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Conceptualization and Definition of a Curriculum

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Innocent Mutale Mulenga

The Univesity of Zambia
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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

Conceptualization and Definition of a Curriculum

by
Innocent Mutale Mulenga

The University of Zambia

School of Education
Email: [email protected]
====================================

Abstract

Some years ago in my first semester of graduate

studies, my mentor, Paul Ogula, introduced me to the
idea that curriculum is “the world in drag,” the way
we dice up the experience of the world into tidy but
arbitrary packages until it is again recoded as it enters
the ceremonies, structures, and rituals of schooling.
I puzzled over this idea for some time, working to
reconcile my initial understanding of curriculum drawn
from my years of classroom practice as a secondary
school teacher. Even in defining curriculum at its most
basic understanding one will find himself surrounded
by a myriad of definitions. This paper offers a basis
for scholars aiming at theoretical and experiential
guidance for conceptualization of the word curriculum.
Rooted in the literature of philosophy of education,
some assumed meanings of curriculum and the
theoretical and experiential views of several scholars,
the author illustrates the foundational elements and
dimensions of curriculum that ought not to miss in a
valid definition of the word.

Key Words: Curriculum, Education, Curriculum

Elements, Curriculum Definition.

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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

Introduction
With the expansion of formal education in almost all societies
around the world an appropriate and suitable definition of
the term ‘curriculum’ has become increasingly essential and
necessary. However, rather than achieving consensus and thereby
enhancing a clear educational focus, literature reveals continued
differentiation and disputation as to an acceptable definition
of the term. Apparently, despite its recent common usage and
development of study areas in the curriculum field, the term has
a long history which dates as far back as the ages of education
writers such as Plato, Aristotle, J. A. Comenious, Bobbit and
Fredrich Froebel (Print, 1993).
Today however, there continue to be much interest in
curriculum matters both locally and internationally and a
range of very different theoretical discourses continue to be
widely discussed in relation to international standards set by
the global players through platforms such as the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), International Student Assessment
(PISA), academic conferences and others. It is for this reason
that some kind of a common understanding on the ingredients
of an appropriate curriculum need to be reflected upon since the
measure of educational achievements, which in essence is brought
about by the implemented curriculum, are compared between and
among countries and continents.
More often than before the term, curriculum, has also
become quite frequently used in the media and the community
in general. Such a development cannot be overlooked by
curriculum scholars whose duty is to give guidance and direction
on curriculum issues. As the study of curriculum has also grown
in sophistication so it’s very nature has become more challenging
and sometimes problematic especially to novice and sometimes

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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

even seasoned scholars of other disciplines that are learning about

it for the first time in a systematic manner. It is for this reason that
a concise definition such as the one done in this paper may be
of help. However, like in all other academic discourses, it is not
the intention of the author in this work to conclude and seal the
debate on the matter. We instead leave that to the obsolescence of
what we think we know, how we know it, how we know that we
know and how the next generations will extend the knowledge
frontiers of this discipline, curriculum.

Curriculum as a Programme of Education

Over the past decades, the study of curriculum has become an
established component of almost all education programmes.
Why has that been the case? It is obvious that education is the
basic function that a curriculum saves in any education system
and learning institutions. A curriculum embodies the intentions
of education, it is the programme of education. A curriculum
carries the beliefs, values, attitudes, skills, knowledge and all that
education is about. One would wonder how especially formal
education can take place without a curriculum. It is for this
reason that curriculum scholars such as Print (1993) refer to the
curriculum as the raison d’etre of education, the very substance
of schooling. Starting this paper with such a conceptualization
of a curriculum is actually quite deliberate because before this
discourse get into the maze of the concept it is significant that the
core of the concept, curriculum, is understood and appreciated in
simple terms from the very beginning.
Assumed Meanings of a Curriculum
Most of those who have studied education but without a refined
focus on understanding a curriculum take it for granted that
through their studies they have also somehow understood what a
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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

