The Copperbelt University

School of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

EE320 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

PRINCIPLES II

2020/2021 Unit 2B. Laplace Transforms

Applications in Circuit Analysis - Transient
analysis

By Mr. Buchizya Kumwenda

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 3
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... 3
Unit 2B. Laplace Transforms Applications in Circuit Analysis – Transient Analysis ................... 4
Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 4
Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................................... 4
Content ........................................................................................................................................ 4
2B.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 5
2B.2. Laplace Transforms .......................................................................................................... 5
2B.3. Circuit analysis in the s-domain ....................................................................................... 9
2.1 Steps in Applying the Laplace Transform: ........................................................................... 9
2.1 Ohm’s Law in the s-domain .................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Impedance and admittance simplifications ......................................................................... 10
2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws – KCL and KVL..................................................................................... 10
2.4 Other techniques – Nodal, Mesh, Thevenin’s, Norton’s etc. .............................................. 10
2.5 The Transfer Function H(s) and the location of poles and zeros of H(s) ............................ 10
2.6 Convolution integral ............................................................................................................ 11
2B.4. Transient analysis ........................................................................................................... 11
Solution of First-Order Circuits ................................................................................................ 13
Solution of Second-Order Circuits ............................................................................................ 14
2B.5. Tutorial Questions .......................................................................................................... 15
2B.6. Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 20

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List of Figures
Figure 1. General circuit represented as a block diagram in t-domain and s-domain .................. 10
Figure 2. Examples of transient response ..................................................................................... 12
Figure 3. A general model of the first-order transient analysis problem ...................................... 12
Figure 4. Three variations of Natural response of second-order systems ..................................... 15
Figure 5 RC circuit - capacitor voltage response .......................................................................... 16
Figure 6 RL circuit – inductor current response ........................................................................... 16
Figure 7. Turn-off transient of DC motor - motor voltage response ............................................ 16
Figure 8. Source free RC circuit ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 9. Source free RL circuit ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 10 ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 11. Overdamped response ................................................................................................. 18
Figure 12. Critically damped response ......................................................................................... 19
Figure 13. Underdamped response ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 14 ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 15 ....................................................................................................................................... 20

List of Tables
Table 1. An abbreviated list of Laplace Transform Pairs ............................................................... 5
Table 2. Summary of the time domain and (frequency) s-domain equivalent circuits ................... 9

List of Abbreviations
A – Amperes
AC – Alternating Current
C - Capacitor
DC – Direct Current
Hz – Hertz
H(s) – Transfer function
L - Inductor
LT – Laplace Transforms
KCL – Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL – Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
P – Active power
Q – Reactive Power
R - Resistor

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 S – Apparent Power
V – Volts
Y – Wye or Star connection
△ – Delta connection

Unit 2B. Laplace Transforms Applications in Circuit Analysis –

Transient Analysis
Objectives
The student should be able to
1. State some applications of Laplace transforms in circuit analysis
2. Describe the complete response of a system
3. Derive the expressions for the s-domain models for circuit elements such as resistors,
inductors and capacitors
4. Distinguish over- and under-damped response and critically damped responses
5. Determine the s-domain equivalent of a circuit and convert it to its equivalent time domain
and vice versa
6. Explain source free circuits (RC and RL) responses
7. Employ the analytical and simplification techniques such as mesh-current and node-voltage
methods and source transformations—in the s domain
8. Illustrate how voltage surges are created during switching in circuits

Learning Outcomes
The student should be able to

 Become familiar with the s-domain models of resistors, inductors and capacitors
 Understand the significance of initial energy stored in capacitors and inductors in establishing
the complete response of a circuit
 Demonstrate the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) in the
context of s-domain
 Develop an understanding of a complete response of a RLC circuit
 State the network stability requirements
 Apply MATLAB/Simulink and MATLAB/script in obtaining the plots of the responses

Content

2B.1. Introduction
2B.2. Laplace Transforms
2B.3. Circuit elements in s-domain
2B.4. Transient Analysis
2B.5. Tutorial questions
2B.6. Research questions

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2B.1. Introduction
The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a voltage or current is called transient response. The
most common instance of a transient response in a circuit occurs when a switch is turned on or off—a
rather common event in electrical circuits. Thus, the circuits explored in this unit will comprise of
resistances, inductances, capacitances, voltage and current sources, and switches.

