (1 × 12) + (1 × 22) 15
= 5 kg m2 1m

Figure 33.16
 The torque form of Newton’s Second Law
F A body is rotating about a point P. The object can be thought of as being
made of an infinite collection of small mass elements. A torque is applied
α
m1
due to the force F acting. At the instant shown in Figure 33.17, the small
mass m1 will have a linear speed v of ω r1 (as v = r ω).
r1 If the object accelerates then m1 also accelerates with an acceleration of a1 = α r1.

P Newton’s Second Law of motion, F = m a, tells us the resultant force needed

to accelerate a mass and so
F = m1 a = m1 α r1

Figure 33.17 Moment of inertia of a The resultant torque, T about point P, due to this force = F × r1 = m1 (r1)2 α.
solid body. The total torque can be calculated by adding up all the torques on all the
mass elements which make up the object:
total torque = m1 (r1)2 α + m2 (r2)2 α + m3 (r3)2 α + ... + mn (rn)2 α = I α
n
TIP
For a point mass m a distance
T= ∑ ( m r )α
i =1
i i
2
=Iα
r from the axis of rotation, the
moment of inertia would be
calculated using I = m r2. Resultant torque (N m) = moment of inertia (kg m2) × angular acceleration (rad s–2)
For an extended object the This is the rotational equivalent of Newton’s Second Law of motion: ‘A resultant torque
‘sigma m r squared’, I = Σ m r2, causes angular acceleration. Torque causes a change in rotational motion.’
summation should be completed Σ T = I α
using integration.
This is sometimes called the torque form of Newton’s Second Law.

Figure 33.18 shows the moment of inertia of some common shapes. You are
not expected to remember these formulae but refer to these to answer the
Test yourself questions on page 18.

long thin rod with long thin rod with solid sphere thin spherical shell
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

rotation axis through centre rotation axis through end

R R
L
L

I = 1 ML2 I = 1 ML2
12 3
I = 2 MR 2 I = 2 MR 2
5 3
rectangular plate
hoop or cylindrical shell hollow cylinder solid cylinder
16

R1 R2 R
R

b
a
I = MR 2 I = 1 M (R 21 + R 22) I = 1 MR 2
I = 1 M (a 2 + b 2) 2 2
12

Figure 33.18 Moment of inertia of common shapes.

 MATHS BOX
TIP

Rotational dynamics
The derivation of the moment of inertia of a uniform rod rotating about
You will not be expected to derive its end is shown here for the interested mathematician.
I = ∑ m r2.

δr
r
L

Figure 33.19
The rod has a density ρ, cross-sectional area A and length L. So
 M = ρ A L
The moment of inertia about P, ΔI for the small section Δr is
  ΔI = ρ A Δr × r2
So the total moment of inertia is the sum of all the small mass elements:
L

= ∫ρ Ar δ r
2
I 
0

 = 13 ρ A L3
 = 13 M L2

EXAMPLE
1 A constant force of 50 N acts on a wheel of radius 2 An external torque of 40 N m is applied to a wheel
20 cm which rotates about its centre. The moment rotating on bearings against a constant frictional
of inertia of the wheel is 9.0 kg m2. force of 12 N m for 20 seconds after which it is
a) Calculate the resultant torque acting on the removed. The wheel is initially stationary and reaches
wheel. an angular speed of 760 rpm after 20 seconds.
Answer a) Calculate the moment of inertia of the wheel.
T=Fr Answer
Resultant torque = 40 N m – 12 N m = 28 N m
= 50 N × 0.2 m
ω1 = 0 rad s–1
= 10 N m ω2 = 760 rpm 
2π  17
b) Calculate the acceleration of the wheel caused ω2  = 760 rpm ×   = 79.6 rad s–1
 60s 
by the torque and state any assumptions you are
making. ω − ω1 (79.6 rad s–1 – 0)
α= 2 =
t 20 s
Answer
= 3.98 rad s–2
T 10 T 28 N m
α= = = 1.11 rad s–2 I= =
I 9 α 3.98 rad s–2
We are assuming the force is applied = 7.0 kg m2
tangentially. b) Calculate how long the wheel takes to come to
rest after the external torque is removed.
 Answer Using
When the external torque is removed the wheel slows ω2 = ω1 + α t
down as there is a resultant torque of 12 N m acting
against its motion due to friction between the axle and 0 rad s–1 = 79.6 rad s–1 – 1.7 rad s–2 t
bearings. 79.6 rad s–1
t=
T –12 N m 1.7 rad s–2
α= = = 46.8 s
I 7.0 kg m2
= – 1.7 rad s–2

TEST YOURSELF
Torque and moment of inertia
1 Find the moment of inertia for
a) a 2 kg mass on the end of a massless rope that is 3 m long
b) a helicopter rotor which is made of three blades (treated as rods),
each of mass = 30 kg and length = 7.0 m. The blades are fixed at an
angle of 120° relative to each other.
Irod = 1 MR2
3
2 A shelf is supported by a metal rod which is pivoted at one end. The
rod support has a mass of 0.5 kg and is 50 cm long. When released
from the horizontal position it accelerates downwards towards a
vertical position. The moment of inertia of a uniform rod is 1 ML2.
Calculate 3
a) the angular acceleration of the rod shelf support
b) the linear acceleration of the right-hand tip of the rod. Comment on
your answer.
3 Two 10 kg masses are placed on opposite ends of a 2 m long bar at a
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

gym.
Calculate the moment of inertia if
a) the bar is rotated at the midpoint
b) the bar is rotated a distance of 50 cm from the left-hand mass.
You may ignore the mass of the bar.
4 A 20 N force is applied to a pulley which has a mass of 5 kg and a
radius of 45 cm. The force accelerates the pulley from rest to an
angular speed of 40.0 rad s–1 in 5.0 s. Frictional forces apply a torque
of 1.5 N m about the axle. Calculate the moment of inertia of the
pulley.
5 What continuous force would need to be applied at the equator to
18 reduce the Earth’s rotation to zero in 12 hours?

Isphere = 2 MR2
5
 Rotational kinetic energy
P

Rotational dynamics
An object which is rotating will have kinetic energy as it has angular
velocity. A rotating object can do work or transfer energy to another body.
The kinetic energy EK of a moving mass m which is rotating about point P is
w
1
r
EK = m v2
2
1
= m r2 ω2
2
1
= I ω2
2
v m So, in general we can say that the rotational kinetic energy of a body is
1
Figure 33.20
EK = I ω2
2
Objects which are rotating may also be moving through space. The total EK
will be the sum of the rotational EK and translational EK..

MATHS BOX
We can calculate the total rotational Ek of a body by summing the
contribution from each mass element.
w

v1 = rw

r1
m1

Figure 33.21 Rotational kinetic energy.

1
The kinetic energy of the mass element m1 shown in Figure 33.21 is m (v1)2.
2
The total kinetic energy of the object will be equal to the sum of the
kinetic energy of the individual mass elements.
1 1 1 1
  Total kinetic energy = m(v1)2 + m(v2)2 + m(v3)2 + ... + m(vn)2
2 2 2 2
We can write this in terms of angular velocity as
 v = r ω 19
So
1 1 1 1
  total kinetic energy = m(r1ω)2 + m(r2ω)2 + m(r3ω)2 + ... + m(rnω)2
2 2 2 2
and as was shown in the moment of inertia section (see page 16)
 I = Σ m r2
Therefore
1
total rotational kinetic energy = I ω2
2
 EXAMPLE
1 Calculate the angular speed of a spinning Answer
basketball if its moment of inertia is 12 kg m2 and 0.5 ms–1
ω=v =
its rotational kinetic energy is 105 J. r 0.3 m
Answer = 1.67 rad s–1
EK = 1 I ω2 total EK = translational EK + rotational EK
2

ω=
2 EK = 1 mv2 + 1 I ω 2
2 2
I
1 1
=   × 15 × 0.52 +   × 0.3 × 1.672 
2 × 105 2 2
= = 4.2 rad s−1 = 2.29 J
12
2 Calculate the kinetic energy of a cylinder of
mass 15 kg and radius 0.3 m if it is rolling with a
translational velocity of 0.5 m s–1.
 Icylinder = 0.3 kg m2

Flywheels
Rotational kinetic energy is put to use by machines which use flywheels.
These are usually large and heavy and so have a large moment of inertia.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Figure 33.23 A scooter flywheel helps the engine to idle smoothly.

The flywheel may also contain an integral fan to cool the engine. It
also rotates about magnets which use electromagnetic induction
to produce electrical power.

20

Figure 33.22 A rim type flywheel forming part of an

early steam engine. This design gave a larger moment of
inertia than for a solid disc design of the same mass as
the mass is positioned further from the axis of rotation.
 flywheel

Rotational dynamics
force F

axis
torque = F r

Figure 33.24 A torque applied to a flywheel.

Flywheels are used to smooth out torque and angular speed and can store
energy, releasing it when the vehicle or machine requires additional energy
to do work. The flywheel helps steady the rotation of the shaft when a
fluctuating torque is exerted on it by the pistons. It smooths out the pulsing
from the engine.

flywheel

crankshaft

r piston

Figure 33.25 To smooth torque a flywheel is attached to the crankshaft.

The crankshaft translates the linear oscillations of the pistons into rotational
energy to drive the wheels. The heavy flywheel stores rotational kinetic energy
and releases it when the engine pistons are not delivering power. This helps to
ensure the wheels turn smoothly and can also help the wheels turn when the
vehicle is moving downhill and the engine is not connected (i.e. idling).
Some vehicles use flywheels to store kinetic energy when braking. Instead
of this energy being wasted as thermal energy in the brake blocks and
surroundings, the translational kinetic energy of the vehicle can be
transferred to the rotational EK of the flywheel. The linear EK can then be
returned to the vehicle when the driver wishes to accelerate.

Factors affecting the energy stored by a flywheel

The mass and shape of the flywheel both affect the moment of inertia and
21
so affect the amount of energy stored, as total rotational kinetic energy
1
= I ω 2.
2
The angular speed is limited by the breaking stress that the material
from which the flywheel is made can experience. Developments in new
composite materials mean that flywheels have now been developed which
can rotate at speeds over 50 000 rpm.
 EXAMPLE
1 A flywheel is made of a solid disc of thickness t, 2 How does the energy stored in a spoked flywheel
density ρ and radius R. By what factor does the compare with one made from a solid disc? Calculate
EK stored increase if the flywheel’s radius and the angular velocity a solid disc flywheel would need
thickness are doubled and it is spun at half the to rotate at in order to store the same energy as a
speed? spoked flywheel of the same mass.

t

R
R

I = 1 MR 2 I = MR 2
2
Figure 33.27
I = 1 MR 2 Answer
2
Figure 33.26 For the spoked flywheel, as the spokes are relatively
thin we can neglect their mass and assume that all of
Answer the mass lies in the rim. The moment of inertia of the
1 2
EK = Iω spoked wheel is therefore twice that of the solid disc
2 and so for the same mass and angular velocity it would
1 1 store twice the EK.
= × MR 2ω 2
2 2
  Ispoke = 2 × Isolid
= 1 MR 2ω 2
4 but to have the same EK
M = ρπ R2 t   1 Ispoke ω spoke
2 1 2
= Isolid ω solid
2 2
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Therefore
so
EK =
1
4
( )
ρ π R 2t R 2ω 2
  2 × Isolid × ω spoke
2 2
= Isolid ω solid
= 1 ρπ R 4t ω 2 ω solid = √2 ωspoke
4
Wheel 1: R, t, ω 3 State and explain two ways to increase the energy
ω storage capacity of a flywheel.
Wheel 2: 2R, 2t,
2
So Answer
2
1 ρπ(2R )4 (2t )  ω  Rotational EK is proportional to the moment of inertia
EK 2 4  
2 and the angular velocity squared. If the mass of the
22 =
EK 1 1 ρ πR 4 (2t )ω 2 flywheel is increased then the EK will increase. By
4 moving more mass to the edge of the flywheel the mo-
EK 2 ment of inertia would increase. If the angular speed is
= 24 × 2 × 1 doubled then the EK stored will increase by a factor of
EK 1 4
4. This means that even small increases in the angular
 = 8 velocity of the flywheel will result in a large increase in
the EK stored.
 to engine Uses of flywheels

Rotational dynamics
Flywheels are used in a wide range of applications.
flywheel
60 000 rpm
KERS (Kinetic Energy Recovery System)
driveshaft
output torque KERS is a system for recovering a moving vehicle’s
to wheels kinetic energy during braking. The recovered energy
output gear train is stored in a reservoir (for example a flywheel or high
gearings, start clutch
voltage batteries) for later use when accelerating. This
can add more power whilst also increasing efficiency.
These systems have been used on Formula 1 cars and
are now even used on some London buses.

Flywheels as mechanical batteries

Flywheel energy storage can be used to overcome the
limitations of intermittent energy supplies, such as
solar photovoltaics or wind turbines that are not able to
transmission
produce electricity at a constant rate as wind turbines
Figure 33.28 KERS flywheel system layout.
rotate at variable speeds depending on the wind.
A flywheel energy storage system can be thought of as a mechanical battery,
converting and storing the energy as kinetic energy until it is needed.
Electricity can then be generated from the spinning flywheel when required.
By developing low friction bearings, energy losses can be reduced further.
Such mechanical batteries could be a replacement for the chemical batteries
currently used to store electricity.

Machine tools
Heavy machinery often requires a large work output in a small time.
Machines to work sheet metal for car body parts or for punching out parts
are driven by high pressure liquid or air. They incorporate a flywheel to
assist the motor and supply energy when required for the heavy, short
duration task. If a motor was used by itself it would stall as the energy
requirement is too great.

EXAMPLE
A prototype solid disc flywheel has a mass of 10 kg, a diameter of 40 cm
and spins at a rate of 100 000 rpm.
Figure 33.29 A metal press uses a
flywheel to assist the motor. a Calculate the rotational speed of a point on the rim of the flywheel.
23
Answer
f = 100 000 = 1666.7 rps
60
so
ω = 2π × 1666.7 = 10 472 rad s–1
  v = r ω = 0.2 × 10 472 = 2100 ms–1
(this is about six times the speed of sound in air).
b Comment on your answer to part (a).
Answer
At such a high speed the wheel would be placed under enormous stress
and could break apart. The bonds holding the solid together may be unable
to provide the large centripetal force required. New, composite materials
are being developed which are able to withstand such large ‘centrifugal’
forces.
c Calculate the energy stored by this flywheel in J and in kWh.
Answer
1
 I = MR2
2
1
= × 10 × 0.22
2
= 0.2 kg m2
1
  EK = I ω2
2
1
   = × 0.2 × 10 4722
2
   = 10.97 × 106 J = 11 MJ
  1kWh = 3 600 000 J
  therefore
11 × 106
  energy stored = = 3 kWh
3.6 × 106

Measuring the moment of inertia of a flywheel

G-clamp One method of measuring the moment of inertia of a flywheel is by
allowing it to be accelerated by a falling mass. The loss in gravitational
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

potential energy of the falling mass is converted to rotational and

translational kinetic energy.

Measurements
flywheel axle
The flywheel is rotated anticlockwise and as it rotates the masses
are lifted up and the string becomes wrapped around the axle of the
flywheel.

mass
When the masses reach the top they are released. The string begins to
unwind as the masses fall and the flywheel accelerates. The time taken for
the masses to fall a measured height is recorded.
24 rubber tile The gravitational potential energy of the falling masses can now be
Figure 33.30 Measuring the moment of calculated.
inertia of a flywheel.  he final angular velocity is needed in order to be able to calculate the
T
rotational kinetic energy gained by the flywheel.
The number of complete rotations of the flywheel is used to determine
its average angular speed. The number of complete rotations can be
determined by knowing the distance fallen by the masses and the
circumference of the axle. The string unravels as the masses fall and so
 distance fallen by masses
number of rotations made by the flywheel =
circumference of axle

Rotational dynamics
The number of rotations can then be converted into angular displacement
by multiplying by 2π.
angular displacement
average angular velocity =
time
so if it is assumed that the flywheel has uniform angular acceleration the
final angular velocity can be calculated as
 ω2 = 2 × average angular velocity
This can also be used to determine the final linear velocity as v = r ω.
Therefore the radius of the axle where the string was wrapped around
should also be measured.

EXAMPLE
Use the following data to determine the moment of inertia of the flywheel
and comment on the answer.

A 0.5 kg mass hanging from a string is used to accelerate a flywheel of

radius 6 cm from rest.

The mass falls through a distance of 2 metres in 9.6 seconds.

The diameter of the axle is 7.5 mm.

You will need to calculate:

1 Number of rotations of the flywheel

2 Average angular velocity
3 Maximum angular velocity
4 Maximum linear speed of falling mass (you cannot use the linear
equations of uniform acceleration as the acceleration of the mass is
not 9.81 ms–2)
5 Loss in gravitational potential energy of the masses.
Answers
Number of rotations made by the flywheel = distance fallen by mass ×
circumference of axle
2 m
  n= = 84.9 rotations
π × 7.5 × 10–3
angular displacement
  Average angular speed =
time
             = 84.9 × 2π = 55.6 rad s–1
9.6 s
25
Wheel accelerates uniformly so maximum angular velocity

 ω2 = 2 × average angular velocity

 ω2 = 55.6 × 2 = 111.2 rad s–1

Maximum linear speed of falling mass

 v = r ω2 = 3.75 × 10–3 m × 111.2 rad s–1

  = 0.417 ms–1
 Loss in GPE of falling mass = gain in KE of mass + gain in rotational KE
of flywheel

 mgΔh = 1 m v2   + 1 I ω2
2 2
  0.5 × 9.81 × 2 = (0.5 × 0.5 × 0.4172) + (0.5 I × 111.22)

 I = 9.77
6183
EXTENSION TASK –    = 1.56 × 10–3 kg m2
MEASURING THE MOMENT
OF INERTIA OF A YO-YO Evaluation
Could you design an experiment The moment of inertia is actually smaller than this value as we have ne-
to measure the moment of inertia glected the effect of friction between the bearings and axle and also any
of a yo-yo? What measurements effects of drag. The angular acceleration of the flywheel will not be uniform
would you make and what as frictional forces will increase with velocity. The string is likely to double
simplifying assumptions would up on top of itself as it wraps around the axle. This will decrease the actual
be required? number of rotations completed by the flywheel.

Work, energy and power

Work has to be done on an object to cause it to rotate about an axis.
Examples where large amounts of work (and correspondingly high torques)
are required are swing bridges, rotating cranes and some fairground or
adventure-park rides. Figure 33.31 shows a constant force, F, being applied
P at a tangent to the rim of a wheel.
F
As the wheel rotates the force remains constant in magnitude and stays
r tangential. If the force causes the wheel to rotate through an angle, θ then
Q
q r   Work done = force × distance PQ
F
        = F × r θ
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

         = torque × θ

         = KE gained
and the work done by the torque is equal to the increase in energy stored in
Figure 33.31 Work done by torque.
the wheel.

