AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF

Wynelle Jean Huff for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in School of Education presented on March 12, 1979

Title The Effect of a Selected Nursing Curriculum Upon the.

Critical Thinking Ability of Baccalaureate Nursing Students

Redacted for privacy

Abstract approved:
CharTes'arpeiiter

This research evaluated the effects of a selected dialectical nursing

curriculum upon the critical thinking ability of baccalaureate nursing

students as measured by the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal.

The correlation of the student's age, sex and father's occupation to his

critical thinking ability was evaluated, along with the relationship of

the critical thinking ability of the faculty of the nursing program to

the students' critical thinking ability.

The research design was a separate sample, pretest posttest design.

Three sample groups, beginning freshmen, graduating seniors and nursing

faculty, were administered the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal.

Beginning freshmen were tested prior to exposure to the variable (dia

lectical nursing curriculum) and graduating seniors were tested after

exposure. Students also provided selected demographic information on a

researcher-made questionnaire.

T-tests for independent samples were applied to the mean group scores

of beginning freshmen and nursing faculty and graduating seniors and

N/
nursing faculty. Chi square correlations were computed for the student's

critical thinking ability and his age, sex and father's occupation.

The mean critical thinking ability score increased from 67.8 for

beginning freshmen to 73.2 for graduating seniors. However, this differ-

ence was not sufficiently great to be statistically significant. Neither

was there any statistically significant difference between the critical

thinking ability of the beginning freshmen and nursing faculty or between

graduating seniors and nursing faculty. The mean critical thinking ability

score for graduating seniors was closer to the mean critical thinking abil-

ity of the faculty than was the same score of the beginning freshmen. While

no statistically significant difference was found between beginning fresh-

men females and males, males were significantly higher statistically 0(.05)

in critical thinking ability than females in the graduating senior group.

Low correlations were found between the student's critical thinking ability

and his age and father's occupation.

The results of this study do not indicate that this dialectical nurs-

ing curriculum positively affected the critical thinking ability of its

students. Graduating male students had higher critical thinking ability raw

scores than graduating female students, but the small number of males in

the sample prohibit any conclusion. The critical thinking ability raw

scores of the faculty, although higher, were not greatly different than that

of the students. There were weak relationships between the student's critical

thinking ability and his age and father's occupation.

The Effect of a Selected Nursing Curriculum
Upon the Critical Thinking Ability of
Baccalaureate Nursing Students

by

Wynelle Jean Huff

A DISSERTATION

submitted to

Oregon State University

in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Completed March 12, 1979

Commencement June 1979

APPROVED:

Redacted for privacy

PrOle;Tor of EduC-at-i'61in Chahe of Major

Redacted for privacy

Dean, SZhoo1 of Education

Redacted for privacy

Dean of Graduate School

Date dissertation is presented March 12, 1979

Typed by Mary Boyd for Wynelle Jean Huff

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

PURPOSES OF THE STUDY 3

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 5

STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS 5

ASSUMPTIONS 6

DEFINITION OF TERMS 6

HYPOTHESES 7

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9

INTRODUCTION 9

IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY IN

EDUCATION AND SOCIETY

IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY IN

NURSING AND NURSING EDUCATION 12

PERSONAL FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICAL

THINKING ABILITY 14

CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT 18

TEACHING METHODOLOGY 21

CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY OF TEACHERS 24

CURRICULA IN NURSING 27

EVALUATION OF NURSING CURRICULA ...... 32

SUMMARY 34

3. METHODOLOGY 36

DESIGN 36

POPULATION AND SAMPLE 37

ii
 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS . 39

PROCEDURE 42

ANALYSIS 42

4. RESULTS 44

HYPOTHESES 50

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 50

5. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 52

SUMMARY 52

DISCUSSION 52

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY 59

APPENDIX 63

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Size, Sex and Average Age of Sample

Groups 44

2. Sample Groups Range of Appraisal Raw Scores, Mean

Critical Thinking Ability Raw Scores and
Standard Deviations 46

3. T-test Scores for Sample Groups 46

4. Mean Critical Thinking Ability Raw Scores,

Range of Critical Thinking Ability Raw Scores
and Standard Deviations for Males and
Females 47

5. T-test Scores for Male and Female Comparison 48

6. Chi Square Correlations Between Student's Age,

Father's Occupation and Student's Critical
Thinking Ability 48

7. Group Percentile Ranking Based on Appraisal

Norms 49
 The Effect of a Selected Nursing Curriculum
Upon the Critical Thinking Ability of
Baccalaureate Nursing Students

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

"Of all the methods known for solving problems ... thinking

represents the one best method available" (Hunt:8). Thinking provides

the opportunity for new relationships, new ideas and new solutions to

be derived. In this age of ever-increasing knowledge and rapid

technological advances, people are constantly confronted with the need

for accurate decision making. " ... among all the skills requisite to

living in almost any modern society, few are ultimately more important

than knowing how to think" (Drake, 1976:198). Dewey (1966:179) went so

far as to suggest that all the school can do is help students develop

their ability to think. He implies that the limiting of school

activities solely to this function would be sufficient. "We state

emphatically that, upon its intellectual side, education consists in

the formation of wide-awake, careful, thorough habits of thinking"

(Dewey, 1933:78).

Not only thinking ability but critical thinking ability has

evolved as a valued social goal. To successfully consider data, draw

inferences, evaluate assumptions and come to accurate conclusions, one

must have critical thinking ability.

 2

Critical thinking has long been a favored objective in education

(Furst, 1950:614). "The significance of critical thinking as an educa-

tional objective and of problem solving as an instructional strategy

have been emphasized in the literature of education from the time of

Socrates to the present" (Gezi, 1970:9).

Whether the aims, activities, or skills it comprises have

been called 'critical thinking,' reflective thinking,' logi-
cal thinking,' or 'problem-solving,' it hardly warrants empha-
sizing that this is, and has been, a most important aspect of
American formal education. And while no one would suggest
that critical or reflective thinking is derived exclusively
from formal educational experiences, a great deal of justifi-
cation for mass education has been expressed in these terms
(Drake, 1978:8).

Nursing has evolved into a profession demanding efficient,

responsible decision making. Responsible decision making is based upon

critical thinking ability. Therefore, critical thinking ability is

important to the professional nurse.

Nursing education, along with general education, has adopted

the development of critical thinking ability in its graduates as one

of its primary objectives.

Nursing education, as in the education of other profession-

als, has a great stake in the development of critical thinking,
for the success of the nurse's daily work depends to a large
extent on her ability to think constructively and arrive at
reasonable alternatives quickly (Gezi, 1970:9).

Educational programs in nursing have adapted curricula to

promote the development of critical thinking ability in their students.

Unfortunately, these changes in curricula have often been made without

supporting empirical data to guide them or adequate evaluation to see

what effects the changes have created. So, while development of

critical thinking ability has become a widely accepted goal for

 3

educational programs in nursing, there is a dearth of research to show

what actually does happen to the critical thinking ability of students

as a result of exposure to a nursing curriculum (Burgher, 1978:10).

PURPOSES OF THE STUDY

The primary purpose of this study was to determine the effect

of a dialectical nursing curriculum upon the critical thinking ability

of baccalaureate nursing students. Review of literature pointed out

that two of the four main types of nursing curricula produced no major

positive change in critical thinking ability of the students. The

dialectical type of curriculum had not been evaluated for its effect.

If the dialectical type of nursing curriculum does create a positive

change in the critical thinking ability of the students, then nursing

educators need to look seriously at this type of curriculum to meet

their goal of developing critical thinking ability. If it does not,

nursing educators using the dialectical type of curriculum need to

reexamine its use in meeting the goal of developing critical thinking

ability. Curriculum change and development need to be based upon

empirical data. Since two types of nursing curricula had been evaluated,

the researcher wished to add to the total body of knowledge by investi-

gating another type of nursing curriculum.

Nursing has historically been a female dominated profession.

In recent years, increased efforts have been made to recruit men into

the profession on the premise that they make better managers and leaders

than women. However, research was not available to verify this one

way or the other. Since critical thinking is considered a vital part

of being a good manager and leader, this study also evaluated whether
 4

male or female students in nursing have greater critical thinking ability.

If men do have a higher critical thinking ability than women, recruit-

ment efforts need to be intensified to bring more into the nursing

profession.

Literature indicated that critical thinking ability increased

with age while the person is in his twenties. In order to evaluate

whether critical thinking was affected by age rather than the nursing

curriculum itself, it was decided to study the correlation between age

and critical thinking ability. The same was true for the father's

socioeconomic status. A high percentage of nursing majors have parents

who are professionals. Previous studies indicated a higher critical

thinking ability among persons with higher socioeconomic status. However,

no evidence was available to show whether nursing majors therefore have

higher critical thinking ability than other college majors. This study

addressed this issue as well.

Literature indicated that students' critical thinking ability

can be affected by the critical thinking ability of the faculty. That

is, faculty with high critical thinking ability provide more opportuni-

ties for students to problem solve. With critical thinking as an end

objective for nursing students, it is important to evaluate the

correlation of the nursing faculty's critical thinking ability with the

critical thinking ability of the students. Should faculty's critical

thinking ability have a major impact on student's critical thinking

ability, then attention needs to be given to recruitment of faculty with

high critical thinking ability as well as methods to develop it in

existing faculty. No data is available in nursing evaluating the

 5

relationship of critical thinking ability between faculty and students.

This research addressed this void as part of its purpose.

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This research evaluated critical thinking ability of baccalaurate

nursing students and faculty of the nursing program by use of the Watson-

Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Sex, age and the occupation of the

student's father were examined for relationship to critical thinking

ability. No attempt was made to evaluate the effects of I.Q., verbal

ability, grade point average, previous courses in logic or marital

status upon critical thinking ability, although it is recognized that

each or all are correlated.

Critical thinking appears related also to a body of knowledge.

People are more likely to do critical thinking in their chosen field of

specialization than in a generalized way. Based upon this, only the

nursing faculty's critical thinking ability was evaluated for relation-

ship to the student's critical thinking ability. No attempt was made

to evaluate the relationship of the critical thinking ability of faculty

teaching cognate courses with the student's critical thinking ability,

even though the cognates are recognized as part of the major.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

The problems being addressed by this research were: (1) does

exposure to a baccalaureate dialectical nursing curriculum affect crit-

ical thinking ability of the students, (2) is there a difference in the

critical thinking ability of male and female baccalaureate nursing

students, (3) what is the correlation between the critical thinking

 6

ability of baccalaureate nursing students and the student's age, (4)

what is the correlation between the critical thinking ability of bac-

calaureate nursing students and their father's socioeconomic status as

measured by occupation, and (5) what is the relationship of the critical

thinking ability of the nursing faculty and the critical thinking ability

of beginning freshmen and graduating baccalaureate nursing students?

ASSUMPTIONS

For the purpose of this research the following assumptions were made:

(1) Critical thinking ability is necessary for the successful

functioning of the professional nurse today.

(2) The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal provides

an accurate measure of critical thinking ability.

(3) The dialectical curriculum chosen for study is represen-

tative of other dialectical nursing curricula.

(4) Sample groups, S-1 and S-4, represented identical academic

characteristics.

(5) The occupations listed in the researcher-made questionnaire

are in rank order.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Critical thinking ability - a composite of attitudes, knowledge

and skills. This composite includes: (1) attitudes of inquiry with an

ability to recognize the existence of problems and an acceptance of the

general need for evidence in support of what is asserted to be true;

(2) knowledge of the nature of valid inferences, abstractions and gener-

alizations in which the weight or accuracy of different kinds of

 7

evidence is logically determined; and (3) skill in employing and apply-

ing the above attitudes and knowledge (Watson & Glaser, 1964:10).

Nursing curriculum - the set of nursing courses taken in college

by students to gain a baccalaureate degree with a major in nursing.

Dialectical nursing curriculum a type of nursing curriculum

where the content emphasis is on health-illness continuum with concepts

of man as he relates to this continuum being increasingly assimilated

by the student until man is viewed as a whole person.

Nursing faculty - the group of persons designated to carry out

the objectives of the specified nursing curriculum. The usual educa-

tional preparation is a masters degree with a major in the clinical

area in which the person is teaching.

HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses were identified:

(1) There is no statistically significant difference in the

critical thinking ability of beginning freshmen and graduating seniors

from a dialectical baccalaureate nursing program.

