MZUZU UNIVERSITY

Centre for Open and Distance Learning

Mathematics Module 1

Precalculus

Nephtale B. Mumba
Published by Mzuzu University,
Centre for Open and Distance Learning,
Private Bag 201,
Luwinga
Mzuzu 2

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Mzuzu
c University Centre for Open and Distance Learning.
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First edition published 2020

Printed by Centre for Open and Distance Learning

i
 Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank all members of Mathematics Department

for offering sound and professional advice in the development of this
module. Past, present and future students of this course also deserve
my sincerely gratitude because without them there could not have
been notes that led to the construction of this module.

ii
 Dedication

To all students who have ever felt different.

iii
 Contents

Acknowledgments ii

Dedication iii

Introduction vi

Unit 1. Fundamentals 1
1.1. Real Numbers 1
1.2. Exponents and Radicals 7
1.3. Absolute Value and Distance 11
1.4. Rectangular Coordinates 12
1.5. Equation of a Circle 19
1.6. Symmetry 23
1.7. Inequalities 28
1.8. Nonlinear Inequalities 30

Unit 2. Sets and Functions 36

2.1. Introduction 36
2.2. A Short Note on Proofs 36
Cautions and Suggestions 39
2.3. Set Theory 40
2.4. Cartesian Products and Mappings 45
2.5. Equivalence Relations and Partitions 53
Exercises 54
iv
Unit 3. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONAL
FUNCTIONS 57
3.1. Quadratic Functions and Models 57
3.2. Polynomial Functions and their Graphs 66
3.3. Dividing Polynomials 78
3.4. Rational Functions 83

Unit 4. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS 95
4.1. Exponential Functions 95
4.2. The Natural Exponential Function 101
4.3. Logarithmic Functions 104
4.4. The Natural Logarithm Function 110
4.5. Laws of Logarithms 111
4.6. Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 114
4.7. Modeling with Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 117

Unit 5. Trigonometry 122

5.1. Angles 122
5.2. The Unit Circle 125
5.3. Trigonometric Functions 129
5.4. Right Triangle Trigonometry 134
5.5. Trigonometric Identities 145
5.6. Trigonometric Graphs 147
5.7. Graphs of Transformations of Tangent and Cotangent 153
5.8. Graphs of Transformations of Cosecant and Secant
Functions 155
5.9. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs 156

v
 Introduction

The course builds upon secondary school mathematics to create a

bridge aimed at easing transition from secondary school to college
mathematics. Broadly, the course is aimed at reinforcing students
background in algebra and trigonometry, preparing them for
subsequent courses such as calculus. The course emphasis on
algebraic and trigonometric functions, equips students with
theoretical knowledge and skills in functions, their graphs,
relationships between functions and problem solving. The gained
knowledge consequently affords students essential building blocks and
prerequisites for calculus and courses that follow calculus.
The material in this module provides a suitable background for
mathematics and statistics content for students intending to do more
mathematics in years three and four. It also provides adequate
material for those students that may not have the chance to do more
base in higher levels in their course of study at undergraduate level.
This module is a self–contained resource, consisting of explanatory
text, activities, examples and exercises. The textual material is
presented in such a way that you yourself become involved in the
development of ideas. Throughout the module, you have activities to
introduce a concept or summarise a textual material.

vi
The questions in the examples and exercises are are mostly based on
real problems. As such they are a crucial part of the learning process.
Work through them with an open mind.

vii
 UNIT 1

Fundamentals

1.1. Real Numbers

Real numbers are used in everyday life to describe quantities such as

age, weight, price, population etc. A real number is any number that
can be expressed in decimal form. Real numbers can be represented as
points on a number line as shown below:

Figure 1.1.

The point associated with the number zero is referred to as the origin.
Each real number can be identified with exactly one point on the line
and with each point on the line, we identify exactly one real number.
The fundamental fact here is that there is a one-to-one correspon-
dence.
Real numbers consist of natual numbers, integers, rational num-
bers and irrational numbers.
Natural numbers are just ordinary counting numbers: 1, 2, 3 and so
on. Integers are just the natural numbers along with their negatives
and zero. Examples are -2, 0, 1, 2. Rational numbers are ratios of
2
two integers. For example, 5
is a rational number. It can also be shown
that a number is rational if and only if its decimal expansion termi-
nates. Irrational numbers are the numbers which are not rational.
1
The decimal expansion of irrational numbers does not terminate. For
example, π is irrational.
The following flowchart shows the sets of real numbers.

Figure 1.2. Subsets of Real Numbers

This is also shown below:

Figure 1.3. Subsets of Real Numbers

1.1.1. Ordering of Real Numbers. One important property of

real numbers is that they are ordered. If a and b are real numbers, a is
less than b if b − a is positive. The order of a and b is denoted by the
inequality a < b. This relationship can also be described by saying that
b is greater than a and writing b > a. The inequality a ≤ b means that
2
a is less than or equal to b, and the inequality b ≥ a means that b is
greater than or equal to a. The symbols <, >, ≤, and ≥ are inequality
symbols.
Inequalities can be used to describe subsets of real numbers called
intervals. Intervals can be bounded or unbounded. In the figure
below, we show bounded intervals. The real numbers a and b are the
endpoints of each interval. An interval is closed if the endpoints are
included in the interval, and it is open if the endpoints are not included
in the interval.

Figure 1.4. Intervals

Example 1.1. (a) −2 < x < 3 consists of all real numbers be-
tween −2 and 3 but −2 and 3 are not included.
(b) −2 ≤ x ≤ 3 consists of all real numbers between −2 and 3,
and −2 and 3 are included.
(c) −2 ≤ x < 3 consists of all real numbers from −2 to 3 but only
3 is not included.

Below, we show unbounded intervals. Positive infinity(∞) and neg-

ative infinity(−∞) do not represent real numbers. They are symbols
convenient to describe the unboundedness of an interval.
3
 Figure 1.5. Unbounded Intervals

Example 1.2. Using inequality notation to describe each of the fol-

lowing:
(a) c is at most 2,
Solution:
c ≤ 2.
(b) m is at least −3,
Solution:
m ≥ −3.
(c) All x in the interval (−3, 5],
Solution:
−3 < x ≤ 5.

The Law of Trichotomy states that for any two real numbers a and
b, precisely one of three relationships is possible:

a = b, a < b, a > b.

Activity 1.1. (1) Use inequality notation to describe the follow-

ing:
(a) [−2, 5)
(b) (−∞, 0)
4
 (2) Find the indicated set if

A = {x|x ≥ −2} B = {x|x < 4} C = {x| − 1 < x ≤ 5}

(a) B ∪ C
(b) A ∩ C
(c) A ∩ B

1.1.2. Properties of Real Numbers. For any real numbers a,

b and c, the following properties hold:

(1) Commutative Property

a + b = b + a,

ab = ba.

(2) Associative Property

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

(ab)c = a(bc)

(3) Distributive Property

a(b + c) = ab + ac

(b + c)a = ab + ac
5
 1.1.3. Addition and Subtraction of Real Numbers. The
number 0 is called the additive identity because a + 0 = a for every
real number a. Every real number a has a negative −a that satisfies
a + (−a) = 0.
By definition, for real numbers a and b

a − b = a + (−b).

