DAV INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, JALANDHAR

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

COMPUTER NETWORK -1 LAB FILE

(BTCS 507-18)

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. Harpreet Bajaj Karan Gupta
HOD- CSE University Roll No.-1904018
Class Roll No. -166/19
CSE-5th sem
 LIST OF EXPERIMENT

1. Write specifications of latest desktops and laptops.

2. Familiarization with Networking Components and devices: LAN Adapters, Hubs, Switches,

Routers etc.

3. Familiarization with Transmission media and Tools: Co-axial cable, UTP Cable, Crimping

Tool, Connectors etc.

4. Preparing straight and cross cables.

5. Study of various LAN topologies and their creation using network devices, cables and

computers.

6. Configuration of TCP/IP Protocols in Windows and Linux.

7. Implementation of file and printer sharing.

8. Designing and implementing Class A, B, C Networks

9. Subnet planning and its implementation

10. Installation of ftp server and client.

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 Practical- 1

Write specifications of latest desktops and laptops

Motherboard

This is the main board inside the PC where

all the other components are connected to.
Choose a motherboard that has plenty of
slots if you are considering adding RAM
or cards later on. Click here to see the Intel
motherboards available when customising
your PC, depending on the PC model you
have chosen. Lower-end Budget PC
models will not have high-end
motherboards as an option, so you should
look at a PC model in the range above.
Many motherboards are supplied with a
built-in graphics card, and they feature a
PCI-Express connection if you wish to
upgrade. The standard built-in graphics
card would be very basic, hence many
high-end motherboards are supplied
without built-in graphics as it is expected
for a dedicated graphics card to be fitted.

Chipset - Controls the interaction a group

of integrated circuits. The chipset has a
major impact on the performance of the PC and the features of the motherboard. Currently the Intel
D945G are used for our entry level PCs. We use the Intel Q35 for our Vpro enabled PCs & D965G
for our mid-range PCs. Our gaming systems use the Nvidia SLI680 use top-of-the-range models with
extreme performance in mind.

All of our motherboards come with at least the following as standard:

PCI-Express 16x slot

PCI slots
S-ATA2 connections
Ethernet connection
Audio connections
USB connections
PS/2 keyboard and mouse connections

Processor (otherwise known as CPU)

The processor is the beating heart of a PC, it is responsible for carrying out all
the calculations. We offer PCs built on Intel processors only. We offer a full
range of models which cater for the novice user, business & home users,
going up to full-blown gaming models with Dual-Core and even Quad-Core
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models available. Unlike other components (such as memory), upgrading a processor at a later stage
can be difficult and expensive, consider specifying a CPU that exceeds your requirements slightly, as
this will make your PC more "future-proof".

 Dual core - A CPU that features 2x processing cores residing on one chip, allowing
professional and multimedia users to perform two demanding tasks simultaneously.

 CPU frequency - The frequency of the CPU, usually measured in Ghz, shows the speed of the
internal core of the CPU. This isn't the main performance indicator, you should also look at
the cache and the amount of cores the CPU has.

 Cache - Used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average time to
access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from
the most frequently used main memory locations.

RAM

Is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current use
are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer's processor. RAM is much faster to read
from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer: the hard disk, floppy disk, and CD-
ROM. However, the data in RAM stays there only as long as your computer is running. When you
turn the computer off, RAM loses its data.

The minimum amount of RAM required to run Windows XP

smoothly is 512MB, but 1GB is recommended to avoid
performance bottlenecks. The new Vista Operating System
requires at least 1 GB if you turn on the 3D "Aero" features. If the
PC has onboard video this will use up some of the system RAM,
and it would be advisable to specify 2 GB of RAM if using Vista.
If you regularly use demanding software, such as video editing or
playing 3D games it is recommended that you specify 4 GB.

DDR2 - Is the next evolutionary step in the DDR infrastructure and has additional features built into
it to allow for increased system performance. We only use DDR2 RAM in our PCs

Dual Channel - Motherboard technology used to increase memory performance, by using two
channels to load data into memory. The memory controller utilizes two 64 bit data channels, resulting
in a total of 128 bits, effectively doubling the bandwidth to memory. In order to achieve this, the

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DDR2 memory modules must be installed into matching memory slots, which are usually colour
coded on the motherboard

Hard disk drive

Stores all the computer's information and retains the

information when the computer is turned off. A
fast hard drive is needed to supply the CPU with
data as fast as it needs it. Hard drive sizes are
typically measured in GigaBytes. The larger the
number, the more applications and games you can
have installed. We recommend specifying at least a
250 GB hard drive to make sure you don't run out of
storage space in the future

S-ATA2 - All our hard drives are S-ATA2, this is the latest high-speed type of hard drive that can
transfer data at a blistering rate of 300Mb/s.It is a good idea to specify a 2nd hard drive, so that all the
files and data can be stored on the main hard drive and install the Operating System on to the 2nd
hard drive. In case there is a problem with the Operating System and it needs to be re-installed, you
would not lose your data as it would be stored on a separate hard drive.
If you specify 2x S-ATA hard drives of the same size they can be set up in RAID 0 or RAID 1 array,
which can improve performance or data protection.