(2) There is no statistically significant difference in the

critical thinking ability of males and females in beginning freshmen

baccalaureate nursing students.

(3) There is no statistically significant difference in the

critical thinking ability of males and females in graduating senior

baccalaureate nursing students.

(4) There is no high positive correlation between the bacca-

laureate nursing student's critical thinking ability and his age.

 8

(5) There is no high positive correlation between the bacca-

laureate nursing student's critical thinking ability and his father's

socioeconomic status as measured by occupation.

(6) There is no statistically significant difference between

the critical thinking ability of nursing faculty and beginning fresh-

men baccalaureate nursing students.

(7) There is no statistically significant difference between

the critical thinking ability of nursing faculty and graduating senior

baccalaureate nursing students.

 9

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

This review of literature addresses the importance of critical

thinking ability in education and society, its importance specifically

in nursing education and personal factors affecting development of

critical thinking ability. It also relates curriculum organization,

teaching methodologies and teachers' critical thinking ability to develop-

ment of student's critical thinking ability. The predominant types of

nursing curricula are reviewed along with evaluation of their effect

upon development of critical thinking ability. An overall summary is

given at the end of the chapter, rather than at the end of each section.

IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY

IN EDUCATION AND SOCIETY

Knowing how to put one's thoughts into an orderly, logical way

has become important in the value system of America. This value has

been extended into our educational system, where critical thinking has

become a paramount goal (Drake, 1976:3). " ... students must be taught

to be independent, critical thinkers" (Feely, 1975:5) Many terms are

presented in the literature when referring to the critical thinking

process. These include problem solving, reflective thinking, inductive

thinking, discovery and inquiry. Whatever terms were used, "we have meant

... that students should learn to think on their own" (Feely, 1975:3).
 10

The critical thinking dimension of education in Western history

has been predicated upon the pursuit-of-truth ideal of Socrates and his

dialectical method. Plato and Aristotle modified Socrate's method and

derived methods for drawing and checking inferences, both deductive and

inductive (Drake, 1976:173).

To draw inferences seems to be one of the great businesses of

life, since everyone must constantly ascertain and evaluate facts which

he may or may not have directly observed. These facts may be vital to

our interests or our occupations. The person who is aware of the dis-

tinction between what he has observed and what he has inferred, as well

as the chain of thought connecting the two, will have a broader basis

from which to consider whether something is true or false. We may then

assume, other things being equal, that he will be less likely to make

mistakes than one who is not aware of these matters (Smith, 1953:133).

Critical thinking enables a person to direct his activities with

foresight and not just react from impulse or from routine. It allows

one to plan with a purpose so that actions are deliberate and inten-

tional, thus giving increased power of control (Dewey, 1933:23). "It

converts action that is merely appetitive, blind and impulsive into

intelligent action" (Archambault, 1965:212).

Because no situation repeats itself exactly, each situation

theoretically may call for a different response (Frankl, 1959:123). If

every situation may be considered to be unique in some way, then rote

memorization of specified actions for specified situations is useless.

This is enhanced by the fast changeover of knowledge. Sorensen, (1966:3)

commenting on this fast change in knowledge, indicates that it is

 11

apparent that our former emphasis upon learning large quantities of know-

ledge must be replaced with skills and abilities which are not subject

to rapid change. Critical thinking ability was included in this.

This large amount of knowledge creates debate among educators

about what should be taught and learned. However, "there can be little

disagreement about the necessity, and even the preferability of increas-

ing our emphasis upon critical thinking in public education today"

(Drake, 1976:197). In like manner, Archambault (1964:244) states that

"it is evident that education upon its intellectual side is vitally

concerned with cultivating the attitude of reflective thinking."

As long as concepts, assertions and evaluations are being done

in the classroom, there is need for critical thinking ability skills. It

does not matter what these assertions are. The fact they exist is

reason enough for teaching people how to evaluate them (Drake, 1976:182).

But even beyond the importance of critical thinking to the pro-

cess of education, the abilities to analyze arguments, statements and

concepts have a social importance all their own. Few skills requisite

to living are more important than knowing how to think (Drake, 1976:198).

With critical thinking seemingly such a universally accepted

goal of education, it seems strange that it has received so little

research emphasis. Ennis (1962) remarks in the introduction to the text

of his research that, in spite of all the theorizing educators and

psychologists have done on the subject of critical thinking, no compre-

hensive studies of the concept have been undertaken prior to his own.

Meeth (1974) also comments on the lack of attention which education has

given to the development of critical thinking skills. Industry recog-

nized long ago that this was necessary for its preservation. "Critical
 12

thinking, planning and analysis ... are central skills in problem solv-

ing. These skills are rarely taught as a central focus of any curricu-

lum from primary through tertiary education" (Meeth, 1974:163).

IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY

IN NURSING AND NURSING EDUCATION

The educational foundations of nursing in the United States were

laid a century and a half ago in training schools established within

hospitals caring for women and/or women and children. During the first

few years of the twentieth century, there was mushroom growth of hospital-

based and controlled training programs for nursing. Following the two

world wars, nursing educators began a close examination of the educa-

tional system of nursing, with a consequent shift to upgrade nursing

programs. Nursing education moved from a technical, procedure-oriented

hospital-controlled system of education to a trivalent form, which

included the hospital-controlled program, but expanded to two-year and

four-year collegiate programs as well (Bauman, 1973:12). The latter two

programs thrust nursing education into the mainstream of general educa-

tion at the college and university level and they remain the predominant

forms of education for nurses.

Along with the improvement in educational programs came a change

in the practice and status of nursing. Moving from the status of a

handmaiden for the physician of past years, the professional nurse of

today is recognized as a truly professional person with breadth and depth

of knowledge to guide him/her in his/her practice. The duties and

responsibilities are commensurate with that status. The following two

descriptions of the professional nurse and the practice of nursing

prepared by two state nursing associations illustrate the scope of

 13

knowledge and responsibility of today's professional nurse.

The professional nurse practitioner has scope and depth

of knowledge sufficient to identify and formulate possible
solutions to self-help deficits for a recipient whose needs
are problematic, uncommon or complex and whose state is
highly unstable. The skills necessary to the professional
nurse practitioner are those cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor abilities required to obtain and interpret
information about the existing state of the recipient, and
to formulate, implement and evaluate a plan of nursing care
(Michigan Nurse's Association, 1971).

The Profession of Nursing utilizes a wide base of know-

ledge from the physical, behavioral and social sciences to
promote the well-being of each individual and of society.
Professional Nursing Practice uses problem solving processes
and employs appropriate resources in identifying each person's
physical, psychological and social needs, and in assisting the
individual and his family to achieve an optimal level of
health and dignified death (California Nurse's Association,
1971).

It can be readily recognized from these two descriptions that

critical thinking ability is an important part of using the knowledge

and meeting the responsibilities of professional nursing.

It is agreed that there are many skills and abilities which

schools of nursing attempt to teach their students. However, the

one which is currently receiving considerable attention, particularly

in baccalaureate programs, is the ability to think critically (Burgher,

1978:2). The professional nurse is constantly faced with situations in

which he/she must think constructively and quickly arrive at an appro-

priate solution (Gezi & Hadley, 1970:9). Based upon this, it follows

that the success of a graduating student into nursing will be partly

determined by his/her ability to think critically (Burgher, 1978:15).

Therefore, it would fall the task of the educational programs in nursing

to provide the students with the means to cultivate this ability. That

schools of nursing have accepted this goal is reflected in de Tornyay's

 14

statement that "the objectives of the professional nursing school stress

student behaviors such as understanding concepts and generalizations,

critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving" (1968, p. 3).

The following objectives are typical ones seen in schools of

professional nursing today.

A student in a baccalaureate program in nursing will

be able to:
1. Assess, plan, implement, and evaluate nursing
care with clients--individuals, families and commun-
ities.
2. Utilize theoretical and empirical knowledge from
the physical and behavioral sciences and the humanities
as a source of making nursing practice decisions.
3. Utilize decision-making theories in determining care
plans, designs or interventions for achieving nursing
goals.
4. Treat nursing interventions as hypotheses to be
tested; anticipate a variety of consequences and make
predictions; and select and evaluate the effectiveness
of alternative approaches
... (National League for Nursing, 1974).

PERSONAL FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

OF CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY

Research provides conflicting information on personal factors

affecting critical thinking ability.

Feely (1975) used the factors of age, verbal ability, sex,

socioeconomic status and educational expectation to predict the use of

evidence to test statements of hypotheses. He used the Cornell Critical

Thinking_Test, Level X to measure student's performance in distinguishing

evidence which was supportive, negative or irrelevant to a statement.

The subjects were 304 students in grades seven, nine and eleven. With

the exception of sex, all variables changed in approximately the same

way as the use of evidence. However, a statistical significance of

(.001 was found between verbal ability and the use of evidence,
 15

accounting for the largest amount of variance (26%) of prediction. Age

was also statistically significant at .01, as was sex. Females performed

better than males. This contrasts with Lehman's testing (1963:308) of

beginning freshmen for critical thinking ability. In retesting them

again as seniors, he found no significant difference in critical thinking

ability between the sexes. Feely's study found only socioeconomic status

to not be a statistically significant predictor. Of the five predictors,

verbal ability contributed most to prediction. The predictors also

correlated with each other, with the largest correlation (p =1;.01)

being between age and verbal ability as measured by the Wide Range

Vocabulary Test. There was also a significant relationshp (p =4.01)

being between verbal ability and socioeconomic status as measured by the

father's occupation.

Feely summarized his findings as downplaying the importance

of age, and thus maturation, in explaining students' use of evidence.

"... these findings indicate that Verbal Ability is a more important

predictor than age in how well students will be able to interact with

a curriculum that calls upon use of evidence" (Feely, 1975:7).

Friend and Zubek (1958:409), with a sample of 484, in ages from

12 to 80, used the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal to measure

the relation of age to critical thinking ability. They found that

critical thinking ability was not too highly developed in the teen years,

but developed rapidly after that, peaking in the mid-twenties. It then

remained relatively constant until the mid-thirties when it began to

steadily decline. No statistically significant sex differences were

found and there was a low correlation of .31 between education and

critical thinking ability.

 16

Logical analysis would lead one to postulate that there could be

a positive relationship between intelligence and performance on tests

of critical thinking. The tests hold in common the fact that they

both present tasks in which recall is minimized and which require the

student to form new relationships in the data. Furst (1950:615) cites

a number of studies which support the idea that intelligence and critical

thinking ability are related, but none showed a high relationship. Furst

handles this by implying that intelligence plays a part in critical

thinking, but that "considerable learning underlies the cultivation of

critical thinking in any subject field" (Furst, 1950:615). Furst's

research used critical thinking tests which were specific to a field,

while this study utilized a general, non-specialized critical thinking

ability test.

Ennis (1962:20) speculated that people who have about the same

mental ability are bound to pick up some critical thinking ability as

a result of being exposed to life. When we introduce deliberate

critical thinking instruction, we would expect other traits, such as

desire to please the instructor, interest in school, etc., to become

more influential. Prediction could then be made that the correlation

between IQ and critical thinking ability would decrease,' since not

everyone would have these school-success traits to the same degree.

Ennis has probably done the most research on critical thinking

ability. In one study (1963), he tested 803 students in grades four to

twelve. The students were divided into two groups, with one having

logic deliberately taught (LDT) and one with logic deliberately not

taught (LDNT). He looked at both conditional reasoning and classical

reasoning abilities by pre and posttesting with the Cornell Conditional

 17

Reasoning Test and Cornell Classical Reasoning Test. With conditional

reasoning, no difference was found in the scores of LDT and LDNT groups

in grades five and seven. However, in grade nine, th8rS was a statis-

tically significant superiority of the students not taught logic. In

grade 11, there was a statistically significant superiority of the

students who had been taught logic. A moderate and general increase in

classical reasoning was found in groups from age 12 onward. Ennis,

therefore, concluded that conditional reasoning can be mastered by the

upper secondary level, by age 16, but there is no point in trying to

teach it in the elementary and lower secondary grades. He further con-

cluded that classical reasoning could be started by about age 12.

Ennis (1963) also found a statistically significant correlation

between occupationally based socioeconomic status and mastery of logic

and a zero to weak correlation between mastery of logic and sex. A

mean correlation between logic mastery and Lorge-Thorndike IQ was

statistically significant at the .05 level. He cites this as being

similar to what one finds on correlations between subject matter tests

and IQ.

