Module-4

IP Addresses: Classful
Addressing
Internet
 IPv4
•Every computer on network has an IP address that represent its
•
l ocation on network.

Two version of IP addresses are available IPv4 and IPv6.

•An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a
router) to the Internet.

•Two devices in the Internet can never have the same address at
the same time.
•An address may be assigned to a device for a time period and
then taken away and assigned to another device.
•If a device operating at the network layer has m connections to
the Internet, it needs to have m address.(e.g. router)
IPv4 Address Space
 IPV4 address space is the total number of addresses used by the
protocol.

 If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the address space is

2N .

 IPv4 uses 32-bit address.

 The address space=232=4,294,967,296 ( more than 4 billion)

 This means, if there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion devices

could be connected to the Internet.
IPv4
 IP addresses are displayed in dotted decimal notation, and appear as four
numbers separated by dots.

 Each number of an IP address is made from eight individual bits known as

octet. Each octet can create number value from 0 to 255.

 An IP address would be 32 bits long in binary divided into the two

components, network component and host component.
 Network component is used to identify the network that the packet is intend
for, and host component is used to identify the individual host on network.

 IP addresses are broken into the two components:

 Network component :- Defines network segment of device.

 Host component :- Defines the specific device on a particular network segment

IPv4 Notations
 There are two prevalent notations to show an IPv4 address:

Binary notation:

 Address is displayed as 32 bits.

 IPv4 address referred to as 32-bit address or 4-byte address

 Example: 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010

Dotted-decimal notation:

 More compact and easier to read

 Written in decimal form with a decimal point( dot) separating the bytes.

 Example: 117.149.29.2

 Each decimal value range from 0 to 255

 Decimal Equivalents of 8-Bit Patterns

9
 Example-1

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
Replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number and add dots for separation.
 Example -2

Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.

Solution
Replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent.
IPv4 Classes
 Class A address: designed for large organizations with a large
number of attached hosts or routers. (wasted and not used)

 Class B address: designed for midsize organizations with ten of

thousands of attached hosts or routers( too large for many
organizations)
 Class C address: designed for small organizations with a small
number of attached hosts or routers.(too small for many
organizations)
 Class D address: designed for multicasting. (waste of addresses)

 Class E address: reserved for future use (waste of addresses)

 IP Address Classes

15
Hosts for Classes of IP Addresses
•The 32-bit address is divided into netid and hostid.
• These part are of varying lengths, depending on the class.
•Dose not apply to classes D and E.

24 *
Class A (24 bits for hosts) 2 - 2 = 16,777,214 maximum hosts
16 *
Class B (16 bits for hosts) 2 - 2= 65,534 maximum hosts
8 *
Class C (8 bits for hosts) 2 - 2 = 254 maximum hosts
*
Subtracting the network and broadcast reserved address
IPv4 Address Classes Range

Class D Addresses
 A Class D address begins with binary 1110 in the first octet.
 First octet range 224 to 239.
 Class D address can be used to represent a group of hosts called a
host group, or multicast group.

Class E Addresses

 First octet of an IP address begins with 1111

 First octet range 240 to 255.
 Class E addresses are reserved for experimental purposes and should
not be used for addressing hosts or multicast groups.
IP Addresses Range Summary
 Example -3

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
 Example -4

Find the class of each address.

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class Aaddress.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
Network IDs and Broadcast Addresses

An IP address such as 176.10.0.0 that has all binary 0s in the host bit positions is
reserved for the network address.

An IP address such as 176.10.255.255 that has all binary 1s in the host bit positions is
reserved for the broadcast address.
Special Addresses
0 [Zero] i.e 0.0.0.0.is reserved and represents all IP
addresses.
127.0.0.1 is a reserved address and is used for testing, like a
loop back on an interface.
255.255.255.255 is a reserved address and is used for
broadcasting purposes.
 Private Addresses

Class A – 16,777,216 hosts

Class B – 1,048,576 hosts

Class C– 65,535 hosts

22
Default Mask
 Is a 32 bits long address used to distinguish between network address and host
address in IP address.
 Subnet mask is always used with IP address.
 Subnet mask has only one purpose, to identify which part of an IP address is
network address and which part is host address.

 For example how will we figure out network address and host address from
IP address 192.168.1.10 ?
 Here we need default mask to get details about network address and host address.

 In decimal notation default mask value 255 represent network address

and value 0 [Zero] represent host address.

 In binary notation default mask ON bit [ 1] represent network address

while OFF bit[0] represent host address.
Example

In decimal notation:

IP address 192.168.1.10
Default mask 255.255.255.0
Network address is 192.168.1 and host address is 10.

In binary notation:

IP address 11000000 10101000 00000001 00001010

Subnet mask 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

Network address 11000000 10101000 00000001 and

Host address 00001010
CIDR [ Classless Inter Domain Routing]
 CIDR is a slash notation of subnet mask. CIDR tells us number of on bits in
a network address.