RAID 0 (Striping) - Enhances performance in either a request rate intensive or transfer rate intensive
environment. However, this RAID array can increase the chances of data loss, as in the event of one
hard drive failing you would not be able to access data from either drive.

RAID 1 (Shadowing/Mirroring) - This RAID array constantly mirrors the contents of one hard drive
on the 2nd hard drive. In the event of a hard drive failure an exact copy of all the data will be
available on the 2nd hard drive. You would be able to carry on working and you would not lose any
data. The only downside is that the second hard drive is used to mirror the other hard drive, which
means the total storage space equates to the size of one hard drive, and not the two added together.

Case (Chassis)

This the chassis that holds all the components inside the PC. Our standard
case is of very high quality, with excellent packaging to protect during
transportation. The gaming range of cases available for the Extreme range are
made of extremely sturdy 0.8mm steel or aluminium. They also feature
excellent ventilation, with a host of internal case fans and a very spacious
layout.

USB ports - All our cases feature at least 2x front (or top) USB connections, allowing you to connect
a USB device directly to the case, rather than connecting it to the back of the PC.

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 PSU (Power Supply Unit)

The PSU is the box at the back of the PC where the power cable is
connected to, it is a vital component that feeds the power to the rest of
the components. If you are specifying a high-spec PC with a
powerful graphics card and CPU we recommend you opt for a high-
end PSU, around the 600W+ region. If you are after a basic run-off-
the-mill PC the standard 350W PSU is sufficiently powerful and is
very quiet.

Monitor

A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers. The monitor comprises the
display device, circuitry and an enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin
film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors use a cathode ray
tube (CRT) about as deep as the screen size.

Keyboard

In computing, a keyboard is a typewriter-style device, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys,

to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline of punch cards and paper
tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device for computers.
A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically
corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and
holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters,
numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or
computer commands.

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Mouse

In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion

relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the
user's hands, with one or more buttons.The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as
"wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or
features that can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into
the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user interface.

Other Computer Components

TFT Monitor Key Board Mouse

CPU Fan Printer Printer Cable

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Eithernet Card Wireless Wireless
Access Card Modem
 Practical-2

Familiarization with Networking Components and devices: LAN Adapters, Hubs, Switches,
Routers etc

1. LAN Card

A network card, network adapter, network interface controller (NIC), network interface card, or LAN
adapter is a computer hardware component designed to allow computers to communicate over a
computer network. It is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer) and layer 2 (data link layer) device, as it
provides physical access to a networking medium and provides a low-level addressing system
through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or
wirelessly.

Although other network technologies exist, Ethernet has

achieved near-ubiquity since the mid-1990s. Every Ethernet
network card has a unique 48-bit serial number called a MAC
address, which is stored in ROM carried on the card. Every
computer on an Ethernet network must have a card with a
unique MAC address. Normally it is safe to assume that no
two network cards will share the same address, because card
vendors purchase blocks of addresses from the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and assign a
unique address to each card at the time of manufacture.

The card implements the electronic circuitry required to

communicate using a specific physical layer and data link
layer standard such as Ethernet or token ring. This provides a base for a full network protocol stack,
allowing communication among small groups of computers on the same LAN and large-scale
network communications through routable protocols, such as IP.

There are four techniques used to transfer data, the NIC may use one or more of these techniques.

 Polling is where the microprocessor examines the status of the peripheral under program
control.
 Programmed I/O is where the microprocessor alerts the designated peripheral by applying its
address to the system's address bus.
 Interrupt-driven I/O is where the peripheral alerts the microprocessor that it's ready to transfer
data.
 DMA is where the intelligent peripheral assumes control of the system bus to access memory
directly. This removes load from the CPU but requires a separate processor on the card.

A network card typically has a twisted pair, BNC, or AUI socket where the network cable is
connected, and a few LEDs to inform the user of whether the network is active, and whether or not
there is data being transmitted on it. Network Cards are typically available in 10/100/1000 Mbit/s
varieties. This means they can support a transfer rate of 10, 100 or 1000 Megabits per second.