Craven suggests from his research that "students may possess

some general critical thinking ability, just as they possess general

intellectual ability" (1966:27). He cites a number of studies which

indicate that knowledge of principles in a particular field does not

assure application of these principles for problem solving. That is,

people may be good thinkers in one field and not in another.

Smith (1971), using a high school senior class of 123 males and

108 females, studied the relationship between critical thinking and

influenceability, personality factors, intelligence, reading, aptitude

 18

and grade-point average. The results showed no important relationship

between critical thinking and influenceability. Critical thinking was

more closely related to personality factors of males than females.

Critical thinking was more closely related to intelligence, reading

aptitude and grade-point average among females than males. There was

no indication in his study of the tests which were used.

Craven (1966) did a study of the critical thinking ability of

science teacher candidates at Oregon State University as compared with

social science teacher candidates, in-service science teachers, elemen-

tary teacher candidates and freshmen students in both social science

and science education. Using the Cornell Critical Thinking Test, he

found that critical thinking ability was not a major learning outcome

of the student of college science. There was no difference in critical

thinking ability of male and female science teacher-candidates. The

critical thinking ability of the science teacher-candidates was signifi-

cantly higher (.05) than that of freshmen in social science and science

education as well as that of the elementary teacher-candidates and in-

service teachers. The science teacher-candidates did not differ

significantly from the social science teacher-candidates in critical

thinking ability.

CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT

Since education has to do with thinking as it occurs in human

beings, it would seem logical to assume that it would be concerned with

creating favorable circumstances for effective thought. This, in turn

would lead to selection and arrangement of subject matter and activities

which would promote effective thinking (Archambault, 1964:244).

 19

Lehman (1963) tested 1051 beginning college freshmen and tested

them again as seniors to measure any change in critical thinking ability.

Using the Test of Critical Thinking from the American Council on Educa-

tion, he found that both males and females scored significantly higher

on the test after four years of college. He did not have a control group.

He concluded from his study that "there is no denying the fact that changes

in critical thinking ability ... occur from the student's freshman to

senior years in college. It is difficult, however, in the absence of

a noncollege control group to relate these changes directly to college

education" (Lehman, 1963:314).

Just the fact of going to school may not guarantee the learning

of critical thinking skills. Unfortunately, the public, and often

educators, assume that by going to school, students can and do learn to

think critically (Drake 1976:16, 17). Something within the school

situation must be aimed toward the promotion of critical thinking ability

skills. Interestingly enough, Lehman found in his study that it was only

after the students entered their college major did he find any evidence

of the impact of their formal educational experience upon critical

thinking ability (1963:314). What appears to happen is that people

learn to think critically within the confines of their chosen fields or

subject matter without the same ability outside these areas (Drake, 1976:18).

If any carry-over is found, it is due to the presence of like elements in

both areas. However, the more technical the subject, the fewer common

elements it provides for carry-over of critical thinking abilities

(Archambault, 1964:240).

Dewey (1933:29, 30, 247) argued that thinking cannot exist apart

from subject matter and that the way in which subject matter is
 20

arranged is of utmost importance. Subject matter must not be presented

in too scanty or too diffuse a way or thinking will be affected adversely.

He also felt that teaching methodologies directly affected habits of

thinking in the students.

Archambault agreed with Dewey that, in order to think about

something, one must have experience and information about it (1964:27).

Likewise, Bloom indicates that "problem solving or thinking cannot be

carried on in a vacuum, but must be based upon knowledge of some of the

realities" (1956:33). Sorensen also wrote on the necessity for facts

in order to do critical thinking, but felt this was not the basic

problem since facts usually do get taught (1956:3). The challenge

appears more of creating an atmosphere where critical thinking is

fostered to become an habitual pattern.

Can critical thinking be taught? Hunt says that "research

studies strongly indicate that critical thinking can be taught" (1969:7).

Some have attempted to increase critical thinking abilities of

students by including content on critical thinking in the curriculum.

For example, Rust (1962) attempted to teach critical thinking to students

in English, social studies and mathematics. Using a sample of 3000

students with 1/3 as a control group, she found only small differences

between the control and experimental groups in critical thinking ability.

Baldwin (1971) used the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinkins Asraisal

to test an experimental group of grade seven high potential and average

potential students who had used a curriculum unit designed to emphasize

higher level cognitive abilities. There was no significant relationship

between student ability and curriculum material. There was some evidence

that the success of a process-oriented curriculum in advancing higher

 21

level thought processes depends upon the student's skill in lower level

cognitive processes.

Rothstein (1961) conducted a study on two groups of grade 11

students who were matched for mental ability, English reading and critical

thinking skills. One group had a concentrated emphasis upon the goal

of thinking while the other group had only incidental emphasis. Rothstein

wanted to see what would happen to the subject matter acquisition in each

group. He found that the group receiving concentrated emphasis upon

thinking developed more critical thinking than the other group, while

attaining subject matter equally well. He concluded that growth in

critical thinking ability can be expected to be derived from focused

instruction on such and that it will reflect in test scores for critical

thinking ability. Herber (1959:2175) found further that instruction in

critical thinking strengthens vocabulary and comprehension and affects

accuracy in reading positively.

Following up further on Herber's study (1959), an experimental

group of students used materials designed to learn interpretation, recog-

nition of assumptions and evaluation of arguments twice a week for 12

weeks. The results showed that the ability to think critically can be

improved although he did not find transfer of critical thinking to other

areas.

TEACHING METHODOLOGY

While curriculum organization and content play a part in the

development of critical thinking ability, it also appears that the culti-

vation of thinking is facilitated by instructional methods, Instruction

should aid the learner to perceive relationships among ideas, apply

 22

facts from previous knowledge, recognize implicit assumptions and ident-

ify crucial elements to the solution of problems (Furst, 1950:615),

it was once believed that the mind had faculties which would be

strengthened by repeated exercise, just as physical exercise stregthens

the muscles. Later, however, the importance of attitude and motivation

came to the fore and set exercises in correct thinking were no longer

deemed enough to guarantee the ability to think well. Dewey (1933:

29, 30) went so far as to state that there is no set of exercises which

will yield good thinkers. Rather than trying to provide exercises for

good thinking, he felt that one should rather cultivate attitudes which

would be favorable to the use of methods of inquiry. The person must

desire and be animated to use these methods.

If teaching is to be considered strategically successful, it

will require the learner to make definite judgments about the informa-

tion being conveyed. This may be in the form of evaluation of the ade-

quacy of a teacher's definition of something or the evaluation of

arguments as sound or unsound. It means judging whether a teacher's

inference from certain types of data is warranted or not (Drake, 1976:

14, 15). All of these judgments require the application of critical

thinking skills and point to the fact that possession of these skills

is as important to the assessment of what is taught as to the process

of teaching itself.

While it is undeniable that curricular subjects may aid in the

acquisition of critical thinking skills, it tends to be within the

confines of a particular subject (Drake, 1976:56). If one is to aid

in the generalizing of critical thinking skills, it must then involve

more than just the subjects to be taken. For example, Howe (1963: 262,263)
 23

in a study of 1191 high school students reported that out of 51 biology

classes 44 showed positive gains as measured by the Watson-Glaser

Critical Thinking Appraisal. The most gain was associated with the

classes utilizing problem-solving techniques, with instruction and

practice in critical thinking.

Ennis (1963:20, 39) in his research and writings, raised the

question of whether the problem solving approach was better adapted to

critical thinking instruction than the subject matter approach. He

did not reach a conclusion. Others, however, were more definitive. For

example, Castelli (1970) investigated the effect of the use of Biological

Curriculum Study (BSCS) Single Topic Inquiry Films upon the critical

thinking ability of high school sophomores. The results showed that

critical thinking was improved through the use of an inquiry method of

instruction.

Howe (1963:202, 203), in a study of critical thinking ability

of biology students, found the classes showing the high gains in critical

thinking ability were those utilizing problem solving techniques with

direct instruction and practice in it.

According to Drake (1976:187-191), critical thinking skills may

be incorporated into dialogue teaching more easily than with other methods.

This means something different, however, than was espoused by Socrates.

Drake refers to the method as a means to an end rather than the end in

itself as Socrates did. Dialogue teaching is a prime means of getting

students to talk. When used effectively, dialogue teaching will stress

the notion that the student has a logical responsibility in the dialogue

and that he must fully analyze each argument, each reasoned position of

the topic under discussion before dealing with other arguments.

 24

A part of the instructional methodology is the testing procedure.

While it is widely accepted that methods of testing should be consistent

with the level of cognition to which the teacher has taken the student,

it is not universally practiced. It follows that if teaching has been

by a methodology which attempts to foster critical thinking abilities,

then the means of testing should also follow this same line. Fogg (1964)

evaluated the effect of two different multiple choice testing techniques

upon the critical thinking ability of the students. Using a freshman

class of 551, he randomly divided them into control and experimental

groups. The control group was consistently given the traditional, five-

choice type of questions for testing. The experimental group, in addition,

had to indicate all alternatives they were certain were wrong. Critical

thinking ability was measured by the use of the Watson-Glaser Critical

Thinking Appraisal and Fogg found that the experimental group scored

significantly higher than the control (<.05).

CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY OF TEACHERS

Because development of critical thinking ability is one of the

central purposes of education, it follows that teachers should be skilled

in techniques of critical thinking so they can serve as models in demon-

strating and eliciting its use in the classroom (Hunt, 1969:1).

The methodology which a teacher uses will be a reflection of

his/her beliefs about teaching and learning, as well as a reflection of

a personal style. It follows that a teacher who believes that learning

occurs best when the student is actively involved in problem solving will

gear his/her teaching methodologies to reflect this belief. But it is

 25

also true that some teachers may have such beliefs but be unable to

carry them out due to a lack of knowledge or experience.

Cook (1967) investigated the effects of certain teaching methods

upon critical thinking skills as measured by the Watson-Glaser Critical

Thinking_ Appraisal, Form ZM. Eight teachers were randomly selected and

their behaviors assessed by use of Flander's Interaction Analysis Scale.

The findings support the notion of the central importance of the classroom

teacher in influencing student outcomes.

Duckworth (1968) tested 104 10th and 11th grade students in

control and experimental groups. He gave the Watson-Glaser Critical

Thinking Appraisal before and after a 12 week teaching period in which

two teachers spent one hour a week in each of instruction of general

semantics and basic principles of grammar. One of the results of his

study was that the teacher is considered an important factor in improve-

ment of critical thinking.

The importance of the teacher's critical thinking ability is

also related in the following two studies. Howe (1963) used the Watson-

Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal to measure changes in critical thinking

ability of 1191 biology students in 51 public high schools in Oregon.

Forty -four of the 51 in the class showed slight, but positive, gains in

critical thinking ability. Howe indicated that one of the two signifi-

cant factors related to this growth was teachers who scored high on the

Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. He concluded by saying that

Classes taught by teachers with high critical thinking

abilities made greater adjusted gains than those taught by
teachers with less ability in this area. Aspects of this
relationship should be further investigated to provide
more data to guide teacher preparation curriculums (Howe,
1963:150).
 26

Hunt (1969) gave the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal

to 39 teachers in six elementary, junior high, and high schools. The

critical thinking scores were placed as the 10 highest and the 10 lowest.

The researcher then observed three and one-half hours of teaching time

of each of the 20 teachers, rating the thought processes they stimulated

as either routine, cognitive memory convergent thinking, evaluative

thinking or divergent thinking. She also classified all comments as

supportive, non-supportive or neutral. The faculty scoring high on the

Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal made a greater number of

verbal comments in areas of convergent, evaluative and divergent thinking.

These latter types of thinking are significantly related (.05) to high

measures in critical thinking and involve higher thought processes.

"Therefore teachers who evidence high critical thinking ability them-

selves are giving students more frequent opportunities to use higher

processes than are teachers low in critical thinking ability" (Hunt, 1969:

6). The group scoring high in critical thinking ability also showed a

significantly greater number of comments evidencing support of students

than did teachers scoring low. ... research studied pointed out that

verbal support or reinforcement of student by an adult increases both

the quality of performanace and the tenacity with which students stay

with a task ..." Hunt, 1969:6).