EXAMPLE
1 Calculate the work done by a torque of 8 N m in rotating a wheel
through 5 revolutions.
26 Answer
  Work done = torque × θ

       = 8 N m × 5 × 2π

       = 251 J
2 Calculate the number of revolutions a wheel completes after a constant
braking torque of 8 N m is applied. The moment of inertia of the wheel
is 3 kg m2 and it is rotating about its centre with an angular velocity of
20 rad s–1 when the braking torque is applied.
 Answer

Rotational dynamics
Work done by torque = decrease in KE
1 2
  Tθ = Iω
2
1
  8 × θ = × 3 × 202
2
    θ = 75 rad

  Number of complete revolutions = 75 rad

2π
                 = 11.9 ≈ 11

Power
Power is the rate of doing work or rate of energy transfer:
work done
  Power = and as W = Tθ
time
θ
  power = torque ×
time
Angular velocity is defined as
θ
 ω =
t
and therefore
  power = torque × angular velocity
     =Tω
This can be used to calculate the power delivered by an applied torque or
the work done per second by a frictional torque.

EXAMPLE
A circular saw blade accelerates uniformly from rest to 620 rad s–1 in
3 seconds. If the saw has a moment of inertia of 5.9 × 10–4 kg m2, calculate
the average power transferred to accelerate the blade. You may assume
friction is negligible.

Answer
1
Rotational EK gained = 2 I ω2
1
= 2 × 5.9 × 10–4 kg m2 × (620 rad s–1)2

= 113.4 J
EK gained 27
Power =
time
= 113.4
3
= 37.8 W
 TEST YOURSELF
Angular kinetic energy, work and power
1 Flywheels have been tested as energy storage devices for small-scale
power systems. Estimate the kinetic energy which could be stored in
a 60 tonne flywheel with a diameter of 10 m when rotating at 120 rpm.
1
The flywheel has a moment of inertia of Mr 2.
2
2 A hurricane can be thought of as a rotating cylinder of air. If the
rotation is assumed to be constant, calculate the maximum EK stored
in a hurricane of diameter 200 km, height 4 km and whose speed at
the outer edge is 180 Km h–1.
The density of air is 1.2 kg m–3 and the moment of inertia of a cylinder
1
is Mr 2.
2
3 Calculate the work done per second by a small aeroplane engine in
turning the propeller with a speed of 2000 rpm, if the engine applies a
torque of 800 N m.
4 A truck can be run for a short time on the energy stored in a flywheel.
The flywheel has a mass of 500 kg, a radius of 1.2 m and a rotational
speed of 628 π rad s–1.
a) Calculate the kinetic energy of the flywheel.
b) If the truck uses an average power of 10 kW, calculate for how
many minutes it can operate using only the energy stored in the
flywheel.
The moment of inertia of a solid disc can be calculated using
1
I =  MR2.
2
Stretch and challenge
5 A wheel of mass 5 kg is pulled up a ramp which is angled at 25° to the
horizontal. The 40 N force acts parallel to the ramp. If the wheel has
a radius of 0.4 m and moment of inertia of 0.6 kg m2, calculate the
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

translational velocity the wheel has gained after travelling 10 m along

the ramp.
6 Two identical solid balls of the same mass and radius are released
from the top of two ramps, one ramp has friction and so enables the
ball to roll, the other is frictionless and so the ball slides without
rolling.

∆h
28
q

Figure 33.32
Both ramps make an angle of θ to the horizontal. If the height of the
ramp is 1.5 m and it makes an angle of 10° to the horizontal, calculate
which ball reaches the bottom first. You can assume the moment of
inertia of a sphere is
2 Mr 2.
5
 Angular momentum

Rotational dynamics
Angular momentum of a rotating body Linear momentum is defined as the product of the mass and the velocity
=Iω of a moving object. Objects which are rotating also possess angular
momentum. We can calculate the angular momentum of a single particle
moving in a circular path.
m
The angular momentum L of a particle about an axis is defined as the
r
moment of momentum:
 L = momentum × r
=mvr
p = mv
= mr2 ω
=Iω
Figure 33.33 The angular momentum
(L) of a particle moving in a circle. This can be compared to linear momentum, p = mv, where mass is replaced
by moment of inertia and velocity by angular velocity.

Conservation of angular momentum

Just as with linear momentum, angular momentum is also conserved.
The law of conservation of angular
momentum is stated as follows: ‘The Newton’s second law of motion for a body undergoing linear motion states
angular momentum about an axis is
that:
constant if no external torque acts about
that axis’.   resultant force × time = change in momentum = mv – mu
Angular impulse = change in angular
momentum For a rotating object we can write that:
  resultant torque × time = change in angular momentum
Replacing mass in the linear version of Newton’s second law with moment
of inertia and velocity with angular velocity results in
  ΣT × t = I ω1 – I ω2
  ΣT × t = I Δω
 TΔt = Δ(Iω)
This is the rotational version of Newton’s second law of motion.

TIP EXAMPLE
In many examples the moment A wheel has a moment of inertia of 3 kg m2 about its centre. Calculate the
of inertia can also change. Due steady braking torque required to decelerate it from an angular velocity of
to the law of conservation of 18 rad s–1 to 10 rad s–1 in 7 seconds.
angular momentum this will
lead to a change in the angular Answer 29
velocity of the rotating object
  T × t = I ω1 – I ω2
without requiring an external
torque to be applied and so if T × 7 = 3 (18 – 10)
Σ T = 0, the law of conservation
of angular momentum can be 24
T=
written as 7
 I1 ω1 = I2 ω2. T = 3.4 N m
 Applications of conservation of angular
momentum
The angular velocity of a spinning ice skater
or dancer increases if they pull in their arms
as this reduces their moment of inertia and
so increases their angular velocity. Collapsing
stars also begin to spin faster because as their
radius reduces, so does their moment of
inertia. As I = Σmr2 a high diver will decrease
their moment of inertia by curling up their
Angular momentum (L) body (decreasing r) leading to an increase
is constant in the air in their angular velocity. They will therefore
diving board L = Iw
100 complete more somersaults before they hit the
–L/kg m2 s–1 water.
–w/rad s–1 80 Angular velocity (w)
–I/kg m2
Moment of inertia (I ) decreases as moment Figure 33.34 shows the conservation of
60 decreases as body of inertia increases momentum in a dive. At any moment total
becomes more
curled up L = I ω as there is no external torque acting
40
water
t on the diver. The diver therefore spins fastest
20 when the distance to the axis of rotation is
smallest.
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
time/s
Figure 33.34 Conservation of angular momentum in a dive.

EXAMPLE
1 A dancer spins about a vertical axis with her arms outstretched with a
speed of 3 revolutions per second (rps). She then moves her arms to
her side and reduces her moment of inertia to two-thirds of the value it
was with arms outstretched. Calculate her new angular speed.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Answer
  I1 ω1 = I2 ω2

2
 I1 × 3 = × I × ω2
3 1
ω2 = 4.5 rev s–1

2 A student sits on a rotating stool

holding two weights, each of w1 w2
mass 2.00 kg. When her arms
are extended horizontally, the
30 weights are 0.70 m from the
axis of rotation and the student
rotates with an angular speed of
1.5 rad s–1.
While spinning, the student
pulls the weights inward
horizontally to a position 0.20 m
from the axis of rotation.
 alculate the angular speed of Figure 33.35
C
the student after the weights have been pulled inward.
 Rotational dynamics
The moment of inertia of the student plus stool is 3.00 kg m2.

Answer
 I = Istudent + Iweight 1 + Iweight 2
 I1 = 3 + (2 × 0.72 + 2 × 0.72) = 4.96 kg m2
 I2 = 3 + (2 × 0.22 + 2 × 0.22) = 3.16 kg m2
 o external torque is applied and so from the law of conservation of
N
angular momentum
 I1 ω1 = I2 ω2
  4.96 kg m2 × 1.5 rad s–1 = 3.16 kg m2 × ω2
 ω2 = 2.35 rad s–1
3 A potter’s wheel is rotating freely at a speed of 30 rpm about its centre.
It has a moment of inertia of 1.5 kg m2. The potter drops a lump of
clay of mass 0.8 kg onto the wheel 30 cm from its axis. Explain what
happens to the speed of the wheel and calculate by what percentage
the wheel’s rotation changes.

Answer
The angular velocity of the wheel decreases because mass has been
added and therefore the moment of inertia increases as I = ΣMr2. There is
no external torque so for angular momentum to be conserved (I1 ω1 = I2 ω2)
the angular velocity must decrease as I2 has increased.
2π
ω1 = 30 rpm × s
60
= 3.14 rad s–1
By applying the law of conservation of momentum, the moment of inertia
of the wheel is increased by I = Mr2 after the clay is added so
 I2 = I1 + Mr2
where M = mass of clay added to the wheel and r = distance between the
clay and the axis of rotation.
 I2 = 1.5 + (0.8 × 0.302) = 1.572
 I1 ω1 = I2 ω2

  1.5 kg m2 × 3.14 rad s–1 = 1.572 kg m2 × ω2

 ω2 = 3.00 rad s–1

The wheel slows down by only a small amount as the additional moment
of inertia of the clay is small compared with the large moment of inertia 31
of the wheel.
% decrease in angular velocity of wheel = 4%
ω2 3.00 rad s–1
   ω = × 100 = 96%
1 3.14 rad s–1
 Simple clutches
A clutch is a mechanical device which enables the transfer of rotational
power from the engine of a car to the wheels. In a manual transmission
car, the clutch controls the connection between the rotating shaft coming
from the engine and the shafts which turn the wheels. The car’s engine
generates power all the time, and has parts which are constantly rotating,
but the wheels are not constantly spinning. To allow the car to both change
speed and to come to a complete stop without turning off the engine, the
connection between the wheels and the engine needs to be temporarily
broken.

shaft and disc of moment shaft and discs of moment of inertia l1 + I2

of inertia l1 rotating at w1 rotating at common angular speed w
shaft and disc of moment
of inertia l2 rotating at w2

lining of high-friction material

Figure 33.36 A simple (flat) clutch in a manual car. Most real clutches are in fact a conical shape
to increase the amount of friction and reduce slipping. This ensures better power transmission.

A set of springs keep a pressure plate pushed up against the clutch plate.
This pressure pushes the clutch plate up against the flywheel connecting
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

the engine to the drive shaft which transfers motion to the wheels.
When the clutch pedal is pushed down the pressure plate is pulled away
from the clutch plate. This breaks the connection between the rotating
engine and the wheels, meaning that the wheels continue to spin but
under their own inertia, not through the power of the engine. This
design allows the driver to disengage the wheels from the engine in order
to change gear.
Conservation of angular momentum can be applied to the two plates.
Total angular momentum before engagement = I1 ω1 + I2 ω2

32
Total angular momentum after engagement = (I1 + I2) ω
where ω is the common angular velocity of the two plates after they engage.
(I ω + I ω )
 ω = 1 1 2 2
(I1 + I2)
 TEST YOURSELF

Rotational dynamics
Angular momentum  he cylinder has a radius of 30 cm, a mass of 3 kg and
T
1 A figure skater can reduce their rate of rotation is initially at rest.
from an initial rate of 1 revolution every 1.8 s to a Just before striking the cylinder the velocity of the
final rate of 3 revolutions per second. 5 gram bullet is 960 m s–1.
a) Calculate their initial angular velocity in rad s–1. 1
The moment of inertia of a cylinder is  Mr2.
b) If their initial moment of inertia was 5.1 kg m2, 2
Use this data to calculate the angular velocity of the
use the law of conservation of angular
cylinder after the bullet becomes embedded.
momentum to calculate their final moment of
inertia. 3 At the end of the Sun’s life it will collapse into a
c) Explain how they physically changed their white dwarf star, losing half its current mass and
moment of inertia. with a radius of 1.5% it current value.
2 A bullet strikes the outer edge of a cylinder as If the Sun’s current rotation period is 30 days, what
shown in Figure 33.37 and becomes embedded in will be its rotation period as a white dwarf?
the cylinder. You may assume that the ejected mass does not
carry any angular momentum with it.
bullet 2
The moment of inertia of a sphere is  Mr 2.
5
4 A person of mass 70 kg stands at the centre of
a playground roundabout of radius 2 m which is
rotating at 0.9 rad s–1. They walk from the centre to
the edge of the roundabout.
The moment of inertia of the roundabout is 950 kg m2.
r
a) Describe what happens to the speed of the
roundabout.
b) Calculate the change in angular velocity after
the person completes their walk to the edge.
 
  Figure 33.37 Bullet striking the outer edge of a cylinder.

Rotational and linear motion compared

TEST YOURSELF
Rotational and linear motion compared
1 Complete the table below to compare linear and rotational motion.

Linear motion Rotational motion

Velocity, v v
Angular velocity, ω = r
Momentum = mv
1
Kinetic energy = 2 m v 2 33

Resultant torque, T = I α
Change in momentum = F × t Change in angular momentum
=T×t
Work done = change in EK = F × s
work done
Power =
time
Linear momentum is conserved if no Angular momentum is conserved if
external forces act no external torques act, I1 ω 1 = I2 ω 2
 ●● Thermodynamics and engines
The core thermal physics topic introduced you to thermal energy transfer,
ideal gases and kinetic theory. This part of the option covers these in greater
depth and is also concerned with how these ideas can be applied to making
engines and heat pumps.

The first law of thermodynamics

James Joule (1818–1889) carried out many experiments, all of which
showed that energy in any one form could be converted into any other
m form, with a loss of useful energy in the process. Many of his experiments
involved doing mechanical work on a liquid or gas and then measuring the
temperature increase.
Joule worked during a time of great industrial change and much of his work
m
was concerned with improving the efficiency of steam engines. By carrying
out very careful measurements he was able to show that the work done by
thermal insulator
an engine added to the thermal energy produced by friction and the thermal
Figure 33.38 Joule’s experiment on
the mechanical equivalent of heat. As
energy lost from a chimney and exhaust is equal to the thermal energy
the mass falls and loses gravitational produced by the burnt fuel. This is led to the principle of conservation of
potential energy it causes the paddles energy.
to move through the water. Friction
between the paddle wheels and the You should remember from the A-level thermal physics topic that:
water causes the temperature of the
Heat = energy flow due to a temperature difference. Energy always transfers
water to increase slightly.
from a higher temperature body to a lower temperature body.
Internal energy = sum of the randomly distributed kinetic and potential
TIP energies of all its particles. Ideal gases are assumed to have zero potential
We can express this principle energy as there are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the particles
mathematically as an equation: (apart from when they are colliding).
  Q = Δ U + W
where If a gas is warmed and expands then the heat (Q) given to it causes an
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Q = amount of energy transferred increase in the internal energy (Δ U) and also causes work (W) to be done.
to the system by heating The first law of thermodynamics enables the link to be made between
 Δ U = increase in internal energy transferred by mechanical means and the energy transferred due to a
energy of the system temperature difference.
  W = work done by the system.
This is known as the first law of
thermodynamics and it enables
us to calculate how the internal
energy of a body changes as heat is EXAMPLE
transferred or work is done.
1 3000 J of energy is transferred to a system by heating and 1200 J of
work is done on the system. Calculate the change in internal energy of
the system.
34
Answer
TIP
Sign conventions and the first Q = Δ U + W
law. This law historically related   3000 J = Δ U − 1200 J
to steam engines where the main
interest was in the heat input and Δ U = 4200 J
the work output. If work is done 2 50 J of energy was transferred to a gas by heating it, causing the gas to
on the system (e.g. to compress expand and do 30 J of work. Calculate the change in internal energy of
a gas) then W is negative. If heat the system.
is lost from the system then Q is
also negative.
 Answer

Thermodynamics and engines

Q = Δ U + W
50 J = Δ U + 30 J
Δ U = 20 J
The internal energy of the gas increases by 20 J. This would be seen as
an increase in the rms speed of the molecules and so the temperature of
the gas would increase.
3 Calculate the work done when 130 J of energy is transferred to a gas
by heating and its internal energy increases by 200 J.
Answer
Q = Δ U + W
130 = 200 + W
W = –70 J
The work done is negative which indicates that work is done on the gas,
i.e. the gas is being compressed.
4 Use the first law of thermodynamics to explain why air cools when it
expands rapidly.
Answer
Q = Δ U + W
Q = 0 as heat has no time to transfer
–Δ U = W
U (internal energy) is related to the temperature of the gas and so if U
decreases, the temperature decreases.

The first law of thermodynamics and ideal gases

The work done when a gas expands can be calculated by considering a gas
trapped inside a cylinder which is fitted with a movable piston.

35

∆V ∆x

Figure 33.39 A trapped gas does work as it expands and

pushes the piston.
 Work done by expanding gas = pressure × The molecules of gas are colliding with the piston and so exerting a force
volume change = pΔV given by
Integration can be used for larger changes or   Force = Pressure × Area
when the pressure is not constant.
v2
If the gas is allowed to expand and moves the piston a distance Δx, the
  W=
∫
v1
p ∆V
work done by the expanding gas = force × distance = F Δx.
  Work done = pA Δx
= pΔV
  as volume change = A Δx.
TIP
Remember to use the correct SI
units. For work to be in joules, the
pressure must be in Pa or N m–2 EXAMPLE
and the volume in m3.
1 Energy is transferred to a gas by heating, causing the volume to
increase from 0.500 m3 to 0.510 m3. If the pressure remains constant at
100 000 Pa, calculate the work done by the gas.
Answer
p W = pΔV = 100 000 Pa × 0.010 m3 = 1000 J
4

2 Calculate the work done when the volume of a gas decreases from
3 0.300 m3 to 0.280 m3 at a constant pressure of 100 000 Pa.

2 Answer
W = 100 000 Pa × (–0.020 m3) = –2000 J
1 The negative sign indicates that work is being done on the gas to
compress it.
This work done on the gas would cause a temperature rise or would lead
V
to energy being transferred (i.e. a change in Q).
Figure 33.40
3 Figure 33.40 shows four paths followed by an ideal gas on a p-V
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

indicator diagram.
Rank the paths according to
a) the change in internal energy of the gas
b) the work done by the gas
c) heat transferred between the gas and the surroundings.

