Distance Protection

Attia El-Fergany
Professor of EPS and Protection
Learning Objective

✓Principles of distance/impedance relays

✓Various characteristics of DP & their applications

✓Accelerating schemes

✓Challenges to DP
Accelerating
Schemes
Basic Distance Scheme
Basic Distance Scheme - Disadvantages
 Zone 1 set to 80% leaves 2 end zones

 Faults in end zone results in instantaneous tripping

at one end and time delayed at the other

 Time delay may lead to system stability problems

Longer clearance times - More damage

Carrier Communication Schemes

▪ The purpose of the signaling channel is to transmit the

information about the system conditions at one end of the
protected line to the other end and initiate or prevent
tripping of the remote circuit breaker.
✓Transfer trip scheme
✓Blocking scheme
Communication Channels
▪Power line carrier

▪Fibre optics

▪Microwave

▪Phasor measurement units (PMU) thru GPS

▪Private and Leased Pilot Channels

▪Dual communications channels are often provided.

Under-reaching scheme

▪The scheme in which the Zone-1 relay (set to

cover about 80% of ZL) is used to send a signal to
the remote end of the feeder for inter-tripping is
termed as transfer trip under-reaching scheme.
Over-reaching scheme

▪In this scheme, the relay set to reach

beyond 100% of the line, is used to send
an inter-tripping signal to the remote
end of the line. Zone 2
Communication-Based Protection Schemes
▪Direct Transfer Trip (DTT)/Direct Underreaching
Transfer Trip (DUTT)
▪Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
▪Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
▪Directional Comparison Blocking/ Unblocking
(DCB/DCUB)
 Directional Comparison Blocking/
Unblocking (DCB/DCUB)
✓DCB/DCUB are used when the communications
are likely to be lost during line fault conditions.

✓Power line carrier – signal communications is on

the same protected conductor.
Direct Transfer Trip Scheme (DTT)
DTT

Send Logic : Z1

Trip Logic : Rx

If the channel fails only the Basic scheme logic will be provided
DTT
✓When a fault is detected in Zone 1 from either line end, a
signal is sent via the communication channel to trip the
other end breaker instantaneously.

✓There is a potential for “false tripping”

(Maloperation) due to noise etc on the
communications circuit.
PUTT
Permissive Underreach Scheme

Send Logic : Z1

Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
PUTT

✓Underreaching Z1 elements send direct transfer trip

✓Noisy channel can cause false trip

✓Very secure channel required

POTT
Permissive Overreach Scheme

Send Logic : Z2

Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
POTT scheme works
✓Fault in Zone 2 AND permission-to-trip signal from
remote end relay.

✓The signal is keyed using a Frequency-Shift Keying

(FSK) transmitter/receiver

Absence of communication channel disables

the accelerated tripping
Distance Relay Application Problems
✓Minimum Voltage at Relay Terminals
✓Minimum Length of Line
✓Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed
✓Over-Reach – Mutual coupling
✓Loadabilty and Load encroachment
✓Fault resistance
✓Power Swings
✓Voltage Transformer Supervision
Fault in Front of Relay

▪No voltage to make impedance measurement

✓Use a potential memory circuit in distance relay
▪Distance relays that do not employ voltage
memory techniques require a minimum
voltage at the relay terminals under fault
conditions.
▪This voltage should be declared in the data
sheet for the relay.
Minimum Length of Line

▪it is necessary to check first that any minimum

voltage requirement of the relay for a fault at the
Zone 1 reach is within the declared sensitivity for the
relay.
▪Secondly, the ohmic impedance of the line (referred
if necessary to VT/CT secondary side quantities)
must fall within the ohmic setting range for Zone 1
reach of the relay
▪In such cases, an alternative method of protection
will be required → use pilot line differential.
Minimum Length of Line

▪The latest numerical distance relays have a

very wide range of impedance setting ranges
and good sensitivity with low levels of
relaying voltage, so such problems are now
rarely encountered.
Under-Reach - Effect of Remote Infeed

Impedance seen > apparent impedance

𝐙 𝐑 − 𝐙𝐅
𝐔𝐑% = X100%
𝐙𝐑
ZR = Intended Relay Reach Setting
ZF = Effective Reach
 Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between Relay
and Fault

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑍𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐵
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Relay with setting 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 will under reach with infeed.