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2.Hub

A network hub is an unsophisticated device in comparison with, for example, a switch. A hub does
not examine or manage any of the traffic that comes through it: any packet entering any port is
rebroadcast on all other ports. Effectively, it is barely aware of frames or packets and mostly operates
on raw bits or symbols. Consequently, due to the larger collision domains, packet collisions are more
frequent in networks connected using hubs than in networks connected using more sophisticated
devices.

100 Mbit/s hubs and repeaters come in two different speed grades: Class I delay the signal for a
maximum of 140 bit times (enabling translation between 100Base-TX, 100Base-FX and 100Base-T4)
and Class II hubs delay the signal for a maximum of 92 bit times (enabling installation of two hubs in
a single collision domain).

The need for hosts to be able to detect collisions

limits the number of hubs and the total size of a
network built using hubs (a network built using
switches does not have these limitations). For 10
Mbit/s networks built using repeater hubs, the 5-4-3
rule must be followed: up to 5 segments (4 hubs) are
allowed between any two end stations. For 10BASE-
T networks, up to five segments and four repeaters
are allowed between any two hosts. For 100 Mbit/s
networks, the limit is reduced to 3 segments (2 hubs)
between any two end stations, and even that is only
allowed if the hubs are of Class II. Some hubs have
manufacturer specific stack ports allowing them to be
combined in a way that allows more hubs than simple
chaining through Ethernet cables, but even so, a large
fast Ethernet network is likely to require switches to
avoid the chaining limits of hubs.

Most hubs detect typical problems, such as excessive collisions and jabbering on individual ports,
and partition the port, disconnecting it from the shared medium. Thus, hub-based twisted-pair
Ethernet is generally more robust than coaxial cable-based Ethernet (e.g. 10BASE2), where a
misbehaving device can adversely affect the entire collision domain. Even if not partitioned
automatically, a hub simplifies troubleshooting because hubs remove the need to troubleshoot faults
on a long cable with multiple taps; status lights on the hub can indicate the possible problem source
or, as a last resort, devices can be disconnected from a hub one at a time much more easily than from
a coaxial cable.

Hubs are classified as physical layer devices in the OSI model. At the physical layer, hubs support
little in the way of sophisticated networking. Hubs do not read any of the data passing through them
and are not aware of their source or destination addressing. A hub simply receives incoming Ethernet
frames, regenerates the electrical signal on the bit (more precisely the symbol) level, and broadcasts
these symbols out to all other devices on the network.

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3.Network Switch.

Network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments. The term
commonly refers to a Network bridge that processes and routes data at the Data link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the Network layer (layer 3 and above) are
often referred to as Layer 3 switches or Multilayer switches.

The term network switch does not generally encompass unintelligent or passive network devices such
as hubs and repeaters. The first Ethernet switch was introduced by Kalpana in 1990.

As with hubs, Ethernet implementations of

network switches support either
10/100 Mbit/s or 10/100/1000 Mbit/s ports
Ethernet standards. Large switches may have
10 Gbit/s ports. Switches differ from hubs in
that they can have ports of different speed.

The network switch, packet switch (or just

switch) plays an integral part in most
Ethernet local area networks or LANs. Mid-
to-large sized LANs contain a number of
linked managed switches. Small office,
home office (SOHO) applications typically
use a single switch, or an all-purpose
converged device such as gateway access to
small office/home office broadband services
such as DSL router or cable, Wi-Fi router. In most of these cases, the end user device contains a
router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology, as in the
Linksys 8-port and 48-port devices. User devices may also include a telephone interface to VoIP.

In the context of a standard 10/100 Ethernet switch, a switch operates at the data-link layer of the OSI
model to create a different collision domain per switch port. If you have 4 computers A/B/C/D on 4
switch ports, then A and B can transfer data between them as well as C and D at the same time, and
they will never interfere with each others' conversations. In the case of a "hub" then they would all
have to share the bandwidth, run in half-duplex and there would be collisions and retransmissions.
Using a switch is called micro-segmentation. It allows you to have dedicated bandwidth on point to
point connections with every computer and to therefore run in full duplex with no collisions.

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4.Router

A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an overlay
internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data
packet comes in one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine
its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the
packet to the next network on its journey. Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the
Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that
constitute the internetwork until
it gets to its destination node.

The most familiar type of routers

are home and small office routers
that simply pass data, such as
web pages and email, between
the home computers and the
owner's cable or DSL modem,
which connects to the Internet
through an ISP. More
sophisticated routers, such as
enterprise routers, connect large
business or ISP networks up to
the powerful core routers that
forward data at high speed along
the optical fiber lines of the
Internet backbone. Though routers are typically dedicated hardware devices, use of software-based
routers has grown increasingly common.