Answer
Q = Δ U + W

a Δ U = Q – W, this is constant for all processes and is independent of the

path followed by the gas as it expands. So all four paths result in the
36 same change in internal energy.
b W = area under curve 4, 3, 2, 1
c Q = Δ U + W
As Δ U is the same for all paths, the path resulting in the most work
being done also results in the most heat being transferred, in this case
from the surroundings to the gas. 4, 3, 2, 1
 TEST YOURSELF

Thermodynamics and engines

First law and work done b) Explain what happens to the rest of the heat
1 A sample of gas is contained in a cylinder with a input.
moveable piston of diameter 14 cm. The gas is Atmospheric pressure is 101 000 Pa.
heated, transferring 600 J of energy to the gas and Latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2 260 000 J kg–1.
causing it to expand. As it expands it pushes the 4 An ideal gas is held in a container by a moveable
piston up 25 cm. piston and energy is supplied to the gas by heating.
This causes it to expand at a constant pressure of
Calculate 1.2 × 10 5 Pa.
a) the work done by the gas
b) the increase in internal energy of the gas.
energy
The external pressure is 110 kPa (atmospheric transferred to piston
pressure). gas by heating
2 Energy is transferred from a gas causing it to cool
 
and its volume decreases from 5 m3 to 3.5 m3. Figure 33.41
Calculate the work done on the gas as it contracts. The initial volume of the container is 0.050 m3 and
During this process the gas remains at a constant after expansion the volume is 0.10 m3. The total
pressure of 100 000 Pa. energy supplied to the gas by heating during the
3 800 grams of water is heated until it reaches 100°C process is 8 kJ.
and becomes steam. During the change of state a) Determine the work done by the gas.
from liquid to gas the volume increases by 4 m3.
b) Calculate the change in internal energy of the
a) Calculate the work done by the gas in gas.
expanding as it changes state.

Ideal gas equation

An ideal gas is one which obeys the ideal A transfer of energy or work being done can result in a change in the
gas equation at all temperatures and temperature, volume or pressure of a gas. The following equation applies to
pressures. Its internal energy only depends an ideal gas:
on temperature, i.e. the KE of the particles.
Real gases will condense into liquids as they   pV = nRT
are cooled but the ideal gas equation gives
a very good description of the behaviour
where p = pressure (Pa), V = volume (m3), n = number of moles, R = molar
of most gases at typical temperatures and gas constant 8.31 J mol–1, T = temperature (K).
pressures.
The ideal gas equation for a fixed mass of
gas can also be written as
p1 V1 p2 V2
    T = T EXAMPLE
1 2
pV
since = n R and n R is constant. 1 A cylinder contains 400 cm3 of gas at a pressure of 5.0 MPa.
T
a) Calculate the volume of air which escapes when the cylinder is
opened to the atmosphere (P = 101 kPa) whilst the temperature
remains constant.
Answer 37
p1V1 = p2 V2
p1V1
V2 =
p2
5 × 106 Pa × 4 × 10–4 m3
=
101 000 Pa
= 0.0198 m3 = 19 801 cm3
b) Calculate the volume this gas would have at atmospheric
pressure, V2.
 Answer
The volume of escaped air = V2 – V1

= 19 801 cm3 – 400 cm3

= 19 401 cm3
2 Air is trapped in a rigid bottle which is unable to expand. Its pressure is
120 000 Pa when stored in a room of temperature 15°C. The lid of the
bottle will pop off when the pressure increases to 140 000 Pa. Calculate
the temperature at which this occurs.
Answer
p1 p2
=
T1 T2
p T
T2 = 2 1 = 140 000 × 288 = 336 K = 63°C
P1 120 000

TEST YOURSELF
Ideal gases
1 State what is meant by an ideal gas and explain why the internal
energy of an ideal gas is kinetic energy only.
2 The atmospheric pressure is about 100 000 Pa and the temperature
about 300 K. Estimate the number of moles of air in the room you are
in now.

3 A quantity of 0.35 mol of air enters a diesel engine at a pressure of
1.03 × 105 Pa and a temperature of 30°C.
a) Calculate the volume occupied by the gas.
TIP b) When the gas is compressed to one-twentieth of its original
A change which is carried out at volume the pressure rises to 8.0 × 106 Pa. Calculate the
constant temperature (ΔU = 0) is temperature of the gas immediately after the compression.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

called an isothermal process. c) State any assumptions you are making.

Non-flow processes
Isothermal changes
160 000 A
If the temperature remains constant we can plot a diagram to show how
pressure/Pa

T2 > T1
pressure depends on volume. The lines on these indicator diagrams show
B ‘isotherms’. They are ‘y = 1 ’ curves in accordance with Boyle’s Law which
120 000 T2 = 500 K x
showed experimentally that pressure × volume = constant, that is pressure
38 T1 = 300 K
is inversely proportional to volume p ∝ 1 .
0.2 V2 V
volume/m3 T2 > T1
Figure 33.42 p-V diagram showing
isothermal changes at two different because pV = nRT
temperatures. Each point on the curve
If T2 > T1
shows the pressure and volume of the
gas at that moment. p2V2 > p1V1
 Thermodynamics and engines
EXAMPLE
a Use Figure 33.42 on page 38 to calculate the new volume V2 as the gas
expands from A to B.
Answer
Isothermal change so constant temperature.

 p2V2 = p1V1
  120 000 × V2 = 160 000 × 0.2
 V2 = 0.27 m3
b Calculate the number of molecules of gas present.
Answer
Use ideal gas equation, pV = nRT, for any pair of points on the isothermal

160 000 Pa × 0.2 m3 = n × 8.31 × 500 K

n = 7.7 mol
N = NA × n
= 6.02 × 1023 × 7.7
= 4.64 × 1024

Isobaric change
Isobaric means ‘constant pressure’.
pressure/Pa

p1‚ V1 p1‚ V2 As the pressure remains constant the work done can be calculated using
p1 W = pΔV.

0
V1 V2
volume/m3 EXAMPLE
A gas expands at a constant pressure of 100 kPa from a volume of
Figure 33.43 Isobaric change.
10 m3 to a volume of 35 m3. Calculate the work done by the gas.

Answer
W = pΔV

Isobaric changes are changes at constant = 100 000 Pa × (35 m3 – 10 m3)

pressure and are seen as horizontal lines on
= 2.5 × 106 J
a p-V diagram.
Isovolumetric changes are changes at
In an isovolumetric change, no work is done (ΔV = 0, W = 0) and so 39
constant volume and are seen as vertical
lines on a p-V diagram. ΔU = Q.
 An adiabatic process (or adiabatic
change) is one in which no heat is allowed EXAMPLE
to flow into or out of the system, Q = 0.
A gas is cooled to produce a decrease in pressure. The volume is held
constant at 10.0 m3 and the pressure decreases from 1 × 105 N m–2 to
p
0.5 × 105 N m–2. Calculate the work done on the gas.
A
Answer
isothermal W = pΔV

B No work is done as ΔV = 0.
adiabatic C

0 V Adiabatic changes
Figure 33.44 p-V diagram showing Adiabatic changes could happen in a system which is very well insulated
adiabatic and isothermal changes when or where a gas is expanding or being compressed very rapidly before there is
a gas expands without any heat flowing time for heat to flow in or out. The rapid expansion of gases in a car internal
into or out of the system.
combustion engine is an example of a process that is very nearly adiabatic.
If adiabatic changes are plotted on a p-V diagram the curve is steeper than
for an isothermal change. This is because the adiabatic change does not
allow any heat to flow into or out of the system (Q = 0) and so if the gas is
p2
isobaric expanding the internal energy of the gas must decrease (–Δ U = W). In other
words, the work done by the gas leads to a corresponding decrease in the
pressure/Pa

internal energy (and therefore a temperature drop) and a corresponding

isothermal
drop in pressure.
isovolumic

For an adiabatic change, pV g = constant

ad
iab
ati

γ γ
that is, p1V1 = p 2V2
c

p1

You do not need to know the derivation of this.

V1 V2
volume/m3
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Figure 33.45 Comparing isothermal,

isobaric, isovolumetric and adiabatic EXAMPLE
processes. A gas at an initial pressure of 150 kPa is expanded adiabatically until its
volume is doubled. If the initial temperature is 280 K, calculate the final
pressure and temperature of the gas. γ = 1.40.

TIP Answer
γ depends on the type of gas. For
p1 = 150 00 Pa, p2 = ?
a monatomic gas γ = 1.67 and for
a diatomic gas γ = 1.40. You will V2 = 2 V1
always be given these values in  Vγ 
an examination. p2 = p1  1γ 
40  V2 
= 150 000  1  1.4
 
2
= 56.8 kPa
TIP
The specification expects you The ideal gas equation can be used to find the temperature.
to be familiar with isothermal, pV
pV = nRT, therefore = nR and as no gas escapes we can use the ideal
adiabatic, constant pressure and T
constant volume changes gas equation in the form
 MATHS BOX

Thermodynamics and engines

When dealing with indices, p1 V1 p2 V2
=
remember
  T1 T2
150 000 × V1 56 800 × 2 V1
 xn × yn = (xy)n   280 = T2
so γ
113 600 × 2800
(V1) γ  V1   T2 =
  = 150 000
(V2) γ  V2    = 212 K
Try using this rule to tackle the
example above. Kinetic theory in isothermal and adiabatic changes
In an adiabatic expansion the gas has done work to expand and the energy
p
to do this work has come entirely from a decrease in the internal energy
isothermal
expansion of the gas (as no energy can flow into the gas). The particles will now be
moving less quickly, resulting in fewer collisions with the container walls
per second and so the pressure will decrease more rapidly than in an
isothermal change where energy can be taken in.
adiabatic For an isothermal change, the temperature and hence EK of the molecules
expansion remains constant and so the number of collisions with the container walls
V1 V2 V
per second does not decrease as rapidly and so the pressure does not
Figure 33.46 p-V diagram comparing decrease as rapidly.
isothermal expansion and adiabatic
expansion. More work is done by the
The work done in adiabatic and isothermal changes can be compared in
gas when it expands isothermally and Figures 33.46 and 33.47. The gas has the same initial temperature at the
this additional work is shown by the beginning of the processes.
shaded area (shaded area = work done
by gas expanding isothermally – work What happens to the temperature of a gas when it is compressed
done by gas expanding adiabatically).
or expands?
Here we will discuss changes which are not isothermal.
p
Consider a gas trapped in a container with a movable piston. As work is
done to push the piston in, the gas molecules gain kinetic energy from it
and rebound with a greater velocity than their incident velocity. The gain
adiabatic
compression in their EK is equal to the work done in pushing in the piston. Kinetic
theory (see pages 349–352 of the Student’s Book) shows that temperature is
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles
isothermal
compression ( 12 m (crms)2= 32 kT) therefore the temperature rises.
V2 V1 V (a) (b)

Figure 33.47 p-V diagram comparing F

isothermal compression and adiabatic
compression. More work is done on the
gas when it is compressed adiabatically
and this additional work is shown by
41
the shaded area (shaded area = work
done on gas compressing adiabatically
– work done on compressing gas DV
isothermally).

Figure 33.48 (a) The particles rebound off the piston with greater velocity and so
their kinetic energy increases. (b) the particles rebound off the piston with less
kinetic energy.
 When the particles bombard the piston in order to push it outwards they
rebound with less kinetic energy (and therefore less speed) as the collisions
cannot be perfectly elastic. The EK they lose is equal to the work done in
pushing the piston outwards. If the EK of the particles is decreasing then the
temperature of the gas will decrease.

EXAMPLE
1 Explain how an isothermal compression can take place in practice
because the compression by the piston increases the speed (and kinetic
energy) of the molecules.
Answer
The particles must be able to transfer energy away from the gas and so
the container walls should be thin and able to conduct heat well. The
compression must also be slow in order to enable time for heat flow.
2 By considering the motion of the particles, explain how an isothermal
expansion of a gas trapped in a container with a movable piston can
take place in practice.
Answer
The container should enable heat to pass into it from the surroundings so
that the EK transferred by the particles by doing work to push out the piston
can be replaced. The expansion should also take place slowly in order to
allow time for heat to pass back into the gas from the surroundings in order
to maintain a constant mean EK and therefore temperature.

TEST YOURSELF
Non-flow processes
1 2 moles of gas are compressed isothermally from an initial volume of
0.060 m3 to a final volume of 0.042 m3. The initial pressure is 150 kPa.
Calculate the final pressure of the gas.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

2 A diatomic gas at an initial pressure of 120 kPa is expanded

adiabatically until its volume is tripled. The initial temperature is 312 K.
No gas escapes during the process.
a) Calculate the final pressure of the gas.
b) Calculate the final temperature of the gas.
The gas is diatomic and so γ = 1.40.
3 A monotonic gas has an initial volume of 5 m3 at a pressure of
200 kPa. Calculate the new pressure if it is
a) compressed isothermally to a new volume of 0.5 m3
b) compressed adiabatically to a new volume of 0.5 m3.
c) Sketch a p-V diagram to illustrate these two processes.
42 γ = 1.67
4 A fixed mass of gas undergoes two processes. It is first compressed
isothermally from an initial pressure of 1.00 × 105 Pa and a temperature
of 12°C until it reaches a quarter of its initial volume. It then expands
adiabatically back to its original volume. Determine the final pressure
and temperature.
5 Distinguish between an isothermal process and an adiabatic process
as applied to an ideal gas.
An ideal gas is held in a container by a moveable piston and energy
is supplied to the gas such that it expands at a constant pressure of
1.2 × 105 Pa.
State and explain whether this process is either isothermal or adiabatic
or neither.
p Using pressure against volume curves

Thermodynamics and engines

A The area underneath the p-V curve represents the work done. If the gas is
pA
being compressed then the area represents the work done by an external
force on the gas and if it is expanding then the area represents the work
done by the gas.
B
pB
Examples of p-V graphs
Moving from B to A the gas would be being compressed (its volume at A
is smaller than at B) and so the area under the curve would be equal to the
work done on the gas.
0 VA VB V
Figure 33.47 shows that the total work done when gas expands is equal to
Figure 33.49 Work done by an ideal gas
when it expands from A to B is equal to the sum of many small changes in volume × pressure. For the small change
the shaded area under the p-V curve. shown (V1 to V2) the pressure can be considered to be constant. By adding
up many of these small changes the total work done can be determined.
p
A
pA
EXAMPLE
1 Describe the changes a gas undergoes during the process A → B → C
as shown in Figure 33.52.
B
pB
p
A
pA

0 VA VB V
C B
Figure 33.50 Work done on an ideal gas
when it is compressed from B to A is
equal to the shaded area under the p-V
curve.

p 0 VB
A   V

  Figure 33.52
V1
V2
Answer
B A → B: Isothermal change, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
The gas is expanding.
P
B → C: The gas is being compressed at constant pressure. This means
the internal energy of the gas must be decreasing as the EK of the
molecules must be decreasing in order to maintain a constant pressure
∆V V when the volume is decreased.
Figure 33.51 The area under a p-V
curve is equal to work done. C → A: The pressure of the gas is increasing but the volume remains
constant. The internal energy of the gas must be increasing as the EK of 43
the molecules must be increasing in order to increase the pressure of the
gas at a constant volume.
The area ABC enclosed by the cycle is the net work done.
2 Use the p-V diagram shown in Figure 33.53 to estimate the work done
by the gas as it expands from A to B.
 70
60
B

pressure/× 104 Pa
50
40
A
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
  volume/× 10–3 m3
  Figure 33.53
Answer
The area under the curve between A and B represents the work done.

TIP The area can be determined by counting squares. Remember to combine

If the area of a p-V graph is used partial squares together to make whole squares.
to ‘estimate’ the work done then   Area = 7 whole squares + 1 + 1 = 9 squares
there will be some tolerance
allowed by the examiner in the   Area of 1 square = 10 × 104 Pa × 1 × 10–3 m3 = 100 joules
final answer.   Work done = 9 × 100 = 900 J

MATHS BOX
Calculus can be used to calculate the work done for an isothermal
expansion as work done by the gas is the area under the p-V graph as it
expands from V1 to V2.
V2

W = p  dV∫
V1
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

but p V = n R T
V2
n  R  T  
W= ∫
V1
V
 dV

and as
x2
dx  
∫
x1
x
= ln x 2 − ln x1
pressure

V2
dV   isothermal
44 W =  n  R  T   ∫
V1
V
 
work = area under curve
ΔU = 0 = Q – W ∴Q = W
V 
W = n R T ln  2  V1 V2
 V1  volume
Figure 33.54
 Cyclic process

Thermodynamics and engines

p Many processes involve expanding, heating, compressing and cooling one
A
after the other where the gas returns to the initial pressure and volume after
each cycle. Engines are examples of cyclic processes.
B
Figure 33.55 shows a typical cyclic process.
D
A–B: Isothermal expansion
C
B–C: Adiabatic expansion
V C–D: Isothermal compression
Figure 33.55 A typical cyclic process.
D–A: Adiabatic compression

TIP EXAMPLE
As the net work done = work done 1 The p-V indicator diagram in Figure 33.56 shows various paths
by gas when expanding – work which can be followed by a gas. Which two curved paths (followed by
done on gas when compressing, connecting vertical constant volume expansions or compressions)
net work done by the gas per should be followed for the net work done by the gas during a cycle to be
cycle = area enclosed by loop = at its maximum value?
area ABCD
p
For a gas to do work there must
be a supply of energy. This could
be from heating or from the a
internal energy of the gas itself. b
c
d
e
f

V
Figure 33.56

Answer
c–e
The work done by the gas is equal to the area enclosed by the loop. Work
is done by the gas as it expands and on the gas as it is compressed. Path
c is the highest path showing an expansion and path e is the lowest path
showing a compression. The gas therefore moved clockwise around the
cycle. a–f gives the greatest area but as path a is a compression this route
would give the most work done on the gas.
2 Figure 33.57 shows a simplified cycle undergone by a gas. Its initial
volume is 1.5 m3, its initial pressure is 120 000 Pa and its initial
temperature is 320 K. You may assume the gas behaves as an ideal gas.
p
45
p2 C

120 000 Pa p1
A B

0 V1 V2 V
1.5 m3
Figure 33.57
 a) From A to B the gas is heated to 400 K and it expands. Calculate the
new volume, V2.
Answer
This is a change at constant pressure. For an ideal gas
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
 
1.5 V
= 2
  320 400
 V2 = 1.9 m3
b) From B to C the gas is compressed isothermally. Calculate the new
pressure at C.
Answer
There is no change in temperature so
 p1 V1 = p2 V2
  120 000 × 1.9 = 1.5 × p2
 p2 = 152 000 Pa
c) From C to A the gas cools and remains at a constant volume. Estimate
the work done during the cycle and comment on your answer.
Answer
(152 000 − 120 000) × (1.9 − 1.5)
  Area enclosed by cycle =
2
(32 000 × 0.4)
=
2
= 6400 J
This is larger than the actual work done as the actual enclosed area is
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

smaller than a triangle due to the change from B to C being isothermal

(i.e. a y = 1 curve).
x

TEST YOURSELF
Using p–V diagrams
1 Figure 33.58 shows a p-V indicator diagram for a fixed mass of gas in
an engine cylinder completing a cycle of four processes.