Over-Reach

Impedance seen < apparent impedance

𝐙 𝐅 − 𝐙𝐑
𝑶𝑹% = X100%
𝐙𝐑
ZR = Intended Relay Reach Setting
ZF = Effective Reach
 Overreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between Relay
and Fault
𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵

𝐼𝐵

𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝐵
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑍𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝐵 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑛 = = 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 − 𝑍𝐵
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Relay with setting 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 will over reach with infeed.

 R-X Diagram and Power Flow Direction
+X 𝑃 2
𝑅= 2 2
𝑉
𝑃 +𝑄
P in P out 𝑄 2
Q out Q out 𝑋= 2 2
𝑉
𝑃 +𝑄
-X +R
P in P out
Q in Q in

-X
 R-X Diagram and Power Flow Direction
+X Low load

High load Apparent load impedance

φ
-X +R

Φ = 0 → ±30 deg
-X
Relay mho Characteristics
Relay mho Characteristics
Procedures of North American Reliability Council (NERC)

𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑍𝑟 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑀𝑇𝐴 − 𝜃

2
0.85𝑉
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 =
𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
1. Draw the zone 3 impedance vector in the R-X diagram.
2. Draw the load impedance vector at a specified power factor.
3. Draw a right triangle forming the 90 ° relay characteristic
between the load impedance vector and the difference vector
that is made up of Z3 – Zload.

For lens Characteristic, RCA=120 deg.

Maximum relay loadability and lens shape
𝑍3 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑,𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 180 − 𝛽 + 𝜑
Typical Solutions to Load Encroachment

✓lens shape.

✓Increase of the torque angle

✓This increases the load allowance of the zone, but may
reduce coverage for certain types of resistive faults.

✓“load blinder”. When the measured impedance is within

the load blinder region, the over-reaching distance
elements are blocked from tripping.
Load Blinder
Load Encroachment Considerations
(Recommended Practices)
✓1.5 times thermal rating of line or associated bay
equipment rating (minimum of all equipment)

✓Minimum voltage of 0.85 pu to be considered

✓Load encroachment angle can be considered as 30

deg (approx. 0.85 pf) .
Load Encroachment
𝟐
𝒌𝑽
𝒁𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 =
𝑴𝑽𝑨
▪Long lines present biggest challenge
▪Heavy load may enter relay characteristic – if available
▪Loading Criteria - RP
✓150 % of emergency line load rating
✓Use reduced voltage (85 %)
Calculate the Load Area setting – load encroachment

Maximum load current = 2200 A

Minimum operating voltage = 90%
Min Power factor cos = 0,85
ZLOAD (min) = Umin / 3 ILmax
ZLOAD (min) = 0,9 • 220 kV / 3 • 2200 A
= 52  (prim.)/ZTR

Max Load Angle = 1.2*cos-1 (cos ) RLOAD (min)

Max Load Angle = 1,2*cos-1 (0,85) Max Load Angle

= 38º
Van Warrington formula – Arc Resistance

▪ Due to the physical nature of an arc, there is a non-linear

relationship between arc voltage and arc current, which
results in a non-linear resistance.
28710
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = 1.4 𝐿 Ω
𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
L = arc length (metres)
I = arc current (A)
Other Empirical Formula – Arc resistance

440. 𝐿
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = Ω
𝐼
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
R a𝑟𝑐 = arc resistance (ohms)
L = length of arc (feet)
I = arc current (A)
Another Empirical Formula – Arc resistance

2
76 𝑉
𝑅𝑎𝑟𝑐 = Ω
𝑆𝑠𝑐

✓V is the system voltage in kV.

✓𝑆𝑠𝑐 is the short-circuit kVA at the fault location.