In a practice known as static routing (or non-adaptive routing), small networks may use manually
configured routing tables. Larger networks have complex topologies that can change rapidly, making
the manual construction of routing tables unfeasible. Nevertheless, most of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN) uses pre-computed routing tables, with fallback routes if the most direct
route becomes blocked (see routing in the PSTN). Adaptive routing, or dynamic routing, attempts to
solve this problem by constructing routing tables automatically, based on information carried by
routing protocols, and allowing the network to act nearly autonomously in avoiding network failures
and blockages.

Examples of adaptive-routing algorithms are the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and the Open-
Shortest-Path-First protocol (OSPF). Adaptive routing dominates the Internet. However, the
configuration of the routing protocols often requires a skilled touch; networking technology has not
developed to the point of the complete automation of routing.

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 Practical-3

Familiarization with Transmission media and Tools: Co-axial cable, UTP Cable,
Crimping Tool, Connectors etc

i. Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable is a cable consisting of an inner conductor, surrounded by a tubular insulating layer
typically made from a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of which is then
surrounded by another conductive layer (typically of fine woven wire for flexibility, or of a thin
metallic foil), and then finally covered again with a thin insulating layer on the outside. The term
coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing the same geometric axis. Coaxial
cables are often used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. In a hypothetical ideal coaxial
cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and
outer conductors. Practical cables achieve this objective to a high degree. A coaxial cable provides
protection of signals from external electromagnetic interference, and effectively guides signals with
low emission along the length of the cable.

ii. UTP Cable (Twisted Pairs)

Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which two conductors (two halves of a single circuit) are
wound together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external
sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and
crosstalk between neighboring pairs.

Twisting wires decreases interference because the loop area

between the wires (which determines the magnetic coupling
into the signal) is reduced. In balanced pair operation, the
two wires typically carry equal and opposite signals
(differential mode) which are combined by addition at the
destination. The common-mode noise from the two wires
(mostly) cancel each other in this addition because the two
wires have similar amounts of EMI that are 180 degrees out
of phase. This results in the same effect as subtraction.
Differential mode also reduces electromagnetic radiation
from the cable, along with the attenuation that it causes.
12
The twist rate (also called pitch of the twist, usually defined in twists per meter) makes up part of the
specification for a given type of cable. Where pairs are not twisted, one member of the pair may be
closer to the source than the other, and thus exposed to slightly different induced electromotive force
(EMF).
Where twist rates are equal, the same conductors of different pairs may repeatedly lie next to each
other, partially undoing the benefits of differential mode. For this reason it is commonly specified
that, at least for cables containing small numbers of pairs, the twist rates must differ.
In contrast to FTP (foiled twisted pair) and STP (shielded twisted pair) cabling, UTP (unshielded
twisted pair) cable is not surrounded by any shielding. It is the primary wire type for telephone usage
and is very common for computer networking, especially as patch cables or temporary network
connections due to the high flexibility of the cables.

iii. Optical Fiber Networking

An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is
the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical
fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over
longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are
used instead of metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss, and they are also immune
to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used
for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they
can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing
in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used
for a variety of other applications, including sensors
and fiber lasers.

Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total

internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a
waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation
paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode
fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a
single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core
diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power
must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550
meters (600 yards).
Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the
fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them
together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.

13
iv. Crimping tool

A crimping tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a connector to the end of a cable. For example,
network cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool to connect the RJ-45 and RJ-11
connectors to the end of the cable. In the picture to the right, is an example of what a crimping tool
looks like. This example shows a tool capable of crimping both RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors.
Crimping is most
extensively used in
metalworking. Crimping is
commonly used to join
bullets to their cartridge
cases, for rapid but lasting
electrical connectors,
securing lids on metal food
cans, and myriad other
applications. Because it can
be a cold-working
technique, crimping can
also be used to form a
strong bond between the
work piece and a non-metallic component. Sometimes, a similar deformity created for reasons other
than forming a join may also be called a crimp

v. Connectors

RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors

are most commonly seen with Ethernet cables and networks.
RJ45 connectors feature eight pins to
which the wire strands of a cable
interface electrically. Standard RJ-45
pinouts define the arrangement of the
individual wires needed when
attaching connectors to a cable.
Several other kinds of connectors closely resemble RJ45 and
can be easily confused for each other. The RJ-11 connectors
used with telephone cables, for example, are only slightly smaller (narrower) than RJ-45 connectors.

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 Practical-4

Preparing straight and cross cables.

Straight Cable

A straight through network cable acts as an extension enabling a device with a network interface card
to be attached to a network. A common form of network media is the UTP Cat5 (Unshielded Twisted
Pair Category 5) cable. In this assignment I will
explain how to make a UTP Cat5 cable and what
circumstances it is best used in as well as its
capabilities. For example, the maximum effective
length of the cable and its maximum transmission
speed.