2B.2. Laplace Transforms

Definition of Laplace transforms


LT  f  t    f t  e
 st
dt  F  s 
0

LT  f  t   F  s  is read as Laplace Transform of f  t  , where s is a complex variable given by

s    j
Laplace Transforms is a powerful analytical technique that is widely used to study the behavior of linear,
lumped-parameter circuits. The Laplace transform transforms the problem from the time domain to the
frequency domain. After obtaining the frequency-domain expression for the unknown, we inverse-
transform it back to the time domain.
This mathematical transform, like other transforms such as Logarithms, Phasors etc. are designed to
create a new domain to make the mathematical manipulations easier. After finding the unknown in the
new domain, we inverse-transform it back to the original domain. In circuit analysis, we use the Laplace
transform to transform a set of integrodifferential equations from the time domain to a set of algebraic
equations in the frequency domain. We therefore simplify the solution for an unknown quantity to the
manipulation of a set of algebraic equations.
Table 1. An abbreviated list of Laplace Transform Pairs

Type f  t  t  0   F s
Impulse  t  1
Step u t  1
s
Ramp t 1
s2
tn n!
s n 1
t n e  at n!
 s  a n 1
Exponential e  at 1
sa
Sine sin t  
s2   2

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 Cosine cos t  s
s2   2
Damped ramp
te  at 1
 s  a 2
Damped sine
eat sin t 
 s  a 2   2
Damped cosine
e  at cos t sa
 s  a 2   2
First derivative (time) df  t  sF  s   f  0  
dt
Second derivative (time) d f t 
2 df  0  
s 2 F  s   sf  0   
dt 2 dt
nth derivative (time) d n f t  df  0  
s n F  s   s n 1 f  0    s n  2
dt n dt
n 1
 s n 3
df 2
 0    ...  d f 0 
dt 2 dt n 1
Time integral t F s
 f  x dx s
0
Time shift or Translation f t  a  u t  a  , a  0 e as F  s 
in time
Frequency shift or
e at f  t  F s  a
Translation in frequency
Scale changing f  at  , a  0 1 F s
a a  
First derivative (s) or tf  t  dF  s 
frequency differentiation 
ds
t n f t  n d F s
nth derivative (s) n
 1 n
ds
s integral f t  

t  F  u  du
s
Linearity a1 f1  t   b1 f 2  t  a1F1  s   b1F2  s 
Scaling f  at  1 s
F 
a a
Convolution f1  t  . f 2  t  F1  s  F2  s 
Initial and Final value theorems

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 Initial value theorem lim f  t   lim sF  s 
t 0 s 0
Final value theorem lim f  t   lim sF  s 
t  s 0

Table 2 shows four useful transforms pairs

Pair number Nature of roots F s f t 
Ke at u  t 
1 Distinct real K
sa
Kte  at u  t 
2 Repeated real K
s  a 2

2 K e t cos   t    u  t 
3 Distinct K K*
complex 
s    j s    j
2t K e t cos   t    u  t 
4 Repeated
K K*
complex 
 s    j  2  s    j  2
Note: In pairs 1 and 2, K is a real quantity, whereas in pairs 3 and 4, K is the complex quantity K 

The Laplace transform has two characteristics that make it an attractive tool in circuit analysis. First, it
transforms a set of linear constant-coefficient differential equations into a set of linear polynomial
equations, which are easier to manipulate. Second, it automatically introduces into the polynomial
equations the initial values of the current and voltage variables. Thus, initial conditions are an inherent
part of the transform process. (This contrasts with the classical approach to the solution of differential
equations, in which initial conditions are considered when the unknown coefficients are evaluated.)
Applications:

 In analysis of the transient behavior of circuits whose describing equations consist of more than a
single node-voltage or mesh current differential equation. In other words, it is useful in the
analysis of multiple-node and multiple-mesh circuits that are described by sets of linear
differential equations.
 In the determination of the transient response of circuits whose signal sources vary in ways more
complicated than the simple dc level jumps
 used to introduce the concept of the transfer function as a tool for analyzing the steady-state
sinusoidal response of a circuit when the frequency of the sinusoidal source is varied
 relates, in a systematic fashion, the time-domain behavior of a circuit to its frequency-domain
behavior
 provides a broader understanding of circuit functions
 Impulse functions occur in circuit analysis either because of a switching operation or because a
circuit is excited by an impulsive source. The Laplace transform can be used to predict the
impulsive currents and voltages created during switching and the response of a circuit to an
impulsive source.

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Circuit elements in s-domain
The procedure for developing an s-domain equivalent circuit for each circuit element is as follows:

 Write the time-domain equation that relates the terminal voltage to the terminal current
 Take the Laplace transform of the time-domain equation. This step generates an algebraic
relationship between the s-domain current and voltage. Note that the dimension of a transformed
voltage is volt-seconds, and the dimension of a transformed current is ampere-seconds. A
voltage-to-current ratio in the s domain carries the dimension of volts per ampere. An impedance
in the s domain is measured in ohms, and an admittance is measured in siemens.
 Construct a circuit model that satisfies the relationship between the s-domain current and voltage
Table summarizes that

 For resistors: the s-domain equivalent circuit of a resistor is a resistance of R ohms that carries a
current of I ampere-seconds and has a terminal voltage of V volt-seconds. Note that going from
the time domain to the frequency domain does not change the resistance element.
 For the inductor: with an initial current of I 0 amperes, the s-domain will result in two different
configurations, one consists of an impedance of sL ohms in series with an independent voltage
source of LI 0 volt-seconds. The second consists of an impedance sL ohms or admittance 1 in
sL
I
Siemens in parallel with an independent current source of 0 ampere-seconds
s
 For the capacitors: initially charged to V0 volts, the s-domain will result in two configurations,
V0
one consists of an impedance of 1 in series with an independent voltage source of volt-
sC s
seconds. The second consists of an impedance 1
sC in ohms or admittance sC in Siemens in
parallel with an independent current source of ampere-seconds CV0

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Table 2. Summary of the time domain and (frequency) s-domain equivalent circuits

2B.3. Circuit analysis in the s-domain

2.1 Steps in Applying the Laplace Transform:
a. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain.
b. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformation,
superposition, or any circuit analysis technique with which we are familiar
c. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain.

2.1 Ohm’s Law in the s-domain

If no energy is stored in the inductor or capacitor, the relationship between the terminal voltage and
current for each passive element take the form:

V  s   ZI  s 

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where Z refers to the s-domain impedance of the element. Thus, a resistor has an impedance of R ohms,
an inductor of sL ohms, and a capacitor has an impedance of 1/sC ohms.

2.2 Impedance and admittance simplifications

The rules for combining impedances and admittance

2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws – KCL and KVL

Kirchhoff’s laws apply to s-domain currents and voltages. Their applicability stems from the operational
transform stating that the Laplace transform of a sum of time-domain functions is the sum of the
transforms of the individual functions. Because the algebraic sum of the currents at a node is zero in the
time domain, the algebraic sum of the transformed currents is also zero. A similar statement holds for the
algebraic sum of the transformed voltages around a closed path. The s-domain version of Kirchhoff’s
laws is: alg  I  s   0 … KCL and algV  s   0 … KVL
2.4 Other techniques – Nodal, Mesh, Thevenin’s, Norton’s etc.
Because the voltage and current at the terminals of a passive element are related by an algebraic equation
and because Kirchhoff’s laws still hold, all the techniques of circuit analysis developed for pure resistive
networks may be used in s-domain analysis. Thus node voltages, mesh currents, source transformations,
and Thévenin-Norton equivalents are all valid techniques, even when energy is stored initially in the
inductors and capacitors. Initially stored energy requires that we modify the equation V  s   ZI  s  , by
simply adding independent sources either in series or parallel with the element impedances. The addition
of these sources is governed by Kirchhoff’s laws.

