Analog-to-digital converter

An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device which converts a continuous quantityto

Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage or current to a digital number proportional to
the magnitude of the voltage or current. However, some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as  rotary
encoders, can also be considered ADCs.

The digital output may use different coding schemes. Typically the digital output will be a two's complement binary number
that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities. An encoder, for example, might output aGray code.

Resolution

Fig. 1. An 8-level ADC coding scheme.

Fig. 3. An 8-level ADC mid-tread coding scheme. As in figure 2 but with equal half-LSBintervals at the highest and lowest codes. Note that LSB is now
slightly larger than in figures 1 and 2.

The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the range of analog values. The
values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so the resolution is usually expressed in bits. In consequence, the
number of discrete values available, or "levels", is usually a power of two. For example, an ADC with a resolution of 8 bits
can encode an analog input to one in 256 different levels, since 2 8 = 256. The values can represent the ranges from 0 to 255
(i.e. unsigned integer) or from −128 to 127 (i.e. signed integer), depending on the application.

Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum change in voltage required to guarantee a
change in the output code level is called the LSB (least significant bit, since this is the voltage represented by a change in
the LSB). The resolution Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall
voltage measurement range divided by the number of discrete voltage intervals:

where N is the number of voltage intervals and EFSR is the full scale voltage range. EFSR is given by
where VRefHi and VRefLow are the upper and lower extremes, respectively, of the voltages that can be coded.

Normally, the number of voltage intervals is given by

where M is the ADC's resolution in bits.

That is, one voltage interval is assigned per code level. However, figure 3 shows a situation where

Some examples:

 Example 1
 Coding scheme as in figure 1
 Full scale measurement range = 0 to 10 volts
 ADC resolution is 12 bits: 212 = 4096 quantization levels (codes)
 ADC voltage resolution, Q = (10 V − 0 V) / 4096 = 10 V / 4096 ≈ 0.00244 V ≈ 2.44 mV.

 Example 2
 Coding scheme as in figure 2
 Full scale measurement range = -10 to +10 volts
 ADC resolution is 14 bits: 214 = 16384 quantization levels (codes)
 ADC voltage resolution is, Q = (10 V − (−10 V)) / 16384 = 20 V / 16384 ≈ 0.00122 V ≈
1.22 mV.

 Example 3
 Coding scheme as in figure 3
 Full scale measurement range = 0 to 7 volts
 ADC resolution is 3 bits: 23 = 8 quantization levels (codes)
 ADC voltage resolution is, Q = (7 V − 0 V)/7 = 7 V/7 = 1 V = 1000 mV

In most ADCs, the smallest output code ("0" in an unsigned system) represents a voltage range
which is 0.5Q, that is, half the ADC voltage resolution (Q). The largest code represents a range of
1.5Q as in figure 2 (if this were 0.5Qalso, the result would be as figure 3). The other N − 2 codes
are all equal in width and represent the ADC voltage resolution (Q) calculated above. Doing this
centers the code on an input voltage that represents the M th division of the input voltage range.
This practice is called "mid-tread" operation. This type of ADC can be modeled mathematically as:
Digital-to-analog converter
Basic ideal operation

Ideally sampled signal.

A DAC converts an abstract finite-precision number (usually a fixed-point binary number) into a concrete physical quantity

(e.g., a voltage or a pressure). In particular, DACs are often used to convert finite-precision time series data to a continually

varying physical signal.

A typical DAC converts the abstract numbers into a concrete sequence of impulses that are then processed by

areconstruction filter using some form of interpolation to fill in data between the impulses. Other DAC methods (e.g.,

methods based on Delta-sigma modulation) produce a pulse-density modulated signal that can then be filtered in a similar

way to produce a smoothly varying signal.

By the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, sampled data can be reconstructed perfectly provided that its bandwidth meets

certain requirements (e.g., a baseband signal with bandwidth less than the Nyquist frequency; BUT requires an infinite

number of samples. The finite number used in real life cause other problems especially with the D/A reconstruction of the

original signal. However, even with an ideal reconstruction filter, digital sampling introduces quantization error that makes

perfect reconstruction practically impossible. Increasing the digital resolution(i.e., increasing the number of bits used in each

sample) or introducing sampling dither can reduce this error.

Practical operation

Instead of impulses, usually the sequence of numbers update the analogue voltage at uniform sampling intervals.

These numbers are written to the DAC, typically with a clock signal that causes each number to be latched in sequence, at

which time the DAC output voltage changes rapidly from the previous value to the value represented by the currently latched

number. The effect of this is that the output voltage is held in time at the current value until the next input number is latched

resulting in a piecewise constant or 'staircase' shaped output. This is equivalent to a zero-order hold operation and has an

effect on the frequency response of the reconstructed signal.

Top-loading CD player and external digital-to-analog converter.

Most modern audio signals are stored in digital form (for example MP3s and CDs) and in order to be heard through

speakers they must be converted into an analog signal. DACs are therefore found in CD players, digital music players, and

PC sound cards.

Specialist standalone DACs can also be found in high-end hi-fi systems. These normally take the digital output of a

compatible CD player or dedicated transport and convert the signal into an analog line-level output that can then be fed into

an amplifier to drive speakers.

Similar digital-to-analog converters can be found in digital speakers such as USB speakers, and in sound cards.

VOIP (Voice over IP) Phone, Data transmission over the Internet is done digitally so in order for voice to be transmitted it

must be converted to digital using an Analog-to-Digital Converter and be converted into analog again using a DAC so the

voice it can be heard on the other end.

[edit]Video

Video signals from a digital source, such as a computer, must be converted to analog form if they are to be displayed on an

analog monitor. As of 2007, analog inputs are more commonly used than digital, but this may change as flat panel

displays with DVI and/or HDMI connections become more widespread. A video DAC is, however, incorporated in any digital

video player with analog outputs. The DAC is usually integrated with some memory (RAM), which contains conversion

tables for gamma correction, contrast and brightness, to make a device called a RAMDAC.

A device that is distantly related to the DAC is the digitally controlled potentiometer, used to control an analog signal

digitally.

Mechanical

An unusual application of digital-to-analog conversion was the whiffletree electromechanical digital-to-analog convertor

linkage in the IBM Selectrictypewriter.[citation needed]