curriculum is. This is an academically dangerous position to find

oneself in and can be and has been a source of confusion where
curriculum issues are concerned. Because of such assumptions
some individuals and educationists end up having assumed
understandings of what a curriculum is. Some of those who have
assumed the understanding of a curriculum have unfortunately
even found themselves at the frontier of decision making about
the study of a curriculum in institutions of higher learning and in
Ministries of Education have been in the fore front of curriculum
development. This is very common in most developing countries
in Africa and their fruits have been evident in the poor quality of
education that their graduates get and in the confusion that go with
the development and implementation of curricular in primary and
secondary schools as Bishop (1985) clearly explained that one of
the challenges of curriculum development in Africa was the lack of
specialists in the art and science of curriculum development itself.
Carl (2012) actually pin points the source of this deficiency as
emanating from institutions of higher learning where curriculum
decisions are sometimes championed by curriculum novices
and administrative staff who have very little ideas in the field of
curriculum studies. Definitions are vital to understand because our
definitions of concepts direct our actions regarding the practice of
such concepts. Definitions aid understanding and understanding
leads to effective application. This wisdom was long recognised by
Bloom in his cognitive domain of learning objectives. In Blooms
cognitive domain, understanding or comprehension comes before
application and thus for one to apply a concept or idea they will
need to first and foremost understand it. The point being made
here in relation to assumed and claimed understandings of a
curriculum is that having an authentic understanding of a concept
such as a curriculum is important since as we have explained
earlier a curriculum is the central business of every educational
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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

institution. Reading through literature it is common to find the

following definitions of a curriculum.
A curriculum is what is taught in school. In other words a
curriculum is a set of subjects. To define a curriculum as ‘what
is taught in schools’ is indeed, very vague. It is for this reason
that some often talk about ‘school curriculum’ in this general way
and they tend to mean by this the range of subjects taught and
the amount of teaching time given to each in terms of hours or
minutes. Such an approach to education seems to limit learning
to the school and then limiting a curriculum to academic subjects.
Marsh (2009) also pointed out that there is an assumption in this
definition that what is studied is what is learned. A curriculum
as explained in the preceding sections is much more than just
subjects or what is confined to a school.
Another very common conceptualization of a curriculum
is that of viewing it as content. Curriculum defined as content
is another interesting emphasis and brings into question another
term, namely the ‘syllabus’ and a ‘course outline’ as referred to
especially in institutions of higher learning. A ‘syllabus’ is usually
a summary statement of the content to be taught in a subject,
course or unit. It is typically a list of content areas or topics of the
subject matter. A syllabus or course outline is clearly a subsection
of a curriculum and as such is subsumed within the broader
concept. This emphasis on what content to be taught is a critical
element of a syllabus but a curriculum includes more than this.
Characterizing curriculum as subject matter is the most traditional
image of a curriculum which depicts it as the combining of subject
matter to form a body of content to be taught. Such content is the
product of accumulated wisdom, particularly acquired through
the traditional academic disciplines. Most teachers when asked
to describe their school’s curriculum they provide a litany of
subjects or subject matter taught to students.
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It is also common to find a curriculum being defined as a set of

performance objectives or student learning being a very practical
orientation of curriculum. This approach focuses upon specific
competencies that should be attained by learners. Proponents
of this approach argue that if a teacher knows the targets which
learners should achieve, it is much easier to organize elements to
achieve this end. The strength of this approach is that it focuses
upon the learners who are after all the ultimate beneficiaries of the
teaching and learning processes. Yet it must also be remembered
that this approach can lead to an overemphasis upon behavioural
outcomes and objectives reducing a curriculum to simply a
listing of objectives to be achieved. This definition would usually
lead to a narrow technical-functionalist approach to curriculum
which would simply require large numbers of outcomes and high
levels of specificity to be identified. Curriculum scholars such
as Walker (1994) and Cairns (1992) were extremely critical of
the uniformity and focus on such standards of the definition put
forward. It is common knowledge as Kennedy (2005) concluded
that a curriculum which only focuses on key competencies of
the world of paid employment is deficient. A good curriculum
should instead include a full range of skills and competencies that
are relevant throughout the life span of every human person. A
wide view of competencies which we may term as ‘capacities’
such as good communication skills, civic participation, living in
harmony, respecting and caring for other people, taking care of
one’s health and well-being are some of the content areas that a
curriculum should also include (Reid, 2007).
An analysis of definitions such as the three that have been
presented in the previous sections may make one argue that some
writers and curriculum thinkers advocate for their own preferred
definition of curriculum, which may emphasize other connotations
and meanings. It could be for this reason that Portelli (1987)
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explained that other curriculum scholars may only be concerned