2.5 The Transfer Function H(s) and the location of poles and zeros of H(s)
The block diagram in Figure represents the general circuit in time domain and s-domain, respectively.

x t  h t  y t   X s Y s
H s

Figure 1. General circuit represented as a block diagram in t-domain and s-domain

The transfer function is defined as the s-domain ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response) to
the Laplace transform of the input (source). In computing the transfer function, we restrict our attention to
circuits where all initial conditions are zero. If a circuit has multiple independent sources, we can find the
transfer function for each source and use superposition to find the response to all sources.
For linear lumped-parameter circuits, H(s) is always a rational function of s. Complex poles and zeros
always appear in conjugate pairs. The poles of H(s) must lie in the left half of the s plane if the response
to a bounded source (one whose values lie within some finite bounds) is to be bounded. The zeros of H(s)
may lie in either the right half or the left half of the s plane.
If a unit impulse source drives the circuit, the response of the circuit equals the inverse transform of the
transfer function. Note that this is also the natural response of the circuit because the application of an
impulsive source is equivalent to instantaneously storing energy in the circuit. The subsequent release of

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this stored energy gives rise to the natural response. Actually, the unit impulse response of a circuit,
contains enough information to compute the response to any source that drives the circuit.

2.6 Convolution integral

The convolution integral may be used to extract the response of a circuit to an arbitrary source.

 
y t    h    x t    d    h t    x    d 
 

The convolution integral introduces the concepts of memory and the weighting function into circuit
analysis. When we combine the past, present, and future views of with the impulse response of the circuit,
we see that the impulse response weights according to present and past values. It can be shown that the
impulse response gives less weight to past values of the input than to the present value of the input. In
other words, the circuit retains less and less about past input values. Therefore, for instance, the output
quickly approaches zero when the present value of the input is zero. In other words, because the present
value of the input receives more weight than the past values, the output quickly approaches the present
value of the input.
The impulse response is practically referred to as the circuit weighting function. The weighting function,
in turn, determines how much memory the circuit has. Memory is the extent to which the circuit response
matches its input. For example, if the impulse response, or weighting function, is flat (i.e. a step function),
it gives equal weight to all values of input, past and present. Such a circuit has a perfect memory.
However, if the impulse response is an impulse function, it gives no weight to past values of the input.
Such a circuit has no memory. Thus the more memory a circuit has, the more distortion there is between
the waveform of the response function. Thus, if the circuit has no memory, the output is a scaled replica
of the input.

2B.4. Transient analysis

The complete response has two parts—the steady-state response that takes the same form as the input to
the circuit, and the transient response that decays to zero as time progresses. While the transient part of
the voltage and current eventually decays to zero, initially this transient part, when added to the steady-
state part, may exceed the voltage or current rating of the circuit component. This is why it is important to
be able to determine the complete response of a circuit.
The objective of transient analysis is to describe the behavior of a voltage or a current during the
transition that takes place between two distinct steady-state conditions.
The examples of the transients

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 Figure 2. Examples of transient response

Transient behavior may be expected whenever a source of electrical energy is switched on or off, whether
it be AC or DC. A typical example of the transient response to a switched DC voltage would be what
occurs when the ignition circuits in an automobile are turned on, so that a 12-V battery is suddenly
connected to a large number of electrical circuits. The degree of complexity in transient analysis depends
on the number of energy-storage elements in the circuit; the analysis can became quite involved for high-
order circuits. First-order circuits have one energy storage element (e.g. RC and RL circuits) while
second-order circuits have two (e.g. RLC circuits).
A convenient starting point in approaching the transient response of electrical circuits is to consider the
general model of a first order system shown in Figure 2 (left), where the circuits in the box consist of a
combination of resistors connected to a single energy-storage element, either an inductor or a capacitor.
Regardless of how many resistors the circuit contains, it is a first-order circuit. In general, the response of
a first-order circuit to a switched DC source will appear in one of the two forms shown in Figure 2(right)
which represent, in order, a decaying exponential and a rising exponential waveform.