Since it appears that the teacher is in a strategic position to

teach students the skill of critical thinking by his example and method-

ology, teaching for critical thinking should have its beginning in

teacher-education courses and inservice training. College and university

professors and district leaders should be models for critical thinking

for the students as well as provide them with opportunities for

 27

developing their own critical thinking abilities (Hunt, 1969, Rothstein,

1961). "An isolated course in logic is not sufficient; critical think-

ing should become a major part and purpose of the curricula of teacher

education" (Hunt, 1969:7).

Teachers then need to become models of critical thinking skills

to their students. They must be committed to the importance of critical

thinking as a primary outcome of their teaching.

In spite of the demonstrable importance of critical thinking to

success in teaching, the "preparation of teachers in colleges and univer-

sities has been much more strategically than logic-oriented" (Drake,

1976:15).

CURRICULA IN NURSING

Since 1950, a number of differing curricular structures have

appeared in nursing education. Prior to that time, it was just assumed

that nursing was taught by disease and body systems - the logistic

method (Stevens, 1971:389).

Even though nursing education has in a sense evolved through a

number of differing curricular structures, all of them are still in

existence today. They form a type of continuum which goes from subject

centered to student centered. The following discussion will describe

each of the main types of curricular structures.

In the logistic (subject centered) form of curriculum structure,

knowledge is acquired fact by fact. No overall view of the whole is

given (Burkett, 1964:5). It is assumed that the student will gain know-

ledge of the whole as the facts are all put together. In nursing, this

curriculum focuses upon diseases or body systems. Each course represents

 28

some physiological system with an emphasis upon diseases and injuries

of that system. For example, in the basic fundamental skills of nursing,

the student will learn the significance of blood pressure as a fact

which he will later integrate into a larger concept of nursing care.

The curriculum construction is done by isolation of elements and deter-

mination of laws regulating their combination (Stevens, 1971:389).

There is then a search for cause and effect, thus moving from etiology

and pathology through to nursing care (Stevens, 1971:389). The student

is expected to eventually view the totality by putting the individual

parts together.

In this type of thinking, the nurse is seen only as an agent to

carry out the doctor's orders. The knowledge to be learned is inde-

pendent of the nurse and also of the patient himself. Since this is

true, the nurse will never find himself/herself debating decisions.

Nursing tasks are programmed and rules are followed. No individual-

ization is given for the patient (Stevens, 1971:390).

With the expansion of knowledge in medical fields, this approach

became too burdensome. There were too many facts to teach and thus, the

search for alternative ways of teaching began. Today, about one quarter

of the nursing programs still follow this method (Stevens 1971:390).

Newer modifications of this style are seen in computerized and systems

approaches (Burgher 1979:3). In these approaches, too, the correct

answer is identical for everyone and problem solving is not emphasized.

The main criticism of the logistic approach is seen as the

segregation of the units, which supposedly reduces the student's inte-

gration of knowledge (Stevens, 1971:390).

 29

The dialectical method takes a step away from subject centered

toward a somewhat more student centered curriculum, although the emphasis

is still not mainly on the student. In the dialectical method, thinking

utilizes synthesis. Alternatives are considered as conflicting theories,

i.e. thesis and antithesis. The solution represents an assimilation and

resolution of the two contradictions into a third theory, the synthesis

(Burkett, 1964:6 & Stevens, 1971:391). The student learns by the process

of assimilation. " ... knowledge from any particular point leads toward

a knowledge of the whole. In nursing, this whole is man" (Burgher, 1978:

5). The parts are seen as they function within the whole of man and this

gives rise to the concept of total patient care (Burgher, 1978:5 &

Burkett, 1964:6).

One of the earliest programs in nursing to use this approach was

begun at Rutgers University (Stonsby, 1953). The curriculum was organ-

ized on a birth to maturity concept of man. Both wellness and illness

aspects were studied and dealt with the total concept of man in relation

to these aspects. More contemporary forms of the dialectical approach

take the concept of man from birth to death, rather than just through

maturity as Stonsby's curriculum did (Stevens, 1971:391).

More recently, the dialectical approach has been reflected in

programs where the focus is on a health-illness continuum. The program

starts with normal health, sometimes referred to as wellness, and pro-

gresses through diseases and injuries which minimally interfere with

health to those which are not life threatening. The whole in this is

the health-illness continuum and not man. The method, however, is the

same, i.e. assimilation with increasing understanding of the subject

(Stevens, 1971:391).
 30

Hybrid programs, combining the logistical and dialectical

approaches also came into existence. These proved to be very awkward.

Generally, factual material was presented in class while students were

expected to be able to discuss comprehensive patient care in their ward

classes about specific patients (Stevens, 1971:392).

The dialectical approach did provide one way of dealing with

increasing demands of expanded medical knowledge, which the logistical

approach did not.

Next, we come to the problematic approach. This approach is one

of the most common in nursing education today (Stevens, 1971:393). The

problematic approach says that thinking occurs only when a problem

arises within the environment. In solving the problem, the total envi-

ronment may be reorganized and the situation surrounding the problem

is acted upon (Burkett, 1964:6). The problem solving method reflects

this approach.

Dewey was the chief advocate of this method in education (Stevens,

1971:393). Since thinking occurred with the process of inquiry, it

should only occur when things were uncertain. Therefore, acquiring

knowledge was secondary to the act of inquiry. For Dewey and the prob-

lematic method, thinking originates in situations where the course of

thinking itself is part of the course of events.

In describing his reflective thinking theory, Dewey gave us the

basis for problem solving. " ... the origin of thinking is some per-

plexity, confusion or doubt" (Dewey, 1966:15). Then comes a tentative

hypothesis and acceptance of an hypothesis for testing (Dewey, 1966:150,

151). An unsatisfactory solution may occur if the person is "not

sufficiently critical about the ideas that occur to him" (Dewey, 1933:16).
 31

Streiter (1955) was one of the first to publish about a curric-

ulum designed on a problematic approach. Soon after that, Abdellah

(1960) developed her list of 21 nursing problems which were supposed to

cover the common physiological, biological, sociological and psych-

ological needs of all persons. She maintained that a curriculum based

upon these problems and accompanied by planned clinical exposure to

patients would develop understanding and critical thinking ability. The

problems themselves become the means of teaching students to recognize

and identify specific problems (Stevens, 1971:394).

The activity of the nurse in the problematic method is problem

solving, thus making him/her identify problems and become a diagnostician

(Burgher, 1973:9). This concept is not new to nursing. Hornung wrote

about adopting the term "nursing diagnosis" in 1956 (29,30), as did

Abdellah in 1960. This concept has continued to be developed. Today,

nursing diagnosis is a common term, although there is disagreement on

how the problem should be stated (Lewis, 1976:83). Mundinger and Jauron

give one definition of nursing diagnosis as:

a statement of a patient problem which is arrived at by

making inferences from collected data. The problem is one
that can be alleviated by nursing intervention. Every
nursing diagnosis must be preceded by validating data and
followed by an appropriate nursing care plan (Mundinger &
Jauron, 1975:96).

On the far end of the continuum, (student-centered) comes the

operational curricular structure. This curriculum is structured to

meet the needs of the students and no pre-planned curriculum exists.

The student selects the instrument (in nursing, the patient) which best

meets his learning needs. After an initial observation period, usually

in a hospital setting, the student then decides what he wants to learn

 32

and in what order. MacCambridge and Moucha (1954) describe such an

approach for the first year of their nursing program. After an observa-

tion period, the students decided upon their own learning activities.

This program created much student insecurity and the instructors had

difficulty releasing control of the curriculum. In the long run, the

authors felt the students did learn faster than in their previous

curriculum (not described) and that the faculty felt a greater sense of

accomplishment.

The operational approach obviously gives the student great free-

dom and represents a type of existential, involved approach (Stevens,

1971:392). Thinking in this mode tends to move by a process of differ-

entiation and discrimation and assumes a type of either-or quality, as

the student judges between alternatives.

EVALUATION OF NURSING CURRICULA

Formalized evaluation of nursing curricula is a relatively recent

occurence. However, evaluation of critical thinking outcomes of the

students is conspicuously lacking. One would expect to find evidence

of greater problem solving abilities in graduating nurses as curriculum

revisions have moved curricula from logistic types to more problematic

types. In a study done by LaBelle and Egan (1975) 10% of the employers

rated new graduates as having great difficulty in the use of problem

solving for nursing care. The researchers were inconclusive as to

whether these results occurred due to lack of employer understanding of

a complicated rating scale, or if the graduates had difficulty implement-

ing their knowledge of problem solving or possibly could not interpret

their abilities to their supervisors.

 33

Only two studies were found which actually evaluated critical

thinking outcomes of nursing graduates. Burgher (1978) studied beginning

and graduating students from a logistic style curriculum of a nursing

program located in Australia. Using the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking.

Appraisal, she found no statistically significant difference in critical

thinking ability of beginning and graduating students. The mean scores

changed only from 64.6 to 65.4. She concluded that a logistic curriculum

does not significantly affect critical thinking ability of the students.

Based upon the rationale of a logistic type curriculum, this finding is

not surprising. However, a study done by Richards (1977) does provide

some interesting results.

Richards compared two groups of baccalaureate nursing student,

one group graduating from a logistic type of curriculum and one graduating

from an integrated, problematic type of curriculum. Again, using the

Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, she found a decrease in

critical thinking ability scores of the students exposed to the latter

type of curriculum. This finding is particularly interesting in light

of the fact that she found a significantly greater leadership potential

in clinical practice in the group whose critical thinking scores went

down. This study brings to the fore the discrepancy in meeting of

stated objectives since one of the primary aims of the problematic

method is to gain problem solving skills and knowledge.

These two studies related to logistic and problematic curricula.

This researcher could find no articles relating to evaluation of critical

thinking outcomes of operational or student centered types of curricula.

 34

SUMMARY

The development of critical thinking ability has been identified

as an important, if not the most important, objective for both general

and nursing education. However, a dearth of research exists to verify

whether the objective is being met and what variables affect its develop-

ment.

Personal factors affecting critical thinking ability were reviewed.

No clear picture was found. However, there was some indication of a

direct relationship between verbal ability and critical thinking ability.

In like manner, intelligence and critical thinking ability appear related

on a foundational level, i.e., a certain amount of intelligence is

necessary to do critical thinking. There was evidence of a maturation

effect upon development of critical thinking ability. Logic can be

taught from about the age of 12 on and specific instruction in critical

thinking does aid its development.

Change occurs in critical thinking ability between the freshman

and senior years of college although it has not been determined that

this change is specifically related to college. People learn to think

critically in their chosen major, but there may be no carryover to other

areas. Critical thinking is based upon knowledge of facts and is more

predominately seen in atmospheres encouraging and accepting problem

solving.

The teacher is considered an important factor in the student's

development of critical thinking ability. Teachers with higher critical

thinking ability provide, by teaching methods which encourage problem

solving, more opportunities for students to practice critical thinking.

 35

Despite the importance of the teacher's critical thinking ability,

preparation of teachers does not emphasize its development.

Nursing has evolved from a skill-oriented, hospital-based

setting to a collegiate setting in which critical thinking ability is

an important objective. Within this collegiate setting exists a

continuum of types of nursing curricula, going from subject centered to

student centered. These curriculum types were reviewed. Research was

available which evaluated critical thinking outcomes for students in a

logistic curriculum and a problematic curriculum. Neither type showed

a gain in critical thinking abilities of its graduates, with the problem-

atic curriculum showing a decrease. Evaluation of critical thinking

outcomes of graduates of the other types of curricula in nursing were

not available. It is imperative that research outcomes be available

for the existing types of nursing curricula. Without such evidence,

there is no way to evaluate the effectiveness of goal attainment. For

example, the dialectical nursing curriculum has not been evaluated for

its effectiveness in developing critical thinking ability in baccalaure-

ate nursing programs. The research addresses that void.

 36

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

DESIGN

This study investigated the following factors: 1) the effect of

a selected dialectical nursing curriculum upon the critical thinking

ability of the students by a comparison of critical thinking ability

scores of beginning freshmen with those of graduating seniors, 2) the

relationship of the student's sex to critical thinking ability, 3) the

relationship of the student's critical thinking ability with age and

the father's socioeconomic status as measured by occupation, and 4) the

relationship of the nursing faculty's critical thinking ability to that

of beginning freshmen and graduating senior nursing students.

The research design was a separate sample, pretest-posttest one.