2
46 4.0
pressure/× 105 Pa

3.0
3
1
2.0

0
4

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
volume/m3
Figure 33.58
 Thermodynamics and engines
a) State and explain which of the four processes involve work being
done by the gas.
b) Processes 1 and 3 are isothermal. If process 1 occurs at 310 K,
determine the temperature at which process 3 occurs.
c) Use Figure 33.58 to calculate the work done per cycle.
d) If the engine has four cylinders and each cylinder completes 50
cycles per second, calculate the power generated by the engine.
2 Figure 33.59 shows part of a p-V indicator diagram for a fixed mass of
gas passing through the following processes:
1–2 constant volume increase in pressure caused by a heat input of
260 J
2–3 isothermal expansion with work done by the gas equal to 250 J
3–4 constant volume cooling. The gas gives out 260 J of heat as it
cools.
4–1 isothermal compression at a lower temperature than in stage
2–3. 180 J of work is done on the gas during this stage and the
gas returns to its original pressure, temperature and volume.

B
pressure

volume
Figure 33.59
a) Complete the p-V indicator diagram showing the complete cycle.
b) Use the first law of thermodynamics to complete the following
table.

Stage Q ΔU W
1–2 0
2–3
3–4
4–1
Whole cycle

Engine cycles
47
Using engines to do work
It is easy to transfer energy into thermal energy by doing work – just
try rubbing your hands together. Using thermal energy to perform
useful work is a more complex task and the first practical device was
only developed in the 1700s with the development of the steam engine.
Steam engines were very inefficient – even the most efficient steam
engines rarely achieved efficiencies of better than 10%. They also
required a team of people to operate them as the fuel was burned in a
separate boiler.
 All engines work in a continuous cycle. A petrol engine heats up an air–fuel
mixture inside a cylinder, causing the gas to expand, increase pressure,
push a piston and do work. The air–fuel mixture then cools, the gas
contracts and the cycle repeats. The work done by the gaseous mixture as
it expands results in energy being transferred to the moving parts of the
engine and so thermal energy has been transferred to kinetic energy. As the
engine is working in a cycle it can be made to work continuously.

The main parts of an internal combustion engine

The main parts of an internal combustion engine are shown in Figure
33.60. The engine shown has one cylinder.

spark plug Intake and exhaust valves enable air and

fuel to enter the cylinder and waste gases
intake valve exhaust valve to leave after combustion has taken place

closed open

cylinder

coolant

piston

flywheel

cams

camshaft
timing gears /
timing belt

connecting rod crankshaft

33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Figure 33.60 An internal combustion engine.

l The valves are located in the head of the cylinder. The intake valve
opens to permit the intake of fuel and air. Then they must seal so that
compression can take place. After the power stroke the exhaust valve
must open to permit the exhaust gases to leave the combustion chamber.
l The sparkplug ignites the fuel, starting combustion and causing the
air–fuel mixture to expand.
l The piston is forced down when the air–fuel mixture expands during
the power stroke. The piston is connected by a connecting rod to the
crankshaft.
TIP l The crankshaft transfers the vertical oscillatory motion of the piston into
48 You do not need to know the parts rotary motion which can be used to drive the wheels.
of an internal combustion engine l The alternator charges the battery and powers other electrical devices
but you are expected to be able
whilst the engine is running.
to describe and understand what
l The distributor delivers a high pd at the correct moment to each spark
happens to the air–fuel mixture
in one of the cylinders during a plug to ignite the air–fuel mixture.
complete 4-stroke cycle.
l The timing belt synchronises the rotating of the crankshaft so that the
valves open at the correct moment in the intake and exhaust strokes.

Thermodynamics and engines

The 4-stroke petrol internal combustion engine
Figure 33.61 shows the main parts of the cylinder of a 4-stroke petrol
internal combustion engine typically used on motorbikes and cars.

spark plug
camshaft
cam valve spring

mixture in
exhaust valve
intake valve
cylinder head
combustion
chamber
cooling water
cylinder block
piston

connecting rod

crankshaft

Figure 33.61 Inside a cylinder of a 4-stroke combustion engine.

As the piston is connected to a crankshaft the up and down motion of the

piston can be transferred to the rotational motion required to drive the car
or motorbike wheels.
Figure 33.62 shows how the piston moves during one cycle.

intake compression power exhaust

49

Figure 33.62
 (a) spark plug l Stroke 1: Intake. The piston moves down and air–fuel mixture is drawn
into the chamber.
intake
combustion
chamber

piston

crankshaft

l Stroke 2: Compression. The air–fuel mixture in the cylinder is

(b)
compressed adiabatically by the piston moving upwards and the spark
plug ignites the mixture. This raises the temperature and pressure in the
cylinder.

l Stroke 3: Power. The high temperature and pressure in the cylinder

(c)
forces the piston to move downwards which causes the expanding gas
to do work. The gas then cools rapidly and the pressure returns to the
initial pressure.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

(d) spark plug l Stroke 4: Exhaust. Before the cycle can repeat, the exhaust gases are
forced out of the chamber.
exhaust
50 Figure 33.63 The 4-stroke combustion
engine cycle: (a) intake – piston moving
down, (b) compression – piston moving up,
(c) power – piston moving down,
piston (d) exhaust – piston moving up.

For a 4-stroke engine the crankshaft completes two whole rotations for each
crankshaft complete cycle as the piston moves down (intake) then up (compression),
down (power) then up (exhaust).
The p-V indicator diagram for a 4-stroke petrol engine

Thermodynamics and engines

Figure 33.64 shows the engine cycle on a p-V diagram.
p
C

Q IN (Q )

BC: ignition
H

B CD: power

AB:
com D
pre DA: cooling
ssio
n
Q OUT (Q )
C
A
E AE: exhaust EA: intake

V1 V2 V

Figure 33.64 p-V diagram of the Otto cycle. This is named after Nikolaus Otto who
designed the first petrol internal combustion engines in Germany in the 1860s.

The Otto cycle shown in Figure 33.64 is an ideal model of what happens
in a real combustion engine. The diagram shows BC and DA happening
at constant volume which therefore means thermal energy is transferred
by heating. QIN (QH) is added when the air–fuel mixture ignites and it is
removed during the exhaust cycle QOUT (QC).
The work done by each cylinder of the engine in one cycle will equal the
area ABCD as the gas returns to the initial temperature at the end of each
cycle. This can be shown using the first law of thermodynamics.
  Qnet = ΔU + W
 as ΔU = 0
  Qnet = W = QH – QC

The diesel engine

The diesel engine was patented in Germany by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 and is
now the world’s most versatile engine. Diesel engines power a huge range of
machines from container ships and trains to agricultural machinery, lorries
and cars. A diesel engine does not use spark plugs to ignite the air–fuel
mixture. In fact diesel fuel is much less volatile than petrol and is difficult to
ignite and so not prone to fire. Early petrol engines were very dangerous as
they leaked extremely flammable petrol vapour. 51

During the diesel induction stroke only air is pulled into the chamber.
During the compression stroke the air is compressed until it reaches a
temperature which is high enough to ignite diesel fuel. The fuel is then
injected or sprayed into the chamber where it ignites. The piston is then
forced downwards in the power stroke and then the exhaust gases are
ejected from the chamber.
 The p-V diagram for a diesel engine is shown in Figure 33.65.
p
Q IN(Q )
H fuel injection

power
stroke

compression
cooling
Q OUT (Q ) and
C
exhaust

V1 V2 V

Figure 33.65 p-V diagram for a diesel engine.

There are two key differences between diesel and petrol combustion
engines:
1 The fuel is injected after the air has been compressed to ignition
temperature.
2 The compression stroke compresses the gas much more in a diesel engine
than in a petrol engine.

What are the advantages and the disadvantages of a diesel engine

compared with a petrol engine?
A diesel engine achieves better fuel efficiency as it achieves greater
compression. The power stroke therefore results in a greater torque and so a
diesel engine emits less CO2 for the same power output. However as diesel
engines operate at higher pressures and greater compression ratios they are
heavier for the same power as the parts need to have a greater strength.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The high temperatures inside a diesel cylinder enable the nitrogen in the
fuel to be oxidised forming nitrogen oxides which are harmful to human
health. Diesel exhaust gases also contain particulate matter. This is solid
particles formed by partial combustion of diesel fuel in the cooler parts
Figure 33.66 Cylinder configuration for of the cylinder. Most can be removed by particulate filters, but some will
a 2-cylinder V engine, typically used on
pass into the exhaust gases. Particulates are harmful as the small particles
a small motorbike.
can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause respiratory problems. Nano-
particles can even enter the bloodstream.

Some key developments in engine technology

V engines
52
A V engine, or Vee engine, is a common configuration for an internal
combustion engine. The cylinders and pistons are aligned in two separate
banks, so that they appear to be in a ‘V’ when viewed along the axis of
the crankshaft. The Vee configuration generally reduces the overall engine
Figure 33.67 A V8 engine. Here
length, height and weight compared to an equivalent inline configuration,
you can see the two banks of four enabling a more compact engine design. A V8 engine would have eight
cylinders at an angle to each other. cylinders in this configuration, a V12 would have twelve.
 Thermodynamics and engines
Figure 33.68 A British Rail class 55 – ‘Deltic’ diesel locomotive.

Deltic engine
These used opposing pistons in a triangular arrangement and powered the
Napier deltic engine type T18-37K diesel trains on the east coast main line between London, the North East
and Scotland in the 1960s and 1970s. They were the most powerful diesel-
exhaust intake powered trains of the time.

Pre-combustion chambers – Comet swirl chamber

The swirl, or turbulence chamber, is a disc-shaped antechamber designed
to impart a circular motion to the air or fuel before it enters the cylinder.
As peak vortex speed is reached the fuel injector is opened. As the piston
reverses direction, a turbulent stream of burning fuel and superheated
air exits the antechamber and rebounds off the piston, filling the main
chamber. The turbulence of the flow causes the air and fuel to mix more
thoroughly and so leads to more complete combustion.
Figure 33.69 A deltic engine has The swirl chamber was invented by Sir Harry Ricardo during the late 1920s
opposing pistons which results in and underwent numerous alterations during its long career. It was the
greater power output per stroke as introduction of a pre-combustion chamber that enabled the development of
higher compression is achieved.
high-speed diesel engines which could power cars.

Inside the cylinder of a diesel engine

Sir Harry Ricardo (26 January 1885 – 18 May 1974) was one of the
foremost engine designers and researchers of the internal combustion
engine. He researched the physics of internal combustion and the
design of combustion chambers.
The following excerpt is from a lecture Harry Ricardo gave to the 53
Royal Society of Arts on 23 November 1931.
I am going to take the rather unconventional course of asking you to
accompany me, in imagination, inside the cylinder of a diesel engine. Let
us imagine ourselves seated comfortably on the top of the piston, at or
near the end of the compression stroke. We are in complete darkness, the
atmosphere is a trifle oppressive, for the shade temperature is well over
500 Celsius – almost a dull red heat – and the density of the air is such
Figure 33.70 The blue plaque outside 13 that the contents of an average sitting-room would weigh about a ton; also
Bedford Square, London. it is very draughty, in fact, the draught is such that, in reality, we should
 be blown off our perch and hurled about like autumn leaves in a gale. Suddenly,
above our heads, a valve opens and a rainstorm of fuel begins to descend. I have
called it a rainstorm, but the velocity of droplets approaches much more nearly
that of rifle bullets than of raindrops.
For a while nothing startling happens, the rain continues to fall, the darkness
remains intense. Then suddenly, away to our right perhaps, a brilliant gleam
of light appears, moving swiftly and purposefully; in an instant this is followed
by a myriad others all around us, some large and some small, until on all sides
of us the space is filled with a merry blaze of moving lights; from time to time
the smaller lights wink and go out, while the larger ones develop fiery tails like
comets; occasionally these strike the walls, but, being surrounded by an envelope of
burning vapour, they merely bounce off like drops of water spilt on a red hot plate.
Right overhead all is darkness still, the rainstorm continues, and the heat is
becoming intense; and now we shall notice that a change is taking place. Many of
the smaller lights around us have gone out, but new ones are beginning to appear,
more overhead, and to form themselves into definite streams shooting rapidly
downwards or outwards from the direction of the injector nozzles.
Looking round again we see that the lights around are growing yellower; they no
longer move in a definite direction, but appear to be drifting listlessly hither and
thither; here and there they are crowding together in dense nebulae, and these are
burning now with a sickly, smoky flame, half suffocated for want of oxygen. Now
we are attracted by a dazzle, and looking up we see that what at first was cold rain
falling through utter darkness, has given place to a cascade of fire as from a rocket.
For a little while this continues, then ceases abruptly as the fuel valve closes.
Above and all around us are still some lingering fire balls, now trailing long tails
of sparks and smoke and wandering aimlessly in search of the last dregs of oxygen
which will consume them finally and set their souls at rest. If so, well and good;
if not, some unromantic engineer outside will merely grumble that the exhaust is
dirty and will set the fuel valve to close a trifle earlier.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

So ends the scene, or rather my conception of the scene, and I will ask you to
realise that what has taken me nearly five minutes to describe may all be enacted
in one five-hundredth of a second or even less.

ACTIVITY – THE CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING DIESEL

ENGINES
Four major cities move to ban diesel vehicles by 2025
The leaders of four major global cities say they will stop the use of all
diesel-powered cars and trucks by the middle of the next decade.

54 The mayors of Paris, Mexico City, Madrid and Athens say they are
implementing the ban to improve air quality.
They say they will give incentives for alternative vehicle use and promote
walking and cycling.
The commitments were made in Mexico at a biennial meeting of city leaders.
The use of diesel in transport has come under increasing scrutiny in
recent years, as concerns about its impact on air quality have grown.
The World Health Organization (WHO) says that around three million
deaths every year are linked to exposure to outdoor air pollution.
The term horsepower was invented by the
Now, mayors from a number of major cities with well-known air quality

Thermodynamics and engines

engineer James Watt who lived from 1736
to 1819. At the time horses were used to problems have decided to use their authority to clamp down on the use
pull up the coal from mines. of diesel.
In the UK, campaigners are calling for London’s mayor to commit to
phase out diesel vehicles from London by 2025.
Research the controversy surrounding diesel engines using a range of
sources
a Explain why diesel engines are more polluting than petrol engines.
1 horsepower = 30 000
b Outline the different health problems caused by the exhaust gases
Joules of work per minute from diesel engines.
c Explain why governments in the 1990s originally promoted diesel
vehicles.
1HP = 750 Watts d Describe the technology which can be fitted to diesel vehicles to
reduce their emissions and discuss why this is not more widely used.
e Describe some of the measures cities around the world are taking to
Figure 33.71 What is meant by reduce pollution from diesel vehicles.
‘horsepower’? f Evaluate the economic and social costs of this problem.
Watt made measurements and found that a
typical coal pit pony could do about 30 000 J The most powerful engine in the world
of work in a minute. He then increased that Modern container ships are absolutely huge (more than 400 m long) and so
number by 50% (assuming larger horses require the largest engines ever built to power them.
could carry out more work) to make
horsepower equivalent to 45 000 J of work l One of these engines could have a mass of 1800 tonnes and fill four
in one minute. This converts to around floors of the ship.
45 000 J
750 J s–1 ( = 750 J s–1). l The volume of the 14 cylinders is more than 18 000 litres (compared to a
60 s
couple of litres for a typical car).
l Power output is 75 000 horsepower (compared to 150 hp for a
reasonable car).

The power output of an engine

The power developed by the pressure of the gas pushing against the piston
is measured by recording and plotting the pressure and volume inside the
piston through a complete cycle. Electronic sensors record the pressure and
volume automatically. The area enclosed by the cycle can be calculated and
the indicated power determined.
Figure 33.72 Built in Finland the
Wärtsilä, RT-flex is the world’s largest Modern vehicle engines have more than one cylinder and so the power of
and most powerful diesel engine. the engine is calculated by
The indicated power is the power indicated engine power = area of p-V loop × number of cycles per second ×
developed inside the cylinder. number of cylinders
indicated power = area of p-V loop × number
of cycles per second × number of cylinders 55
TIP
Some exam questions quote the engine speed in rpm. The crankshaft
completes two rotations for each 4-stroke cycle as the piston moves down
(intake) then up (compression), down (power) then up again (exhaust). The
Input power = calorific value × fuel flow number of cycles per second (around the p-V diagram) is therefore half
rate the number of revolutions (of the crankshaft) per second.
indicated engine power The input power to the engine can be calculated if the calorific value
thermal efficiency =
input power (energy content per kg) of the fuel is known. This is the number of joules
of energy released when one kilogram of fuel is burnt.
 EXAMPLE
1 An engine requires 135 kW of power by burning fuel with a calorific
value of 41 MJ kg–1. Calculate the flow rate of fuel required.
Answer
  Input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate

  135 000 = 41 × 106 × f

 f = 3.3 × 10–3 kg s–1
2 If an engine burns fuel with a calorific value of 42.8 MJ kg–1 at a rate of
0.53 kg min–1, calculate the input power.
Answer
Input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate
0.53
  = 42.8 × 106 × = 378 kW
60

Engine efficiency and power

chemical energy thermal energy mechanical work

not wholly
energy in fuel heat convertible
to drive the piston

loss to coolant, thermal

radiation and exhaust
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Figure 33.73 Energy transfers in an engine.

The actual efficiency of an engine is lower than the thermal efficiency due to
the large amount of work done against friction between the moving parts,
namely the transmission gears, driveshaft and bearings. Modern designs
mean that frictional losses are only 6–9%.
wheels

engine
rear axle

transmission differential
56

clutch driveshaft

Figure 33.74 Drive shaft and transmission.

 The driveshaft and transmission enable the motion from the piston
crankshaft to be transmitted to the front wheels (and rear wheels if the

Thermodynamics and engines

vehicle has four-wheel drive).

The actual output power of an engine is

This is the output power delivered to the engine’s crankshaft. Brake power
known as its brake power or output power. is always less than indicated power due to energy losses due to friction in
the gear box, differentials and other components.
  Brake power = torque × angular speed of driveshaft
  =Tω
 POUT = T ω
Among car manufacturers, the output power is often referred to as the
brake power, or brake horsepower (bhp) but in A-level examinations you
will be expected to work in watts (or kilowatts).
The indicated power (based on the area of the p-V indicator diagram) will
be greater than the output power (brake power) due to the frictional losses
in the engine and transmission.
The difference between the indicated power and the output power is the
frictional power.
 Pfrictional = Pindicated – Pout
Since there are three key power indicators:
l input power
l indicated power
l output power

engine designers also consider three key indicators of efficiency:

1 Thermal efficiency = indicated power / input power. This has already been
discussed and is related to the amount of energy released when the fuel
burns and how this results in pressure and volume changes in the cylinder.
2 Mechanical efficiency = output power / indicated power. This relates to
how much torque is produced at the driveshaft as the piston is driven up and
down by the combusting fuel. Mechanical efficiency is typically 80–90%.
3 Overall efficiency = output power / input power from fuel.