Besides the cable itself and two RJ-45 connectors

it is best to have the relevant tools for cutting the
sleeving and crimping on the connectors. You will
need a sharp Stanley knife for trimming the
sleeving and a cable crimping tool to lock the
connectors onto each end of the cable.

The cables should have their sleeving trimmed back at each end by approximately 13mm in order to
expose the wires for sorting. The wires should then be flattened out and sorted into the following
order from left to right; White/Orange, Orange, White/Green, Blue, White/Blue, Green,
White/Brown, Brown.
In a straight-through cable, the colored wires are in the same sequence at both ends of the cable

RJ-45 Straight-through (Ethernet) Cable Pin-outs

Signal RJ-45 Pin RJ-45 Pin Signal

Tx+ 1 1 Tx+
Tx– 2 2 Tx–
Rx+ 3 3 Rx+
– 4 4 –
– 5 5 –
Rx– 6 6 Rx–
– 7 7 –
– 8 8 –

Cross cable

A Crossover cable would be used when connecting a device like a PC to another PC rather than
having to use a hub or switch. The wires in a Crossover Cable are attached to the RJ-45 connector in
a different way as opposed to Straight Through cables.

15
The operations that computers are required to perform nowadays require larger amounts of data to be
processed than a few years ago, which in turn has meant that larger amounts of data need to be
transferred across the modern network. This has forced the requirement for new technology to deal
with the higher workload.
In a crossover cable, the first (far left) colored wire at one end of the cable is the third colored wire at
the other end of the cable

RJ-45 Crossover (Ethernet) Cable Pin-outs

Signal RJ-45 Pin RJ-45 Pin Signal

Tx+ 1 3 Rx+
Tx– 2 6 Rx–
Rx+ 3 1 Tx+
– 4 4 –
– 5 5 –
Rx– 6 2 Tx–
– 7 7 –
– 8 8 –

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 Practical-5

Study of various LAN topologies and their creation using network devices, cables and
computers.

LAN

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home,
office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. The defining characteristics of
LANs, in contrast to wide-area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates,
smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.
Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies
currently, but ARCNET, Token Ring and many others have been used in the past.
Although switched Ethernet is now the most common data link layer protocol and IP as a network
layer protocol, many different options have been used, and some continue to be popular in niche
areas. Smaller LANs generally consist of one or more switches linked to each other—often with one
connected to a router, cable modem, or DSL modem for Internet access.
Larger LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches using the spanning tree
protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS),
and to segregate traffic via VLANs. Larger LANS also contain a wide variety of network devices
such as switches, firewalls, routers, load balancers, sensors and so on.[9]
LANs may have connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, or by 'tunneling'
across the Internet using VPN technologies. Depending on how the connections are made and
secured, and the distance involved, they become a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), a Wide Area
Network (WAN), or a part of the internet.

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MAN

Metropolitan area networks, or MANs, are large computer networks usually spanning a city. They
typically use wireless infrastructure or Optical fiber connections to link their sites.
The IEEE 802-2001 standard describes a MAN as being: A MAN is optimized for a larger
geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can
also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned
and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and
organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide
means for internetworking of local networks. Metropolitan area networks can span up to 50km,
devices used are modem and wire/cable
Authors Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon of Management Information Systems: Managing the
Digital Firm 10th ed. define Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) as: A Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope
falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan
region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.
it can also be used in cable television.

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WAN

Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries [1]). Contrast with personal
area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan
area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific
metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is
the Internet. WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and
computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many
WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service
providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built
using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub
within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines,
WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network
protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet
over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the
links that are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to
be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are
still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.

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Topologies:-

1. Bus

In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data between computer components
inside a computer or between computers. Unlike a point-to-point connection, a bus can logically
connect several peripherals over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of connectors to
physically plug devices, cards or cables together.

Early computer buses were literally parallel electrical buses with multiple connections, but the term is
now used for any physical arrangement that
provides the same logical functionality as a
parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses
can use both parallel and bit-serial connections,
and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical
parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by
switched hubs, as in the case of USB.

In a network, the master scheduler controls the

data traffic. If data is to be transferred the requesting computer sends a message to the scheduler,
which puts the request into a queue. The message contains an identification code which is broadcast
to all nodes of the network. The scheduler works out priorities and notifies the receiver as soon as the
bus is available.

The identified node takes the message and performs the data transfer between the two computers.
Having completed the data transfer the bus becomes free for the next request in the scheduler's queue.