In this design, one sample (beginning freshmen) was tested prior to

exposure to the variable (the dialectical nursing curriculum) while the

other sample, (graduating seniors) was tested after exposure. A compar-

ison of the college Bulletins for 1974 and 1978 revealed the same

admission criteria for both beginning freshmen and graduating seniors

of this study. Both groups were required to have a minimum G.P.A. of

2.0 with preference given to those students with 2.25. No grade lower

than a C was allowed in any nursing course or cognate. Both groups were

also required to have taken either the Washington Pre-College Test, the

College Entrance Examination Board Admission Testing Program or the

American College Test. It was assumed, for the purpose of this study,
 37

that the two sample groups represented common academic characteristics

upon beginning the nursing curriculum.

The superiority of this design over the conventional pretest-

posttest one should be noted. It controls for the main effect of testing

and the interaction of testing with the variable (Campbell & Stanley,

1966:55).

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

A baccalaureate program in nursing with a dialectical curriculum

available to the researcher was chosen to provide the sample for this

study.

The program was a four-year nursing program based upon a curricu-

lum proceeding from wellness to illness. Concepts of maintenance of good

health and how to keep man well are taught in beginning courses. Courses

then progress on to man in illness beginning with minimally health threat-

ening problems and progressing to seriously life threatening ones. The

students relate to clients or patients in the various stages of wellness-

illness through the nursing process, which is defined as "assessment,

planning, implementation and evaluation" (Bulletin, 1978, p. 215). This

is similar to the commonly known scientific process where one goes through

the stages of identifying problems, gathering data, proposing solutions,

etc. Problem solving is identified as an integral part of the nursing

process. Knowledge about man (the client or patient) is progressive,

with the expectation that the parts will fit together to provide the

student with a total concept of the whole man.

 38

The presence of critical thinking ability of the students as an

objective of the program was reflected in excerpts from the program's

final outcome objectives for its graduating students:

A graduate of this program will be able to function in the

following roles: Care Provider: implements the nursing
process for promotion of an optimum level of wellness for
individuals, families and communities; Change Agent: validates
the need for and facilitates desirable change in individuals,
families and communities; ... Researcher: demonstrates an
attitude of scientific inquiry in developing and applying
nursing theory; (Bulletin, 1978:212)

The theory of learning accepted by the nursing faculty as guiding

it in its teaching process includes the following:

A positive environment for learning is one in which

there is freedom to explore and express new ideas and
build systems for utilization of basic concepts and
principles (Self Evaluation Report, 1976:59)

The philosophy of the School of Nursing also reflects the focus

on development of critical thinking ability in its graduates.

A strong scientific foundation provides the basis for ...

abilities which include the application of descriptive, explan-
atory and predictive principles of the making of wise and
independent judgments for the improvement of nursing services
and adaptation to changing situations. Based on these judgments,
the nurse makes decisions for action and accepts responsibility
for the outcomes of these actions (Bulletin, 1978:211)

Based upon these statements, the researcher accepted that this

program did include a focus on the development of critical thinking

ability in its graduating students.

Three independent groups composed the samples. Beginning fresh-

men and graduating seniors composed Groups S-1 and S-4 respectively.

The nursing faculty composed Group F-1. The freshman group numbered

67 and the senior group numbered 73. However, criteria set up to

control for similarities of sample groups produced group sizes of 35

for Group S-1 and 32 for Group S-4. Sixteen faculty composed Group F-1.
 39

The criteria for inclusion in Group S-1 were:

1. The student was enrolled in regular college studies for the

first time.

2. The student was enrolled in the first half of his first

quarter of the nursing curriculum.

3. The student was American born.

4. The student was a basic nursing student, not a registered

nurse completing a baccalaureate degree.

The criteria for inclusion in Group S-4 were:

1. The student was a basic nursing student, not a registered

nurse completing a baccalaureate degree.

2. The student was enrolled in the last half of the last quarter

of his nursing curriculum.

3. The student was American born.

4. The student completed the entire nursing curriculum of the

school, i.e., he was not a transfer student from another nursing program.

5. The nursing program was the major in the student's first

college degree.

Nursing faculty teaching full time in the nursing program were

included in Group F-1.

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

Two types of data collection instruments were used. A standard-

ized general test on critical thinking ability, the Watson-Glaser Critical

Thinking Appraisal (Appendix A) hereafter referred to as the Appraisal, was

used to obtain raw scores on the student's critical thinking ability.

A researcher-made questionnaire was used to gain demographic data about

 40

the students. (Appendix B)

The Appraisal was chosen because one of its purposes is to

measure the extent to which examinees have mastered certain critical

thinking skills. It can, therefore, provide a partial estimate of the

extent to which this instructional objective has been met. The instru-

ment is consistent with the purposes of this study. Helmstadter indicates

that this instrument provides an "excellent criterion measure for those

who claim their instruction results in the 'ability to think' rather

than simply the acquisition of subject matter"(Helmstadter, 1965:255).

He further states that this "critical thinking appraisal seems to be an

instrument well worth attempting to use in a wide variety of educational

assessment, selection and research situations" (p. 256). Review of

literature showed the Appraisal as a commonly used critical thinking

ability measurement.

The Appraisal is a test of general critical thinking ability.

It is a paper and pencil test, composed of 100 multiple choice items.

It consists of five subtests which measure 1) inference - 20 items, 2)

recognition of assumptions - 16 items, 3) deduction - 25 items, 4) inter-

pretation - 24 items, and 5) evaluation of arguments - 15 items. The

items include problems, statements, arguments and interpretation of data

similar to those one encounters in daily life in a democratic society.

The format of the Appraisal differs somewhat for each of the

five subtests. For subtest one, the respondent is asked to react to

the degree of truth or falsity of inferences following a statement of

fact. The degrees are: true, insufficient data, probably false and

false. In subtest two, the respondent is asked to react to proposed

assumptions following a given statement by deciding if the assumption

 41

was made or if the assumption was not made. In subtest three, the

respondent must decide, after reading two premises, whether the stated

conclusions follow or do not follow. Subtest four requires the respon-

dent to read a short paragraph and decide whether the conclusions follow

or do not follow. In subtest five, the respondent is asked to evaluate

arguments following questions as to their strength.

A separate answer sheet was used for responses. The answer

sheets may be computer scored or hand scored by use of the key provided.

The answer sheets in this study were hand scored. A total raw score was

obtained by adding the number of correct responses. The higher the raw

score, the higher the critical thinking ability. Subscores can be

recorded for each testa However, Watson and Glaser (1964) indicate that

the subtests contain relatively few items and lack sufficient reliability

to be valuable as a statistic (p. 9).

The Appraisal has been standardized and normed on grades 9, 10,

11 and 12, grades 9 - 12, liberal arts freshmen and college seniors. Norm

tables are provided for each of these. Reliability coefficients are

available for each category. The odd-even split-half reliability

coefficient corrected by the Spearman Brown formula was .85 for both

liberal arts freshmen and college seniors, .86 for grades 9 - 12 and .87

for grade 12 alone. This study was most concerned with construct

validity and a substantial relationship between the various subtests

and the total test was seen by a correlation of .56 - .79.

The product-moment correlations of the Appraisal with several

other widely recognized tests are as follows:

 42

Test Correlation Population

Otis Mental Ability Tests: Senior women, ten liberal

Gamma .66
arts colleges

Otis Mental Ability Tests: High school students,

Gamma .75
grades 9 - 12

College Entrance Exam Board Freshmen, Western liberal

Verbal .54
arts college

Nelson-Denny Reading Test, Form A Senior women in ten

Total .60
liberal arts colleges

The usual time for administering the Appraisal is 50 minutes.

However, it is a test of power rather than speed and, therefore, no rigid

time limits were applied.

PROCEDURE

Voluntary participation in this research was sought from the

students and faculty of the selected nursing program. Upon gaining this,

the researcher met with groups S-1, S-4 and F-1 to explain the nature

of the research and to administer the Appraisal and questionnaires to

students meeting the criteria. Graduating seniors, group S-4, were

tested in the spring of 1978. Beginning freshmen, group S-1, and faculty,

Group F-1, were tested in the fall of 1978.

The Appraisal answer sheets were hand scored by the researcher

and data from the questionnaire was summarized.

ANALYSIS

The three sample groups were kept as separate groups and an

arithmetical mean was determined for each one.

The group means for Group S-1 and S-4 were subjected to a t-test

for independent samples to determine if there was any statistically

 43

significant change in critical thinking ability as a result of exposure

to a dialectical nursing curriculum. Group means for Groups S-1 and F-1

and Groups S-4 and F-1 were respectively subjected to a t-test for

independent samples to determine the statistical significance of the

relationship. A .05 level was previously chosen as the determination

of significance for all groups.

Information from the researcher-made questionnaires was

summarized to show demographic characteristics of Groups S-1 and S-4.

 44

Chapter 4

RESULTS

The samples consisted of 67 baccalaureate nursing students

enrolled in a selected dialectical type of nursing curriculum and 16

nursing faculty teaching in the same program. Group S-1, beginning

freshmen, was composed of 35 students while Group S-4, graduating seniors,

was composed of 32 students. Both groups represented the entirity of

their classes fitting the criteria. Group S-1 was composed of 31 women

(89%) and four men (11%). Group S-4 and 25 women (78%) and seven men

(22%). Group F-1 was composed of 15 women (93.7%) and 1 man (6.3%) for

a total sample size of 16. (Table 1)

Examination of the demographic data revealed the average age of

Group S-1 to be 18.4 years and that of Group S-4 to be 24.9 years. Two

older students in Group S-4 brought the average higher than the expected

22 years. No ages were determined for Group F-1. (Table 1)

Table 1

Size, Sex and Mean Age of Sample Groups

Group S-1 Group S-4 Group F-1

Number in 16
35 32
Sample

Percent Women 93.7%

89% 78%
in Sample

Percent Men 6.3%

11% 22%
in Sample

not
Average Age 18.4 24.9
determined
 45

The following percentages were found for each group for the

father's occupation:

Group S-1 Group S-4

Professional 58% 25%

Manager or owner of business 18% 28%

Farmer (owner or manager of at

least 100 acres) 3% 13%

Clerical, sales, technician 3% 3%

Skilled craftsman, foreman 15% 19%

Operative semi-skilled 0 6%

Service worker 3% 0

Unskilled 0 0

Farm laborer (or owner of less

than 100 acres) 0 6%

Housekeeper 0 0

The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal raw scores for

Group S-1 ranged from 50 - 89, with a mean score of 67.8 and a standard

deviation of 10.3. The Appraisal raw scores for Group S-4 ranged from

57 - 93, with a mean of 73.2 and a standard deviation of 9.5. Group

F-1 raw scores ranged from 65 - 91 with a mean of 78.3 and a standard

deviation of 6.97. (Table 2)

 46

Table 2

Sample Groups Range of Appraisal Raw Scores,

Mean Critical Thinking Ability Raw Scores
and Standard Deviations

Group S-1 Group S-4 Group F-1

Range Critical
Thinking Ability 50-89 57-93 65-91
Raw Scores

Mean Critical
Thinking Ability 67.8 73.2 78
Raw Scores

Standard Deviation 10.29 9.53 6.97

A t-test for independent samples was applied to see if there was

any significant difference between the means of Groups S-1 and S-4. The

t-test score was .51 and was not statistically significant. Similarly,

a t-test was applied to the means of Group S-1 and F-1 and Groups S-4

and F-1. The t-test score for Groups S-1 and F-1 was .83 and was not

statistically significant at the .05 level. The t-test score for

Groups S-4 and F-1 was .43 and was not statistically significant at the

0.5 level. (Table 3)

Table 3

T-test Scores for Sample Groups

Group S-1 Group S-4

Group S-1

Group S-4 .51 N.S.

Group F-1 .83 N.S. .43 N.S.

The Appraisal raw scores for the four men in Group S-1 ranged

from 62 - 83 with a mean of 71.2 and a standard deviation of 8.3. The

raw scores for the 31 women in this group ranged from 50 89 with a
 47

mean of 67.3 and a standard deviation of 10.5. (Table 4) The t-test

comparing the means of the men and women gave a score of .86 and, there-

fore, showed no statistically significant difference in the critical

thinking ability between the men and women of Group S-1, (Table 5)

The seven men in Group S-4 had Appraisal raw scores of 69 - 91

with a mean of 77.4 and a standard deviation of 4.7. The raw scores for

the 25 women in this group ranged from 57-93 with a mean of 72 and a

standard deviation of 9.35. (Table 4) The t-test applied to the means

of these groups gave a score of 2.1 and was therefore, significant at

the .05 level. The men had a significantly higher critical thinking

ability than the women in Group S-4 as measured by the Appraisal.