Overall engine efficiency

Overall efficiency = mechanical efficiency
It is straightforward to show that the overall efficiency can be calculated by
× thermal efficiency multiplying the thermal efficiency by the mechanical efficiency.
As
P 57
thermal efficiency = INDICATED
PINPUT
and
POUT
mechanical efficiency =
PINDICATED
PINDICATED POUT
  thermal efficiency × mechanical efficiency = ×
PINPUT PINDICATED
POUT
overall efficiency =
PINPUT
 EXAMPLE
1 Measurements were made on a single-cylinder 4-stroke petrol engine
producing the following data:
mean temperature of gases in cylinder during combustion stroke: 860°C
mean temperature of exhaust gases: 82°C
area enclosed by indicator diagram loop: 430 J
completes 1000 cycles per minute
power developed by engine at output shaft: 5.2 kW
calorific value of fuel: 47.6 × 106 J kg–1
flow rate of fuel: 2.3 × 10–2 kg min–1
Use this data to answer the following.
a) Calculate the indicated power of the engine.

Answer
 PINDICATED = area of p-V diagram × number of cycles per second
× number of cylinders
 1000 
 = 430 J × 
  ×1
60 
 = 7167 W = 7.2 kW
b) Calculate the power dissipated in overcoming the frictional losses in
the engine.

Answer
 PFRICTION = PINDICATED − POUT

 = 7167 – 5200 = 1967 W

c) Calculate the rate at which energy is supplied to the engine from
the fuel.

Answer
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

PINPUT = calorific value of fuel × flow rate

 23 × 10-2 
= 47.6 × 106 J kg–1 × 
 60 
= 18 247 J s–1 = 18.2 kW
d) Calculate the overall efficiency of the engine.

Answer
POUT
  Overall efficiency =
PINPUT
5.2kW
 =
58 18.2kW
 = 0.29
2 An engine is used to pump water uphill. The engine is capable of
pumping 10 tonnes of water through a height of 2.5 m during each
8 second cycle. The work done by the engine in one cycle is 340 kJ.
a) Calculate the indicated power of the engine.

Answer
  power = work done
time
 Thermodynamics and engines
therefore
indicated work per cycle
  indicated power =
time to complete 1 cycle
340 000
  = = 42 500 W
8
b) Calculate the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
Answer
This engine is being used to pump water uphill so the output power is equal
to the gravitational potential energy gained by the water each second.
(10 000 × 9.81 × 2.5)
 POUT =
8
  = 30 656 W
POUT
  mechanical efficiency = P
INDICATED

  mechanical efficiency = 30 656 = 0.72 = 72%

42 500
c) Explain why the efficiency in practice would be much lower than this.

Answer
In practice there are frictional losses in the moving parts of the engine and
the pump. This will lead to energy being transferred to thermal energy.

Measuring brake power

Brake power can be measured by
placing the engine on a test rig and
measuring the engine torque when the
drive shaft is turning at constant angular
speed. A rope brake dynamometer is
coupled to the engine drive shaft. The
rope or belt provides a frictional force to
oppose the turning of the drive shaft.
The Newton meter measures the
tension in the rope/belt and the
resultant force can be calculated. If the
radius is known then the torque from
Figure 33.75 A rope brake dynamometer.
the engine can be calculated.

How close do real engines get to an ideal engine?

In calculating the work done on the air–fuel mixture and analysing petrol
and diesel p-V cycles we have assumed that:
● The petrol (or diesel)–air mixture behaves as an ideal gas. 59
● The heat energy (in the compression stroke) is taken in entirely at the
single temperature TH and rejected at the single temperature TC.
● The processes that form the engine cycle are reversible.

These assumptions are not true of real engines as the high temperatures and
pressures inside engines mean that the kinetic theory assumptions break
down. Combustion inside the engine occurs at a range of temperatures and
the air–fuel mixture will be taken in at a range of temperatures.
 (a) (b) end of combustion
p p

ex
C pa
ns
io exhaust
ignition n
valve opens
Q IN (Q H) QC
com
B D pre
Q OUT (Q C) intake ssi
valve opens on
A′ A exhaust
patm
intake

V1 V2 V V1 V2 V
Figure 33.76 p-V diagram for a real 4-stroke petrol engine: (a) theoretical petrol engine cycle,
(b) real petrol engine cycle.

The p-V diagram for a real engine will begin and end in slightly different
places and will have rounded corners. The corners are rounded because
combustion does not occur instantaneously. The intake and exhaust valves
take time to open and so the sharp corners can never occur for a real engine.
You can see from Figure 33.76 that there are no isovolumetric changes
in a real engine as the pistons are constantly moving. The expansion
and compression strokes are only approximately adiabatic as some
thermal energy inevitably is lost from the system and transferred to the
surroundings.

TEST YOURSELF
Engine cycles, power output and efficiency 350
1 An engine burns fuel with a calorific value of
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

44.8 MJ kg–1 at a rate of 0.49 kg min–1.

a) Calculate the input power. 200
b) What would happen to the indicated power if
pressure/kPa

the cylinder completed each cycle at twice the

speed?
2 Use p-V indicator diagrams to describe the key 150
differences between diesel and petrol engine
cycles.
3 The power output of a toy steam engine was
0
measured as part of a school science project. The 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
student fitted pressure and volume sensors to the volume/× 10–5 m3
single cylinder and plotted a p-V indicator diagram
60
as the engine lifted some small weights. The Figure 33.77
engine completed 300 cycles per minute. b) During lifting, a mass of 6 kg was lifted
a) Use the p-V indicator diagram in Figure 33.77 to through a height of 1.8 m in 8.7 s. Estimate the
show that the indicated power was estimated to mechanical efficiency of the engine.
be 16 W. c) Explain why the mechanical efficiency can never
be equal to 1.
 Thermodynamics and engines
4 An engine requires 180 kW of power by burning fuel Use this data to determine the following quantities
with a calorific value of 37 MJ kg–1. Calculate the for this engine:
flow rate of fuel required. a) brake power
5 The following data was measured for a 4-cylinder, b) mechanical efficiency
4-stroke engine: c) thermal efficiency
Shaft speed = 2500 rev min–1 d) overall efficiency.
Torque arm, R = 0.4 m 6 The thermal energy supplied by a kilogram of
Net brake load (T-W) = 200 N fuel is 51.0 × 106 J. Calculate the efficiency of a
Fuel consumption = 2 g s–1 car which is producing mechanical energy at a rate
Calorific value of fuel = 42 MJ kg–1 of 42 000 J s–1 if it is using petrol at a rate of 7.8 kg
Indicated power = 6.54 kW per cylinder per hour.

(TH) hot
The second law of thermodynamics and engines
reservoir The basic idea of any engine is that mechanical energy can be obtained from
thermal energy when heat flows from a high temperature to a lower temperature.
QC This process enables some of the thermal energy to be transferred to work.
Figure 33.78 shows a schematic diagram of a heat engine.
The heat input (QH) partly transfers energy by doing work (W) and the
heat
remainder is exhausted from the system (QC). The engine begins each cycle
engine with the same amount of internal energy, ΔU = 0. Therefore by applying the
W
law of conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics), W = QH − QC.

EXAMPLE
QC A car engine has an efficiency of 20% and produces an average of
30 000 J of mechanical work per second. Calculate the amount of heat
energy discharged as waste heat per second.
(TC) cold
reservoir
Answer
W
  efficiency =
Figure 33.78 Schematic diagram of
QH
energy transfers in a heat engine.  QH = 30 000 = 150 000 J s–1
0.2
 W = QH − QC
The efficiency of any engine is defined as
the ratio of work it does to the heat input:  QC = 150 000 – 30 000 = 120 000 J s–1
W
  efficiency =
QH
The p-V diagram in Figure 33.79
This is similar to the broad definition of
efficiency ‘useful energy out / total energy in’. shows the Otto cycle, and is the work done
idealised cycle of a 4-stroke petrol heat by gas
  W = QH – QC QH
pressure

engine as discussed on page 51. added

Efficiency can be calculated as 61
  efficiency = H
Q – QC As the area enclosed by the cycle W
work done heat Q C
QH (orange shaded area) is equal to the net on gas extracted
Q work done W then it can also be seen
         =1– C
QH
from this diagram that W = QH – QC volume
according to conservation of energy.
Figure 33.79 The Otto cycle.
TIP An engine will be more efficient if QC
The efficiency can be expressed can be as small as possible. If QC is reduced to zero then the engine would
as a percentage by multiplying by be 100% efficient. This would be a ‘perfect’ engine, where all of the heat
100, e.g. efficiency = 0.2 = 20%. input is used to do work.
 The second law of thermodynamics states that an engine can never be
100% efficient and that during a complete cycle it is impossible for all of
the heat supplied to be transferred into mechanical energy.
In other words, it is not possible to convert heat continuously into work without
at the same time transferring some heat from a warmer to a colder body.
We can use a simple example to illustrate another application of the second
law. If an object is dropped on the floor, gravitational potential energy is
transferred into thermal energy in that object and the surroundings. The
RESEARCH TASK first law ‘allows’ the object to jump back upwards, because energy can be
Find out as much as you can transferred from one store to another. But of course the object does not
about entropy. jump back. Thermal energy is random and disordered. The second law
Why is this sometimes called the shows that energy does not flow by itself from a disordered state to an
‘arrow of time’? ordered state. It would not break the first law of thermodynamics if when
holding a hot cup of coffee your hands got colder and the coffee got warmer
Can you define entropy:
so long as the total energy of the system did not change (i.e. the energy
1 in terms of temperature and lost by the hands was gained by the coffee). However, this is never seen to
energy happen as energy flow from hot to cold is a one-way process. We call these
2 in terms of the number of ways processes ‘irreversible’. They are irreversible due to the fact that the entropy
of arranging the atoms and of a system always increases.
molecules in a system?
The Carnot cycle
In the early 1800s a French scientist, Sadi Carnot, was investigating how to
P
increase the efficiency of engines. The Carnot cycle shows an ideal engine,
where the expansion and compressions take place so slowly that the system
adiab

TH QH returns back to its original state at the end of each cycle. The most efficient
atic c

heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes
and two adiabatic processes.
ontra

adiabatic
expansion
ction

As this is the theoretically most efficient engine, heat should flow into
TC
and out of the engine without any losses. So, the gas should expand and
QC
contract isothermally when QH flows into the gas and QC flows out of it.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

V The gas should stay at the temperature of the hot sink (TH) and cold sink
(TC) during these expansions or contractions otherwise a temperature
Figure 33.80 The Carnot cycle.
difference would cause a flow of energy.
The engine is operating between TH and TC and the most efficient way to
move from one isothermal to the other is for there to be no heat transfer.
This is why the other two processes to complete the cycle are adiabatic.
This is the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws.
Although such an engine could never be built in practice it enables us to
calculate a limiting value on the fraction of the heat which can be used to
do work.
62
Maximum theoretical efficiency (Carnot Well-designed engines can reach 60% to 80% of the maximum theoretical
T –T
efficiency) = H C
Carnot efficiency.
TH
A typical car has a Carnot efficiency of around 55% but an actual efficiency
of 25%.
The engine will be most efficient if there is a large temperature difference
between the outside air and the gas inside the engine. Increasing TH comes
with engineering challenges as higher temperatures can cause materials to
melt or change their properties. High-temperature gases will also be at high
pressure and would require a stronger vessel, leading to a heavier engine.
 Thermodynamics and engines
EXAMPLE
An engine manufacturer claims that an engine’s heat input per second is
10 kJ at 460 K and the heat output per second is 4.5 kJ at 300 K. Comment
on the manufacturer’s claims.

Answer
QH – QC
  Efficiency = QH

         = (10 000 – 4500)

10 000
         = 0.55
TH – TC
  Maximum theoretical efficiency (Carnot efficiency) =
TH
                        = (460 – 300)
460
                         = 0.35
The manufacturer’s claims are false as they are claiming an efficiency
greater than the maximum theoretical efficiency. Their engine would
violate the second law of thermodynamics.

Combined heat and power (CHP) stations

Combined heat and power stations are sometimes called cogeneration plants.
These plants produce thermal energy and mechanical or electrical energy by
using one single source of fuel. In a conventional power plant, the fuel is burnt
in a boiler, which in turn produces high-pressure steam. This high-pressure
steam is used to drive a tribune, which in turn is connected to a turbine which
drives a generator to produce electrical energy. The heat produced in this process
is wasted and goes into the atmosphere and surroundings. In a CHP station
the waste heat produced is also used in heating nearby buildings in addition to
heating water to provide steam to the turbine and electrical generator.
As a CHP station makes use of the waste heat it is far more efficient than a
conventional power station. The main difficulties with such a scheme are
that few people live close enough to thermal power stations to enable them
to make use of the waste heat.

TEST YOURSELF
Engine efficiency
1 Figure 33.81 shows the various changes of temperature, pressure and
volume as a fixed mass of gas expands and contracts.
pressure p/× 105 N m–2

63
A B
3.0

1.0
D C

2.0 10.0
volume V/m3

Figure 33.81
 a) Use this p-V diagram to calculate the work done during one cycle.
b) If 2.0 × 108 J of thermal energy is ejected into the cold reservoir
each cycle, calculate the efficiency of this engine,
2 Sketch the p-V changes that take place in a fixed mass of an ideal
gas during one cycle of a Carnot engine. Indicate which change is
occurring at each place in the cycle.
3 Explain why a petrol engine can never achieve maximum thermal or
mechanical efficiency in practice. Discuss how the temperature of the
surroundings affects the efficiency of an engine.
4 Early steam engines often had efficiencies of a few percent. Calculate
the maximum possible efficiency for a steam engine using steam
at a temperature of 100°C on a day when the temperature of the
surroundings is 17°C and account for the large difference between
theoretical and practical efficiencies.

Reversed heat engines

Refrigerators
Refrigerators, air-conditioning units and heat pumps are simply engines
operating in reverse where work is done to transfer energy from a cold
environment to a hot environment. According to the second law of
thermodynamics it is impossible for heat to flow from a cooler body to a
hotter one without putting in some energy or doing work. The work is
usually done by an electric motor which compresses and pumps a fluid,
known as the ‘refrigerant’.

heat exchange / heat source (inside refrigerator) compressor

condensor coil P : 1 atm
T : 6 °C
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

QC

expansion valve
cooling / evaporation coils

cooling / QH COOL GAS

evaporator coil evaporation compression

QC COOL HOT
LIQUID GAS

low-pressure vapour expansion condensation heat sink

HOT LIQUID
inside cooling coils (surroundings)
compressor P : 1 atm
64 condensor
T : 20 °C
high-pressure vapour expansion coils / heat QH
W
inside condenser coils valve exchanger

Figure 33.82 A typical refrigerator system. Figure 33.83 Schematic of a refrigeration system.

Thermal energy from inside the refrigerator is absorbed by the fluid inside
the cooling coils as the food is at a higher temperature than the refrigerant.
This energy causes the liquid refrigerant inside the coil to change state and
evaporate at a constant temperature. The vapour then passes through the
electric motor which compresses the gas and it condenses back into a liquid
and passes through the condenser coil heat exchanger on the back of the
refrigerator. The refrigerant is at a higher temperature than the surroundings

Thermodynamics and engines

and so heat energy (QH) passes into the surroundings. The gas cools to
become a liquid before passing through the expansion valve and re-entering
the cooling coils and the cycle begins again.

The refrigeration cycle

The refrigeration cycle can be shown on a p-V diagram. A refrigerator can
be considered as a heat engine working in reverse and the arrows on the p-V
diagram are in the opposite direction to those for a heat engine.

pressure
Q = ΔU + W
C
ΔUABCD = 0
W=0
W = area ABCD
QH = QOUT Q=0
to room
ΔU = –W
D
B QC = QIN
Q=0 from food
W = –ΔU A W=0

volume

Figure 33.84 p-V indicator diagram for an ideal refrigerator.

● Stage A to B: Thermal energy taken in by the refrigerant from food inside

the fridge.
● Stage B to C: The refrigerant is adiabatically compressed by the motor.
● Stage C to D: Thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings.
● Stage D to A: The refrigerant expands adiabatically.

EXAMPLE
Complete the table to show the work done, heat energy transferred and
change in internal energy as the refrigerant completes one whole cycle.
For each stage, explain what is happening to the refrigerant as it goes
around the cycle.

Stage Q ΔU W
AB +58 0

BC +53

65
CD –74 –74 0
DA 37

Answer
Stage AB: As W = 0, Q = ΔU = +58. The refrigerant temperature is increasing
as heat is being taken in but there is no volume change.
 Stage BC: As this is an adiabatic compression, Q = 0 and so ΔU = –W, W = –53.
The temperature of the refrigerant is increasing as it is compressed.

Stage CD: W = 0 as the volume does not change. The temperature of the
refrigerant falls as heat is lost to the surroundings.
Stage DA: As this is an adiabatic expansion, Q = 0 and so W = –ΔU. The
refrigerant temperature falls to the starting temperature.
The completed table therefore looks like this:

Stage Q ΔU W
AB +58 +58 0
BC 0 +53 –53
CD –74 –74 0
DA 0 –37 37

Refrigerants and the environment

In the past, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were popular refrigerants, but it
was discovered that CFCs damaged the ozone layer with long-lasting effects.
CFCs released at the surface of the Earth, through leaky refrigerators and air
conditioners, can rise up to the ozone layer in the stratosphere. The ozone
layer shields the Earth’s surface from UV radiation and also helps to prevent
water vapour escaping from the atmosphere. CFCs were banned in Europe
in the early 1990s and now ozone-friendly refrigerants such as Freon or
ammonia are used.

heat reservoir at temperature TH

QH EXAMPLE
Explain why leaving the refrigerator door open on a hot day does not cool
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

down the room.

refrigerator, W
heat pump
or air conditioner
Answer
The second law of thermodynamics shows that it is impossible for heat
QC to flow from a cooler body to a hotter one without putting in some energy.
Refrigerators use an electric motor to do work (W) to remove heat energy
(Q) from the interior of the refrigerator and transfer it to the warmer
heat reservoir at temperature TC surroundings. The heat energy removed is therefore Q but the energy
returned to the surroundings is equal to Q + W which means the room
Figure 33.85 Schematic diagram of increases in temperature as more energy is returned than was removed.
energy transfer for a refrigerator.

66 The coefficient of performance of a

refrigerator The coefficient of performance
Q QC
 COPREF = C = The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is defined as the heat
W QC – QH
For an ideal refrigerator removed from inside the refrigerator where the food and drink is kept,
 COPIDEAL =
TC divided by the work that is done by the compressor.
TH – TC
As the coefficient of performance is a ratio For every 1 unit of work done by the compressor, COP units of thermal
it does not have any units. energy (QC) are removed from the interior of the refrigerator.
 inside of QC refrigerator QH
TIP

Thermodynamics and engines

refrigerator compressor and surroundings
(food) 45 J pump 60 J
You do not need to be able
to derive the coefficient of
performance equations. 15 J

work

Figure 33.86 15 J of work are done by the compressor and pump to remove 45 J
of thermal energy from the inside of the fridge. The COPREF of this refrigerator is
therefore 3 as 3 × 15 = 45.