about either delimiting what the term means or establish new
meanings that they associate with it. However, curriculum
scholars such as Hlebowitsh (1993), Oliva (1997), Toombs and
Tierney (1993) have all criticized commentators in the field of
curriculum who focus only on certain facets of the curriculum
while ignoring others. Partisan and biased definitions that only
capture a few of the various characteristics and dimensions of
curriculum should not be entertained since they also have a higher
degree of misleading the way education is viewed and conducted.
Over the years different philosophies of education have existed
and these have had a huge impact on the way curriculum was
and is viewed. In the following sections we have tried to draw
attention to some of these philosophies in relation to curriculum
and education.
Philosophy and the Curriculum
Nowhere is the dependence of education on philosophy more
marked than in the question of the curriculum. In the first chapter
of his work on Education, Oliva (1979) asserted that in the
determination of the curriculum, the first step must obviously be to
classify the philosophical thinking behind a proposed curriculum
since such a background will help to determine leading kinds of
activities which constitute human education. To this principle
there can be no objection. Each curriculum that is in existence
has a philosophical underpinning which determines the way such
a curriculum is organised and implemented. It is for this reason
that in a paper such as this one it is inevitable that a discussion on
the influence of Philosophy on how a curriculum is defined must
be done.
The philosophy of education has over the years guided the
development of curriculum in a very significant way. The reason is
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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

obvious since the way a curriculum is defined from the educational

philosophical point of view determines its construction. The
discussion of general philosophy is, however, beyond the scope of
this paper but all that we are doing is to simply relate the definition
of a curriculum to some of the educational philosophical thinking
as a way of showing the existing relationship and thus widen the
comprehension of a curriculum.
Philosophy of education facilitates the understanding of
the world through school activities and the body of knowledge.
Schubert (1986) acknowledged that philosophical assumptions are
always present in any curriculum, whether they are consciously
reflected on or not. Ornstein and Behar (1995) further stated
that philosophical issues have always impacted on educational
curriculum designing and society. Additionally, the duo, Ornstein
and Behar (1995), observed that there is urgency that dictates
continuous appraisal and reappraisal of the role of educational
institutions and that calls for a philosophy of education. Without
philosophy, curriculum developers would be without direction
as a basic foundation of organising and implementing what they
would be trying to achieve. Furthermore Ornstein and Behar
(1995) pointed out that almost all elements of curriculum are
based on a philosophy. Thus philosophy is in a way one of the
criteria for determining the aims of a curriculum. Aims or purposes
are statements of value that are based on philosophical beliefs.
The means represent the processes and methods which reflect
philosophical choices. The ends connote the facts, concepts and
principles of the knowledge or behaviour learned, that is, what
is considered to be important to learning. Hence philosophy is
essential in formulating and justifying an educational basis of
procedures and activities (Ornstein & Behar, 1995). Four major
philosophies have received the attention of educators over the

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years. Although these philosophies are known by various names,

the four are referred to as Social reconstructionism, Progressivism,
Essentialism and Perennialism.