(Table 5)

Table 4

Mean Critical Thinking Ability Raw Scores, Range

of Critical Thinking Ability Raw Scores and
Standard Deviations for
Males and Females

Group S-1 Group S-4

Male Female Male Female

Range of Critical
Thinking Ability 62 - 83 50 - 89 69 - 91 57 - 93
Raw Scores

Mean Critical
Thinking Ability 71.2 67.3 77.4 72
Raw Scores

Standard Deviation 8.3 10.5 4.7 9.35

 48

Table 5

T-test Scores for Male and Female Comparison

Group S-1 Male Group S-4 Male

Group S-1
.86 N.S.
Female

Group S-4
Female 2.1 significant
at <.05

Chi square correlations were done on each of Groups S-1 and

S-4 for critical thinking ability and age and critical thinking ability

and the occupation of the student's father. The correlation for Group

S-1 for critical thinking ability and age was -.14 and .12 for critical

thinking ability and the father's occupation. (Table 6) These corre-

lations are low, reflecting a weak relationship between the two variables.

The correlation of critical thinking ability and age shows negative.

This is a different finding than the literature which suggested that

critical thinking ability increases with age until the mid-thirties.

However, because the correlation is weak and the sample size small, one

can draw no definite conclusions from this data.

The correlations for Group S-4 are .29 for critical thinking

ability and age and .04 for critical thinking ability and the father's

occupation. (Table 6) Again, the correlations are low, reflecting a

weak relationship between the variables.

Table 6

Chi Square Correlations Between Student's Age, Father's

Occupation and Student's Critical Thinking Ability

Group S-1 Group S-4

Critical Thinking Critical Thinking
Age -.14 .29

Father's
.12 .04
Occupation
 49

Since Group S-1 was composed of fresnmen within the first quarter

of college, the total mean critical thinking ability score was compared

with the normed scores for ending Grade 12 provided for the Appraisal.

Group S-1 had a total mean score of 67.8 which reflects as a percentile

ranking of 60 when compared with Grade 12. In breakdown by sex, the

men have a percentile ranking of 72, while the women have a percentile

of 58. (Table 7)

Group S-4 was composed of graduating seniors and the mean

critical thinking score was compared against norms for college senior

women, the only college norms provided for the Appraisal. Since these

norms reflect senior women, comparison of the men may have questionable

value. The total mean score for Group S-4 was 73.2 and reflects a

percentile ranking of 42. The men with a mean of 77.4 have a percentile

ranking of 60 while the women with a mean of 72 have a percentile of 40.

(Table 7)

Table 7

Group Percentile Ranking Based on Appraisal Norms

Group S-1 Group S-4

Percentile Percentile
Ranking Ranking

Compared Total Group 60 Total Group 42 Compared

With Grade Males 72 Males 60 With Senior
12 Norms Females 58 Females 40 College
Women

Group S-1 men and women both scored above the normed mean score

for Grade 12. However, in Group S-4, the women fell below the normed

mean score for college senior women, while the men remained above the

normed mean.
 50

No normed values were available for college faculty or for

graduate nurses, so it was not possible to compare the scores of Group

F-1 with any norms.

HYPOTHESES

The hypothesis which stated that there is no statistically

significant difference in the critical thinking ability of beginning

freshmen and graduating seniors was accepted. No significant difference

was found.

Hypothesis number two which stated that there is no statistically

significant difference in the critical thinking ability of beginning

freshmen males and females was accepted.

Hypothesis number three was rejected. Graduating senior males

scored significantly higher (<.05) than females.

Hypotheseses numbers four and five which stated that there is

no high positive correlation between the student's critical thinking

ability and age or father's occupation were accepted. All correlations

were low.

Hypotheses number six and seven which stated that there is no

statistically significant difference between the critical thinking

ability of beginning freshmen and nursing faculty and graduating seniors

and nursing faculty was accepted. No significant difference was found.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The main limitation of this design was its failure to control

for history. It cannot be absolutely guaranteed that the seniors

experienced the same nursing curriculum that the freshmen students will
 51

experience. Another limitation of the design was that it does not

control for the maturation effect of the students. A non-college

control could have aided in evaluation of the maturation effect.

The sample sizes were small and firm conclusions are impossible.

The samples consisted of the total numbers of students meeting the

criteria for inclusion in the study. No randomization was done.

Randomization would have guaranteed equalization of attributes present

in the sample groups. Samples were independent and exact similarity

cannot be guaranteed. A longitudinal study would have helped to control

for this.
 52

Chapter 5

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

This research evaluated the effect of a dialectical nursing

curriculum upon the critical thinking ability of baccalaureate nursing

students. Age and sex of the student, as well as the occupation of the

student's father, were correlated with the student's critical thinking

ability. The relationship of the nursing faculty's critical thinking

ability to that of the students was examined.

Beginning freshmen, graduating seniors and the nursing faculty

of a selected dialectical baccalaureate program in nursing were admin-

istered the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. Students also

filled in a researcher-made questionnaire with information on his sex,

age and father's occupation. T-tests for independent samples were

applied to group means to determine statistical significance between

1) beginning freshmen and graduating seniors, 2) beginning freshmen and

nursing faculty and 3) graduating seniors and nursing faculty. Chi

square correlations were done to determine relationships between the

student's critical thinking ability and 1) age, 2) sex and 3) father's

occupation.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study do not indicate that exposure to this

dialectical type of baccalaureate nursing curriculum significantly

 53

increased the students' critical thinking ability between the freshmen

and the senior years. A change in the mean score from 68.8 to 73.2 did

indicate an upward trend in critical thinking ability, but the change

was not sufficiently large to be statistically significant at the .05

level. Previous studies of other types of nursing curricula did not

show significant increases in critical thinking ability either as a result

of exposure to a nursing curriculum. This raises serious question as

to the viability of the almost-universal goal that nursing programs

have of developing problem solving/critical thinking ability in their

students. Educational goals come into existence based upon lofty

aspirations of faculties but often are not realistically evaluated for

achievement. Development of critical thinking seems a logical objective

for nursing programs. However, nursing educators need to take a serious

look at this objective. It appears that the objective is not being met.

Why it is not being met needs to be evaluated and change made or the

objective needs to be abandoned.

The basic question of whether critical thinking ability is

needed for the professional nurse can be raised. Decision theory today

can lead one to believe that people do not go through a true assess-

ment process when confronting a problem, putting all the variables

together for a logical solution. Rather, they may learn a certain

repertoire of solutions and try them with each problem, starting with

the simplest solution available to them. If this does not work, then

the problem can be redefined so the solution does work or the person

may try a somewhat more complex solution. So rather than an open

minded assessment process, it becomes, one of fitting - to find the

solution within one's repertoire which ultimately fits the problem. This
 54

makes problem solving more narrow, but may be in reality what a person

does. If so, this raises the question for nursing education about

teaching of decisioning processes, which few programs do. Research

needs to be done to ascertain how graduate nurses actually go about

making decisions on the job. Empirical data needs to be gathered

about their thought processes and behaviors in problem solving. Then

nursing educators could relate more realistically to development of

this ability - if that is what is needed. If the actual decisioning

process is not effective, then ways need to be devised by which it can

be effective and education then needs to relate to that.

The results showed no statistically significant difference

between critical thinking ability of males and females as beginning

freshmen but a statistically significant difference between them as

seniors. Males were significantly higher in critical thinking ability

statistically (.(.05) as seniors than females. This could reflect a par-

ticular group of male students. Specific academic characteristics were

not analyzed to see if, for example, the senior males were better students

academically than the freshmen males. Neither were cultural factors ana-

lyzed. Societal roles for the male reinforce the role of decision maker.

A number of factors could have affected this particular finding and the

small number of male students in the sample prohibit any conclusions to

be drawn. However, this particular aspect may warrant further investiga-

tion since Burgher (1978) also found a statistically significant differ-

ence in the critical thinking ability of graduating males over females.

She did not find this on a beginning level.

 55

The finding of a negative correlation for age and critical

thinking ability of Group S-1 is perplexing. Literature supports the

progressive development of critical thinking ability from around the

age of 12 to the mid-thirties. One would, therefore, expect to find

a positive correlation between age and critical thinking ability in this

study. The range of ages in Group S-1 was small (17-20) and may have

had some effect. The correlation for age and critical thinking ability

for Group S-4 was small, but positive. These findings bring into

question how much effect maturation really has. It is possible that the

college experience is somehow retarding the development of potential

critical thinking ability. A non-college control group would have

helped to identify whether maturation does, in other situations, increase

critical thinking ability.

The low correlation between critical thinking ability and the

father's occupation is again contrary to most literature available.

A high percentage of Group S-1 had fathers who were professionals, many

of them physicians. No conclusions can be drawn from these findings due

to small sample size, but the discrepancy with previous research is

worthy of further study.

The whole issue of what this particular nursing program is

doing to the critical thinking ability of its students was enhanced by

the comparison with normed scores. Group S-1 started its college

career scoring above the normed Grade 12 scores for the Appraisal.

However, the women of Group S-4, after having completed four years of

the nursing curriculum scored below the normed mean, while the men

maintained above the normed mean. In percentile terms and in comparison

with test norms, the females lost in comparative critical thinking

 56

ability between the freshman and senior years. This finding is in

harmony with Richards (1977) who found an actual decrease in critical

thinking ability scores as a result of exposure to a problematic nursing

curriculum. It can be speculated that the curriculum promotes too much

consistency and, therefore, the student narrows her problem solving

spectrum. If so, then why not the same effect upon the male students?

These are unanswered questions worthy of further study.

It would have been of interest to have data on the total grade

point average of both Groups S-1 and S-4. Literature reflected a high

positive correlation between verbal ability and critical thinking ability.

Assuming a student with high verbal ability would also have a higher

grade point average, it would have been of interest to analyze the

relationship of grade point average and critical thinking ability.

The nursing faculty's critical thinking ability mean score was

higher than both Groups S-1 and S-4, but not high enough to reflect a

statistical significance. The trend of the scores was in the direction

one would expect if faculty do influence the critical thinking ability

of the students. That is, Group S-4's critical thinking ability score

was higher than Group S-1 and, therefore, was closer to the score of

the faculty. The expectation would be that seniors would more closely

approach the critical thinking ability score of the faculty.

The findings of this research, along with the studies by

Burgher (1978) and Richards (1977), should cause nursing educators

serious concern. No nursing curriculum evaluated to date significantly

increased the critical thinking ability of its students. Therefore,

nursing education is not meeting its goal of developing critical thinking

ability in its students. Is the development of critical thinking ability

 57

students a viable and necessary goal for nursing education? The answer

to this question would need to be based upon empirical data showing

whether or not graduate nurses must have critical thinking ability to

be identified as successful. If it is identified as necessary, then

nursing education should maintain its goal of developing critical thinking

ability and forcefully seek ways to do it. If critical thinking ability

is not identified as necessary for the successful graduate nurse, then

nursing education needs to abandon the development of critical thinking

ability in its students as a main goal.

There needs to be integrity between the goals of nursing educa-

tion for its students and actual outcomes. In the area of development

of critical thinking ability, this is not present.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTHER STUDY

The findings of this research would be enhanced by the following

recommendations for further study:

1. A larger sample needs to be evaluated. Replication of this

study in a school with a dialectical nursing curriculum with a larger

enrollment could provide this.

2. This study needs to be replicated, using a non-college

control group to evaluate the maturation effect and determine effects

of college upon critical thinking ability.

3. It is recommended that a similar study be done evaluating

freshman nursing students in a dialectical type of curriculum with

re-testing done each year to determine where the major changes in criti-

cal thinking ability occur. This would also provide a needed longitud-

inal study of the same student throughtout his nursing curriculum.

 58

4. A study is needed in which there is a deliberate intro-

duction of content in critical thinking to an experimental group of

nursing students. A control group would have no exposure to such content

and an evaluation of change in critical thinking ability of both groups

should be done.

5. A similar study needs to be done using an operational type

of nursing curriculum so that all current types have been evaluated for

their effects upon the students' critical thinking ability.

6. There needs to be an empirical determination of whether

critical thinking ability is essential to the functioning of the pro-

fessional nurse, along with a determination of the decisioning

processes nurses use on the job.