EXAMPLE Answer
1 A freezer has a COPREF of 3.8 and uses 360 J of QC = thermal energy removed from the juice
energy per second. How long would the freezer = mcΔΦ
take to freeze 1.2 kg of water at 0°C into ice?
= 1 kg × 4200 J kg–1 °C–1 × 18 °C
Answer
This requires a change of state from liquid to solid = 75 600 J
which occurs without a change in temperature. The W = work done by compressor
latent heat of fusion of water is Lf = 330 000 J kg–1.
=P×t
So the energy needed to be removed in order to
= 15 W × 26 min × 60 s
freeze 1.2 kg of water is
= 23 400 J
Q = mL = QC Q
COPREF = c
= 1.2 kg × 330 000 J kg–1 W
= 396 000 J = 75 600
Qc 23 400
COPREF = = 3.2
W
396 000 In practice this would take longer as the juice is likely
W=
3.8 to be in contact with other objects in the fridge and so
= 104 211 J will also absorb energy from them.
work done
Time = 3 Calculate the maximum coefficient of performance
power
of a refrigerator which uses a refrigerant which
1 042 115 vaporises at a temperature of –18°C and condenses
=
360 J s–1 at 35°C. Explain why this maximum COP can never
= 289.5 s be achieved in practice.
In practice the freezer would take longer than this as Answer
not all of the electrical power in the motor goes to the TC
COPIDEAL =
refrigeration process. The electrical motor in itself is TH – TC
also inefficient. 255
=
2 A refrigerator with a 15 W compressor cools a (308 – 255)
1 litre (mass of 1 kg) carton of orange juice from = 4.8 67
25°C to 7°C in 26 minutes. Calculate the COPREF of In practice the ideal coefficient of performance can
the refrigerator. never be achieved as in each cycle energy will also be
You may assume that the juice has a specific heat lost due to the flow of the refrigerant and friction.
capacity of 4200 J kg–1 °C–1.
 Air-conditioning systems

evaporator

QC QH
INDOOR unit

condensor
OUTDOOR – heat
compressor ejected

Figure 33.87 An air-conditioning system.

An air-conditioning system works in a similar way to a refrigerator but is

constructed differently. However, the key purpose is still to transfer energy
from inside to the higher-temperature surroundings outside the building.

Heat pumps
A heat pump is able to heat a building in winter by removing energy from
the cooler surroundings and transferring it to the warmer building. As heat
naturally flows from a high temperature to a low temperature a heat pump
requires energy to be input in order for it to do this work.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The coefficient of performance of a heat

pump is defined as
heat transferred into building, QH
COPHP =
work done
heat
QH pump
=
W heating during
QH winter
=
QH – QC cooling during
A COP of 3 means that if 1 kWh of work is summer
put in, we get 3 kWh of heat transferred into
the building. pump to
circulate
68 the
refrigerant gaining heat from
ground during
winter
The maximum or ideal COP of a heat pump
losing heat to
TH ground during
COPIDEAL = summer
TH – TC
The heat pump will be more effective if underground
the temperature difference between the loops of pipe
outside and surroundings is smallest. A huge
advantage of a heat pump is that it can be Figure 33.88 A heat pump for use in a cold climate does work to pump heat from
reversed to operate as an air-conditioning unit. cooler surroundings to the warmer inside of a building.
 Provided the surroundings are above absolute zero they will contain some
energy. Some of this energy can be transferred inside a building. A heat

Thermodynamics and engines

pump can be thought of as a refrigerator in reverse with the evaporation
coils being placed outside the building and the heat exchanger (condenser
coils) inside.
Heat pumps are extremely efficient because they move heat rather than
generating heat by burning fuels.

EXAMPLE day when the average outside temperature is 15°C

1 A heat pump has a coefficient of performance of 3.8 compared to a cold winter’s day when the average
and is rated to do work at a rate 2.5 kW. outside temperature is 1°C.
a) How much heat could it add to a building per Answer
second?
TH
COPIDEAL =
Answer TH – TC
QH When outside temperature is 15°C = 288 K
COPHP =
work done 293
COPIDEAL =
QH = COPHP × work done (293 – 288)
= 58.6
= 3.8 × 2500 J s–1
When outside temperature is 1°C = 274 K
= 9500 J s–1
293
b) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the COPIDEAL =
heat pump when it is used as an air-conditioning (293 – 274)
unit in a cold climate summer. = 15.4
From a cold day to a hot day the COP increases by
Answer
58.6
QC + W = QH = 3.8
15.4
therefore That is
QC = 9500 J s–1 – 2500 J s–1 COPwarm day = 3.8 × COPcold day
= 7000 J s–1 3 Explain why electric heaters can never have an
QC efficiency greater than 1 (100%) but heat pumps
COPREF = can have a COPHP of 8 or higher.
W
7000 J s–1 Answer
=
2500 The maximum efficiency of a 1 kW heater is 1 kW
= 2.8 (i.e. 100%).

2 A domestic heat pump is designed to keep the However a heat pump transfers energy from the cold
rooms at a constant temperature of 20°C. Calculate source (outside) into the building and so transfers
the change in the coefficient of performance on a more energy than the work done by the pump.
69
 Disadvantages of heat pumps
With such high coefficients of performance heat pumps may seem almost
too good to be true. However there are some problems with them. The
example above showed that they work better in the summer than in the
winter which is the opposite of what is needed from a heating system. There
are also large costs and difficulties involved with installing the large network
of pipes underground needed to absorb energy from the surroundings.

TEST YOURSELF
Reversed heat engines CHP scheme to heat nearby buildings

1 A particular refrigerator that uses an electric 2000 K hot space

motor has a COP equal to 7. Show that for every
unit of energy used by the electric motor, 8 units of
Q2 = QH
energy will be ejected from the refrigerator to the
surroundings. W 100 kW 20 kW heat
2 Figure 33.89 shows the idealised relation between generator
pump
the pressure and volume of the refrigerant in a
refrigerator as it is taken around one complete Q1 electrical
cycle. energy
80 kW
290 K cold space
P

d c   to heat nearby buildings

  Figure 33.90

This provides electrical energy W from a gas

turbine driven generator and heat Q1 for nearby
a b
buildings. You should consider the generator to be
operating as an engine.
  V
Some of the electrical energy is used to drive a
  Figure 33.89
heat pump with Q2 also used to heat buildings.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

a) Label each stage of the cycle. a) Calculate the maximum theoretical efficiency of
b) State and explain where in the cycle energy is the generator.
absorbed from the cold reservoir and where it b) The output power of the generator is 100 kW.
is ejected to the surroundings. Calculate the input power to the generator.
3 A freezer takes water at 18°C and turns it into ice c) Calculate the flow rate of gas into the engine if
at –15°C. The coefficient of performance of the the gas fuel burned in the power station has a
freezer is 4.8. calorific value of 47 M J kg–1 and state what you
are assuming when making this calculation.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg–1 °C–1
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J kg–1 °C–1
d) The coefficient of performance of the heat
pump is 2.9 and the power supplied by the
Latent heat of fusion = 330 J kg–1
electrical generator to the heat pump is 20 kW.
a) Calculate the power input to the freezer if it is
Calculate the total power available for heating.
70 required to make 8 kg of ice every hour.
b) Calculate the rate at which energy is delivered 5 a) Explain why the coefficient of performance for
to the surroundings of the freezer. a heat pump is greater than when the same
4 The left-hand box in Figure 33.90 shows a heat pump is working as a refrigerator.
combined heat and power scheme. b) A student claims that ‘A heat pump delivers
more energy than is supplied to it’. Discuss
whether or not this statement contradicts the
first and second laws of thermodynamics.
Exam practice questions

Exam practice questions

Thermodynamics
1 A quantity of gas is enclosed in a metal cylinder fitted with a piston. The
very many gas molecules present are represented in Figure 33.91 by the
molecules shown. The cylinder walls are thermally conducting.
P

d c

a b

V
Figure 33.91 The motion of molecules in a gas is random.

a) The piston is moved outwards slowly so that the gas temperature is
the same after the increase in volume. Explain why moving the piston
slowly ensures the temperature of the gas does not increase as it
expands. (3)
b) Explain whether work is done as the piston moves outwards and if
so, is the work done on the gas or by the gas? (2)
c) Explain whether there is a flow of heat as the piston moves outwards.
If so, does it flow into or out of the cylinder? (2)
d) Discuss whether heat can be completely converted to work in
this expansion and the implications for using this arrangement to
continuously convert heat into work. (4)
2 The graph below shows the variation with volume V of the pressure p for
two isothermal changes of two ideal gases X and Y. The gases have the
same number of moles.
p X Y

B
71

0
0 V

Figure 33.92

a) State what is meant by an isothermal change. (1)

b) Explain whether gas X in the state shown by point A (pA,VA) is at a
higher or lower temperature than gas Y in the state shown by point
B (pB,VB). (2)
 c) Gas Y is compressed adiabatically from state (pB,VB) until it reaches
the pressure pA. Explain what happens to the temperature of gas Y
during this process. (3)
d) Copy Figure 33.92 and shade an area to represent the work done
when gas X compressed isothermally from VB to VA. (2)
3 A 2-cylinder lawnmower petrol engine was tested. Each cylinder
produced the following results:
flow rate of fuel 2.5 × 10–2 kg min–1
calorific value of fuel 52 MJ kg–1
indicated power 4.8 kW
rotational speed of output shaft 1100 rev min–1
torque measured at output shaft 50 Nm
Use this data to:
a) Calculate the rate at which energy is supplied to the engine. (2)
b) Calculate the overall efficiency of the engine. (3)
c) Estimate the power dissipated in overcoming frictional losses. (1)
4 a) State and explain, with reference to the first law of thermodynamics,
two ways in which the internal energy of a gas can be decreased. (4)
b) A volume of 25 m3 of exhaust gas leaves an engine during 1 cycle.
The exhaust gas contracts to one third of its volume as it is cooled by
the surrounding atmosphere at a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa. If 5.2 MJ
of heat is transferred to the atmosphere during cooling, calculate the
change in internal energy of the exhaust gas. (3)
c) Sketch a p-V indicator diagram to illustrate this process. (3)

5 An air rifle uses a spring held in compression to propel the pellet as
shown in Figure 33.93.
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

When the trigger is pulled the spring is released. This pushes a piston
rapidly to the left along the cylinder, compressing the air behind the pellet.
A force is therefore exerted on the pellet which accelerates it along the barrel.
pellet inserted air in atmospheric spring
in barrel pressure (compressed)

72

trigger

Figure 33.93 An air rifle mechanism which is ready to fire.

a) If the initial length of the cylinder is 8.5 cm, with an internal
diameter of 1.5 cm, calculate the number of moles of air inside the
cylinder. The air is at a temperature of 288 K and is at atmospheric
pressure (101 kPa). (2)
 b) The piston compresses the air adiabatically. Explain why the

Exam practice questions

compression can be considered an adiabatic compression and
calculate the pressure of the air when the piston has moved 5 cm. (3)
c) Estimate the temperature in the cylinder when the piston has
travelled 5 cm along the cylinder. (2)
6 The graph in Figure 33.94 of pressure p against volume V shows the
expansion of 2.0 moles of a monatomic ideal gas from state A to state B.
900
800
700
600
p/N m–2

A B
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
V/m3

Figure 33.94
a) Calculate the work done as the gas expands. (2)
b) Calculate the change in internal energy of the gas as it expands. (3)
c) Calculate the heat added to or removed from the gas during this
process. (2)
d) The pressure is then reduced to 200 N m–2 without changing the
volume as the gas is taken from state B to state C. Copy Figure 33.94
and label state C and draw a line to represent this process. (2)
e) The gas is then compressed isothermally back to state A. Draw a line
to represent this process and explain whether heat is added to or
removed from the gas during this compression. (3)
7 An inventor claims to have invented four engines, each of which operates
between a hot reservoir at 400 K and a cooler reservoir at 300 K.
Data on each engine is shown in the table.
Discuss the claims made for each engine in terms of the first and second
laws of thermodynamics. (6)
Engine QH QC W
1 200 –175 40
2 500 –200 400
73
3 600 –200 400
4 100 –90 10

8 a) The compressor motor in a refrigerator has a power of 250 W. If the

freezing compartment is at 270 K and the outside air is at 300 K,
calculate the maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from
the freezing compartment in 20.0 minutes. (4)
b) State what you are assuming in answering part (a) and calculate the
amount of energy transferred to the surroundings each second. (2)
 9 An inventor claims to have constructed an engine that has an efficiency
of 70% when operating between the boiling and freezing points of water.
a) Discuss whether this claim is possible. (3)
b) Explain why a real engine can never attain the maximum possible
efficiency. (2)
10 An ideal gas initially at 300 K is compressed at a constant pressure
of 20 N m–2 from a volume of 3.0 m3 to a volume of 1.8 m3. In this
process, 75 J is lost as heat.
a) Calculate the change in internal energy of the gas. (3)
b) Calculate the final temperature of the gas. (2)

Rotational dynamics
1 A flywheel battery can be used to replace chemical batteries to provide a
short-term electrical power supply. A motor is used to drive the flywheel
up to speed. The mass of the flywheel is 200 kg and its moment of
inertia is 32 kg m2.
a) Explain how the energy can be recovered from the flywheel. (1)
b) If the flywheel has a radius of 0.40 m and can be rotated at a maximum
angular speed of 48 000 rev min–1, calculate the rotational kinetic
energy stored when it is rotating at half its maximum speed. (1)
c) The manufacturer claims that losses due to friction when the flywheel
is running at its maximum speed is 1.7 W and the mean power loss
over the range of speeds from rest to its maximum speed is 0.8 W.
Calculate the frictional torque acting on the rotor when spinning
at its maximum speed and the time taken to come to rest from its
maximum speed under the action of the frictional torque alone. (4)
d) When supplying electrical power the flywheel battery can supply a
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

constant load of 3 kW for 24 hours. Calculate the flywheel’s angular

speed in rpm at the end of this period if it starts at its maximum
angular speed. (4)
e) Explain why a flywheel has a maximum safe angular speed of
rotation. (1)
f) Two possible designs for flywheels are shown in Figure 33.95. Both
spin at the same angular speed and have the same mass.
Explain which design should be used for the flywheel battery
discussed above. (2)

74

axis of rotation

A B
Figure 33.95
 2 The RAF use human centrifuges to simulate the large ‘g’ forces

Exam practice questions

experienced by pilots. A rotating arm is driven by an electric motor and
the pilot sits in a capsule at the end of the rotating centrifuge arm as
shown in Figure 33.96.
r

Figure 33.96
a) The motor driving the centrifuge is able to work at a maximum
power of 200 kW for 5.2 s. During this time the angular speed
increases from 19.0 rpm to 82.0 rpm. Use this data to estimate the
moment of inertia of the rotating system. (5)
b) State what you are assuming in your calculation in part (a). (1)
3 An early design of four-stroke engine stores kinetic energy in a flywheel
attached to the crankshaft. The engine is started from rest and produces
a torque which accelerates the flywheel to a speed of 105 rev min–1.
The flywheel has a moment of inertia of 280 kg m2 and takes 9.5 s to
accelerate from rest to 105 rev min–1.
a) Calculate the average accelerating torque acting on the flywheel. (2)
b) Calculate the average useful power output of the engine during the
period when it is accelerating. (2)
When the engine is running at 105 rev min–1 the fuel supply is switched
off and the flywheel continues to rotate for a further 36 turns before
coming to a rest.
c) Estimate the average retarding torque acting on the flywheel. (3)
4 A KERS solid disc flywheel system is fitted to a delivery van in order
to avoid ‘wasting’ kinetic energy when it stops to make a delivery. The
stored rotational energy is recovered when the van re-starts.
When the van comes to rest from a speed of 50 km h–1, 50% of its
translational kinetic energy is transferred to the flywheel.
Use the following data to calculate the radius of the flywheel.
maximum safe angular speed of flywheel = 400 rad s–1
mass of loaded van = 3000 kg
75
thickness of flywheel = 0.15 m
density of steel alloy from which flywheel is constructed = 8.0 kg m–3
moment of inertia of a solid disk = 1 Mr2 (5)
2
5 A grinding wheel is used to sharpen a knife. The heavy wheel rotates and
the knife blade is pushed against the edge of the wheel with a tangential
force of 2.5 N. An electric motor accelerates the grinding wheel
uniformly up to its operating speed of 600 rpm.
 The radius of the wheel is 0.20 m and it has a moment of inertia of
0.85 kg m2.
a) Calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel caused by the torque
from the knife. (2)
b) Explain what happens to the rotational kinetic energy lost by the
grinding wheel. (1)
c) Calculate the amount of power supplied by the motor in order
to maintain the grinding wheel at a speed of 600 rpm during
sharpening. (3)
6 A light turntable is mounted on low-friction bearings. Describe an
experimental method to determine the rotational inertia of the turntable.
You should include:
l A list of the equipment used, what measurements you will take and
how they will be taken
l How the measurements will be used to calculate the moment of inertia
l Which measurements contribute the most uncertainty and how these
uncertainties will be minimised. (6)

Figure 33.97
7 A student performed an experiment to measure the moment of inertia of
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

a heavy pulley.
Masses are attached by a string to the pulley and the string is wrapped
around the edge of the pulley several times. The masses are released
from rest and the time taken for them to fall a distance, h, to the floor is
recorded. The experiment is repeated three times but only data for the
first run is shown below.
Radius of pulley = 0.125 m
Mass of falling masses = 2.5 kg
h = 2 m
Time to fall distance h = 1.41 s
76
 Exam practice questions
R

Figure 33.98 Moment of inertia of a flywheel.

a) Use the data to calculate the linear acceleration of the falling masses. (1)
b) The diameter of the pulley was measured to be 0.25 m. Calculate
the angular acceleration. (2)
c) Determine the moment of inertia of the pulley. (4)
8 Low-friction motors are able to change their speed and direction of
rotation rapidly.
a) Explain in terms of work done and torque why a low moment of
inertia is desirable when the speed and direction of rotation must be
changed quickly and describe the features of such a design of rotor.(4)
b) One such motor reverses direction from an angular speed of 170 rad s–1
to 90 rad s–1 in the opposite direction. If this is completed in 75 ms,
calculate the angular acceleration and state what you are assuming. (2)
c) The moment of inertia of the motor’s rotor is 3.8 × 10–5 kg m2.
Calculate the torque required to achieve the acceleration you
calculated in part (b). (1)
9 Figure 33.99 shows data for the torque measured at the crankshaft as a
4-stroke petrol engine completes one cycle.
400

300

200
% mean torque

77
100

–100

–200
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
crankshaft position/deg

Figure 33.99 Instantaneous torque even-fire 4-cylinder engine.