Properties of Negatives
(1) (−1)a = −a
(2) −(−a) = a
(3) (−a)b = a(−b) = −(ab)
(4) (−a)(−b) = ab
(5) −(a + b) = −a − b
(6) −(a − b) = −a + b = b − a

Example 1.3. Let x, y, and z be real numbers

(a) −(x + z) = −x − z
(b) −(x + y − z) = −x − y − (−z) = −x − y + z

1.1.4. Multiplication and Division of Real Numbers. The

number 1 is called the multiplicative identity because for any real
number a, a · 1 = a.
1
Every real number a has an inverse a
that satisfies a · (1/a) = 1.
Division, by definition, for any real numbers a and b such that b 6= 0,
is given by
1 a
a÷b=a· = .
b b
Properties
a c ac
(1) b
· d
= bd
a c ad
(2) b
÷ d
= bc
6
 a b a+b
(3) c
+ c
= c
a c ad+bc
(4) b
+ d
= bd
ac a
(5) bc
= b
a
(6) If b
= dc , then ad = bc.

5 7
Example 1.4. Evaluate 36
+ 120
.
Solution:
We first find the least common denominator (LCD). We first express
the numbers 36 and 120 as products of prime powers of their prime
factors. Thus, 36 = 22 · 32 and 120 = 23 · 3 · 5. The LCD is the product
of greatest prime powers. Hence, LCD = 23 · 32 · 5.
Then
5 7 5 · 10 7·3 50 21 71
+ = + = + = .
36 120 36 · 10 120 · 3 360 360 360
Activity 1.2. (1) Evaluate
5 5 1
(a) 8
− 12 + 6
2− 34
(b) 1
− 13
2

(2) Simplify
2x
(a) 3
− x4 ÷2
4
(−6y)
(b) 3
3(x+y)

1.2. Exponents and Radicals

1.2.1. Exponents. If a is a real number and n is a positive integer,

then the nth power of a is

an = a
| · a · a{z· · · · · a}
n f actors

The number a is called the base, and n the exponent.

1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1







Example 1.5. (a) 2
= 2 2 2 2 2
= 32
,
(b) −34 = −(3 · 3 · 3 · 3) = −81,
7
 (c) (−3)4 = (−3)(−3)(−3)(−3) = 81.

Laws of Exponents

(1) am an = am+n
am
(2) an
= am−n
(3) (am )n = amn
(4) (ab)n = an bn

n n
(5) ab = abn

Example 1.6. Simplify

c9
(a) = c9−5 = c4
c5

5 5 5
(b) x2 = x25 = x32
(c) (2a3 b2 )(3ab4 )3 = (2a3 b2 )(33 a3 b4·3 ) = 54a3+3 b2+12 = 54a6 b14
 3  2 7
y x
(d) xy z

 3  2 7
x y x x3 y 14 x7
= 3 7
y z y z
x10 y 14
=
y3z7
x10 y 11
=
z7
Activity 1.3. Simplify
 3  4
(a) y4 3
y
12(x+y)3
(b) 9x+9y
  2
x4 z 2 2x3 y 2
(c) 4y 5 z3
 −3
2a−1 b
(d) a2 b−3

√
1.2.2. Radicals. We know that a = b means b2 = a and b ≥ a.
√
It is clear to see that a works only when a ≥ 0.
8
Definition 1.1. If n is any positive integer, then the principal nth root
of a is defined as follows
√
n
a = b means bn = a.

If n is even, we must have a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.

√
Example 1.7. (a) 4 81 = 3 since 34 = 81 and 3 ≥ 0.
√
(b) 3 −8 = −2 since (−2)3 = −8.
√ √ p √
It is good to note that 42 = 16 = 4 and (−4)2 = 16 = 4 = |−4|.
√
So a2 = a is not always true. In general, it is true when a ≥ 0.
√
Actually, for any even root n, n an = |a|.

Properties of nth roots

√ √ √
(1) n ab = n a n b
√
na
(2) n ab = √
p
n
b
p
m n
√ √
(3) a = mn a
√
(4) n an = a if n is odd
√
(5) n an = |a| if n is even

Example 1.8. Simplify

√
3
√3
√
3 √ √
(a) x4 = x3 x = x3 3 x = x 3 x
p √ √ 4
p p
(b) 4 81x8 y 4 = 4 81 x8 4 y 4 = 3 4 (x2 )4 |y| = 3x2 |y|
√ √
(c) 32 + 200
√ √ √ √
32 + 200 = 16 · 2 + 100 · 2
√ √ √ √
= 16 2 + 100 2
√ √
= 4 2 + 10 2
√
= 14 2

9
Activity 1.4. Simplify
√
3 2
(a) √8x
x
p √
(b) 3
y y
p p
(c) 5 x3 y 2 10 x4 y 16
q
2 y4
(d) 3 54x
2x5 y

1.2.3. Rational Exponents.

m
Definition 1.2. For any rational exponent n
in lowest terms where m
and n are integers and n > 0, we define

√
m
am/n = n
a

or equivalently
√
am/n = n
am .

If n is even, then we require that a ≥ 0.

√
2
Example 1.9. (a) 82/3 = 3
8 = 22 = 4
(b) 125−1/3 = 1
1251/3
=√
3
1
125
= 1
5
a2/5 a7/5 2/5+7/5−3/5
(c) a3/5
=a = a6/5
3 √ √
(d) (2a3 b4 ) 2 = 23/2 (a3 )3/2 (b4 )3/2 = ( 2)3 a3(3/2) b4(3/2) = 2 2a9/2 b6
 3/4 3  3 3/4 3  9/4
(e) 2xy 1/3
= 2(y(x1/3 )3) · (y 4 x1/2 ) = 8xy · y 4 x1/2 = 8x1/4 y 3

Activity 1.5. Perform the operations and simplify.

x−3 ·x1/2
(a) x3/2 ·x−1
5−1/2 ·5x5/2
(b) (5x)3/2
 3  
a1/6 b−3 x−2 b−1
(c) x−1 y a3/2 y 1/3
 −1
(9st)3/2 3s−2
(d) 27s3 t−4
· 4t1/3

10
 1.2.4. Rationalizing the Denominator. It is often useful to
eliminate the radical in the denominator by multiplying both the nu-
merator and denominator by an appropriate expression. The process
is called rationalizing the denominator.
For instance, √ √
1 1 1 a a
√ = √ ·1= √ · √ = .
a a a a a
√
If the denominator is of the form n am , then
√
n
√
n
√
n
√
am · an−m = an−m+m = n an = a.
√ √
Example 1.10. (a) √23 = √23 · √33 = 2 3
3
q √
7 5 √
7 5
(b) 7 a12 = √1
7 2 = √
a
1
7 2 · √
a
a
7 5 =
a a
a

Activity 1.6. Rationalize the denominator:

a
(a) √3 2
a
1
(b) c3/7
2√
(c) 5− 3
(d) √ 3√
5+ 6

1.3. Absolute Value and Distance

Definition 1.3. The absolute value of a real number a is the distance

from a to 0 on the real number line, denoted by |a|.

Distance is always positive or zero. In general, |a| ≥ 0. If a is a real

number, then the absolute value of a is

a, if a ≥ 0,

|a| =
−a, if a < 0.


Example 1.11. (a) |3| = 3

(b) | − 3| = −(−3) = 3
11
 (c) |0| = 0
(d) |3 − π| = −(3 − π) = π − 3 since 3 < π =⇒ 3 − π < 0.