 59

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APPENDIX
 APPENDIX A

ATSON- GLASER Critical

Thinking
Appraisal
FORM YM

BY GOODWIN WATSON
Professor Emeritus of Social Psychology and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University

AND EDWARD M. GLASER

Edward Glaser & Associates, Consulting Psychologists, Los Angeles

DIRECTIONS: This booklet contains five types of tests designed to

find out how well you are able to reason analytically and logically.
Do not turn this page until instructed to do so.
Do not make any marks on this test booklet.
All answers are to be marked on the separate Answer Sheet provided.
If you wish to change an answer, be sure to erase your old answer completely.

Copyright © 1961, 1952, 1951; Published 1964 by Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., New York.
All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
 TEST 1: Inference
DIRECTIONS
EXAMPLE
An inference is a conclusion which a person draws from
Two hundred eighth-grade students vol-
certain observed or supposed facts. Thus, from the electric untarily attended a recent week-end stu-
light visible behind the window shades and from the sound dent forum conference in a Midwestern
of piano music in a house, a person might infer that someone city. At this conference, the topics of race
is at home. But this inference may or may not be correct. relations and means of achieving lasting
Possibly the people in the house went out leaving the lights world peace were discussed, since these
were the problems the students selected
on, and the piano music could be coming from a radio or as being most vital in today's world.
phonograph they left playing. TEST 1
1. As a group, the students who at- Inference
In this test, each exercise begins with a statement of facts tended this conference showed a
which you are to regard as true. After each statement of keener interest in humanitarian or T PT ID PF F

facts you will find several possible inferences that is, broad social problems than have most
conclusions which some persons might make from the eighth-grade students 1H
stated facts. Examine each inference separately, and make 2. The majority of these students were
2
between the ages of 17 and 18
a decision as to its degree of truth or falsity.
3. The students came from all sections
For each inference you will find spaces on the Answer of the country 3
Sheet labeled T, PT, ID, PF, and F. For each inference
4. The students discussed only labor
make a mark on the Answer Sheet under the appropriate relations problems 4
label as follows:
5. Some eighth-grade students felt that
discussion of race relations and
means of achieving world peace
might be worthwhile
T if you think the inference is definitely TRUE; that it
properly follows beyond a reasonable doubt from the
statement of facts given.

PT if, in the light of the facts given, you think the inference In the above example, inference is probably true (PT)
I

is PROBABLY TRUE; that there is better than an because (as is common knowledge) most eighth-grade stu-
even chance that it is true. dents are not likely to show so much serious concern with
broad social problems. It cannot be considered definitely
true from the facts given because these facts provide no
ID if you decide that there are INSUFFICIENT DATA, certain knowledge about the kind and degree of concern
that you cannot tell from the facts given whether the with world problems which other eighth-grade students
inference is likely to be true or false; if the facts provide might express. It is also possible that some of these students
no basis for judging one way or the other. volunteered mainly because they wanted a week-end outing.
Inference 2 is probably false (PF) because (common
knowledge) there are relatively few eighth-grade students in
PF if in the light of the facts given, you think the inference the United States between 17 and 18 years of age.
is PROBABLY FALSE; that there is better than an There is no evidence for inference 3. Thus there are in-
even chance that it is false. sufficient data (ID) for making a judgment on the matter.
Inference 4 is definitely false (F) because it is given in the
F if you think the inference is definitely FALSE; that it statement of facts that the topics of race relations and
is wrong, either because it misinterprets the facts given, means of achieving world peace were the problems chosen
or because it contradicts the facts or necessary infer- for discussion.
ences from those facts. Inference 5 necessarily follows from the given facts; it
therefore is true (T).
In the exercises which follow, more than one of the in-
ferences from a given statement of facts may be true (T), or
Sometimes, in deciding whether an inference is probably false (F), or probably true (PT), or probably false (PF), or
true or probably false, you will have to use certain com- have insufficient data (ID) to warrant any conclusion. That
monly accepted knowledge or information which practically is, you are to consider each inference by itself.
every person has. This will be illustrated in the example Make a heavy black mark in the space under the label
which follows. that you think best describes each inference. If you change
Look at the example in the next column; the correct an answer, erase thoroughly. Make no extra marks on the
answers are indicated in the block at the right. Answer Sheet.

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2
 Test 1: Inference
Go ahead with the exercises below. Some time ago a crowd gathered in Middletown, Mississippi,
to hear the new president of the local Chamber of Commerce
An English teacher arranged for the students in one of her speak. He said, "I am not asking, but demanding, that
regular classes to see the movie Great Expectations, while labor unions now accept their full share of responsibility
the students in all her other English classes studied the book for civic betterment and community welfare. I am not
itself, without seeing the picture. She wanted to know asking, but demanding, that they join the Chamber of
whether movies could be used as effective aids in teaching Commerce." The members of the Central Labor Unions
literature. Tests to check on appreciation and understanding who were present applauded enthusiastically. Three months
of the story were given immediately after each type of in- later all the labor unions in Middletown were represented
struction. On all tests the class which saw the movie did in the Chamber of Commerce. These representatives
better. This class became so interested in the Great Ex- worked with representatives of other groups on committees,
pectations story that before the semester was over most of spoke their minds, participated actively in the civic better-
the students in the class chose to read the book, entirely on ment projects, and helped the Chamber reach the goals set
their own initiative. The teacher felt gratified over her ex- in connection with those projects.
periment. 11. Both the labor union representatives and the other
1. The tests to measure appreciation and understanding of members of the committees came to recognize one
the story were administered both to the students who another's viewpoints better through their Chamber of
saw the picture and to those who only studied the book. Commerce contacts
2. The students who were taught with the aid of the motion 12. Labor unions' participation in the Middletown Chamber
picture were required to read the book at the beginning of Commerce greatly reduced worker-management dis-
of the semester putes in that town
3. No other English teacher who might try a similar ex- 13. The active participation of the labor unions caused many
periment with her students would get similar results bitter and unresolved controversies at the committee
4. The teacher who conducted the study will (if she con- meetings of the Chamber of Commerce
tinues to teach literary appreciation) hereafter use 14. Most of the union representatives regretted having ac-
suitable motion pictures as a teaching aid when she is cepted the invitation to participate in the Chamber of
free to do so Commerce
5. Upon completion of the two forms of instruction, there 15. Some of the Chamber of Commerce members came to
was no evidence that the class which had seen the movie feel that their president had been unwise in asking the
understood or appreciated Great Expectations more than union representatives to join the Chamber
the classes which read the book without first seeing the 16. The new president indicated in his speech that the town's
picture labor unions were not already accepting their full respon-
6. Students can learn more about most subjects from sibility for civic betterment
motion pictures than they can from books

Studies have shown that there is relatively much more tu-

berculosis among Negroes in the United States than among
whites. There is little if any difference, however, in rate of
tuberculosis between Negroes and whites who have the same The first newspaper in America, edited by Ben Harris, ap-
level of income. The average income of whites in the United peared in Boston on September 25, 1690, and was banned
States is considerably higher than the average income of the same day by Governor Simon Bradstreet. The editor's
Negroes. subsequent long fight to continue his little paper and print
what he wished marks an important episode in the con-
7. The easiest way to eliminate tuberculosis in the United tinuing struggle to maintain a free press.
States would be to raise the general standard of living .
.

8. Persons in high income brackets are in a better position 17. The editor of the first American newspaper died within
to avoid getting tuberculosis than persons in low income a few days after his paper was banned on September 25,
1690
brackets
18. A copy of the first issue of Ben Harris' newspaper was
9. There is a lower rate of tuberculosis among Negroes promptly brought to Governor Bradstreet's attention . .
with relatively high incomes than among Negroes with
much lower incomes 19. The editor of this paper wrote articles criticizing Gov-
10. Whether Negroes have high incomes or low incomes ernor Bradstreet
makes no difference in the likelihood of their having 20. Ben Harris was a man of persistence in holding to some
tuberculosis of his interests or aims

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3
 TEST 2: Recognition of Assumptions
DIRECTIONS Statement: "Let us immediately build superior armed force
An assumption is something presupposed or taken for and thus keep peace and prosperity."
granted. When someone states, "I'll graduate in June," he Proposed assumptions:
takes for granted or assumes that he will be alive in June, 23. The building of superior armed force guarantees the
that the school will judge him to be eligible for graduation maintenance of peace and prosperity
in June, and similar things.
24. Unless we increase our armaments we shall have war
Below are a number of statements. Each statement is immediately
followed by several proposed assumptions. You are to
decide for each assumption whether a person, in making 25. We now have peace and prosperity
the given statement, is really making that assumption i.e.,
taking it for granted, justifiably or not.
If you think the given assumption is taken for granted in Statement: "A wife who is able to save something out of
the statement, make a heavy mark between the dotted lines the amount budgeted for household expenses should be
under "ASSUMPTION MADE" in the proper place on the permitted to keep this to spend for her personal needs."
Answer Sheet. If you think the assumption is not necessar- Proposed assumptions:
ily taken for granted in the statement, make a heavy line
26. Some wives have responsibility for managing the money
under "ASSUMPTION NOT MADE" on the Answer Sheet. budgeted for household expenses
Below is an example. The block at the right shows how
these items should be marked on the Answer Sheet. If you
27. The budget provides no other way in which the wife
can get money for her personal needs
do not see why the answers marked are right, ask the ex-
aminer to explain.
In some cases more than one of the given assumptions is
necessarily made; in other cases none of the given assump- Statement: "The discovery of additional ways of using
tions is made. atomic energy will, in the long run, prove a blessing to
mankind."
Proposed assumptions:
EXAMPLE
28. Atomic energy can have numerous uses
Statement: "We need to save time in
getting there, so we'd better go by 29. The discovery of additional uses for atomic energy will
plane." require large long-term investments of money
Proposed assumptions: 30. The present uses of atomic energy are a curse to man-
1. Going by plane will take less time kind
than going by some other means of
transportation. (It is assumed in the TEST 2
statement that the greater speed of a Assumption
plane over the speeds of other means
of transportation will enable the Made Not
made Statement: "Zenith is the city to live in lowest taxes."
group to reach its destination in less
time.) 1 Proposed assumptions:
2. There is plane service available to us 31. Efficient management of a city implies lower taxes
for at least part of the distance to the
destination. (This is necessarily as- 32. An important consideration in deciding where to live is
sumed in the statement, since, in avoidance of high taxes
order to save time by plane, it must
be possible to go by plane.) 2 I 33. The majority of the residents in Zenith are content with
3. Travel by plane is more convenient their present city government
than travel by train. (This assump-
tion is not made in the statement
the statement has to do with saving
time, and says nothing about con-
venience or about any other specific Statement: "Since more and more students plan to go to
mode of travel.) 3 I college, many new college buildings must be constructed."
Proposed assumptions:
Go ahead with the exercises below-
34. The number of college buildings to be constructed
Statement: "A wise man will save at least twelve dollars needs to be related to the plans of high school students
each week out of his earnings." regarding further education
Proposed assumptions: 35. Existing college buildings are already crowded to
21. No fools have sense enough to save twelve dollars a week. capacity
22. A person needs to be wise in order to save twelve dollars 36. Attendance of students in college requires that buildings
a week be available for them