 a) Explain why the torque varies through one cycle. You should sketch a
diagram to illustrate your answer. (3)
b) Explain how the graph could be used to calculate the work done by
the engine in one revolution of the crankshaft. (2)
c) Describe a modification which could be made to ‘smooth’ out the
motion of the crankshaft and deliver a more even power. (3)
10 A firework wheel consists of two rockets attached to a beam which
is pivoted at the centre. Thrust from the exhaust gases of the rockets
provides a torque.
The moment of inertia of the beam = 0.09 kg m2.
a) Each rocket has a mass of 0.38 kg and is attached a distance of 0.4 m
either side of the pivot. Calculate the moment of inertia of the firework
wheel about the pivot. (2)
b) Both rockets are lit simultaneously and each produces a thrust of
2.8 N. Calculate the time taken for the fire rocket to complete three
whole rotations, starting from rest. (4)
c) Explain why, after a short time, the firework wheel begins to rotate at
a constant angular speed until the fuel runs out. (2)
33     ENGINEERING PHYSICS

78
●● Answers to Test yourself on prior

Answers to Test yourself on rotational motion questions

knowledge questions
1 For small angles the chord length and arc length are approximately the
same.
s=rθ
θ=s
r
= 0.05
100
= 5 × 10–4 rad
= 5 × 10–4 ×  360  = 0.029°
 2π 
2 ω = 2.5 × 10–6 rad s–1
3 The bubbles of CO2 expand as their temperature increases in
accordance with Charles’ Law.
V V
1= 2
T1 T2
4 P1V1 = P1V1
2.8 × 2 = 1.9 × V2
V2 = 0.34 cm2
●● Answers to Test yourself on rotational
motion questions
v = dt so the outer child travels further in the same time interval
1 (a) 
and so has the greater linear velocity.
(b) The angular velocity is the same for both as ω = θ and both take
t
the same time to complete one rotation.
2 (a) α = (ω2 – ω1)/t:
ω2 = αt + ω1
= 0.05 × 12
= 0.6 rad s–1
(b) v = r ω
= 2 × 0.6
= 1.2 ms–1
3 (a) ω2 = 2πf
= 2π × 
30 000 

 60 
= 3142 rad s–1
(ω – ω1) 79
α= 2
t
(3142 – 0)
=
20
= 157 rad s–2
(ω2 – ω1)
(b) θ =
2α
3142 2
=
(2 × 157)
= 31 440 rad
 = 31440 = 5003 revolutions whilst accelerating
2 π
It then rotates at a constant angular velocity of 3142 rad s–1 for
another 40 seconds.
θ = ωt = 3142 rad s–1 × 40 = 125 680 rad
Number of revolutions completed at constant angular
velocity = 125 680 = 20 002.6
2π
Total number of revolutions = 5003 + 31 440 = 25 005 complete
revolutions.
4 (a) Gradient of graph is greatest at tA
(b) and least at tB
5 (a) ω2 = ω1 + α t
= 0 + 0.21 × 10 = 2.1 rad s–1
1 2
(b) θ = ω1 + αt
2
1
= 0 + × 0.21 × 102
2
= 10.5 rad
2π 2π
(ω – ω1) 2π T − T1
6 (a) α = 2 but ω = so α = 2
t T t
2π − 2π
0.033 s + 1.26 × 10−5 s 0.033 s
α=

60 × 60 × 24 × 365.25
= –2.31 × 10–9 rad s–2
(ω – ω1)
(b) t = 2
α
0 – ( 0.033
2π
)
=
– 2.31 × 10 –9 rad s –2
= 8.24 × 1010 s = 2612 years
= 2600 years
●● Answers to Torque and moment of inertia
questions
ANSWERS

1 (a) I = mr2
I = 2 kg (3m)2
I = 18 kg m2
1
80 (b) I = 3 × ( MR2)
3
= 30 kg × 72
= 1470 kg m2
T
2 (a) α =
I
(0.25 × 2 × 9.81)
=
1
( × 2 × 0.52)
3
= 4.905 = 29.4 rad s–2
0.167
 (b) a = αr
= 29.4 × 0.5

Answers to Angular kinetic energy, work and power questions

= 14.7 ms–2
This is greater than g and so an object balanced on the end of the shelf
support would be left behind once the rod was allowed to fall freely.
3 (a) I = ΣMr2
= 10 × 12 + 10 × 12 = 20 kg m2
(b) (10 × 0.52) + (10 × 1.52)
= 2.5 + 22.25 = 24.75 kg m2
4 Net torque = (20 × 0.45) – 1.5 = 7.5 N m
Apply Newton’s 2nd law of motion for rotation: ΣT = Iα
I (ω2 – ω1)
7.5 N m =
t
40
7.5 = I × ( )
5
I = 0.94 kg m2
2
5 Iearth = MR2
5
2
= (5.98 × 1024 × (6.4 × 106)2)
5
= 9.7 × 1037 kg m2
2π
ω1 = = 0.73 rad s–1
(24 × 60 × 60)
ω – ω1 (0 – 0.73)
α= 2 = = –1.68 × 10–9 rad s–2
t (12 × 60 × 60)
Apply Newton’s 2nd law of motion for rotation: ΣT = Iα
T = 9.7 × 1037 kg m2 × 1.68 × 10–9 rad s–2
= 1.63 × 1029 N m
T
F=
R
= 1.63 × 1029
6.4 × 106
= 2.6 × 1022 N
The force would need to be exerted tangentially to the radius. If the angle
was less than 90° a greater force would be required.
●● Answers to Angular kinetic energy, work
and power questions
1 ω = 120 × 2π = 12.57 rad s–1
60
1 81
I = × 60 000 × 52
2
= 750 000 kg m2
1
EK = I ω2
2
= 0.5 × 750 000 × 12.572
= 59 MJ (3.6 MJ = 1 kWh)
= 16.4 kWh
2 Mass = density × volume
= 1.2 × π × 100 0002 × 4000
 = 1.51 × 1014 kg
v = 180 000 = 50 ms–1
3600
v
ω= r
= 50
100 000
= 5 × 10–4 rad s–1
1
I = Mr2
2
= 0.5 × 1.51 × 1014 × 100 0002
= 7.55 × 1023 kg m2
1
EK = I ω2
2
= 0.5 × 7.55 × 1023 × (5 × 10–4)2
= 9.44 × 1016 J
Much less energy will be stored than this as speed of rotation is not
constant.
3 W = Tθ
t = 1 second, f = 2000 = 33.3 rps, ω = θt so θ = 33.3 × 2π
60
W = 800 × 33.3 × 2π
= 167 552 J s–1
= 168 kW

4 (a) EK = 1 I ω2
2
  I  = 1  MR2
2
   = 0.5 × 500 kg × 1.22
   = 360 kg m2
  EK = 0.5 × 360 × 6282
 = 71 × 106 J
energy
(b) Time = power
6
   = 71 × 10
10 000
   = 7100 s = 118 minutes
ANSWERS

5 Work done = GPE gained + translation KE gained + angular KE gained

sin 25° = Δh therefore Δh = 4.23 m
10 1 1
40 × 10 = (5 × 9.81 × 4.23) + ( × 5 × v2) + ( × 0.6 × ω2)
2 2
v
ω= r
82
 0.3 v2 
therefore 400 = 207.5 + 2.5 v2 +
 0.4 2 
192.5 = 4.38 v2
v = 6.6 ms–1
6 Sliding
1
Apply conservation of energy: mgΔ h = m v2
2
therefore vsliding = 2 gh = 5.42 m s–1
Rolling
GPE lost = rotational KE gained + translational KE gained
 1 1
mgΔh = I ω2 + m v2
2 2

Answers to Angular momentum questions

1 2 1
mgΔh = × × mr2 ω2 + m v2
2 5 2
v
but ω = and so
r
1 2 2  v 2 1
mgΔh = × × mr + m v2
2 5 r 2
which simplifies to
gΔh =   v2
7
 10 
10  g  ∆ h 10 × 9.81 × 1.5
 v = = = 4.58 ms–1
7 7
Therefore the ball which was only sliding reaches the bottom first as it
has greater final velocity.
●● Answers to Angular momentum
questions
1
1 (a) ω1 = = 0.56 rev s–1, I1 = 5.1 kg m2
1.8
(b) I1 ω1 = I2 ω2
5.1 × 0.56 = I2 × 3
I2 = 0.95 kg m2
(c) They reduce their moment of inertia by bringing their arms in and so
moving more mass closer to the axis of rotation which reduces I as I = Mr2.
2 The system has no angular momentum before.
After, L = I ω where I = Ibullet + Icylinder
1
I = mcylinder (rcylinder)2 + mbullet (rcylinder)2
2
1
L = ( mcylinder + mbullet) (rcylinder)2 ω
2
1
mbullet v rcylinder = ( mcylinder + mbullet) (rcylinder)2 ω
2
mbulletv
ω=
1
( mcylinder + mbullet) (rcylinder)
2
ω= 0.005 × 960 = 4.8 = 10.6 rad s–1 = 1.69 rps
(0.5 × 3 + 0.005) 0.3 0.45
3 I1 ω1 = I2 ω2
2 2
M (r )2 ω1 = × 0.5 M0 × (0.015 r0)2 ω2
5 0 0 5
1
ω1 = × 0.015 ω2 2
83
2
ω2 = ω1
1.125 × 10–4
= 1861.7 rad day–1
2π
T2 = ω
2
= 3.4 × 10–3 days
This is rather fast but we have assumed that the ejected matter has not
carried any angular momentum with it.
4 (a) The angular velocity decreases as the moment of inertia increases as
the person moves their mass further from the axis of rotation.
 (b) I = moment of inertia of roundabout + moment of inertia of person
I = 950 + 70 × 22 = 1230 kg m2
950 × 0.9 = 1230 × ω2
ω2 = 0.7 rad s–1
●● Answers to Rotational and linear motion
compared questions
1
Linear motion Rotational motion
Velocity, v Angular velocity, ω = v
r
Momentum = mv Angular momentum = I ω

Kinetic energy = 1 m v 2 Rotational kinetic energy = 1 I ω2

2 2
Resultant force, F = ma Resultant torque, T = I α
Change in momentum = F × t Change in angular momentum = T × t
Work done = change in KE = F × s Work done = change in KE = T × θ
work done P = Tω
Power =
time
Linear momentum is conserved if no Angular momentum is conserved if no
external forces act external torques act, I1 ω1 = I2 ω2

●● Answers to First law and work done

questions 2
 d
1 (a) Area of piston = π   = 0.015 m2
2
W = pΔV = 110 000 × 0.25 × 0.015 = 412.5 J
(b) Q = ΔU + W
ΔU = Q – W
= 600 – 412.5
= 187.5 J = 188 J
2 W = pΔV = p(V2 – V1)
= 100 000 × (3.5 – 5)
ANSWERS

= –150 000 J
The work done is negative as work is being done on the gas to compress it.
As ΔU = 0 (in order for the pressure to remain constant), the 150 000 J is
transferred from the gas (Q = –150 000 J).
84 3 (a) W = pΔV
= 101 000 × 4
= 404 000 J
Q = mLv = 0.8 × 2.26 × 106 J
= 1.808 × 106 J
 Q = ΔU + W therefore ΔU = Q – W = 2.71 × 106 – 404 000
= 2.31 × 106 J
(b) The change in state occurs at a constant temperature and so the KE
of the particles remains constant. Therefore the increase in internal
energy (Q) increases the separation of the particles.
 4 (a) W = pΔV
= 1.2 × 105 × 0.05

Answers to Non-flow processes questions

= 6000 J
(b) Q = ΔU + W
ΔU = Q – W
= 8000 – 6000 = 2000 J
●● Answers to Ideal gases questions
1 No intermolecular forces and so there are no forces between molecules so
no potential energy. Internal energy = random kinetic energy of particles
+ potential energy.
2 Room temp = 300 K and a typical room could be 3 m high × 8 m × 5 m,
volume = 120 m3
pV
n=
RT
100000 Pa × 120m 3
= = 4813 = 4800 mol
8.31 J mol −1K −1 × 300K
nRT 0.35 × 8.31 × 303
3 (a) pV = nRT, V1 =
= 1.03 × 105
p
= 8.56 × 10–3 m3
pV pV
(b) 1 1 = 2 2
T1 T2
p2V2 T1
T2 =
p1V1

=
8 × 106 × ( 8.56 × 10−3
20 ) × 303
1.03 × 105 × 8.56 × 10−3
= 1177 K = 904 °C
(c) The gas behaves as an ideal gas at all temperatures and pressures.
●● Answers to Non-flow processes
questions
1 p V2 = p1 V1
2
150 kPa × 0.06
p = = 214.3 kPa
2 0.042
2 (a) P1 = 120 kPa, P2 = ?
T1 = 312 K, T2 = ? 85
V2 = 3 V1
p (V1)γ = p2(V2)γ
1
γ
V 
p = p1  1 
2 V  2
1.4
= 120 kPa  
1

 4
= 25.8 kPa
pV
pV = nRT, therefore
(b)  = nR and as no gas escapes we can use the
T
ideal gas equation in the form
 p1 V1 p2 V2
=
T1 T2
120 000 × V1 25 800 × 3 V1
=
312 T2
T2 = 201.2 K
3 (a) p (V1)γ = p2(V2)γ
1
p2 V2 = p1 V1
5 m3
p2 = 200 kPa ×
0.5 m3
= 2000 kPa
(b) p1 (V1)γ = p2 (V2)γ
γ
 V1 
p2 = p1  V 
2
1.67
 5 
= 200 kPa  
0.5
= 9355 kPa
(c) adiabatic
compression
9355
pressure/kPa

isothermal
compression
2000
200

0.5 5
V2 V1
V/m3

V1
4 V2 =
4
p1 V1 V1
p2 = = 1.00 × 105 × = 4 × 105 Pa = pressure of compressed
gas V 2 0.25 V1
For the adiabatic change, T1 = 12 °C = 285 K as the first stage was
isothermal.
p1(V1)γ = p2(V2)γ
ANSWERS

γ 1.4
p2 = p1  V1  so p2 = 4 × 105 ×  
1
= 0.57 × 105 Pa
 V   4
2
p1 V1 p2 V2
To calculate the final temperature after the expansion use =
T1 T2
as we now know the initial and final pressures and volumes.
86
p2 V2 T1 0.57 × 105 Pa × V2 × 285
T2 = = = 162 K
p1V1 4 × 105 Pa × 0.25 V2
= –110 °C
5 Isothermal: takes place at constant temperature; adiabatic: no energy
exchange between gas and surroundings. The expansion is not adiabatic
as heat is transferred to the gas. If it expands at constant pressure it
cannot be isothermal as the rate of collisions between the particles and
the container walls would decrease as the volume increases causing the
pressure to decrease. Temperature is a measure of the average KE of the
particles and KE must increase in order to maintain the same rate of
collisions between particles and container walls.
●● Answers to Using p-V diagrams questions

Answers to Engine cycles, power output and efficiency questions

1 (a) Processes 2 and 3 show work being done by the gas as the gas is
expanding.
(b) Use pV = nRT to calculate the number of moles of gas.
pV
n =
RT
   Choose two points from the process 1 isotherm
   n = 2.5 × 105 Pa × 0.5 m3
8.31 × 310
   = 48.5 mol
   Choose two points from the process 3 isotherm
pV
   T =
nR
5 3
   = 1.25 × 10 Pa × 1.25 m
48.5 × 8.31
   = 388 K
(c) Area enclosed by cycle ≈ 355 small squares
Each small square area = 0.1 × 105 Pa × 0.05 m3 = 500 J
W = 500 × 355 = 177 500 J
(d) P = 177 500 × 4 × 50 = 35.5 MW
This is a very powerful engine (a typical car engine has a power
of ≈ 80 kW).
2 (a) 2
work done
heat by gas
pressure

added
1 3
heat
work done extracted
on gas 4

volume

(b) Stage
Q Δ U W
1–2 +260 +260    0
2–3 +250    0 +250
3–4 –260 –260    0
4–1 –180    0 –180
Whole cycle   70    0   70

●● Answers to Engine cycles, power output 87

and efficiency questions

1 (a) Input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate
0.49
= 44.8 × 106 ×
60
= 366 kW
(b) The indicated power would double if the cycle was completed at twice
the speed as the same amount of work would be done in half the time.
 2 Correct p-V diagrams for both cycles labelled.
Petrol A′ to A – induction stroke, petrol vapour and air mixture at about
50°C is drawn into each cylinder. For diesel, only air is taken in during
the induction stroke. (1)
Petrol B to C – A spark plug ignites the gas mixture at B. Diesel cycle – air
is compressed during (2) and at (3). Diesel is sprayed into the cylinder
where it ignites due to the high temperature of the air.
Diesel (3 & 4) is power stroke. Petrol (C–D) is the power stroke.