Social Reconstructionism
The social reconstructionist philosophy is based on the early
socialistic and utopian ideas of the nineteenth century. It was
economic pressure that gave birth to this philosophy (Ornstein
and Hunkins, 1998). At the beginning of social reconstructionism,
the progressive educational movement was still popular, but a
few significant progressive educators became disillusioned and
impatient with the American education reform. These educators
argued that progressivism put too much emphasis on learner
centered education which mainly served the individual learner
in middle class and private schools. What was needed was
more emphasis on society-centered education that took into
consideration the needs of society and all classes of people,
not only the middle class. McNeil (1996) contended that social
reconstructionism is interested in the relationship between the
curriculum and the social, political and economic development
of society. Thus a curriculum in this context is defined in terms
of how it will help learners acquire skills, values, knowledge and
attitudes that will help them solve social, political and economic
challenges of society. Social reconstructionists are convinced
that a curriculum should bring improvements in society (Oliva,
1997). In essence, social reconstructionism holds the view that
educational institutions should not simply transmit the cultural
heritage or simply study social problems but should become
agencies of solving social, political and economic problems
(Oliva, 1997).

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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

Progressivism
Progressivism emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries (McNeil, 1996; Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). The
progressive movement in education was also part of the largest
social and political movement of reform in America. The
educational roots of progressivism can be traced back to the
work of John Dewey in the early twentieth century. In his most
comprehensive work, Democracy and Education, Dewey claimed
that democracy and education go hand in hand. Dewey viewed
an educational institution, such as a school, as a miniature
democratic society in which learners could learn and practise the
skills and tools necessary for democratic living (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1998). According to progressivist thought, the skills and
tools for learning include problem-solving methods and scientific
enquiry. Progressivism placed more emphasis on how to think,
not on what to think. The progressive movement consisted of
many components. Among the most influential were the learner-
centered and the activity-centered curriculum. As Ornstein and
Hunkins (1998) pointed out, the emphasis on subject matter was
replaced by emphasis on the learner, meaning that the needs
and interests of the learner dominated the curriculum designing
process. A definition of a curriculum from this point of view will
definitely have to place the needs of the learner first before any
other. A curriculum slogan such as learning by doing is what
the progressivists promote in curriculum construction. Thus,
this educational philosophy would promote a curriculum where
learners would test ideas by active experimentation.

Essentialism
As stated by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), this is another form
of the traditional and conservative philosophy. Rooted in both
idealism and realism, essentialism emphasises an academic
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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2
subject-matter curriculum and encourages educators to stress
order, discipline and effort (Ornstein & Levine, 1993). It
is important to note that during the period of essentialism,
progressivism emerged for a short period of time as the most
popular educational philosophy. Due to essentialist criticism,
progressivism experienced a somewhat rocky path. In 1957
essentialism reclaimed its predominant position (Oliva, 1997).
The purpose of an essentialist curriculum is the transmission of
the cultural heritage. Unlike the social reconstructionists, who
want to change society, the essentialists want to preserve it (Oliva,
1997). According to Ornstein and Behar (1995), an essentialist
curriculum seeks to promote the intellectual growth of the learner
and thus this school of thought promote essential subjects; namely
English, Mathematics, Science, History and foreign languages at
the secondary level. Carl (2012) acknowledged that, according to
essentialists, knowledge is based on what is termed as essential
skills, academic subjects, and masterly of concepts and principles
in the subject matter. He further explained that academic subjects
form the core of the essentialist curriculum. Organised courses
are the vehicles for transmitting the culture and promoting mental
discipline. In a sense, the essentialist tailors the learner to the
curriculum, whereas the progressivist tailors the curriculum to
suit the learners’ needs and interests (Oliva, 1997). Tough, hard
academic rigour and training and a good deal of homework
dominate the curriculum of essentialists. The student must be
made to work hard at his or her own studies with no fun in the
work (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). In essentialism, the teacher
is considered a master of a particular subject or discipline.
Therefore, a curriculum is defined in terms of its focus on teaching
the essential elements of academic and moral knowledge which
constitute a strong core curriculum and high academic standards.