4 Go on to the next page 110.

 TEST 3: Deduction
DIRECTIONS Some who favor higher budgets for schools are opposed to
In this test, each exercise consists of two statements (premises) compulsory high school attendance for all. Only genuine
followed by several suggested conclusions. For the pur- friends of education are in favor of higher budgets for
poses of this test, consider the two statements in each exer- schools. Therefore
cise as true without exception. Read the first conclusion 43. Sonic genuine friends of education are not in favor of
beneath the statements. If you think it necessarily fol- compulsory high school attendance for all
lows from the statements given, make a heavy black mark 44. Some persons who favor compulsory high school at-
between the pair of dotted lines under "CONCLUSION tendance are not genuine friends of education
FOLLOWS" in the corresponding blank on the Answer 45. A person can't oppose compulsory high school attend-
Sheet. If you think it is not a necessary conclusion from ance for all and be a genuine friend of education
the given statements, put a heavy black mark under "CON-
CLUSION DOES NOT FOLLOW," even though you may Some fanatics are sincere idealists. All fanatics are bores.
believe it to be true from your general knowledge. Therefore
Likewise, read and judge each of the other conclusions.
46. Some sincere idealists are bores
Try not to let your prejudices influence your judgment
just stick to the given statements (premises) and judge each 47. Some bores are sincere idealists
conclusion as to whether it necessarily follows from them. 48. No bores are sincere idealists
The word "some" in any of these statements means an 49. If a person is a sincere idealist, he is likely to be a bore
indefinite part or quantity of a class of things. "Some"
means at least a portion, and perhaps all of the class. Thus, If a belief is not grounded on conviction, it is likely to give
"Some holidays are rainy" means at least one, possibly way before the slightest of arguments. Many of our beliefs
more than one, and perhaps even all holidays are rainy. are not based on conviction, but are carelessly adopted.
Study the example carefully before starting the test. Therefore
EXAMPLE
50. There is a likelihood that we can be easily argued out of
TEST 3 many of our beliefs
Some holidays are rainy. All rainy days
are boring. Therefore Conclusion 51. Many people have convictions which they hold on to
1. No clear days are boring. (The con- Does stubbornly
clusion does not follow. You can- Follows not 52. If a person's belief does change or give way to argument,
not tell from the statements whether follow
or not clear days are boring. Some it was not grounded on conviction in the first place
may be.)
2. Some holidays are boring. (The con- All good athletes are in fine physical condition. Some good
clusion necessarily follows from the athletes have poor scholastic records. Therefore-
statements, since, according to them,
the rainy holidays must be boring.). . 2 1 53. Some persons with poor scholastic records are in fine
3. Some holidays are not boring. (The physical condition
conclusion does not follow even
though you may know that some 54. If a person is in fine physical condition, he will have a
holidays are very pleasant.) 3 poor scholastic record
55. Some persons in fine physical condition have poor
Go ahead with the exercises below. scholastic records
All the serious polio cases in a certain city for a given year 56. Every student who has a good scholastic record and is a
occurred in children under ten years of age. No one who good athlete is in fine physical condition
had received polio vaccine developed a serious case of polio
that year. Therefore All great novels are works of art. All great novels capture
our imagination. Therefore
37. Some children under ten years of age had not received
polio vaccine 57. Whatever captures our imagination is a work of art
38. All those who had received vaccine were over ten years 58. Some works of art capture our imagination
of age 59. Our imagination can be captivated by many different
39. Some persons under ten years of age had received polio kinds of things
vaccine that year
No person with a substantial income can avoid paying in-
If a person is superstitious, he believes fortunetellers. Some come tax. Some people with a substantial income dislike
people do not believe fortunetellers. Therefore paying income tax. Therefore
40. If a person is not superstitious, he will not believe 60. Some people with a substantial income must do things
fortunetellers they dislike
41. Some people are not superstitious 61. All people who pay income tax have a substantial
42. If a person believes fortunetellers, he is superstitious income

5 Go on to the next page

 TEST 4: Interpretation
DIRECTIONS A Los Angeles newspaper made a survey of the number of
Each exercise below consists of a short paragraph followed male and female drivers involved in all automobile accidents
by several suggested conclusions. in the Los Angeles area during a given period of time. They
For the purpose of this test assume that everything in the found that male drivers were involved in 1210 accidents
short paragraph is true. The problem is to judge whether while female drivers were involved in only 920 accidents.
or not each of the proposed conclusions logically follows 65. If the period studied is typical, more automobile ac-
beyond a reasonable doubt from the information given in cidents in the Los Angeles area involve male drivers
the paragraph. than female drivers
If you think that the proposed conclusion follows beyond 66. More men than women drive cars in the Los Angeles
a reasonable doubt (even though it may not follow ab- area every day
solutely and necessarily), then make a heavy black mark 67. Teen-age boys are involved in automobile accidents more
between the appropriate dotted lines under the "CON- often than teen-age girls in the Los Angeles area
CLUSION FOLLOWS" column on the Answer Sheet. If
you think that the conclusion does not follow beyond a A sociologist surveyed, by means of a mail questionnaire,
reasonable doubt from the facts given, then make a mark the attitudes of persons who managed a certain group of
under "CONCLUSION DOES NOT FOLLOW." hotels and restaurants as to whether they would accept
In some cases more than one of the suggested conclusions Chinese as guests or customers. He then arranged for a
may follow; in other cases none of the conclusions may Chinese couple to visit these hotels and restaurants, and
follow. subsequently learned from the couple which establishments
Here is an example; the block at the right shows how had actually served them. He found that of the establish-
your answers should be marked on the Answer Sheet. ments which had served the Chinese couple, over 90 per
cent had previously stated they would not serve Chinese.
EXAMPLE
68. Expressed attitude toward a course of action is not
A study of vocabulary growth in chil- necessarily a reliable indicator of behavior
dren from eight months to six years 69. Surveys measuring expressed attitudes contribute nothing
shows that the size of spoken vocabu- to the understanding of what people will do in everyday
lary increases from zero words at age practice
eight months to 2562 words at age six
years. Therefore 70. The majority of the managers of hotels or restaurants
1. None of the children in this study TEST 4 which served this couple during their travels had said
had learned to talk by the age of six Conclusion they would refuse to accept Chinese as guests or cus-
months. (The conclusion follows
Does
tomers
beyond a reasonable doubt, since, Follows not
according to the statement, the size The history of the last 2000 years shows that wars have
of the spoken vocabulary at eight follow
months was zero words.) 1 I become steadily more frequent and more destructive, the
2. Vocabulary growth is slowest during twentieth century having the worst record thus far on both
the period when children are learning these counts.
to walk. (The conclusion does not
follow, as there is no information 71. Mankind has not advanced much in the ability to keep
given which relates growth of vocab- peace
ulary to walking.) 2 .11
72. Wars are bound to be more destructive as science pro-
vides more powerful weapons
Go ahead with the exercises below.
73. During the past 300 years, men have engaged in more
frequent and more destructive wars than they did in any
Of the 2,800,000 juniors and seniors in the nation's public previous 300-year period since the year 1
high schools during a certain year, only 830,000 were en-
rolled in science and 660,000 in mathematics courses. Usually I fall asleep promptly, but about twice a month
I drink coffee in the evening; and whenever I do, I lie awake
62. Some public high schools did not require science and
and toss for hours after I go to bed.
mathematics for all juniors and seniors during the given
year 74. My problem is mostly mental; I am overaware of the
63. One major reason for the fact that about half of that coffee when I drink it at night, anticipating that it will
year's high school juniors and seniors did not study keep me awake, and therefore it does
science and mathematics is that they took those courses 75. I don't fall asleep promptly after drinking coffee at night
during their freshman and sophomore years because the caffeine in coffee stimulates my nervous
64. Some juniors or seniors in the nation's public high system for several hours after drinking it
schools during the year in question were studying neither 76. Whatever causes me to lie awake and toss at night is as-
science nor mathematics sociated with my drinking coffee earlier in the evening

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6
 Test 4: Interpretation
Victims of radiation sickness (resulting, for example, from A national weekly magazine published some articles criti-
an atomic explosion) are likely to die of anemia because the cizing the action of the Catholic Church in matters of health
blood-building properties of the bone marrow are damaged. and censorship, and was promptly banned from the high
In everyday medical practice, X-ray dosages have to be school libraries by the school board of an Eastern city.
worked out with utmost care to keep the patients from falling
80. The majority of the people on that school board were
prey to radiation sickness. Experimenting on rabbits, Dr. afraid of the power of the Catholic Church
Leon Jacobson found that, when the spleen and appendix
were protected with lead, the animals survived what would 81. A majority of the people in that city must have been
Catholics
otherwise have been a fatal overdose of X rays. The un-
damaged spleen and appendix make enough blood to 82. The magazine should not have published those articles..
enable the damaged tissue to recover.
77. In rabbits, when the bone marrow fails in its blood- A report of the U.S. Census during a certain year states
building function as a result of radiation damage, certain that there were approximately 1,656,000 marriages and
organs, if undamaged, tend to compensate for this 264,000 divorces granted in the United States.
failure 83. If the above ratio still holds true, then about six times
78. Dr. Jacobson's experiments on rabbits should be tried as many people in the United States get married each
on a sufficiently large scale with people to see whether year as get divorced
the same results would hold true 84. Getting a divorce is a relatively easy matter in the United
79. In some species of animals, blood can be made by more States
than one organ 85. The divorce rate in the United States is much too high. .

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7
 TEST 5: Evaluation of Arguments
DIRECTIONS Should the United States government try to keep the public
In making decisions about important questions, it is desirable informed of the details of its scientific research programs
to be able to distinguish between arguments that are strong by publicizing ahead of time the results which are hoped
and arguments that are weak, as far as the question at issue for from experimental tests of new weapons, equipment,
is concerned. An argument to be strong must be both im- devices, etc.?
portant and directly related to the question. 89. No; some people become critical of the government
An argument is weak if it is not directly related to the when Widely publicized projects turn out unsuccessfully.
question, even though it may be of great general importance; 90. Yes; only a public so informed will give the necessary
or if it is of minor importance; or if it is related only to support for the research and development activities es-
trivial aspects of the question. sential to the nation's security
Below is a series of questions. Each question is followed 91. Yes; the projects are supported by taxes and the gen-
by several arguments. For the purpose of this test you are eral public would like to know how their money is to
to regard each argument as true. The problem then is to be spent
decide whether it is a STRONG or a WEAK argument.
Make a heavy mark on the Answer Sheet under
"STRONG" if you think the argument is strong, or under Can rich and poor people who happen to oppose each other
"WEAK" if you think the argument is weak. Judge each at law obtain approximately equal justice from the courts
argument separately on its own merit; try not to let your per- when the cases are decided by jury trial?
sonal attitude toward the question influence your evalua- 92. Yes; lawyers for both sides have the opportunity to
tion. question prospective jurors about possible biases
In the example, note that the argument is evaluated as to
how well it supports the side of the question indicated. 93. No; most juries are more sympathetic to poor people
in court battles when their opponents are known to be
rich, and the jurors' sympathies affect their findings .
EXAMPLE
Should all young men in the United
94. No; rich people win their lawsuits against poor people
States go to college? TEST 5 a little more often than poor people win against rich
1. Yes; college provides an opportunity Argument
people
for them to learn school songs and
cheers. (This would be a silly reason Strong Weak
for spending years in college.) 1 H U
2. No; a large per cent of young men Should the United States government take over all the main
do not have enough ability or interest industries in the country, employ all who want to work, and
to derive any benefit from college offer the products at cost price?
training. ( If this is true, as the direc-
tions require us to assume, it is a 95. No; so much concentration of economic and bureau-
weighty argument against all young cratic power in government would undermine our per-
men going to college.) 2 U
sonal and political freedom
3. No; excessive studying permanently
warps an individual's personality. 96. Yes; the government already operates post offices, high-
(This argument, although of great ways, parks, military forces, public health services, and
general importance when accepted some other public services
as true, is not directly related to the
question, because attendance at col- 97. No; the subsequent elimination of competition and the
lege does not necessarily require ex- profit motive would result in much less initiative for
cessive studying.) 3 I I
production of useful new goods and services

When the word "should" is used as the first word in any

of the following questions, its meaning is "Would the pro- Should groups in this country who are opposed to some of
posed action promote the general welfare of the people in our government's policies be permitted unrestricted freedom
the United States?" of press and speech?
Go ahead with the exercises below. 98. Yes; a democratic state thrives on free and unrestricted
discussion, including criticism
If otherwise qualified, should married women be eligible for
employment as public school teachers in the United States? 99. No; the countries opposed to our form of government
do not permit the free expression of our point of view
86. No; there are more single women in our country than in their territory
there are school-teaching jobs 100. No; if given full freedom of press and speech, opposi-
87. Yes; women tend to become better teachers after tion groups would cause serious internal strife and make
marriage our government basically unstable, eventually leading
88. No; a mother's first responsibility is to her own children. to loss of our democracy
Go back and check your work.
8
 APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE

Name

Parents' education:

Please indicate the highest grade completed in each category below.

Primary School High School College or University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6

Mother

Father

Highest degree obtained: Mother Father

Parents' occupation: Please check the appropriate column.

Mother Father
1. Professional

2. Manager or owner of business

3. Farmer (owner or manager of at least 100 acres

4. Clerical, sales, technician

5. Skilled craftsman, foreman

6. Operative semi-skilled

7. Service worker

8. Unskilled

9. Farm laborer (or owner of less than 100 acres)

10. Housekeeper