Properties of Absolute Values

(1) |a| ≥ 0
(2) |a| = | − a|
(3) |ab| = |a||b|
(4)  a  = |a|
 
b |b|

Definition 1.4. If a and b are real numbers, then the distance between
the points a and b on the real line is

d(a, b) = |b − a|.

Activity 1.7. Evaluate each expression

(a) || − 6| − | − 4||
√
(b) | 5 − 5|
(c)  −6
 

24
 
(d)  7−12 
12−7

1.4. Rectangular Coordinates

Two perpendicular lines that intersect at zero on each line are drawn.
The horizontal line has positive vlues on the right and an arrow points
that side. The vertical line has positive values upwards of the inter-
section. The horizontal line is the x-axis and the vertical line is the
y-axis. The point of intersection is known as the Origin O. The axes
divide the plane into 4 quadrants as shown below:
A point on the xy-plane is located by a unique pair of numbers (a, b)
where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate.
12
 Figure 1.6.

1.4.1. Graphing Regions in the Coordinate Plane.

Example 1.12. (a) {(x, y)|x ≥ 0}

Solution:
This region consists of all points whose x-coordinates are pos-
itive or 0.

Figure 1.7.

(b) {(x, y)||y| < 1}

Solution:
The region consists of all the points whose y-coordinates lie
between −1 and 1.

Activity 1.8. Sketch the regions given by each set.

13
 Figure 1.8.

(a) {(x, y)|y < 2}

(b) {(x, y)||x| < 3}

1.4.2. Distance and Midpoint Formulas.

Definition 1.5. The distance between the points A(x1 , y1 ) and

B(x2 , y2 ) in the plane is
p
d(A, B) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

Figure 1.9.

Example 1.13. Which of the points P (1, −2) and Q(8, 9) is closer to
the point A(5, 3)?
Solution:
We compute the distances d(P, A) and d(Q, A) and see which one is
14
smaller.
p √ √
d(P, A) = (5 − 1)2 + (3 − (−2))2 = 42 + 52 = 41

p p √
d(Q, A) = (5 − 8)2 + (3 − 9)2 = (−3)2 + (−6)2 = 45

So, d(P, A) < d(Q, A), then P is closer to A.

Definition 1.6. The midpoint of the line segment from A(x1 , y1 ) to

B(x2 , y2 ) is
 
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
, .
2 2

Example 1.14. Find the midpoint of the line segment from P (1, −2)
to A(5, 8).
Solution:
The midpoint is
   
1 + 5 −2 + 8 6 6
, = , = (3, 3).
2 2 2 2

Example 1.15. Show that the quadrilateral with vertices P (1, 2),
Q(4, 4), R(5, 9) and S(2, 7) is a parallelogram by proving that its two
diagonals bisect each other.
Solution:
We look at the midpoints of P R and SQ as shown in the figure
below. If the midpoints are equal, then the diagonals bisect each other.
Midpoint of P R = 1+5 , 2+9


2 2
= (3, 11/2).

4+2 4+7


Midpoint of SQ = 2
, 2 = (3, 11/2). The midpoints are equal.
Therefore, the diagonals bisect each other and the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
15
 Figure 1.10.
Activity 1.9. (1) Draw the rectangle with vertices A(1, 3),
B(5, 3), C(1, −3) and D(5, −3) on a coordinate plane. Find
the area of the rectangle.
(2) Show that the triangle with vertices A(0, 2), B(−3, −1) and
(−4, 3) is isosceles.
(3) The point M in the figure below is the midpoint of the line
segment AB. Show that M is equidistant from the vertices of
triangle ABC.

Figure 1.11.

1.4.3. Graphs of Equations in Two Variables. The graph of

an equation in x and y is the set of all points (x, y) in the coordinate
plane that satisfy the equation.
16
Example 1.16. Sketch the graph of the equation 2x − y = 3.
Solution:
Firstly, we make y the subject,

y = 2x − 3.

We then come up with a table of values as below:

Figure 1.12.

17
The graph is as follows:

Figure 1.13.

Definition 1.7. The x-intercept is the x-coordinate of a point where

a graph intersects the x-axis. The y-intercept is the y-coordinate pf
a point where a graph intersects the y-axis. The value of y at the x-
intercept is 0 and the value of x at the y-intercept is 0.

Example 1.17. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of the equa-
tion y = x2 − 2.
Solution:
To find the x-intercepts, we set y = 0,

0 = x2 − 2

x2 = 2
√
x=± 2
√ √
Therefore, the x-intercepts are x = 2 and x = − 2.
The y-intercept is where x = 0. Thus y = 0−2 = −2 is the y-intercept.

18
 Figure 1.14.

Activity 1.10. (1) Determine the x and y intercepts in the fol-

lowing:
(a) y = x2 + 3x + 2
(b) y = 6x3 + 9x2 + x
(c) y = 11x − 2x2 − x3
(2) Graph the equations.
(a) 3x + 2y = 6
(b) y = x3 − 3x + 1

1.5. Equation of a Circle

An equation of the circle with center (h, k) and radius r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 .

This is called the standard form of the equation of the circle. If the
center of the circle is the origin (0, 0), then the equation becomes

x2 + y 2 = r 2 .

Example 1.18. Graph each equation.

(a) x2 + y 2 = 25.
Solution:
19
 We can rewrite the equation as (x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2 = 52 . So
the radius is 5 and the center is (0, 0).

Figure 1.15.

(b) (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 25.

Solution:
The center is (2, −1) and radius 5.

Figure 1.16.

Example 1.19. (a) Find an equation of a circle with radius 3 and

center (2, −5).
Solution:
20
 We have r = 3, center is (2, −5), thus h = 2 and k = −5. The
equation is

(x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 9.

(b) Find an equation of the circle that has the points P (1, 8) and
Q(5, −6) as the endpoints of a diameter.
Solution:
The midpoint of the diameter P Q is the center of the circle.
 
1+5 8−6
, = (3, 1).
2 2
The radius r is the distance from P to the center. Thus,
by the distance formula

r2 = (3 − 1)2 + (1 − 8)2 = 22 + (−7)2 = 53.

The equation is therefore

(x − 3)2 + (y − 1)2 = 53.

Figure 1.17.

21
Example 1.20. Show that the equation x2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 7 = 0
represents a circle, and find the center and radius of the circle.
Solution:

x2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 7 = 0

(x2 + 2x) + (y 2 − 6y) = −7

(x2 + 2x + 1) − 1 + (y 2 − 6y + 9) − 9 = −7

(x2 + 2x + 1) + (y 2 − 6y + 9) = −7 + 1 + 9

(x + 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 3
√
Therefore, the center is (−1, 3) and the radius r = 3.

Activity 1.11. (1) Find an equation of the circle that satisfies

the given conditions:
(a) Center (2, −1); radius 3.
(b) Center (−1, 5); passes through (−4, −6).
(c) Endpoints of a diameter are P (−1, 3) and Q(7, −5).
(d) Center (7, −3); tangent to the x-axis.
(2) Find the equation of the circle shown below:

Figure 1.18.

22
 (3) Show that the equation represents a circle, find the center and
radius of the circle.
(a) x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y + 13 = 0;
(b) 2x2 + 2y 2 − 3x = 0.
1
(c) x2 + y 2 + 12 x + 2y = − 16
(d) 3x2 + 3y 2 + 6x − y = 0

1.6. Symmetry

Given a graph, if points on the graph on the left of a line are reflec-
tions of points on the other side of the line, then we say the graph is
symmetric with respect to that line. We will discuss three aspects of
symmetry.