switch
Rs

t 0 circuit containing
Vs RL/RC
combinations

Figure 3. A general model of the first-order transient analysis problem

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For example, a mechanical system that has mass and damping (e.g., friction), but not elasticity, will be a
first-order system. A fluid system with fluid resistance and fluid capacitance (fluid storage) will also be of
first order; an example of a first-order fluid system is a storage tank with a valve. In thermal systems, we
also encounter first-order systems quite frequently: The ability to store heat (heat capacity) and to
dissipate it leads to a first-order thermal system; heating and cooling of bodies is, at its simplest level,
described by first-order behavior
The distinction between natural and forced response is particularly useful because it clarifies the nature of
the transient response of a first-order circuit: the voltages and currents in the circuit are due to the
superposition of two effects, the presence of stored energy (which can either decay, or further accumulate
if a source is present) and the action of external sources (forcing functions). The natural response
considers only the former, while the forced response describes the latter. The sum of these two responses
forms the complete response of the circuit. Electrical engineers often classify this response as the sum
of a transient response and a steady-state response, rather than a sum of a natural response and a
forced response. The transient response is the response of the circuit following the switching action
before the exponential decay terms have died out; that is, the transient response is the sum of the
natural and forced responses during the transient readjustment period. The steady-state response is
the response of the circuit after all of the exponential terms have died out. Note that the transient
response is not equal to the natural response, but it includes part of the forced response. To summarize,
the transient behavior of a circuit can be characterized in three stages. Prior to the switching action, the
circuit is in a steady-state condition (the initial condition). For a period of time following the switching
action, the circuit sees a transient readjustment, which is the sum of the effects of the natural response and
of the forced response. Finally, after a suitably long time (which depends on the time constant of the
system), the natural response decays to zero and the new steady-state condition of the circuit is equal to
the forced response.
The simple fact that

 it would require an infinite amount of current for the voltage across a capacitor to change
instantaneously (i.e. equivalent to requiring an infinite amount of power, since power is the
product of voltage and current) or
 similarly it would require an infinite amount of voltage would be required to cause a “step
change” or an instantaneous change in inductor current)
is extremely useful in determining the response of a circuit. Its immediate consequence is that the value of
an inductor current or a capacitor voltage just prior to the closing (or opening) of a switch is equal to the
value just after the switch has been closed (or opened). Than is,

       
vC 0  vC 0 and iL 0  iL 0 where the notation 0 signifies “just after t = 0” and 0 
means “just before t = 0”
In many practical applications, understanding the behavior of first- and second-order systems is often all
that is needed to describe the response of a physical system to external excitation.

Solution of First-Order Circuits

1. Determine the initial condition of the energy storage element
2. Write the differential equation for the circuit for t > 0
3. Determine the time constant of the circuit for t > 0

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 4. Write the complete solution as the sum of the natural and forced responses
5. Apply the initial condition to the complete solution, to determine the constant K

Solution of Second-Order Circuits

1. Write the differential equation for the circuit
2. Find the roots of the characteristic polynomial, and determine the natural response
The natural response of any second-order system can be described by one of the
following three expressions:

Case I: Real, distinct roots: s1  1, s2   2

xN  t   K1e 1t  K 2e  2t ; time constants 1  1 1 &  2  1  2
This results in an overdamped system
Case II: Real, repeated roots: s1  s2  
xN  t   K1e t  K 2te t
This results in a critically damped system
Case III: Complex conjugate roots: s1  s2* ; s1    j 
xN  t   K1e s1t  K 2e s2t
xN  t   K1e t e  t  K 2e t e   t ; Recall Eulers identity e j  cos   j sin 

 
xN  t   Ke t e  t  e   t  Ke t  2 cos  t  ; assume K1  K 2  K
This results in an underdamped system or damped sinusoid

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 Response of over-damped 2nd order system

Response of critically damped 2nd order system

Response of under-damped 2nd order system

Figure 4. Three variations of Natural response of second-order systems

3. Find the forced response

4. Write the complete solution as the sum of natural and forced responses
5. Determine the initial conditions for inductor currents and capacitor voltage
6. Apply the initial conditions to the complete solution to determine the constants K1 and
K2

2B.5. Tutorial Questions

QT1. Determine an expression for the capacitor voltage in the circuit of Figure. Plot the
complete, transient, steady-state, natural and forced responses for the capacitor voltage.