 Class A has default subnet mask 255.0.0.0. that means first octet of the
subnet mask has all on bits. In slash notation it would be written as /8,
means address has 8 bits on.

 Class B has default subnet mask 255.255.0.0. that means first two octets
of the subnet mask have all on bits. In slash notation it would be
written as /16, means address has 16 bits on.

 Class C has default subnet mask 255.255.255.0. that means first three
octets of the subnet mask have all on bits. In slash notation it would be
written as /24, means address has 24 bits on.

 Helps to find the netid and hostid. Does not apply to classes D and E.
Default Mask for Classful Addressing
Note

In IPv4 addressing, a block of

addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.
The first address in the block can be
found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.
The last address in the block can be
found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.

The number of addresses in the block

can be found by using the formula
232−n.
 Example -6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.

We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address, last address in the block? Also
find the number of addresses.

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
Last address for the block:
Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47

Number of addresses:
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.
 Example -7

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-
bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can
be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
 Example -7 (continued)

Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.
 Example -7 (continued)

b. The last address can be found by ORing the given

addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.
 Example -7 (continued)

c. The number of addresses can be found by

complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.
A network configuration for the block 205.16.37.32/28
Network Address

 First address in the block.

 It cannot be assigned to a host.

 All hostid bytes are 0s.

 The first address in a block is normally not assigned to any
device; it is used as the network address that represents the
organization to the rest of the world.
 Network ID - First address of subnet is called network ID. This address is
used to identify one segment or broadcast domain from all the other
segments in the network.
 Block Size - Block size is the size of subnet including network address,
hosts addresses and broadcast address.
 Broadcast ID -There are two types of broadcast, direct broadcast and
full broadcast.
 Direct broadcast or local broadcast- Is the last address of subnet and
can be hear by all hosts in subnet.
 Full broadcast - Is the last address of IP classes and can be hear by all
IP hosts in network. Full broadcast address is 255.255.255.255
 The main difference between direct broadcast and full broadcast is that
routers will not propagate local broadcasts between segments, but they will
propagate directed broadcasts.
 Host Addresses -All address between the network address and the
directed broadcast address is called host address for the subnet. You can
assign host addresses to any IP devices such as PCs, servers, routers, and
switches.
Example-8
 Given the address 132.6.17.85 and 23.56.7.91, find the network
address?

Solution

 The class is B. The first 2 bytes defines the netid. We can find the
network address by replacing the hostid bytes (17.85) with 0s.
132.6.0.0.

 The class is A. Only the first byte defines the netid. We can find the
network address by replacing the hostid bytes (56.7.91) with 0s.
Therefore, the network address is 23.0.0.0.
IP Address Class NID DBA FBA

1.2.3.4 A 1.0.0.0 1.255.255.255 255.255.255.255

10.15.20.60 A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 255.255.255.255

130.1.2.3 B 130.1.0.0 130.1.255.255 255.255.255.255

150.0.150.150 B 150.0.0.0 150.0.255.255 255.255.255.255

200.1.10.100 C 200.1.0.0 200.1.10.255 255.255.255.255

220.15.1.10 C 220.15.1.0 220.15.1.255 255.255.255.255

250.0.1.2 D X X X

300.1.2.3 X X X X
IP addresses are designed with
two levels of hierarchy.
Two-level Hierarchy: No subnetting
 IP address can define only two levels of hierarchy when not
subnetted.

 Prefix: the leftmost n bits define the network

 Suffix: the rightmost 32 − n bits define the host( computer or

router).

 Prefix is common to all network address. Suffix change from one

device to another.
Figure 5-1
A network with two levels of
hierarchy (not subnetted)
Three-level of Hierarchy: Subnetting
Subnetting
 Subnetting is a process of breaking large
network in small networks known as subnets.
 Subnetting happens when we extend default
boundary of subnet mask.
 Basically we borrow host bits to create
networks.
Advantage of Subnetting
 Easy to manage.
 Reduces network traffic by removing collision and
broadcast traffic, that overall improve performance.
 Aapply network security polices at the interconnection
between subnets.
 Save money by reducing requirement for IP range.
Figure 5-4

Hierarchy concept in a telephone number

Figure 5-3
Addresses in a network with
and without subnetting
Figure 5-5
Default mask and subnet mask
Finding the Subnet Address
•Given an IP address, we can find the subnet address the same
way we found the network address.
•We apply the mask to the address.
•We can do this in two ways: straight or short-cut.
Subnet mask
 Number of 1s in a subnet mask is more than the number
of 1s in the corresponding default mask.

 In a subnet mask, we change some of the leftmost 0s in

the default mask to make a subnet mask.
Straight Method
In the straight method, we use binary notation for both the
address and the mask and then apply the AND operation to
find the subnet address.
Example 1

What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is

200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?

11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000

11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000

The subnetwork address is 200.45.32.0.