1.6.1. Symmetry with Respect to the x-axis. If a point (x, y)

is on the graph, then the point (x, −y) is also on the graph. In other
words, the graph is unchanged when reflected on the x-axis. We can
test for this symmetry by observing the equation when y is replaced
with −y (equation is unchanged).

Figure 1.19.

1.6.2. Symmetry with Respect to the y-axis. If a point (x, y)

is on the graph, then (−x, y) is also on the graph. In other words, the
graph is unchanged when reflected on the y-axis. We can test for this
symmetry by observing the equation when x is replaced by −x.
23
 Figure 1.20.

1.6.3. Symmetry with Respect to the Origin. If a point (x, y)

is on the graph, then (−x, −y) is also on the graph. In other words,
the graph is unchanged when reflected on the origin. We can test for
this symmetry by observing that the equation is unchanged if x and y
are replaced by −x and −y, respectively.

Figure 1.21.

Example 1.21. (a) Test the equation x = y 2 for symmetry and

sketch the graph.
Solution:
The equation is unchanged if y is replaced by −y,

x = (−y)2 = y 2 .

We plot points for y > 0 and reflect the graph in the x-axis.

24
 Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.23.

(b) Test the equation y = x3 − 9x for symmetry and sketch its

graph.
Solution:
Replacing x by −x and y by −y in the equation, we get
−y = (−x)3 − 9(−x)

−y = −x3 + 9x

y = x3 − 9x
The equation is unchanged. The graph is symmetric with re-
spect to the origin. We sketch it by plotting points for x > 0
and then reflect it about the origin.

25
 Figure 1.24.

Figure 1.25.

Activity 1.12. (1) Test the equation for symmetry.

(a) y = x4 + x2
(b) y = x3 + 10x
(c) y = x2 + |x|
(d) x4 y 4 + xy = 1
(2) Complete the graph using the indicated symmetry.
(a) Symmetry with respect to the y-axis.

26
 Figure 1.26.

(b) Symmetry with respect to the origin.

Figure 1.27.

27
 1.7. Inequalities

There are some problems in algebra that lead to inequalities. An in-

equality looks just like an equation except that in the place of the equal
sign is one of the symbols <, >, ≤ or ≥, e.g., 4x + 7 ≤ 19.
Solving an inequality that contains a variable means to find all values
that make the inequality true. For example:

Figure 1.28.

In the table, it can be seen that values of x greater than 3 do not

satisfy the inequality. We can use the notation for intervals or the
number line to represent a solution set.

Rules for Inequalities

(1) A ≤ B ⇐⇒ A + C ≤ B + C
(2) A ≤ B ⇐⇒ A − C ≤ B − C
(3) If C > 0, then A ≤ B ⇐⇒ CA ≤ CB
(4) If C < 0, then A ≤ B ⇐⇒ CA ≥ CB
1 1
(5) If A > 0 and B > 0, then A ≤ B ⇐⇒ A
≥ B

(6) If A ≤ B and C ≤ D, then A + C ≤ B + D

Example 1.22. (a) Solve the inequality 3x < 9x + 4 and sketch

the solution set.
28
 Solution:

3x < 9x + 4

3x − 9x < 9x + 4 − 9x

−6x < 4
   
1 1
− > − (4)
6 6
2
x>−
3
The solution set is (−2/3, ∞). We can also represent the so-
lution on the number line as follows:

Figure 1.29.

(b) Solve the inequality 4 ≤ 3x − 2 < 13.

Solution:

4 ≤ 3x − 2 < 13

6 ≤ 3x < 15

2≤x<5
The solution set is [2, 5). We can also represent the solution
set on the number line:

Figure 1.30.

Activity 1.13. Solve the inequality. Express the solution using interval
notation and graph the solution set.
29
 (a) 3x + 11 < 5
(b) 5 − 3x ≤ −16
(c) 2(7x − 3) ≤ 12x + 16
1
(d) −3 ≤ 3x + 7 ≤ 2

(e) − 12 ≤ 4−3x
5
≤ 1
4

1.8. Nonlinear Inequalities

We look at how to find solutions for inequalities which are not linear
in this section.

1.8.1. Sign of a Product or Quotient. If a product or a quo-

tient has an even number of negative factors, then its value is positive.
Otherwise, if it has an odd number of negative factors, then its value
is negative.
For example, to solve x2 − 5x ≤ −6, we first move all terms to the left
hand side and factor to get

(x − 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0.

Since this product is supposed to be less than 0, we must determine

where the product is negative. Thus, the sign of the product depends
on the sign of the factors.
Guidelines for Solving Inequalities

(1) Move all factors to one side.

(2) Factor.
(3) Find the intervals. Determine the values for which each factor
is zero. These numbers will divide the real line into intervals.
List the intervals that are determined by these numbers
(4) Make a table or diagram with intervals as columns and factors
as rows. Include another row for the product of the factors.
30
 Use test values in the intervals to determine if a factor is pos-
itive or negative in the interval.
(5) Use the last row to determine whether the product is posi-
tive or negative in the intervals. In other words, find which
intervals satisfy the inequality.

Example 1.23. (a) Solve the inequality x2 ≤ 5x − 6. Solution:

– Move all terms to one side:

x2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0

– Factor:
(x − 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0

– Find the intervals: The zeros are x = 2 and x = 3.

(−∞, 2), (2, 3), (3, ∞)

– Make a table:

Figure 1.31.

31
 Figure 1.32.

– Solve: (x − 2)(x − 3) is negative on the interval (2, 3).

Thus, the solution of the inequality (x − 2)(x − 3) ≤ 0 is

x|2 ≤ x ≤ 3 = [2, 3].

(b) Solve the inequality x(x − 1)2 (x − 3) < 0.

Solution:
The terms are already on one side and the expression already
factored. So the zeros are x = 0, x = 1 and x = 3. So the
intervals are (−∞, 0), (0, 1), (1, 3), (3, ∞). Thus,

Figure 1.33.

From the diagram above, we see that x(x − 1)2 (x − 3) < 0

for x in the intervals (0, 1) and (1, 3). The solution set is the
union of these two intervals:

(0, 1) ∪ (1, 3).

We can also represent the solution on a number line as

follows:
32
 Figure 1.34.
1+x
(c) Solve the inequality 1−x
≥ 1. Solution:
We first move all terms to the left hand side:
1+x
≥1
1−x
1+x
−1≥0
1−x
1+x 1−x
− ≥0
1−x 1−x
1+x−1+x
≥0
1−x
2x
≥0
1−x
The intervals are (−∞, 0), (0, 1), (1, ∞). Thus,

Figure 1.35.

2x
We find that the interval where 1−x
≥ 0 is [0, 1).

Activity 1.14. Solve the nonlinear inequality. Express the solution in

interval notation and graph the solution set.
(a) x2 < x + 2
(b) (x − 2)2 (x − 3)(x + 1) ≤ 0
3 4
(c) x−1
− x
≥1
x+2 x−1
(d) x+3
< x−2

33
 Figure 1.36.

1.8.2. Absolute Value Inequalities.

Example 1.24. Solve the inequality:

(a) |x − 5| < 2, Solution:

This inequality is equivalent to

−2 < x − 5 < 2

3<x<7

The solution set is (3, 7).