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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2
Perennialism.
Perennialism is regarded as the oldest and the most conservative
education philosophy rooted in realism. The purposes of education
according to perennialism are the disciplining of the mind, the
development of the ability to reason, the pursuit of the truth and
the cultivation of the intellect (Oliva, 1997; Ornstein & Behar,
1995). Unlike progressivists who believe that truth is relative and
changing, the perennialists believe that truth is eternal, everlasting
and unchanging. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) contended
that perennialism relies on the past, universal knowledge and
cherished values of society. Perennialists describe the universe,
human nature, truth, knowledge, virtue and beauty as unchanging.
To them, the aim of education is the same in every age and in
every society. The perennialist curriculum is subject centered. It
draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organised bodies
of content, what proponents call ‘liberal’ education with emphasis
on language, literature, mathematics, grammar, rhetonic and great
books of the Western World (Oliva, 1997; Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998). Like essentialism, the perennialists view the teacher as
the authority in the field whose knowledge and expertise are
unquestionable. Teaching is primarily based on the Socratic method
‘oral exposition’ lecture and explication. Learners’ interests are
irrelevant for curriculum designing because learners are immature
and not experienced and lack the judgement to determine what
are the best knowledge and values to learn (Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998; Ornstein & Behar, 1995). The perennialist look backwards
for the answers to social problems. In defining a curriculum from
the perennilist world view, a curriculum is seen in the light of ideas
that have lasted over centuries since such ideas are as relevant and
meaningful today as when they were written.
As we conclude on this section it is vital to retaliate that
since philosophy helps to explain and give meaning to people’s
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 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 2, Issue 2

decisions and actions, in the absence of educational philosophy,

the curriculum developer is vulnerable to externally imposed
prescriptions, fads and frills, authorization schemes and other
‘isms’. Very few education systems adopt a single curriculum
philosophy but most of them combine various philosophies
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Mulenga (2015) also cautioned
that too much emphasis on any one philosophy at the expense
of the others might do harm and cause conflict in a curriculum.
The educational philosophies discussed implicitly or explicitly
represent a particular perspectives on curriculum and its
proponents which in turn determine a particular approach to
curriculum designing. Thus, usually what we see in practice is that
a national school curriculum for example would reflect several
philosophies which add to the dynamics of the curriculum in the
school. Depending on their philosophical orientation, curriculum
scholars will have varied conceptualisations of curriculum.
Definitions of Curriculum through the lens of Scholars
Educators have over the years defined curriculum in different
ways because they bring to the task different perceptions of
what curriculum should be. Perhaps the most common definition
derives from the word’s Latin root, ‘currere’- which is the Latin
infinitive of curriculum, which means ‘racecourse’. By coming up
with such a definition Pinar (1974) wanted to highlight the running
or the curriculum lived experience of the learner. The aspect of
learning experiences being emphasised are also seen in Taba’s
(1962) definition and curriculum development model. In her
understanding, Taba focused on the planned experiences aspect
of the curriculum to the extent that planning and organization of
curriculum elements preoccupied her thinking about curriculum
development. However, as we have explained in the dimensions of
curriculum that the curriculum includes not only the planned, but

13
also the unplanned experiences as well. That being the case then
it means that Taba’s definition had some room for improvement.
Are we then agreeing with Zais (1976) who argued that a search
for the correct definition of curriculum is not a very productive
enterprise? Not at all. It is just that the definitions that exist
have a history and context. How then do we benefit from all the
thousands of definitions that scholars have come up with?
Glatthorn et. al (2012) noted that definitions in curriculum
are varied because there are either descriptive, prescriptive or
both. Prescriptive definitions provide us with what “ought” to
happen, and they more often than not take the form of a plan, an
intended programme, or some kind of expert opinion about what
needs to take place in the course of study, while the descriptive
definitions go beyond the prescriptive terms as they force thought
about curriculum nor merely in terms of how things ought to
be in real classrooms or any other educational situations (Ellis,
2011). Some authors’ definitions of either slant are presented in
the following paragraphs. Some of the prescriptive definitions as
reflected by Ellis (2011) are:
Dewey (1902) explained that a curriculum is a
continuous process of educational reconstruction that
should help the child move from his present experience
into what is represented by the organized bodies of truth
that we call studies which present new experiences to the
learner.
Tyler (1949) stated that curriculum is all the learning
experiences planned and directed by the school to attain
its educational goals.
Print (1993) defined a curriculum as all the planned
learning opportunities offered to learners by the educational