Petrol Diesel
P P
C 3

4
Q IN
B D
Q OUT
2 5
A′ A
1 6

V1 V2 V
V
3 (a) Area enclosed by cycle ≈ 330 small squares (allow +/– 30 small
squares)
Area of 1 small square = 0.2 × 10–5 × 5 × 103 = 0.01 J
Total area = 330 × 0.01 = 3.3 J per cycle
Engine completes 300 cycles per minute therefore completes 5 cycles
per second.
So Pindicated = 3.3 × 5 = 16.5 W

(b) POUT = mgΔh

t
(6 × 9.81 × 1.8)
    =
8.7
    = 12.18 W
POUT
Mechanical efficiency =
ANSWERS

PINDICATED
           = 12.18
16.5
           = 0.74
(c) Frictional heating in the moving parts of the engine
88
4 Input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate
120 000 = 37 × 106 × f
f = 0.0032 kg s–1 = 3.2 g s–1
(2500 × 2π)
5 (a) Brake power = T ω = 200 × 0.4 × = 20.9 kW
60
brake power
(b) Mechanical efficiency =
indicated power
20.9
= × 100 = 79.9%
(4 × 6.54)
 (c) Input power = calorific value × fuel flow rate
= 0.002 × 42 000 = 84 kW

Answers to Engine efficiency questions

indicated power (4 × 6.54)
Thermal efficiency = = = 31.1%
input power 84 × 100
brake power 20.9
(d) Overall efficiency = = × 100 = 24.9%
input power 84
6 PINPUT = calorific value of fuel (J kg−1) × flow rate (kg s−1)
7.8 kg
= 51 × 106 ×
36000
= 110 500 J s−1
P
efficiency = OUT
PINPUT
42 000 J s−1
=
110 500 J s−1
= 0.38
●● Answers to Engine efficiency questions
1 (a) Work done = enclosed area of cycle = area of rectangle
= 2 × 105 × 8 = 16 × 105 J
work done W
(b) Efficiency = =
thermal energy input QH
Thermal energy input, QH = QC + W = 2.1 × 106 + 16 × 105 = 3.7 × 106 J
16 × 105 J
Efficiency = × 100 = 43%
3.7 × 106 J
2

DV

TH – TC
3 Maximum efficiency = 89
TH
This equation implies that if the temperatures of the hot and cold
sinks are similar then the efficiency is essentially zero ( T0H = 0). If the
temperatures are TH = ∞ and TC = 0 then the efficiency is maximised. The
efficiency is therefore maximum when there is the greatest temperature
difference between the hot and cold sink, i.e. when the engine is
operating at a higher temperature.
An engine can never reach maximum efficiency in practice. It has many
moving parts that produce friction leading to thermal losses. Some work
 is also done to move the air-fuel mixture into and out of the combustion
cylinder. The combustion of the fuel depends on the amount of oxygen
present and not all of the fuel entering the cylinder will combust and so
the input power will be reduced. When the fuel is combusted, a lot of
the heat (perhaps as much as 50%) will be lost from the engine without
carrying out any work (e.g. passes through the cylinder walls or used in
the cooling system).
T
4 Carnot efficiency = 1 – C
TH
= 1 – 290
373
= 22%
Large losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the engine. A
lot of steam is also lost and the steam cools, transferring energy to the
surroundings as it passes around the engine.
●● Answers to Reversed heat engines
questions
1 COP = QC
W
but QC = QH + W therefore COP = QH – W so COP = QH – 1
W W
QH = (7 + 1) W = 8W
If W = 1 joule then QH = 8 joules, i.e. for every 1 unit of work done
8 joules of heat are ejected
2 (a) a–b and c–d are isothermal, b–c and d–a are adiabatic
(b) Heat (QC) is absorbed from the cold sink during a–b. Heat
is absorbed at this stage because the substance is undergoing
an isothermal expansion and therefore to maintain a constant
temperature energy must be absorbed.
Heat (QH) is ejected to the surroundings during c–d. As the
refrigerant is being compressed isothermally it must lose heat to
maintain a constant temperature.
3 (a) Energy required to cool 8 kg of water down to 0°C so it can freeze
ANSWERS

Q = mcΔθ = 8 × 2400 × 18 = 604 800 J

Energy required to freeze 8 kg of water
Q = mL = 8 × 330 000 = 2.64 × 106 J
Energy needed to cool ice from 0 °C to –12°C
90
Q = mcΔθ = 8 × 2100 × 12 = 201 600 J
Total energy removed from water per hour = 3.45 × 106 J = QC
Q 3.45 × 106 J
W= = = 718 kJ
COP 4.8
W
P = = 718 000 = 199.2 watts = 200 watts
t 3600
(b) QH = QC + W = 3.45 × 106 + 718 000 = 4.168 × 106
Q 4.168 × 106
QH per second = H = = 1158 watts
t 3600
 TH – TC 2000 – 290
4 (a) Max theoretical efficiency = = = 0.86
TH 2000

Answers to Exam practice questions

output power 100 kW
(b) Input power = = = 117 kW
efficiency 0.86
power 117 000 W
(c) Fuel flow rate = calorific value =
46 × 106 J kg–1
                  = 2.5 × 10–3 kg s–1

Assume the engine operates at maximum theoretical efficiency and

the generator is 100% efficient.
(d) Q1 = 117 kW – 100 kW = 17 kW
QH
COP = W therefore Q2 = W × COP = 20 kW × 2.9 = 58 kW
so total energy available for heating each second = 17 kW + 58 kW
= 75 kW
5 (a) QH = W + QC
So QH > QC
QH Q
and COPREF = c
By definition, COPHP =
W W
As QH > QC, COPHP > COPREF
(b) Heat pump does deliver more energy than is input as work but this
comes from a decrease in the energy of the cooler surroundings.
Conservation of energy is obeyed as W + Qc = QH, i.e. work + energy
from cold outdoor surroundings = energy transferred into building.
The second law is also obeyed as it operates between a hot and cold
source/sink.
●● Answers to Exam practice questions
Thermodynamics
1 (a) I f the piston is moved quickly, KE will be transferred to the molecules
and they will be moving faster after they collide with the piston. (1)
Temperature is proportional to KE ( 1 2 3
2 m c = 2 kT) (1)
 so if the average KE of the molecules increases, the temperature of the
gas will increase. (1)
(b) Work is done BY (1) the gas as it is expanding.  (1)
(c) Heat flows into the cylinder. (1)

As the piston moves out the gas would cool, so heat flows in through 91
the conducting walls until the temperature is the same as the
surroundings, (1) which was the state before the expansion.
(d) Heat is completely converted into work during the expansion.  (1)
A cyclical process is required for a continuously operating machine. (1)

As the gas must be returned to its initial state, some heat would
be given out during this returning stage (1) or the second law of
thermodynamics would be contravened. (1)
 2 (a) Change in which the temperature remains constant (1)
(b) S tate X is at a lower temperature (1); because pA,VA < pB,VB and pV
is proportional to T (1) (pV = nRT).
 ork is done on the gas (1) as it is being compressed and so Δ W is
(c) W
negative. (1)
 = ΔU – W but as Q is zero, ΔU = W so temperature increases as
Q
internal energy increases. (1)
 rea under curve X (1) should be shaded between volume A and
(d) A
volume B. (1)
3 (a) Input power = fuel flow rate × calorific value  (1)
 2.5 × 10 
–2
Pin =   × 52 × 106 = 21.7 × 103 W = 22 kW (1)
 60 
power output
(b) Efficiency =
power input
1100
ω = 2π f = 2 π × = 115.2 rad s–1  (1)
60
Pout = T ω = 50 × 115.2 = 5759.6 W  (1)
5759.6
Efficiency = = 0.27 (or 27%) (1)
21.7 × 103
(c) Frictional losses = indicated power – power output
6500 – 5760 = 740 W
4 (a) Q = ΔU + W so ΔU = Q – W
Remove heat (Q) from the gas (1)
so Q is negative, W zero, therefore ΔU must be negative so internal

energy (U) decreases (1)
Gas does work (i.e. expands) (1)
 W is positive, Q zero, then ΔU must be negative so internal energy
(U) decreases (1)
 25 
(b) W = pΔV = 1 × 105 ×  3  = 8.3 × 105 J (1)
As gas is contracting W is negative
ANSWERS

Q transferred to surroundings so Q is negative (1)

Q = ΔU + W
–5.2 × 106 = ΔU – 8.3 × 105

92 ΔU = – 4.37 × 106 J (1)

(c) p on y-axis and V on x-axis with suitable scale/key features (1)
Horizontal line going from 25 m3, 1.0 × 105 Pa to 8.3 m3,

1.0 × 105 Pa arrow pointing to left (1)
2
 0.015 
5 (a) V = area × length = π × × 0.085 = 1.5 × 10–5 m3 (1)
 2 
pV  101 000 × 1.5 × 10−5 
 =n=   = 6.3 × 10–4 mol (1)
RT  8.31 × 288 
 (b) V1 = 1.5 × 10–5 m3
2

Answers to Exam practice questions

V2 = π × 
0.015 
× 0.035 = 6.2 × 10–6 m3  (1)
 2 
γ = 1.4 as air is mainly a diatomic gas
γ γ 1.4
 V1   1.5 × 10−5 
p2 = p1 = 101 000   (1)
 V   6.2 × 10 
−6
2
p2 = 348 kPa (1)

p2 V2  348 000 × 6.2 × 10 –6 

(c) T2 = nR =   (1)
 6.3 × 10 × 8.31 
–4

= 412 K (1)
6 (a) W = pΔV (1)
= 6 m3 × 600 N m−2 = 3600 J (1)
(b) pV = nRT
pV  600 × 3 
TA = = = 108.3 K (1)
nR  2 × 8.31 

PV  600 × 9 
TB = = = 324.9 K (1)
nR  2 × 8.31 
Internal energy is all KE as the gas is ideal.
ΔU = 32 nRT
ΔU = ΔUB – ΔUA
= 3
2 × 2 × 8.31 (324.9 – 108.3)
= 5399.8 J (1)
(c) Q = ΔU+ W  (1)
= 5399.8 + 3600
= 9000 J (1)

(d) 900
800
700
A B
600
P/N m–2

500
400
300
200
C
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
V/m3 93

(1 mark per line)

(e) Q = ΔU + W (1)
ΔU = 0 as C–A is an isothermal process
therefore Q = W
Work is negative as work is done on the gas as it is compressed, Q
must also be negative and so heat is lost. (1)
 Engine QH QC W
1 200 –175   40
2 500 –200 400
3 600 –200 400
4 100 –90 10

7 First law of thermodynamics Q = ΔU + W (work is positive if done by the

gas expanding)
For an ideal engine cycle ΔU = 0 and so Q = W, statement of first law (1)
Engines 1 and 2 break the first law as Q ≠ W
Engines 3 and 4 do not break the first law as Q = W (1)
(both correct for 1 mark)
T – TC
Carnot (maximum possible efficiency) = H , statement of second
TH
law and calculation
(400 – 300)
= = 0.25 (1)
400 W
Efficiency of 1st engine = Q
=
40 = 0.2 H
200
Efficiency of 4th engine = 10 = 0.1 (1)
100
These both comply with the second law of thermodynamics as their
efficiency is lower than the maximum possible efficiency.
Efficiency of 2nd engine = 400 = 0.8
500
Efficiency of 3rd engine = 400 = 0.67 (1)
600
Engines 2 and 3 break the 2nd law of thermodynamics as their efficiency
is greater than the Carnot efficiency. (1)
QC QC
8 (a) COPREF = =
W (QC – QH) TC
   For an ideal refrigerator, COPIDEAL =  (1)
270 T H – TC
   COP = = 9 (1)
30
    QC = COP × W
    = 9 × 250
    = 2250 J s–1 (1)
   In 20 mins, Q = 2250 × 60 × 20
      = 2.6 MJ (1)
ANSWERS

(b) Assume it is an ideal refrigerator (1), 2250 + 250 = 2500 J

transferred to the surroundings each second (1)
9 (a) T
 he efficiency of a real engine must be less than the efficiency of a
Carnot engine when operating between the same temperatures. (1)
94 TC
Ideal efficiency =
TH
= (373 – 273)
373
= 0.27 (1)
The claimed efficiency is almost 3 times the maximum efficiency
possible so the inventor’s engine would violate the second law of
thermodynamics. (1)
(b) In a real engine the processes are not reversible (1) and there are
losses due to turbulent flow of the gas and friction in the moving
parts. (1)
10 (a) W = pΔV
= 20 × (1.8 – 3.0) (1)

Answers to Exam practice questions

= –24 J (1)
Q = ΔU + W
–75 = ΔU – 24
ΔU = –51 J (1)
V1 V2
(b) T1
= T2
 V2 
T2 =  V  T1 (1)
 1
 1.8 
= × 300
 3 
= 180 K (1)

Rotational dynamics
1 (a) T
 o recover the energy the motor used to spin up the flywheel/charge,
the flywheel is operated in reverse as a generator. (1)
(b) EK = 1 2 I ω 
2
2
 2π × 24 000 
= 0.5 × 32 ×  
60
= 101 × 106 J (1)
(c) ω max = 48 000 × 60 2π

= 5026.5 rad s–1 (1)

T= P
ω
1.7
= 5026.5
= 3.38 × 10–4 Nm (1)
EK max = 1
2 I (ω max)
2

= 0.5 × 32 × (5026.5 rad s–1)2

= 404.3 × 106 J (1)
energy
Time =
power
404.3 × 106 J
=
0.8 W
= 505 × 106 s (1)

(d) Energy supplied = Pt

95
= 3000 × 24 × 3600
= 2.59 × 108 J (1)
EK lost = 1 1
2 I (ω 1) – 2 I (ω 2)
2 2

2.59 × 108 = 4.04 × 108 – (0.5 × 32 × (ω 2)2)  (1)

ω 2 = 3010 rad s–1
= 3010 × 60
2 π
= 28 747 = 29 000 rpm (1) (1) (appropriate sig. figs)
 (e) T
 he forces and stresses in the wheel increase as the speed increases
which can cause the material to break apart. (1)
(f) Design B would have a greater moment of inertia as more of the
mass is concentrated further away from the axis of rotation. (1)
This would enable more kinetic energy to be stored for the same
angular velocity as KE lost = 1 I ω 2 (1)
2
2 (a) ω1 = 19.0 rpm = 19.0 × 2π = 1.98 rad s–1 (1)
60
82.0
ω 2 = × 2π = 8.59 rad s–1 (1)
60
E = Pt = 200 000 × 5.2 = 1.04 × 106 J (1)
KE gained = 1 1
2 I (ω 2) – 2 I (ω 1)
2 2

1.04 × 106 = 1 2 2
2 I (8.59 – 1.98 ) (1)
I = 29.8 × 103 kg m2 (1)
(b) The power output of the motor is constant/no electrical energy is
wasted due to friction in the bearings. (1)
3 (a) Use ω 2 = ω 1 + α t
Convert 105 rev min–1 to rad s–1
( 105 ) × 2π = 10.996 rad s–1
60
α = 10.996 = 1.16 rad s–2 (1)
9.5
T = I α
= 280 × 1.16 = 324 N m (1)
1
(b) EK = 2 I ω  2

= 1
2 × 280 × 10.996
2

= 16 928  J (1)
E
P = tK
= 16 928
9.5
= 1781 W = 1.7 kW (1)
(c) θ = 36 × 2π = 226.2 rad (1)
ANSWERS

Use = ω 22 = ω 12 + 2 α θ
2
α = 10. 996
2 × 226.2
= –0.27 rad s–2 (1)
96 T = I α
= 280 × –0.27
= –74.8 N m (1)
4 50 km h–1 = 50 000
3600
= 13.8 m s–1
Translational EK of van = 1
2 m v
2
 = 1
2 × 3000 × 13.8
2

Answers to Exam practice questions

= 285 660 J (1)
50% of this is stored in flywheel = 142 830 J
Rotational EK = 12 I ω  
2 (1)
2 EK 2
I =
ω 2
I = 285 660
2
400
= 1.79 kg m2 (1)
M = ρ V
Solid disk so V = π r2 t
M = ρ π r2 t
2
I = M r
2
I = ρ π r2 t r2   (1)
2
r = 4 2I
ρπt
2 × 1.79
= 4
8 × 10 × 3.14 × 0.15
3

= 0.18 m (1)
5 (a) T = F r
= 2.5 × 0.2
= 5.0 N m (1)
T = I α
0.5
α =
0.85
= 0.59 rad s–2 (1)
(b) Some thermal energy is produced and also some sound. (1)
(c) Initial rotational EK = 1
2 I ω 
2

600 rpm = 62.8 rad s–1

EK = 1
2 × 0.85 × 62.8
2

= 1677.8 J = 1.7 kJ (1)

97
After 1 second of knife being held against wheel
Rotational EK = 1 2
2 × 0.85 (62.8 – 0.59) = 1644.8 J (1)
ΔEK = 1677.8 – 1644.8 = 33 J (1)
So power supplied must be 33 W.
 6 A list of the equipment used, what measurements you will take and how
they will be taken:

●  anging masses can be attached to the centre of the turntable

h
and suspended off the side of the table with a pulley
● s tring wrapped around the central axle of the turntable which
unravels as the masses fall and the turntable begins to spin
● these will provide a torque to the turntable
● time how long it takes the masses to fall a certain distance
● use 6 different falling masses (m), repeat 3 times and average
●
 easure the diameter of the axle and divide by 2 to get the radius
m
(R) of the axle
 (2 marks available)
How the measurements will be used to calculate the moment of inertia:
● use the linear uniform acceleration equations to calculate, a
(s = ut + 1 2
2 at , where u = 0)
● use a = αR to calculate the turntable’s angular acceleration
● calculate the tension in the string (mg – ma = F, T = FR)
● use T = RT to calculate the torque
a graph of T against α. The gradient = I and the y-intercept
● plot
should be 0
(2 marks available)
Which measurements contribute the most uncertainty and how these
uncertainties will be minimised:
ANSWERS

● thedistance should be relatively large in order to increase the time

taken as human reaction time is of order 0.2 s, the time should
ideally be longer than 4 s in order to keep the % uncertainty
below 5%
● markers should also be used for the start and stop points and the
98 eye carefully lined up level with these in order to avoid parallax
● an angular position sensor could be fitted and used with a data
logger to record the rotation of the turntable
 (2 marks available)
2s
7 (a) Use s = u t + 1 2
2 a t , a = t2
(2 × 2)
a =
1.412
a = 2.01 m s–2 (1)
 a
(b) α =
r

Answers to Exam practice questions

2.01
= 0.125  (1)
= 16.1 rad s–2 (1)
(c) To calculate torque you need to calculate tension
Resolve vertically and apply Newton’s second law to falling masses
mg – T = ma (1)
T = mg – ma
Tension = (2.5 × 9.81) – (2.5 × 2.01)
= 19.5 N (1)
Torque = Fr
= 19.5 × 0.125
= 2.44 N m (1)
Torque = I α
T
I =
α
2.44
= 16.1
= 0.15 kg m2 (1)
8 (a) T = Iα, α large so large torques needed unless I small (1)
1
Kinetic energy = Iω 2 so small I results in less stored energy
2
so less work needs to be done to change the motion (1)
As I = mr2 (1)
Low mass, small diameter gives a low moment of inertia (1)
ω 2 − ω1
(b) α = =
t
170 – (–90)
=  (1)
75 × 10–3
= 3466.7 rad s–2 (1)
(c) T = Iα
= 3.8 × 10–5 × 3466.7
= 0.13 N m (1)
9 (a) A
 s the crankshaft rotates, the angle made by the connecting rod
changes. (1) 99

T = Fr where r is the perpendicular distance between the line of

action of F and the pivot.
 The change in angle therefore affects the torque as the crankshaft
rotates (T = Fr cos θ). (1)

F F

connecting rod

crankshaft

r
q r
rsinq

W = T θ so the area under the graph is the work done.

(b) (1)
The angular displacement needs to be converted from degrees to
radians. (1)
(c) A flywheel is added to the crankshaft (1)
which results in less fluctuation in rotational speed. (1)
It has a high moment of inertia and so keeps the crankshaft
rotating even during the exhaust stroke ΔIω = T t (1)
10 (a) I = mR2
0.38 × 0.424 = 0.0608 kg m2
Two rockets so I = 2 × 0.0608 = 0.1216
Total I = I of rockets + I of beam = 0.1216 + 0.09 = 0.21 kg m2
T=Fr
(b)
T = (2.8 × 0.38) × 2 = 2.13 N m
2.13
α = T =
I 0.21
= 10.13 rad s–2
ANSWERS

θ = 2π × 3 = 18.8 rad
1
Use θ = ω1 t + α t2
2
1
 θ 2
t =  2 α 
100
t = 1.36 s
(c) Frictional couple due to air resistance increases as the angular
speed increases. (1)
When frictional couple = driving torque there is no resultant
torque and so no acceleration. (1)
●● Photo credits

Photo credits
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© Paul Heinrich/Alamy Stock Photo; p.20 right © Picturesbyrob/Alamy
Stock Photo; p.23 © Arnau Ramos Oviedo/Alamy Stock Photo; p.52 ©
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Sinclair/Alamy Stock Photo; p.55 © Ryan Pyle/Corbis Historical/Getty
Images; p.59 © This product is manufactured by SCIENTICO in INDIA;
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