Figure 1.37.

(b) |3x + 2| ≥ 4, Solution:

3x + 2 ≥ 4 or 3x + 2 ≤ −4

3x ≥ 2 3x ≤ −6
2
x≥ x ≤ −2
3
2
The solution set is {x|x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3
} = (−∞, −2] ∪
[2/3, ∞).
34
Activity 1.15. Solve the nonlinear inequality. Express the solution in
interval notation and graph the solution set.
(a) |5x − 2| < 6
 
(b)  x−2
3
<2
(c) 8 − |2x − 1| ≥ 6
 
(d)  x+1
2
≥4

35
 UNIT 2

Sets and Functions

2.1. Introduction

A certain amount of mathematical maturity is necessary to find and

study applications of abstract algebra. A basic knowledge of set theory,
equivalence relations, and functions is a must. Even more important
is the ability to read and understand mathematical proofs. In this
chapter we will outline the background needed for a course in abstract
algebra.

2.2. A Short Note on Proofs

Abstract mathematics is different from other sciences. In laboratory

sciences such as chemistry and physics, scientists perform experiments
to discover new principles and verify theories. Although mathematics
is often motivated by physical experimentation or by computer simu-
lations, it is made rigorous through the use of logical arguments. In
studying abstract mathematics, we take what is called an axiomatic
approach; that is, we take a collection of objects S and assume some
rules about their structure. These rules are called axioms. Using the
axioms for S, we wish to derive other information about S by using
logical arguments. We require that our axioms be consistent; that is,
they should not contradict one another. We also demand that there
not be too many axioms. If a system of axioms is too restrictive, there
will be few examples of the mathematical structure.
36
A statement in logic or mathematics is an assertion that is either true
or false. Consider the following examples:

• 3 + 56 − 13 + 8/2.
• All cats are black.
• 2 + 3 = 5.
• 2x = 6 exactly when x = 4.
• If ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a 6= 0, then
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

• x3 − 4x2 + 5x − 6.

All but the first and last examples are statements, and must be either
true or false.
A mathematical proof is nothing more than a convincing argument
about the accuracy of a statement. Such an argument should contain
enough detail to convince the audience; for instance, we can see that
the statement “2x = 6 exactly when x = 4” is false by evaluating 2 · 4
and noting that 6 6= 8, an argument that would satisfy anyone. Of
course, audiences may vary widely: proofs can be addressed to another
student, to a professor, or to the reader of a text. If more detail than
needed is presented in the proof, then the explanation will be either
long-winded or poorly written. If too much detail is omitted, then
the proof may not be convincing. Again it is important to keep the
audience in mind. High school students require much more detail than
do graduate students. A good rule of thumb for an argument in an
introductory abstract algebra course is that it should be written to
convince one’s peers, whether those peers be other students or other
readers of the text.
37
Let us examine different types of statements. A statement could be as
simple as “10/5 = 2”; however, mathematicians are usually interested
in more complex statements such as “If p, then q,” where p and q are
both statements. If certain statements are known or assumed to be
true, we wish to know what we can say about other statements. Here
p is called the hypothesis and q is known as the conclusion. Consider
the following statement: If ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a 6= 0, then
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

The hypothesis is ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a 6= 0; the conclusion is

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

Notice that the statement says nothing about whether or not the hy-
pothesis is true. However, if this entire statement is true and we can
show that ax2 + bx + c = 0 with a 6= 0 is true, then the conclusion
must be true. A proof of this statement might simply be a series of
equations:

ax2 + bx + c = 0
b c
x2 + x = −
a a
 2  2
b b b c
x2 + x + = −
a 2a 2a a
2
b2 − 4ac

b
x+ =
2a 4a2
√
b ± b2 − 4ac
x+ =
2a 2a
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
38
If we can prove a statement true, then that statement is called a propo-
sition. A proposition of major importance is called a theorem. Some-
times instead of proving a theorem or proposition all at once, we break
the proof down into modules; that is, we prove several supporting
propositions, which are called lemmas, and use the results of these
propositions to prove the main result. If we can prove a proposition or
a theorem, we will often, with very little effort, be able to derive other
related propositions called corollaries.

Cautions and Suggestions

There are several different strategies for proving propositions. In ad-

dition to using different methods of proof, students often make some
common mistakes when they are first learning how to prove theorems.
To aid students who are studying abstract mathematics for the first
time, we list here some of the difficulties that they may encounter and
some of the strategies of proof available to them. It is a good idea
to keep referring back to this list as a reminder. (Other techniques of
proof will become apparent throughout this chapter and the remainder
of the text.)

• A theorem cannot be proved by example; however, the stan-

dard way to show that a statement is not a theorem is to
provide a counterexample.
• Quantifiers are important. Words and phrases such as only,
for all, for every, and for some possess different meanings.
• Never assume any hypothesis that is not explicitly stated in
the theorem. You cannot take things for granted.
• Suppose you wish to show that an object exists and is unique.
First show that there actually is such an object. To show that
39
 it is unique, assume that there are two such objects, say r and
s, and then show that r = s.
• Sometimes it is easier to prove the contrapositive of a state-
ment. Proving the statement “If p, then q” is exactly the same
as proving the statement “If not q, then not p.”
• Although it is usually better to find a direct proof of a theorem,
this task can sometimes be difficult. It may be easier to assume
that the theorem that you are trying to prove is false, and to
hope that in the course of your argument you are forced to
make some statement that cannot possibly be true.

Remember that one of the main objectives of higher mathematics is

proving theorems. Theorems are tools that make new and productive
applications of mathematics possible. We use examples to give insight
into existing theorems and to foster intuitions as to what new the-
orems might be true. Applications, examples, and proofs are tightly
interconnected—much more so than they may seem at first appearance.

2.3. Set Theory

A set is a well-defined collection of objects; that is, it is defined in such

a manner that we can determine for any given object x whether or not
x belongs to the set. The objects that belong to a set are called its
elements or members. We will denote sets by capital letters, such as A
or X; if a is an element of the set A, we write a ∈ A.
A set is usually specified either by listing all of its elements inside a
pair of braces or by stating the property that determines whether or
not an object x belongs to the set. We might write

X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
40
for a set containing elements x1 , x2 , . . . , xn or

X = {x : x satisfies P}

if each x in X satisfies a certain property P. For example, if E is the

set of even positive integers, we can describe E by writing either

E = {2, 4, 6, . . .} or E = {x : x is an even integer and x > 0}.

We write 2 ∈ E when we want to say that 2 is in the set E, and −3 ∈

/E
to say that −3 is not in the set E.
Some of the more important sets that we will consider are the following:

N = {n : n is a natural number} = {1, 2, 3, . . .};

Z = {n : n is an integer} = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .};

Q = {r : r is a rational number} = {p/q : p, q ∈ Z where q 6= 0};

R = {x : x is a real number};

C = {z : z is a complex number}.

We find various relations between sets and can perform operations on

sets. A set A is a subset of B, written A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A, if every
element of A is also an element of B. For example,

{4, 5, 8} ⊂ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

and
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.