14
 institution and the experiences learners encounter when
the curriculum is implemented.
The Indiana Department of Education (2010)
explained that curriculum means the planned interaction
of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources,
and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational
objectives.
These are just some of the prescriptive definitions of curriculum
that exist in literature. But it is also true as mentioned earlier that
other definitions are quite descriptive such as the following from
Ellis (2011) as well;
Ragan (1960) defined a curriculum as all the
experiences of the child for which the school accepts
responsibility.
Brown (2006) stated that a curriculum is all the
student school experiences relating to the improvement of
skills and strategies in thinking critically and creatively,
solving problems, working collaboratively with others,
communicating well, writing more effectively, reading
more analytically, and conducting research to solve
problems.
Silva (2009) viewed a curriculum as an emphasis on
what students can do with knowledge, rather than what
units of knowledge they have, is the essence of 21st
century skills.
With all these varied definitions of curriculum from renowned
curriculum scholars, there seem to be underlying elements that
are commonly agreed as constituent of a good definition of a
curriculum. Ughamadu (2006) listed these elements as (1) goals

15
and objectives (the curriculum intent), (2) content or subject and
subject matter, (3) learning experiences, and (4) evaluation. These
four are referred to in the studies of curriculum as curriculum
components, elements or simply pillars of the curriculum.
These are what holds the discipline together and any curriculum
specialist worth the name will have to understand them pretty well.
Thus, Tanner and Tanner (1980:25) provided an accommodating
definition of curriculum as:
Curriculum is the planned and guided learning
experiences and intended learning outcomes,
formulated through the systematic reconstruction
of knowledge and experience, under the auspices
of the school, for the learner’s continuous and
willful growth in personal-social competence.
An analysis of this definition in the light of the challenges of
defining a curriculum will be helpful at this point.

Tanner and Tanner’s Definition: An Analysis

In the definition of Daniel Tanner and Laurel Tanner, we
notice a composite of both the prescriptive and the descriptive
understanding of curriculum. In this definition a curriculum
is presented as dynamic and a systematic reconstruction of
knowledge and experiences. In this definition, it is first that a
curriculum involves planning. Almost all Ministries of Education,
and in some countries states, regions or schools and other
institutions of learning have personnel with the right competence
to develop a curriculum which usually should accommodate the
needs and aspiration not just of the society but also of the learners
themselves. The definition of Tanner accommodates another
important aspect of curriculum; “learning experiences”. By
learning experiences, the definition attempts to resolve the “end”

16
of what curriculum is meant to achieve. There is the means- the
plan and then, the end- the learning experience. This is what is
also known as; intended learning outcome. Additionally, Tanner
and Tanner’s definition specify the role of the school or learning
institution; that of the systematic reconstruction of knowledge
and experience. This role is distinct from the functions of other
agencies in the society. Every learning institution is laden with the
responsibility of reconstructing the experience and perceptions of
the learner. The curriculum therefore becomes a lens, if properly
followed, in which the learner would see the past, present and
future of the world.
The intended learning experience means the same thing as
objective. Every curriculum to be complete even by definition
should have an intention. This serves as a means to communicate
with greater precision the educational intentions to be achieved.
For efficiency, there is need for classifying educational objectives.
This is technically called taxonomy. Lunenberg (2011) defined
taxonomy as a scheme for classifying educational objectives
into categories descriptive of the kinds and level of learning
that educators seek from learners. More commonly, taxonomy
is divided into three domains of the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor. Thus, Tanner and Tanner’s definition took to
cognizance this understanding and hence, it is regarded as broad-
based and encompassing.