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 t 0 1000 

12 V 
i t  470  F vc  t 



Assume: vc t  0  5 V 
Figure 5 RC circuit - capacitor voltage response

QT2. Starting transient of DC motor - An approximate circuit representation of a DC motor

consists of series RL circuit shown in Figure. Determine the transient current. Plot the complete,
transient, steady-state, natural and forced responses for the motor current.

t 0 4

50 V 
iL  t  0.1 H vL  t 



Assume: iL t  0  0 A 
Figure 6 RL circuit – inductor current response

QT3. Turn-off transient of DC motor – Determine the motor voltage for all time in the
simplified electric motor circuit model shown in Figure. The motor is represented by the series
RL circuit. Plot the motor voltage.

t 0
2


0.8 
vm  t 
100 V 20  im  t 

3H

Figure 7. Turn-off transient of DC motor - motor voltage response

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 QT4. The switch in the circuit on Figure has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t =
0. Find vt for t>=0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.

t 0
3 1


v t 
20 V
9 20 mF

Figure 8. Source free RC circuit

QT5. The switch in /the circuit of Figure has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is
opened. Calculate i(t) for t>0.

t 0
2 4

i t 

40 V
12  16  2H

Figure 9. Source free RL circuit

QT6. In the circuit shown in Figure, find i0,vo, and i(t) for all time, assuming that the switch
was open for a long time.

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 2 3

 
vo  t  io  t  i t 

10 V t 0
6 2H

Figure 10

QT7. Determine the complete response of the circuit. Assume that the capacitor has been
charged (through a separate circuit, not shown) prior to the switch closing such that vc(0) = 5 V.


Assume: vc t  0  5 V 
t 0  
vc  t 
5000 

 
1 F vR  t  i t 

25 V
vL  t  1H
i t 


Figure 11. Overdamped response

QT8. Determine the complete response of v(t) in the circuit of Figure…Assuming that the
capacitor voltage and inductor current are equal to zero at t = 0+.

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 t 0

ic  t  iR  t  iL  t 

v t  2 F 500  2H 5A


Figure 12. Critically damped response

QT9. Determine the complete response of the circuit vload = Ri(t). Assuming that no energy is
stored in the capacitor and inductor before the switch closes; i.e. vc(0-) = 0V; iL(0-) = 0 A.


Assume: vc t  0  0 V 
t 0  
vc  t 
10 

 
10  F vload  t  i t 

12 V
vL  t  5 mH
i t 

 
Assume: iL t  0  0 A

Figure 13. Underdamped response

QT10. The voltage source v g  50tu  t  drives the circuit in Figure 1.

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 1000 

vo

250 

vg 1 F

500 mH

Figure 14

The response signal is the voltage across the capacitor vo .

a) Calculate the numerical expression for the transfer function

b) Calculate the numerical values for the poles and zeros of the transfer function
c) Use the transfer function to find vo
d) Identify the transient component of the response
e) Identify the steady-state component of the response
f) sketch vo versus t for 0  t  1.5 ms
g) Now, vg  120 cos  5000t  30  V , find the steady-state expression for vo .
h) sketch vo versus t for 0  t  1.5 ms
QT11. Consider the circuit in Figure …(left) with the excitation voltage shown in Figure (right)

1H

vi

vo
20
vi 1

0
 5 10 t  s 

Circuit Excitation voltage

Figure 15

a) Use the convolution integral to find vo

b) Plot vo over the range of 0  t  15 s

2B.6. Research Questions

QR1. Derive the Transient Response of Automotive Ignition Circuit
QR2. Verify the results obtained in the tutorial questions using MATLAB/Simulink and/or by
MATLAB/script

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