Trivially, every set is a subset of itself. A set B is a proper subset of

a set A if B ⊂ A but B 6= A. If A is not a subset of B, we write
A 6⊂ B; for example, {4, 7, 9} 6⊂ {2, 4, 5, 8, 9}. Two sets are equal,
written A = B, if we can show that A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.
41
It is convenient to have a set with no elements in it. This set is called
the empty set and is denoted by ∅. Note that the empty set is a subset
of every set.
To construct new sets out of old sets, we can perform certain operations:
the union A ∪ B of two sets A and B is defined as

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B};

the intersection of A and B is defined by

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

If A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 9}, then

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 9} and A ∩ B = {1, 3}.

We can consider the union and the intersection of more than two sets.
In this case we write
n
[
Ai = A1 ∪ . . . ∪ An
i=1

and
n
\
Ai = A1 ∩ . . . ∩ An
i=1
for the union and intersection, respectively, of the sets A1 , . . . , An .
When two sets have no elements in common, they are said to be disjoint;
for example, if E is the set of even integers and O is the set of odd
integers, then E and O are disjoint. Two sets A and B are disjoint
exactly when A ∩ B = ∅.
Sometimes we will work within one fixed set U , called the universal
set. For any set A ⊂ U , we define the complement of A, denoted by
A0 , to be the set

A0 = {x : x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A}.
42
We define the difference of two sets A and B to be

A \ B = A ∩ B 0 = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

Example 2.1. operations Let R be the universal set and suppose that

A = {x ∈ R : 0 < x ≤ 3} and B = {x ∈ R : 2 ≤ x < 4}.

Then

A ∩ B = {x ∈ R : 2 ≤ x ≤ 3}

A ∪ B = {x ∈ R : 0 < x < 4}

A \ B = {x ∈ R : 0 < x < 2}

A0 = {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0 or x > 3}.

Proposition 2.1. Let A, B, and C be sets. Then

(1) A ∪ A = A, A ∩ A = A, and A \ A = ∅;
(2) A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅;
(3) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C;
(4) A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A;
(5) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C);
(6) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Proof. We will prove (1) and (3) and leave the remaining results
to be proven in the exercises.
(1) Observe that

A ∪ A = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ A}

= {x : x ∈ A}

=A

43
and

A ∩ A = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ A}

= {x : x ∈ A}

= A.

Also, A \ A = A ∩ A0 = ∅.
(3) For sets A, B, and C,

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = A ∪ {x : x ∈ B or x ∈ C}

= {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B, or x ∈ C}

= {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} ∪ C

= (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

A similar argument proves that A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C. 

Theorem 2.1 (De Morgan’s Laws). Let A and B be sets. Then

(1) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 ;
(2) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 .

Proof. (1) We must show that (A ∪ B)0 ⊂ A0 ∩ B 0 and (A ∪ B)0 ⊃

A0 ∩ B 0 . Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)0 . Then x ∈
/ A ∪ B. So x is neither in A nor
in B, by the definition of the union of sets. By the definition of the
complement, x ∈ A0 and x ∈ B 0 . Therefore, x ∈ A0 ∩ B 0 and we have
(A ∪ B)0 ⊂ A0 ∩ B 0 .
To show the reverse inclusion, suppose that x ∈ A0 ∩ B 0 . Then x ∈ A0
and x ∈ B 0 , and so x ∈
/ A and x ∈
/ B. Thus x ∈
/ A ∪ B and so
x ∈ (A ∪ B)0 . Hence, (A ∪ B)0 ⊃ A0 ∩ B 0 and so (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 .
The proof of (2) is left as an exercise. 
44
Example 2.2. other relations Other relations between sets often hold
true. For example,
(A \ B) ∩ (B \ A) = ∅.

To see that this is true, observe that

(A \ B) ∩ (B \ A) = (A ∩ B 0 ) ∩ (B ∩ A0 )

= A ∩ A0 ∩ B ∩ B 0

= ∅.

2.4. Cartesian Products and Mappings

Given sets A and B, we can define a new set A×B, called the Cartesian
product of A and B, as a set of ordered pairs. That is,

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 2.3. cartesian products If A = {x, y}, B = {1, 2, 3}, and

C = ∅, then A × B is the set

{(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (y, 1), (y, 2), (y, 3)}

and
A × C = ∅.

We define the Cartesian product of n sets to be

A1 × · · · × An = {(a1 , . . . , an ) : ai ∈ Ai for i = 1, . . . , n}.

If A = A1 = A2 = · · · = An , we often write An for A × · · · × A (where

A would be written n times). For example, the set R3 consists of all of
3-tuples of real numbers.
Subsets of A × B are called relations. We will define a mapping or
function f ⊂ A × B from a set A to a set B to be the special type of
45
relation in which for each element a ∈ A there is a unique element b ∈ B
such that (a, b) ∈ f ; another way of saying this is that for every element
in A, f assigns a unique element in B. We usually write f : A → B
f
or A → B. Instead of writing down ordered pairs (a, b) ∈ A × B, we
write f (a) = b or f : a 7→ b. The set A is called the domain of f and

f (A) = {f (a) : a ∈ A} ⊂ B

is called the range or image of f . We can think of the elements in the

function’s domain as input values and the elements in the function’s
range as output values.

Figure 2.1. Mappings

Example 2.4. Suppose A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. In Figure 2.1

we define relations f and g from A to B. The relation f is a mapping,
46
but g is not because 1 ∈ A is not assigned to a unique element in B;
that is, g(1) = a and g(1) = b.

Given a function f : A → B, it is often possible to write a list de-

scribing what the function does to each specific element in the domain.
However, not all functions can be described in this manner. For exam-
ple, the function f : R → R that sends each real number to its cube is
a mapping that must be described by writing f (x) = x3 or f : x 7→ x3 .
Consider the relation f : Q → Z given by f (p/q) = p. We know that
1/2 = 2/4, but is f (1/2) = 1 or 2? This relation cannot be a mapping
because it is not well-defined. A relation is well-defined if each element
in the domain is assigned to a unique element in the range.
If f : A → B is a map and the image of f is B, i.e., f (A) = B, then
f is said to be onto or surjective . In other words, if there exists an
a ∈ A for each b ∈ B such that f (a) = b, then f is onto. A map is
one-to-one or injective if a1 6= a2 implies f (a1 ) 6= f (a2 ). Equivalently,
a function is one-to-one if f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) implies a1 = a2 . A map that
is both one-to-one and onto is called bijective .

Example 2.5. one to one onto Let f : Z → Q be defined by f (n) =

n/1. Then f is one-to-one but not onto. Define g : Q → Z by g(p/q) =
p where p/q is a rational number expressed in its lowest terms with a
positive denominator. The function g is onto but not one-to-one.

Given two functions, we can construct a new function by using the

range of the first function as the domain of the second function. Let
f : A → B and g : B → C be mappings. Define a new map, the
composition of f and g from A to C, by (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).
47
 Figure 2.2. Composition of maps

Example 2.6. Consider the functions f : A → B and g : B → C

that are defined in Figure 2.2(a). The composition of these functions,
g ◦ f : A → C, is defined in Figure 2.2(b).

Example 2.7. Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 5. Then

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = (2x + 5)2 = 4x2 + 20x + 25

and
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = 2x2 + 5.

In general, order makes a difference; that is, in most cases f ◦g 6= g ◦f .