Bus benefit: any computer can be accessed directly and messages can be sent in a relatively simple
and fast way. Disadvantage: needs a scheduler to assign frequencies and priorities to organize the
traffic.

2.Ring

A ring network is a network topology in which each

node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a
single continuous pathway for signals through each
node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each
node along the way handling every packet.

Because a ring topology provides only one pathway

between any two nodes, ring networks may be
disrupted by the failure of a single link. A node failure
or cable break might isolate every node attached to the
ring. FDDI networks overcome this vulnerability by
sending data on a clockwise and a counterclockwise ring: in the event of a break data is wrapped
back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable, maintaining a path to every
node along the resulting "C-Ring". 802.5 networks -- also known as IBM Token Ring networks --

20
avoid the weakness of a ring topology altogether: they actually use a star topology at the physical
layer and a Multistation Access Unit to imitate a ring at the datalink layer.

Many ring networks add a "counter-rotating ring" to form a redundant topology. Such "dual ring"
networks include Spatial Reuse Protocol, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and Resilient
Packet Ring.

3. Star

Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star
network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit
messages. This consists of a central node, to which all other nodes are connected; this central node
provides a common connection point for all nodes through a hub. In Star topology every node
(computer workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to central node called hub or switch. The
switch is the server and the peripherals are the clients.[1] Thus, the hub and leaf nodes, and the
transmission lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star. If the central node is
passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission,
delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated
in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to
prevent echo-related problems.

The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central
node.[further explanation needed] When applied to a bus-based network, this central hub
rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the
network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with
all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission
line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node
from all others, but the rest of the systems will be unaffected.

It is also designed with each node (file servers, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a
central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch,
or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and
controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is
common with twisted pair cable. However, it can also be used with coaxial cable or optical fibre
cable.

21
 Practical-6

Configuration of TCP/IP Protocols in Windows and Linux

1. On the desktop, right-click My Network Places, and then click Properties.

2. Right-click Local Area Connection.

22
 3. Click Properties.
4. Click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
5. Click Properties.

6. In the Default gateway box, type the internal IP address of the NAT server.

7. Implementation of file and printer sharing

We present the design and evaluation of PeerDB, a peer-to-peer (P2P) distributed data sharing
system. PeerDB distinguishes itself from existing P2P systems in several ways. First, it is a full-
fledge data management system that supports fine-grain content-based searching. Second, it
facilitates sharing of data without shared schema. Third, it combines the power of mobile agents into
P2P systems to perform operations at peers' sites. Fourth, PeerDB network is self-configurable, i.e., a
node can dynamically optimize the set of peers that it can communicate directly with based on some
optimization criterion. By keeping peers that provide most information or services in close proximity
(i.e., direct communication), the network bandwidth can be better utilized and system performance
can be optimized. We implemented and evaluated PeerDB on a cluster of 32 Pentium II PCs. Our
experimental results show that PeerDB can effectively exploit P2P technologies for distributed data
sharing.

Web caches, content distribution networks, peer-to-peer file sharing networks, distributed file
systems, and data grids all have in common that they involve a community of users who generate
requests for shared data. In each case, overall system performance can be improved significantly if
we can first identify and then exploit interesting structure within a community's access patterns. To
23
this end, we propose a novel perspective on file sharing that considers the relationships that form
among users based on the files in which they are interested. We analyze these graphs and propose
some probable causes for these emergent small-world patterns. The significance of small-world
patterns is twofold: it provides a rigorous support to intuition and, perhaps most importantly, it
suggests ways to design mechanisms that exploit these naturally emerging patterns.

Defining a Network Share under Windows 2000 is very much the same as under Windows NT4:

Right-click on the Disk-icon in "My Computer" to share a complete disk or on any folder-icon to
partially share a disk, and select "Sharing"

All NT4 and Windows2000 disks have already an invisible share for each disk, called C$, D$,.

This is the "Administrative Share", allowing a Domain Administrator to connect via the network to
your systems and to configure it. Please, do NOT delete this share. (and since the Sharename uses as
last character the '$'-sign, such administrative shares are never shown in the "Network
Neighborhood" or "Computers Near Me". To create a Share-definition usable for regular users, click
on the button "New Share" Define the Share-name: This name is displayed in the "Network
Neighborhood" or "Computers near Me" to identify this disk or folder.
Check the "Permissions": By default, everyone has “Full Control". No misunderstanding: Everyone is
not each person managing to connect via the network to this system, but the User-group
EVERYONE, which automatically contains all users defined on THIS system in the User-Manager.
A word of warning: If you have Windows95/98/ME systems, which need to access this share, limit

24
the name to max. 12 characters, otherwise the share will NOT be listed in the Network Neighborhood
of Win9x/ME. You can still access such a share via the NET USE-command (details like NT4)

This disk has now 2 Share-names: - the Administrative Share - The User-defined Share. Just make
sure, that you select the right one, when making a change.