Short-Cut Method
** If the byte in the mask is 255, copy the byte in the address.
** If the byte in the mask is 0, replace the byte in the address
with 0.
** If the byte in the mask is neither 255 nor 0, we write the
mask and the address in binary and apply the AND operation.
 Example 2
What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is 19.30.80.5 and the mask is
255.255.192.0?
Figure 5-7

Comparison of a default mask and

a subnet mask
The number of subnets must be
a power of 2.
 A company is granted the site address 201.70.64.0 (class C). The
company needs six subnets. Design the subnets.
The number of 1s in the default
mask is 24 (class C).
The company needs six subnets. Th3is number 6 is not a power of 2. The next
number that is a power of 2 is 8 (2 ). We need 3 more 1s in the subnet mask.
The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is 27 (24  3).
The total number of 0s is 5 (32  27).
The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or
255.255.255.224

The number of subnets is 8.

The number of addresses in each subnet is 25 (5 is the number of 0s) or 32.

Figure 5-8
Example 3
A company is granted the site address 181.56.0.0 (class B). The
company needs 1000 subnets. Design the subnets.
The number of 1s in the default mask is 16 (class B).
The company needs 1000 subnets. This number is n1o0ta power of 2.
The next number that is a power of 2 is 1024 (2 ). We need 10
more 1s in the subnet mask.
The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is 26 (16  10).
The total number of 0s is 6 (32  26).
The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
or
255.255.255.192.
The number of subnets is 1024.
6
The number of addresses in each subnet is 2 (6 is the number of 0s)
or 64.
Figure 5-9
Example 4
Figure 5-12
Comparison of subnet, default,
and supernet masks
IP addressing crisis

In classful addressing, a large part of the

available addresses were wasted.
Short Term Solutions: IPv4 Enhancements

 CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

 VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)

 Private Addressing

 NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address Translation)

 Long Term Solution: IPv6 (coming)
 IPv6, or IPng (IP – the Next Generation) uses a 128-bit address
space, yielding

340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456

possible addresses.

 IPv6 has been slow to arrive.

 IPv4 revitalized by new features, making IPv6 a luxury, and not

a desperately needed fix.

 IPv6 requires new software; IT staffs must be retrained.

 IPv6 will most likely coexist with IPv4 for years to come.

 Some experts believe IPv4 will remain for more than 10 years.
CLASSLESS
ADDRESSING
Variable-length subnetting
Rules:
** The number of blocks must be a power of 2 (1,
2, 4, 8, 16, . . .).
** The blocks must be contiguous in the address
space (no gaps between the blocks).
** The third byte of the first address in the
superblock must be evenly divisible by the number
of blocks. In other words, if the number of blocks is
N, the third byte must be divisible by N.
 Rules : Beginning Address
The beginning address must be evenly divisible by
the number of addresses.
For example, if a block contains 4 addresses, the
beginning address must be divisible by 4.
If the block has less than 256 addresses, we need to
check only the rightmost byte.
If it has less than 65,536 addresses, we need to check
only the two rightmost bytes, and so on.

19.67
 Variable-length blocks

Number of Addresses in a Block

There is only one condition on the number
of addresses in a block; it must be a power
of 2 (2, 4, 8, . . .).
A household may be given a block of 2
addresses.
A small business may be given 16
addresses.
A large organization may be given 1024
A small organization is given a block with the beginning
address and the prefix length 205.16.37.24/29 (in slash
notation). What is the range of the block?

• The beginning address is 205.16.37.24. To find the

last address we keep the first 29 bits and change the
last 3 bits to 1s.
Beginning:11001111 00010000 00100101 00011000
Ending : 11001111 00010000 00100101 00011111
• Length of the suffix is 32  29 or 3.
• 3
So, there are 2  8 addresses in this block.
• If the first address is 205.16.37.24, the last address
is 205.16.37.31 (24  7  31).
What is the network address if one of the
addresses is 167.199.170.82/27?

Solution:
 The prefix length is 27, which means that we
must keep the first 27 bits as is and change the
remaining bits (5) to 0s.
 The 5 bits affect only the last byte.
 The last byte is 01010010. Changing the last 5
bits to 0s, we get 01000000 or 64.
 The network address is 167.199.170.64/27.
An organization is granted the block 130.34.12.64/26.
The organization needs to have four subnets. What are
the subnet addresses and the range of addresses for each
subnet?
Solution:

The suffix length is 6. This mean6s the total number of

addresses in the block is 64 (2 ). If we create four
subnets, each subnet will have 16 addresses.
Let us first find the subnet prefix (subnet mask). We
need four subnets, which means we need to add two
more 1s to the site prefix. The subnet prefix is then /28.
Subnet 1: 130.34.12.64/28 to 130.34.12.79/28.
Subnet 2 : 130.34.12.80/28 to 130.34.12.95/28.
Subnet 3: 130.34.12.96/28 to 130.34.12.111/28.
Figure 5-15
Example 14
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with
190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses
are still available after these allocations.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses
are
Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each
host. The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses
are
Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
Address allocation and distribution by an ISP