Example 2.8. Sometimes it is the case that f ◦g = g◦f . Let f (x) = x3

√
and g(x) = 3 x. Then
√ √
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( 3 x ) = ( 3 x )3 = x

and
√
3
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x3 ) = x3 = x.
48
Example 2.9. Given a 2 × 2 matrix
 
a b
A= ,
c d

we can define a map TA : R2 → R2 by

TA (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy)

for (x, y) in R2 . This is actually matrix multiplication; that is,

    
a b x ax + by
   =  .
c d y cx + dy
Maps from Rn to Rm given by matrices are called linear maps or linear
transformations .

Example 2.10. Suppose that S = {1, 2, 3}. Define a map π : S → S

by
π(1) = 2, π(2) = 1, π(3) = 3.

This is a bijective map. An alternative way to write π is

   
1 2 3 1 2 3
 = .
π(1) π(2) π(3) 2 1 3
For any set S, a one-to-one and onto mapping π : S → S is called a
permutation of S.

Theorem 2.2. Let f : A → B, g : B → C, and h : C → D. Then

(1) The composition of mappings is associative; that is, (h◦g)◦f =
h ◦ (g ◦ f );
(2) If f and g are both one-to-one, then the mapping g ◦ f is one-
to-one;
(3) If f and g are both onto, then the mapping g ◦ f is onto;
(4) If f and g are bijective, then so is g ◦ f .
49
 Proof. We will prove (1) and (3). Part (2) is left as an exercise.
Part (4) follows directly from (2) and (3).
(1) We must show that

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.

For a ∈ A we have

(h ◦ (g ◦ f ))(a) = h((g ◦ f )(a))

= h(g(f (a)))

= (h ◦ g)(f (a))

= ((h ◦ g) ◦ f )(a).

(3) Assume that f and g are both onto functions. Given c ∈ C, we must
show that there exists an a ∈ A such that (g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)) = c.
However, since g is onto, there is a b ∈ B such that g(b) = c. Similarly,
there is an a ∈ A such that f (a) = b. Accordingly,

(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)) = g(b) = c.

If S is any set, we will use idS or id to denote the identity mapping

from S to itself. Define this map by id(s) = s for all s ∈ S. A map
g : B → A is an inverse mapping of f : A → B if g ◦ f = idA and
f ◦ g = idB ; in other words, the inverse function of a function simply
“undoes” the function. A map is said to be invertible if it has an
inverse. We usually write f −1 for the inverse of f .

√
Example 2.11. The function f (x) = x3 has inverse f −1 (x) = 3
x.

50
Example 2.12. The natural logarithm and the exponential functions,
f (x) = ln x and f −1 (x) = ex , are inverses of each other provided that
we are careful about choosing domains. Observe that

f (f −1 (x)) = f (ex ) = ln ex = x

and
f −1 (f (x)) = f −1 (ln x) = eln x = x

whenever composition makes sense.

Example 2.13. inverse matrix Suppose that

 
3 1
A= .
5 2

Then A defines a map from R2 to R2 by

TA (x, y) = (3x + y, 5x + 2y).

We can find an inverse map of TA by simply inverting the matrix A;

that is, TA−1 = TA−1 . In this example,
 
2 −1
A−1 =  ;
−5 3

hence, the inverse map is given by

TA−1 (x, y) = (2x − y, −5x + 3y).

It is easy to check that

TA−1 ◦ TA (x, y) = TA ◦ TA−1 (x, y) = (x, y).

Not every map has an inverse. If we consider the map

TB (x, y) = (3x, 0)
51
given by the matrix
 
3 0
B= ,
0 0
then an inverse map would have to be of the form

TB−1 (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy)

and
(x, y) = T ◦ TB−1 (x, y) = (3ax + 3by, 0)

for all x and y. Clearly this is impossible because y might not be 0.

Example 2.14. Given the permutation

 
1 2 3
π= 
2 3 1

on S = {1, 2, 3}, it is easy to see that the permutation defined by

 
1 2 3
π −1 =  
3 1 2

is the inverse of π. In fact, any bijective mapping possesses an inverse,

as we will see in the next theorem.

Theorem 2.3. A mapping is invertible if and only if it is both one-to-

one and onto.

Proof. Suppose first that f : A → B is invertible with inverse

g : B → A. Then g ◦ f = idA is the identity map; that is, g(f (a)) = a.
If a1 , a2 ∈ A with f (a1 ) = f (a2 ), then a1 = g(f (a1 )) = g(f (a2 )) = a2 .
Consequently, f is one-to-one. Now suppose that b ∈ B. To show that
f is onto, it is necessary to find an a ∈ A such that f (a) = b, but
f (g(b)) = b with g(b) ∈ A. Let a = g(b).
52
Now assume the converse; that is, let f be bijective. Let b ∈ B. Since
f is onto, there exists an a ∈ A such that f (a) = b. Because f is
one-to-one, a must be unique. Define g by letting g(b) = a. We have
now constructed the inverse of f . 

2.5. Equivalence Relations and Partitions

A fundamental notion in mathematics is that of equality. We can

generalize equality with the introduction of equivalence relations and
equivalence classes. An equivalence relation on a set X is a relation
R ⊂ X × X such that

• (x, x) ∈ R for all x ∈ X (reflexive property);

• (x, y) ∈ R implies (y, x) ∈ R ( symmetric property);
• (x, y) and (y, z) ∈ R imply (x, z) ∈ R ( transitive property).

Given an equivalence relation R on a set X, we usually write x ∼

y instead of (x, y) ∈ R. If the equivalence relation already has an
associated notation such as =, ≡, or ∼
=, we will use that notation.

Example 2.15. Let p, q, r, and s be integers, where q and s are

nonzero. Define p/q ∼ r/s if ps = qr. Clearly ∼ is reflexive and
symmetric. To show that it is also transitive, suppose that p/q ∼ r/s
and r/s ∼ t/u, with q, s, and u all nonzero. Then ps = qr and ru = st.
Therefore,

psu = qru = qst.

Since s 6= 0, pu = qt. Consequently, p/q ∼ t/u.

53
 Exercises

(1) Suppose that

A = {x : x ∈ N and x is even},

B = {x : x ∈ N and x is prime},

C = {x : x ∈ N and x is a multiple of 5}.

Describe each of the following sets.

(a) A ∩ B (c) A ∪ B
(b) B ∩ C (d) A ∩ (B ∪ C)

(2) If A = {a, b, c}, B = {1, 2, 3}, C = {x}, and D = ∅, list all of the
elements in each of the following sets.

(a) A × B (c) A × B × C
(b) B × A (d) A × D

(3) Find an example of two nonempty sets A and B for which A × B =

B × A is true.
(4) Prove A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅.
(5) Prove A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
(6) Prove A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
(7) Prove A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
(8) Prove A ⊂ B if and only if A ∩ B = A.
(9) Prove (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0 .
(10) Prove A ∪ B = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A).
(11) Prove (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C).
(12) Prove (A ∩ B) \ B = ∅.
(13) Prove (A ∪ B) \ B = A \ B.
(14) Prove A \ (B ∪ C) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C).
(15) Prove A ∩ (B \ C) = (A ∩ B) \ (A ∩ C).
54
(16) Prove (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B).
(17) Which of the following relations f : Q → Q define a mapping? In
each case, supply a reason why f is or is not a mapping.

p+1 p+q
(a) f (p/q) = (c) f (p/q) =
p−2 q2
3p 3p2 p
(b) f (p/q) = (d) f (p/q) = 2 −
3q 7q q

(18) Determine which of the following functions are one-to-one and

which are onto. If the function is not onto, determine its range.
(a) f : R → R defined by f (x) = ex
(b) f : Z → Z defined by f (n) = n2 + 3
(c) f : R → R defined by f (x) = sin x
(d) f : Z → Z defined by f (x) = x2
(19) Let f : A → B and g : B → C be invertible mappings; that is,
mappings such that f −1 and g −1 exist. Show that (g ◦ f )−1 =
f −1 ◦ g −1 .
(20) (a) Define a function f : N → N that is one-to-one but not onto.
(b) Define a function f : N → N that is onto but not one-to-one.
(a) If f and g are both one-to-one functions, show that g ◦ f is
one-to-one.
(b) If g ◦ f is onto, show that g is onto.
(c) If g ◦ f is one-to-one, show that f is one-to-one.
(d) If g ◦ f is one-to-one and f is onto, show that g is one-to-one.
(e) If g ◦ f is onto and g is one-to-one, show that f is onto.
(21) Define a function on the real numbers by

x+1
f (x) = .
x−1

What are the domain and range of f ? What is the inverse of f ?

