MAP READING AND LAND NAVIGATION

(Handout)

I. Introduction:
Cartography is the art and science of expressing the known physical
features of the earth graphically by maps and charts. No one knows who
drew, molded, laced together, or scratched out in the dirt the first map. But a
study of history reveals that the most pressing demands for accuracy and
detail in mapping have come as the result of military needs. Today, the
complexities of tactical operations and deployment of troops are such that it is
essential for all soldiers to be able to read and interpret their maps in order to
move quickly and effectively on the battlefield. This chapter includes the
definition and purpose of a map and describes map security, types,
categories, and scales.
Map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface
drawn to scale, as seen from above. It uses colors, symbols, and labels to
represent features found on the ground. The ideal representation would be
realized if every feature of the area being mapped could be shown in true
shape. Obviously this is impossible, and an attempt to plot each feature true
to scale would result in a product impossible to read even with the aid of a
magnifying glass.
Purpose: A map provides information on the existence, the location
of, and the distance between ground features, such as populated places and
routes of travel and communication. It also indicates variations in terrain,
heights of natural features, and the extent of vegetation cover. With our
military forces dispersed throughout the world, it is necessary to rely on maps
to provide information to our combat elements and to resolve logistical
operations far from our shores. Soldiers and materials must be transported,
stored, and placed into operation at the proper time and place. Much of this
planning must be done by using maps. Therefore, any operation requires a
supply of maps; however, the finest maps available are worthless unless the
map user knows how to read them.

II. Categories:
1. Scale. Because a map is a graphic representation of a portion of
the earth's surface drawn to scale as seen from above, it is important to know
what mathematical scale has been used. You must know this to determine
ground distances between objects or locations on the map, the size of the
area covered, and how the scale may affect the amount of detail being shown.
The mathematical scale of a map is the ratio or fraction between the distance
on a map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the earth. Scale is
reported as a representative fraction with the map distance as the numerator
and the ground distance as the denominator.

Small.
 Those maps with scales of 1:1,000,000 and smaller are
used for general planning and for strategic studies
 The standard small-scale map is 1:1,000,000.

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  This map covers a very large land area at the expense of
detai
Medium.
 Those maps with scales larger than 1000,000 but smaller
than 1:75,000 are used for operational planning
 They contain a moderate amount of detail, but terrain
analysis is best done with the large-scale
 The standard medium-scale map is 1:250,000. Medium
scale maps of 1:100,000 are also frequently encountered
Large.
 Those maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used
for tactical, administrative, and logistical planning
 These are the maps that you as a soldier or junior leader
are most likely to encounter
 The standard large-scale map is 1:50,000; however,
many areas have been mapped at a scale of 1:25,000.
2. Types:

Planimetric Map. This is a map that presents only the

horizontal positions for the features represented. It is distinguished from a
topographic map by the omission of relief, normally represented by contour
lines. Sometimes, it is called a line map.
Topographic Map. This is a map that portrays terrain features
in a measurable way (usually through use of contour lines), as well as the
horizontal positions of the features represented. The vertical positions, or
relief, are normally represented by contour lines on military topographic maps.
On maps showing relief, the elevations and contours are measured from a
specific vertical datum plane, usually mean sea level. shows a typical
topographic map.
Photomap. This is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon
which grid lines, marginal data, place names, route numbers, important
elevations, boundaries, and approximate scale and direction have been
added. (See. )
Joint Operations Graphics. These maps are based on the
format of standard 1:250,000 medium-scale military topographic maps, but
they contain additional information needed in joint air-ground operations
(Figure 2-2). Along the north and east edges of the graphic, detail is extended
beyond the standard map sheet to provide overlap with adjacent sheets.
These maps are produced both in ground and air formats. Each version is
identified in the lower margin as either Joint Operations Graphic (Air) or Joint
Operations Graphic (Ground). The topographic information is identical on
both, but the ground version shows elevations and contour in meters and the
air version shows them in feet. Layer (elevation) tinting and relief shading are
added as an aid to interpolating relief. Both versions emphasize air landing
facilities (shown in purple), but the air version has additional symbols to