Curriculum Dimensions
We started this reflection by bringing together the two inseparable
concepts, education and curriculum. These concepts also share
the same dimensions. Curriculum and education dimensions are
different facets of the same reality which help educators have a
holistic understanding of teaching and learning. The formal, non-
formal and informal curriculum dimensions help to clarify the
17
definitions that should best reflect what a curriculum is about.
They act as further parameters of curriculum understanding.
The formal dimension refers to the learning experiences and
activities that learners undertake formally in a school. The formal
dimension of a curriculum is clearly prescribed by the curriculum
specialist in documents such as the syllabus, course outlines or
module as the case might be. In most learning institutions one
can actually see it on the master time table of the institution.
Everything about it is formal. The venues for different lessons or
lectures are designated, the facilitator is known, time is clearly
allocated and learners and teachers strictly follow it. As mentioned
earlier on, one cannot reduce a curriculum to this dimension only
by claiming that a syllabus or course outline is a curriculum.
The non-formal dimension also consists of planned learning
activities that are undertaken in a school set up. The non-formal
dimensions of a curriculum is also selected and organized but
it does not have many formalities as the formal dimension in
terms of time, venue and facilitator. It is not necessarily done
in the classroom, lecture room or laboratory. These activities
include clubs, games, sports, drama and many others. They were
previously referred to as extra-curricular activities implying that
they were outside the regular learning activities but now they
are known as co-curricular activities meaning that they go side
by side with the other aspects of the curriculum. There are as
significant and as important to the learners’ education as the
formal dimension.
The informal dimension is also referred to as the unintended
or emerging curriculum. In learning institutions, the teachers and
parents may know or not know about it. This dimension of the
curriculum is not necessarily on the timetable but it influences
the learner in a very strong way. The informal curriculum is very
difficult to control because learners pick it from the ‘junk yard’. It
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may include such aspects as learner’s appearance during lessons,
observing time for different activities in the learning institution,
role modelling, etc. The informal dimension is sometimes
planned and guided by the school when it includes activities
such as observation of school rules and behaviour of teachers
as role models. For instance, Mulenga and Luangala (2015:47)
stated that “student teachers form their identities by modelling
behaviours of those who teach them and thus universities needs
to examine the placement of staff”. Thus we can notice from this
that this dimension is actually very influential even in higher
institutions of learning. The task of the head teacher, the teacher
or whoever is in charge of an educational institution is to remove
the negative effects of this dimension by planning it so as to
reinforce the formal curriculum. In cases where this dimension
is neglected the school is unlikely to achieve its core business. In
their study Mulenga and Mukaba (2018:63) actually noted that
“it had been realized that schools could not focus on cognitive
development only (formal dimension) but also on psychosocial
support if education for all are to be achieved hence the need for
guidance and counseling in school”. Guidance and counseling are
activities to support learners in the informal dimension in order to
enhance the formal dimension.
Why should we spend another time on these aspects of the
curriculum? It is because over the years the confusion which
had come with the definition of curriculum arise from the lack
of understanding of these significant facets of a curriculum.
Therefore if one embarked on the curriculum definition journey it
is inevitable that the three dimensions are part of such a definition
since they make what a curriculum is comprehensively about.

Conclusion

19
While there would continually be many more conceptualisations
and definitions of curriculum by education scholars, curriculum
thinkers and theorists, only definitions that accommodate the
essential elements of education and curriculum could pass as
valid definitions. As a way of capping this discourse therefore,
a submission is being made as a concluding definition of a
curriculum as:
Curriculum is all the selected, organized,
integrative, innovative and evaluative educational
experiences provided to learners consciously or
unconsciously under the school authority in order
to achieve the designated learning outcomes which
are achieved as a result of growth, maturation
and learning meant to be best utilized for life in a
changing society.
If education is brought about as a result of what is implemented
from the curriculum and if education is dependent on what the
dynamic society needs, then having a curriculum that will stand
a test of time is just wishful thinking. By fulfilling the needs
of a dynamic society the conceptualization of a curriculum
will continue to slowly accommodate itself with the present
educational needs so as to suit the arising need. In their famous
article ‘Bringing Out the Dead: Curriculum History and Memory’
Hendry and Winfield (2013) cautions curriculum scholars that the
challenge is to work towards a rethinking of some of the very
notions we have come to rely upon intellectually as curriculum
meanings – those well-worn grooves which provide such a
seamless glide that we hardly know they are there: assumptions
and boundaries around our thinking which are themselves the
stuff of ideologically generated infrastructure.

20
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