Practical-8

Designing and implementing Class A, B, C Networks.

25
 A classful network is a network-addressing architecture used in the Internet from 1981 until the
introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing in 1993. The method divides the address space for
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) into five address classes. Each class, coded in the first four bits of
the address, defines either a different network size, i.e. number of hosts for unicast addresses (classes
A, B, C), or a multicast network (class D). The fifth class (E) address range is reserved for future or
experimental purposes.

Since its discontinuation, remnants of classful network concepts remain in practice only in limited
scope in the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components
(e.g., default subnet mask), but the terms are often still used in general discussions of network
structure among network administrators.

Expansion of the network had to ensure compatibility with the existing address space and the Internet
Protocol (IP) packet structure, and avoid the renumbering of the existing networks. The solution was
to expand the definition of the network number field to include more bits, allowing more networks to
be designated, each potentially having fewer hosts. As all the existing networks of the time used less
than 64 nodes, only the 6 least-significant bits of the network number field was utilised. Thus it was
possible to use the most-significant bits of an address to introduce a set of address classes while
preserving the existing network numbers in the first of these classes.

The new addressing architecture was introduced by RFC 791 in 1981 as a part of the specification of
the Internet Protocol.[1] It divided the address space into primarily three address formats, henceforth
called address classes, and left a fourth range reserved to be defined later.

The first class, designated as Class A, contained all addresses in which the most significant bit is
zero. The network number for this class is given by the next 7 bits, therefore accommodating 128
networks in total, including the zero network, and including the existing IP networks already
allocated. A Class B network was a network in which all addresses had the two most-significant bits
set to 1 and 0. For these networks, the network address was given by the next 14 bits of the address,
thus leaving 16 bits for numbering host on the network for a total of 65536 addresses per network.
Class C was defined with the 3 high-order bits set to 1, 1, and 0, and designating the next 21 bits to
number the networks, leaving each network with 256 local addresses.

The leading bit sequence 111 designated an "escape to extended addressing mode",[1] which was
later subdivided in to Class D (1110) for multicast addressing, while leaving as reserved for future
use the 1111 block designated as Class E.
This addressing scheme is illustrated in the following table:

Class Leading Size of network Size of rest Number of Addresses per Start End address
bits number bit field bit field networks network address
Class A 0 8 24 128(27) 16.77.216(224) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255
Class B 10 16 16 16,384(214) 65.536(216) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
Class C 110 24 8 2,097,152(221) 256(28) 192.0.0.0 123.255.255.255
Class D (multicast) 1110 Not defined Not defined Not defined Not defined 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
Class E (reserved 1111 Not defined Not defined Not defined Not defined 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

Bit-wise representation

In the following table:

n indicates a binary slot used for network ID.
26
H indicates a binary slot used for host ID.
X indicates a binary slot (without specified purpose)
Class A
0. 0. 0. 0 = 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
127.255.255.255 = 01111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
0nnnnnnn.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class B
128. 0. 0. 0 = 10000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
191.255.255.255 = 10111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
10nnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C
192. 0. 0. 0 = 11000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
223.255.255.255 = 11011111.11111111.11111111.11111111
110nnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.HHHHHHHH

Class D
224. 0. 0. 0 = 11100000.00000000.00000000.00000000
239.255.255.255 = 11101111.11111111.11111111.11111111
1110XXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

Class E
240. 0. 0. 0 = 11110000.00000000.00000000.00000000
255.255.255.255 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
1111XXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

27
 Practical-9

Subnet planning and its implementation.

Without subnets, the organization operates as a single network. These flat topologies result in short
routing tables but, as the network grows, the use of bandwidth becomes inefficient. (All systems on
the network receive all the broadcasts on the network.) Network addressing can be made more
efficient by breaking the addresses into smaller segments, or subnets. Subnetting provides additional
structure to an addressing scheme without altering the addresses. In the figure, the network address
172.16.0.0 is subdivided into four subnets:
172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0, 172.16.3.0, and 172.16.4.0. If traffic were evenly distributed to each end
station, the use of subnetting would reduce the overall traffic seen by each end station by 75 percent.

Subnet Mask

A subnet mask is a 32-bit value written as four octets. In the subnet mask, each bit determines how
the corresponding bit in the IP address should be interpreted (network, subnet, or host). The subnet
mask bits are coded as follows:
Binary 1 for the network bits
Binary 1 for the subnet bits
Binary 0 for the host bits
Although dotted decimal is the most common format, the subnet can be represented in several ways:
Dotted decimal—172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0
Bit count—172.16.0.0/16
Hexadecimal—172.16.0.0 0xFFFF0000
The IP netmask-format command can be used to specify the format of network masks for the current
session. Dotted decimal is the default.