Arc Resistance
▪ The arc is only one of the elements that oppose to the fault current
return. In the case of ground faults, the arc resistance could be much
smaller than the added resistance belonging the rest of the
components. Some of the other factors influencing the equivalent
fault resistance are: type and nature of fault, tower and substation
earthing electrodes, ground resistivity (a seasonal changing value)
and type of shielding wires. In general, it is practically impossible to
determine a fixed value for the total fault resistance.
Effects of Fault Resistance

✓Reduces Fault Current Values

✓Reduces Voltage Sag in the Faulted Phase

✓Increases Measured Impedance Values

✓Limits Protection Sensitivity

Fault Resistance

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚𝑍𝐿 + 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉 𝐼𝐹
𝑍𝑅 = = 𝑚𝑍𝐿 + 𝑅𝐹
𝐼 𝐼
Power Swings
▪Power swings are variations in power flow that occur
when the internal voltages of generators at different
points of the power system slip relative to each other.

▪A power swing may cause the impedance presented

to a distance relay to move away from the normal
load area and into the relay characteristic
What are causes of power Swings?

▪Changes in load magnitude and direction, line

switching, loss of generation, faults, and other
system disturbances.

▪These swings can transverse the distance tripping

zones.
 Out of Step (OoS)
𝑉𝑅
𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿 𝐸𝑆 ∠0
𝑍𝐺 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝑆

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿 − 𝐸𝑆 ∠0
𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿- 𝐼𝑅 𝑍𝐺
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝐺 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑆

𝑉𝑅 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = = − 𝑍𝐺 𝑍𝑅 = . 𝑍𝑇 − 𝑍𝐺
𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝐸𝐺 ∠𝛿−𝐸𝑆 ∠0
 𝐸𝐺
OoS 𝑘= → 𝐸𝐺 = 𝑘𝐸𝑆
𝐸𝑆
𝑘∠𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = . 𝑍𝑇 − 𝑍𝐺
𝑘∠𝛿−1∠0

1∠𝛿 1∠ − 𝛿
= × . 𝑘𝑍𝑇 − 𝑍𝐺
𝑘∠𝛿 − 1∠0 1∠ − 𝛿
1∠𝛿 1∠ − 𝛿 1
× =
𝑘∠𝛿 − 1∠0 1∠ − 𝛿 𝑘 − 1∠ − 𝛿

1 𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
= =
𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑘 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿

𝑘−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿−𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑘. 𝑍𝑇 . − 𝑍𝐺
𝑘−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿−𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
k=1 𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . − 𝑍𝐺
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 2 +𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 2 2
− 𝑍𝐺
1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . − 𝑍𝐺
2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
1 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿/2
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 1 − − 𝑍𝐺
2 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿/2

1 𝑗2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿/2

𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 1 − − 𝑍𝐺
2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿/2

1
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑍𝑇 . 1 − 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝛿/2 − 𝑍𝐺
2
ZR Trajectory of OoS for Different EG and ES Ratios
Out-of-step protection C37.102
▪ Should not be applied unless stability studies indicate
that it is needed.
▪ Should be applied in accordance with the results of
those studies.
▪ Must be reviewed as system conditions change.
▪ In General, for large machines of 100’s MW ratings
Loss of Potential of VT supply can cause mal trips

▪ Loss of one or more phase voltages prevents the relay from

properly determining fault distance or direction. Occasional
LOP (loss-of-potential) to the distance relay, while
unavoidable, is detectable. When the relay detects the loss-
of-potential, the relay can block distance element operation,
block or enable forward directional overcurrent elements,
and issue an alarm for any true LOP condition.
Voltage Transformer Supervision

▪ Fuses or sensitive miniature circuit breakers normally

protect the secondary wiring between the voltage
transformer secondary windings and the relay terminals.

▪ Distance relays having:

✓sound phase polarisation
✓voltage memory polarisation
Additional features in a distance relay

✓Fault Location ✓Measurements of voltages, currents, etc.

✓Instantaneous OC ✓Event Recorder & CB failure detection/logic

✓ CT supervision ✓Directional/Non-directional OC & EF

✓Check synchroniser ✓ Negative sequence protection

✓Auto-reclose ✓Under/Overvoltage protection

✓CB state monitoring, condition ✓Broken conductor detection

monitoring & control ✓User-programmable scheme logic

 END

Any Questions,
Please…

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