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Fismat 4

1. Laurent series allow functions to be expanded in both positive and negative powers of (z-z0), allowing the representation of functions in annular regions between two circles centered at z0. 2. The coefficients of the positive powers are the same as for a power series expansion, while the coefficients of the negative powers make up the "principal part" of the Laurent series. 3. A Laurent series converges in the annular region between the circles where the positive power series converges inside and the negative power series converges outside.

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82 views7 pages

Fismat 4

1. Laurent series allow functions to be expanded in both positive and negative powers of (z-z0), allowing the representation of functions in annular regions between two circles centered at z0. 2. The coefficients of the positive powers are the same as for a power series expansion, while the coefficients of the negative powers make up the "principal part" of the Laurent series. 3. A Laurent series converges in the annular region between the circles where the positive power series converges inside and the negative power series converges outside.

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Febrina Rahayu
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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4.

LAURENT SERIES

Theorem’VII. Laurent’s theorem [equation (4.1)]. Let C 1 and C 2


be two circles with center at z 0. Let f ( z ) be analytic in the region R
between the circles. Then f ( z ) can be expanded in a series of the form

(4.1) :

2 b1 b2
f (z)¿ a0 +a 1 ( z−z 0 ) + a2 ( z−z 0 ) + …+ + +…
z−z 0 ( ( z−z 0 ) )2

Convergent in R.

Such a series is called a Laurent series. The “b” series in (4.1) is


called the principal part of the Laurent series.

Example 1. Consider the Laurent series

z z2 z3 z n
(4.2) f ( z ) = 1+ + + +…+
2 4 8 2
+… ()
n
+2 1 1 (−1 )
z (
+ 4 2 − 3 + n +… .
z z z )
Let us see where this series converges. First consider the series
of positive powers; by the ratio test (see Chapter 1 and 2), this series
converges for |z /2|<1, that is, for |z|<2. Similarly, the series of
negative powers converges for |1/ z|<1 , that is |z|>1. Then both series
converge (and so the Laurent series converges) for |z| between 1 and 2,
that is, in a ring between two circles of radius 1 and 2.
We expect this result in general. The " a " series is a power
series, and a power series converges inside some circle (say C 2 in
Figure 4.1). The " b" series is a series of inverse powers of z, and so
converges for |1/ z|< some constant; thus the "b" series converges
outside some circle (say C 1 in Figure 4.1). Then a Laurent series
converges between two circles (if it converges at all). (Note that the
inner circle may be a point and the outer circle may have infinite
radius).

The formula for the coefficients in (4.1) are problem (5.2)

(4.3) :

1 f ( z ) dz
a n= ∮ ,
2 πi c (z−z 0 )n+1

1 f ( z ) dz
b n= ∮c ,
2 πi ( z−z 0 )−n+1
Where C is any simple closed curve surrounding z 0 and lying in
R. However, this is not usually the easiest way to find a Laurent series.
Like power series about a point, the Laurent series (about z 0) for a
function in given annular ring (about z 0) where the function analytic, is
unique, and we can find it by any method we choose. (See examples
below.) Warning : if f ( z ) has several isolated singularities (Figure 4.2),

there are several annular rings, R1 , R 2 ,… ,¿in which f ( z ) is analytic ; then


¿

there are several different Laurent series for f ( z ), one for each ring. The
Laurent series which we usually want is the one that converges near z 0.
If you have any doubt about the ring of convergence of a Laurent series,
you can find out testing the “a” series and the “b” series separately.

Example 2. The function from which we obtained (4.2) was

12
(4.4) f ( z )= .
z ( 2−z ) (1+ z)

This function has three singular points, at z = 0, z = 2, and z =


-1. Thus there are two circles C 1 and C 2 about z 0= 0 in Figure 4.2, and
three Laurent series about z 0= 0, one series valid in each of the three
regions R1 (0 < | z | < 1), R2 (1 < | z | < 2) and R3 (| z | > 2). To find
these series, we first write f (z) in the following form usine partial
fractions (Problem 2):

4 1 1
(4.5) f ( z )= ( +
z 1+ z 2−z
. )
Now, for 0 < | z | < 1, we expand each of the fractions in the parenthesis
in (4.5) jn powers of z. This gives (Problem 2) :

9 z 15 z 2 33 z 3
(4.6) f ( z )=−3+ − + + …+ 6/ z
2 4 8

This is the Laurent series for f (z) which is valid in the region 0 < | z | <
1. To obtain the series valid in the region | z | > 2, we write the fractions
in (4.5) as

and expand each fraction in powers of l/z. This gives the Laurent series
valid for | z | > 2 (Problem 2):

Finally, to obtain (4.2), we expand the fraction 1/(2 - z) in


powers of z, and the fraction 1/(1 + z) in powers of l/z; this gives a
Laurent series which converges for 1 < | z | < 2. Thus the Laurent series
(4.6), (4.2), and (4.8) all represent f (z) in (4.4), but in three different
regions.

Let z 0 in Figure 4.2 be either a regular point or an isolated


singular point and assume that there are no other singular points inside
C 1 Let f (z) be expanded in the Laurent series about z 0 which converges
inside C 1 (except possibly at z 0); we say that we have expanded f (z) in
the Laurent series which converges near z 0 . Then we have the
following definitions.

Definitions :

If all the b's are zero, f (z) is analytic at z = z 0, and we call z 0 a regular
point. (See Problem 4.1.). If b n ≠ 0, but all the b's after b nare zero, f(z) is
said to have a pole of order n at z = z 0. If n = 1, we say that f(z) has a
simple pole. If there are an infinite number of b's different from zero, f
(z) has an essential singularity at z = z 0 .The coefficient b 1 of l/(z - z 0) is
called the residue of f (z) at z = z 0.

Example 3.

is analytic at 2 = 0; the residue of e z at z = 0 is 0.

Has a pole of order 3 at z = 0; the residue of e z / z 3 at z = 0 is 1/2!


has an essential singularity at z = 0; the residue of e 1/ z at z = 0 is 1.

Most of the functions we shall consider will be analytic except


for poles such functions are called meromorphic functions. If f (z) has a
pole at z = z 0, then | f (z) |→ ∞ as z → z0 . A three-dimensional graph with
| f(z) | plotted vertically over a horizontal complex plane would look
like a tapered pole near z = z 0. We can often see that a function has a
pole and find the order of the pole without finding the Laurent series.

Example 4.

has a pole of order 2 at z = 0, a pole of order 3 at z = 1, and a simple


pole at z = -1.

To see that these results are correct, consider finding the Laurent
series for f (z) = g(z)/(z - z 0)". We write g(z) = a 0 + a 1 (z - z 0) +… ; then

the Laurent series for f(z) starts with the term (z−z 0 ¿ ¿−n unless a 0 = 0,
that is unless g( z 0) = 0. Then the order of the pole of f (z) is n unless
some factors cancel. In Example 4b, the sin z series starts with z, so sin2
z has a factor z 2 ; thus ¿ z )/ z 3 has a simple pole at z = 0.

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