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identify aids and obstructions to air navigation. (See Appendix D for additional
information. )
Photomosaic. This is an assembly of aerial photographs that is
commonly called a mosaic in topographic usage. Mosaics are useful when
time does not permit the compilation of a more accurate map. The accuracy of
a mosaic depends on the method employed in its preparation and may vary
from simply a good pictorial effect of the ground to that of a planimetric map.
Terrain Model. This is a scale model of the terrain showing
features, and in large-scale models showing industrial and cultural shapes. It
provides a means for visualizing the terrain for planning or indoctrination
purposes and for briefing on assault landings.
Military City Map. This is a topographic map (usually at
1:12,550 scale, sometimes up to 1:5,000), showing the details of a city. It
delineates streets and shows street names, important buildings, and other
elements of the urban landscape important to navigation and military
operations in urban terrain. The scale of a military city map depends on the
importance and size of the city, density of detail, and available intelligence
information.
Special Maps. These are maps for special purposes, such as
trafficability, communications, and assault maps. They are usually in the form
of an overprint in the scales smaller than 1:100,000 but larger than
1:1,000,000. A special purpose map is one that has been designed or
modified to give information not

III. MARGINAL INFORMATION:

A map could be compared to any piece of equipment, in that before it is
placed into operation the user must read the instructions. It is important that
you, as a soldier, know how to read these instructions. The most logical place
to begin is the marginal information and symbols, where useful information
telling about the map is located and explained. All maps are not the same, so
it becomes necessary every time a different map is used to examine the
marginal information carefully.
a.   Sheet Name (1). The sheet name is found in bold print at
the center of the top and in the lower left area of the map margin. A map is
generally named for the settlement contained within the area covered by the
sheet, or for the largest natural feature located within the area at the time the
map was drawn.
b.   Sheet Number (2). is found in bold print in both the upper
right and lower left areas of the margin, and in the center box of the adjoining
sheets diagram, which is found in the lower right margin. It is used as a
reference number to link specific maps to overlays, operations orders, and
plans. For maps at 1:100,000 scale and larger, sheet numbers are based on
an arbitrary system that makes possible the ready orientation of maps at
scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000.
c.   Series Name (3). The map series name is found in the same
bold print as the sheet number in the upper left corner of the margin. The

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name given to the series is generally that of a major political subdivision, such
as a state within the United States or a European nation. A map series usually
includes a group of similar maps at the same scale and on the same sheet
lines or format designed to cover a particular geographic area. It may also be
a group of maps that serve a common purpose, such as the military city
maps.
d.   Series Number (4 ). The series number is found in both the
upper right margin and the lower left margin. It is a sequence reference
expressed either as a four-digit numeral or as a letter, followed by a three- or
four-digit numeral
e.  .   Scale (5). The scale is found both in the upper left margin
after the series name, and in the center of the lower margin
 The scale note is a representative fraction that
gives the ratio of a map distance to the corresponding distance on the earth's
surface.
 For example, the scale note 1:50,000 indicates
that one unit of measure on the map equals 50,000 units of the same
measure on the ground.
f.   Edition Number (6). The edition number is found in bold
print in the upper right area of the top margin and the lower left area of the
bottom margin.
g.   Index to Boundaries (7). The index to boundaries diagram
appears in the lower or right margin of all sheets.
 This diagram, which is a miniature of the map,
shows the boundaries that occur within the map area, such as county lines
and state boundaries.
h.   Adjoining Sheets Diagram It illustrates the adjoining
sheets. It usually contains 9 rectangles but may vary depending on the
locations of the adjoining sheets
i.   Declination Diagram It is located in the lower margin of
large-scale maps and indicates the angular relationships of true north, grid
north, and magnetic north. maps,
j.   Bar Scales These are located in the center of the lower
margin.
 They are rulers used to convert map distance to
ground distance.
k.   Contour Interval Note is found in the center of the lower
margin normally below the bar scales. It states the vertical distance between
adjacent contour lines on the map
l.   Spheroid Note This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. Spheroids (ellipsoids) have specific parameters that define the X Y Z
axis of the earth. The spheroid is an integral part of the datum.
m. Projection Note It is the framework of the map. It is
located in the center of the lower margin

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 n Elevation Guide (13). It is the framework of the map. It is
located in the center of the lower margin
o.   Grid Reference Box This box is normally located in the
center of the lower margin. It contains instructions for composing grid
reference
p.   Legend The legend is located in the lower left margin. It
illustrates and identifies the topographic symbols used to depict some of the
more prominent features on the map. The symbols are not always the same
on every map. Always refer to the legend to avoid errors when reading a map.
IV. STANDARD COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