28
 Practical-10

Installation of ftp server and client

FTP server is used to transfer files between server and clients. All major operating system supports
ftp. ftp is the most used protocol over internet to transfer files. Like most Internet operations, FTP
works on a client/ server model. FTP client programs can enable users to transfer files to and from a
remote system running an FTP server program.

Any Linux system can operate as an FTP server. It has to run only the server software—an FTP
daemon with the appropriate configuration. Transfers are made between user accounts on client and
server systems. A user on the remote system has to log in to an account on a server and can then
transfer files to and from that account's directories only.

A special kind of user account, named ftp, allows any user to log in to it with the username
“anonymous.” This account has its own set of directories and files that are considered public,
available to anyone on the network who wants to download them.

The numerous FTP sites on the Internet are FTP servers supporting FTP user accounts with
anonymous login. Any Linux system can be configured to support anonymous FTP access, turning
them into network FTP sites. Such sites can work on an intranet or on the Internet.
Configuring the ftp Server

The vsftpd RPM package is required to configure a Red Hat Enterprise Linux system as an ftp server.
If it is not already installed, install it with rpm commands as described in our pervious article. After it
is installed, start the service as root with the command service vsftpd start. The system is now an ftp
server and can accept connections. To configure the server to automatically start the service at boot
time, execute the command chkconfig vsftpd on as root. To stop the server, execute the command
service vsftpd stop. To verify that the server is running, use the command service vsftpd status.

Configure vsftpd server

In this example we will configure a vsftpd server and will transfer files from client side.

For this example we are using three systems one linux server one linux clients and one windows xp
clients. To complete these per quest of ftp server follow this link

Basic network configurations Example and Implementations ip configurations hosts files portmap
xinetd services
A linux server with ip address 192.168.0.254 and hostname Server
A linux client with ip address 192.168.0.1 and hostname Client1
A window client with ip address 192.168.0.2 and hostname Client2
Updated /etc/hosts file on both linux system
Running portmap and xinetd services
Firewall should be off on server

We suggest you to review that article before start configuration of ssh server. Once you have
completed the necessary steps follow this guide.

29
Three rpm are required to configure ssh server. vsftpd, portmap, xinetd check them if not found then
install

Now check vsftpd, portmap, xinetd service in system service it should be on

#setup
Select System service from list
[*]portmap
[*]xinetd
[*]vsftpd

Now restart xinetd and portmap and vsftpd service

To keep on these services after reboot on then via chkconfig command

After reboot verify their status. It must be in running condition

Create a normal user named Vinita

Login for this user on other terminal and create a test file

30
FTP server in Windows XP :

1) Go to Start and click Control Panel. Control Panel Window will appear, and then double click
Add or Remove Programs.

2) Add or Remove Programs window will appear, then click Add/Remove Windows Components.

31
3) In the Windows Components Wizard window, scroll down and select Internet Information
Services (IIS), after that click Details… button.

4) Internet Information Services window will appear. In order to run FTP server, you need to tick File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) Service, Common Files and Internet Information Services Snap-In options.
Click OK at last and you will be back to previous Windows Components Wizard window, click Next
to continue and also you may be prompted to insert Windows XP installation CD.

32
Configuring FTP Server:

5) Once you have installed this free FTP server, you need to properly configure it to minimize
security risk. Go to your Control Panel -> Administrative Tools -> open Internet Information
Services. Expand the HOME folder and then right click Default FTP Sites, click Stop to stop this
service until you have configured it properly. Right click again and click on Properties.

6) Let’s go to FTP Site tab, here you can configure the FTP description, IP address and TCP port if
you like, it’s optional and so I leave it unchanged. However here I limit to 2 concurrent connections
and connection timeout is 600 seconds. You can just decide based on your scenario. Click Apply
after that.

33
7)Proceed to click the Security Accounts tab, then un-tick Allow Anonymous Connections option, so
that only the users on this computer can FTP to this computer by providing username and password.
It would disable anonymous access and better secure you FTP server. Click Apply after that.

8) If you click on Home Directory tab, you will find out that the FTP home directory is C:inetpub
tproot (of course you can change it), this is the place you can put the files that you let ftp users to
download. Don’t tick on Write option unless you really want to give the write access to ftp users.
Click Apply at last.

34
9) You can also key in your FTP server’s Banner, Welcome and Exit messages if you click on
Messages tab.

10) After you have successful configured this free FTP server, don’t forget to start the FTP service.
And now it’s ready to be connected by other FTP users.

35