 BLACK - represents man-made objects, ie. Buildings, tower, etc

 BLUE - represents drainage or bodies of water
 BROWN - depicts relief and elevation such as contours on older maps
 RED - depicts classification of roads, built-up areas & special features
GRIDS
 GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES (LAT/LON)
 UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM) GRIDS
 MILITARY GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM (MGRS)
 GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES

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UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR

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MILITARY GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM

MILITARY GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM (MGRS) DATA

 Grid zone designation
 Example: 51P
 100,000 - meter square identification
 Example: TT
 Grid Coordinates
 Nearest 1,000 meters (Four digits)
 Nearest 100 meters (Six digits)
 Nearest 10 meters (Eight digits)

Cardinal Rule in Map Reading

“READ RIGHT UP”

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SCALE AND DISTANCE

SCALE AND DISTANCE

 Representative Fraction
 Graphic Scale
 Pace Factor

V. 4 Methods of locating points

INTERSECTION
Intersection is the location of an unknown point by successively
occupying at least two (preferably three) known positions on the ground and
then map sighting on the unknown location.
RESECTION
The location of the user’s unknown position by sighting on two or three
known features. Resection could be done with or without compass
MODIFIED RESECTION
Modified resection is the method of locating one's position on the map
when the person is located on a linear feature on the ground, such as a road,
canal, or stream.
POLAR COORDINATES
A method of locating or plotting an unknown position from a known
point by giving a direction and a distance along that direction line is called

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polar coordinates. The following elements must be present when using polar
coordinates

VI. METHODS OF EXPRESSING DIRECTION

Military personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate,
is adaptable to any part of the world, and has a common unit of measure.
Directions are expressed as units of angular measure.
a.   Degree. The most common unit of measure is the degree (°) with
its subdivisions of minutes (') and seconds (").
1 degree = 60 minutes.
1 minute = 60 seconds.
b. Mil. Another unit of measure, the mil (abbreviated ), is used
mainly in artillery, tank, and mortar gunnery. The mil expresses the size of an
angle formed when a circle is divided into 6,400 angles, with the vertex of the
angles at the center of the circle. A relationship can be established between
degrees and mils. A circle equals 6400 mils divided by 360 degrees, or 17.78
mils per degree. To convert degrees to mils, multiply degrees by 17.78.
c.   Grad. The grad is a metric unit of measure found on some
foreign maps. There are 400 grads in a circle (a 90-degree right angle equals
100 grads). The grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes (centigrads) and
the minute into 100 centesimal seconds (milligrads).

VII. BASE LINES

In order to measure something, there must always be a starting point
or zero measurement. To express direction as a unit of angular measure,
there must be a starting point or zero measure and a point of reference These
two points designate the base or reference line. There are three base lines—
true north, magnetic north, and grid north. The most commonly used are
magnetic and grid.
a.   True North. A line from any point on the earth's surface to the
north pole. All lines of longitude are true north lines.
b.   Magnetic North. The direction to the north magnetic pole, as
indicated by the north-seeking needle of a magnetic instrument. The magnetic
north is usually symbolized by a line ending with half of an arrowhead
compasses.
c.   Grid North. The north that is established by using the vertical grid
lines on the map. Grid north may be symbolized by the letters GN or the letter
"y"

VIII. AZIMUTHS
An azimuth is defined as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a
north base line. This north base line could be true north, magnetic north, or
grid north. The azimuth is the most common military method to express
direction
a. Back Azimuth. A back azimuth is the opposite direction of
an azimuth. It is comparable to doing "about face." To obtain a back azimuth

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from an azimuth, add 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or less, or
subtract 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or more
b. Magnetic Azimuth. The magnetic azimuth is determined by
using magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M2 compasses. Refer to,
for details.
c.   Field-Expedient Methods. Several field-expedient methods
to determine direction are discussed in.
IX. Types of contour lines
 Index - starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth
contour line is a heavier line
 Intermediate - the contour lines falling between the index
contour lines
 Supplementary lines - resemble dash. They show sudden
changes in elevation
X. Types of Slopes
 Gentle - evenly spaced and wide apart
 Steep - evenly spaced but close together
 Concave - closely spaced at the top & widely spaced at the
bottom
 Convex - widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the
bottom

XI. Major Terrain Features

Ridge
Gentle
Steep
Concave
Convex
Hill
Saddle
Valley
Ridge
Depression

XII. Minor Terrain Features

Draw
Spur

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