Compute f ◦ f −1 and f −1 ◦ f .
(22) Let f : X → Y be a map with A1 , A2 ⊂ X and B1 , B2 ⊂ Y .
55
(a) Prove f (A1 ∪ A2 ) = f (A1 ) ∪ f (A2 ).
(b) Prove f (A1 ∩ A2 ) ⊂ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 ). Give an example in which
equality fails.
(c) Prove f −1 (B1 ∪ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∪ f −1 (B2 ), where

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ X : f (x) ∈ B}.

(d) Prove f −1 (B1 ∩ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∩ f −1 (B2 ).

(e) Prove f −1 (Y \ B1 ) = X \ f −1 (B1 ).

56
 UNIT 3

POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Definition 3.1. A polynomial function is a function defined by a polynomial

expression. A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

Polynomial functions of degree 0 and 1 are functions of the form P (x) = a0

and P (x) = a1 x + a0 , respectively. These functions are linear.
As the degree of a polynomial function increases, the shape of its graph
changes.

3.1. Quadratic Functions and Models

Definition 3.2. A quadratic function is a polynomial function of degree 2

and is of the form
P (x) = ax2 + bx + c.

A quadratic function can be expressed in standard form

f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k

by completing the square.

If we take a = 1 and b = c = 0, then f (x) = x2 , whose graph is a parabola.

So any graph of a quadratic function is a parabola and can be obtained from
the graph of f (x) = x2 by transformations.
Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c whose standard form is f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k. The
graph of f is a parabola with vertex (h, k). The parabola opens upward or
is cupped up if a > 0 and opens down or cupped down if a < 0.

Example 3.1. Let f (x) = 2x2 − 12x + 23.

57
 Figure 3.1.

(a) Express f in standard form.

Solution:
We need to complete the square:

f (x) = 2x2 − 12x + 23

= 2(x2 − 6x) + 23

= 2(x2 − 6x + 9) + 23 − 2(9)

= 2(x − 3)2 + 5

(a) Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
We have to follow the steps below to sketch the graph of f .
– Take the parabola y = x2 .
– Shift it to the right 3 units.
– Stretch it by a factor of 2.
– Move it upward 5 units.
What we get is the following:

58
 Figure 3.2.

Let’s look at another example.

Example 3.2. Sketch the graph of f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8 and identify the
vertex and x- intercepts.

Solution:
To identify the vertex, we need to complete the square.

f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8

= −1(x2 − 6x) − 8

= −1(x2 − 6x + 9) − 8 − (−1)(9)

= −1(x − 3)2 + 1

The vertex is (3, 1). Since a < 0, the parabola opens downward. The x-
intercepts are found by equating f (x) to zero.

−x2 + 6x − 8 = 0

−(x − 2)(x − 4) = 0

x − 2 = 0 =⇒ x = 2

x − 4 = 0 =⇒ x = 4

So the x-intercepts are (2, 0) and (4, 0). The graph is shown in the figure
below:
59
 Figure 3.3.

Activity 3.1. A quadratic function is given. (a) Express the quadratic

function in standard form. (b) Find its vertex and its x- and y-intercept(s).
(c) Sketch its graph.

(1) f (x) = x2 − 6x
(2) f (x) = −x2 + 6x + 4
(3) f (x) = −3x2 + 6x − 2
(4) f (x) = 6x2 + 12x − 5

60
 3.1.1. Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions.

Definition 3.3. Let f be a quadratic function with standard form f (x) =

a(x − h)2 + k. The maximum or minimum value of f occurs at x = h. If
a > 0, f (h) = k is the minimum value of f . If a < 0, f (h) = k is the
maximum value of f .

Figure 3.4.

The following example is about the minimum value of a function.

Example 3.3. Let f (x) = 5x2 − 30x + 49.

(a) Express f in standard form.

Solution:

f (x) = 5x2 − 30x + 49

= 5(x2 − 6x) + 49

= 5(x2 − 6x + 9) + 49 − 5(9)

= 5(x − 3)2 + 4
(b) Sketch the graph of f .
Solution:

– Take the parabola y = x2 .

– Shift it to the right 3 units.
– Stretch it by a factor of 5.
61
 Figure 3.5.

– Move it upward 4 units.

(c) Find the minimum value of f .
Solution:
Since the coefficient of x2 is positive, f has a minimum value. The
minimum value is f (3) = 4.

We give another example for a maximum value of a function.

Example 3.4. Let f (x) = −x2 + x + 2.

(a) Express f in standard form.

Solution:

f (x) = −x2 + x + 2

= −1(x2 − x) + 2
 
2 1 1
= −1(x − x + ) + 2 − (−1)
4 4
1 9
= −1(x − )2 +
2 4
(b) Sketch the graph of f .
Solution:
62
 Since a < 0, the graph opens downward. To sketch the graph, we
follow the steps below:
– Take the graph y = x2 .
1
– Shift to the right 2 units.
– Stretch by a factor of 1.
9
– Move up 4 units.
– We find the intercepts. It is clear that the y-intercept is f (0) =
2. The x-intercepts are are found by setting f (x) = 0. Thus,

−x2 + x + 2 = 0

x2 − x − 2 = 0

(x − 2)(x − 1) = 0

So the x-intercepts are x = 2 and x = 1.

Figure 3.6.

(c) Find the maximum value of f .

Solution:
1
= 49 .


The maximum value of f is f 2

If we are interested in just finding the minimum or maximum value, there is

a formula for that and it is obtained by completing the square the function
63
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Thus,

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
 
2 b
=a x + x +c
a
b 2
   2
b
=a x+ +c−a
2a 4a
b 2 b2
 
=a x+ +c−
2a 4a

b b2
So, h = − 2a and k = c − 4a .
Hence, the maximum or the minimum value of a quadratic function occurs
at
b
x=− .
2a

Example 3.5. Find the maximum or minimum value of each function.

(a) f (x) = x2 + 4x.

Solution:
All we need are values of a and b as in f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. So,
a = 1 and b = 4. Since a > 0, the function has a minimum value.
Then the minimum value of f occurs at

b 4
x=− =− = −2.
2a 2(1)

Hence, the minimum value of f is f (−2) = (−2)2 + 4(−2) =

−4.
(b) f (x) = −2x2 + 4x − 5.
Solution:
We have a = −2 and b = 4. Since a < 0, f has a maximum value
at
b 4
x=− =− = 1.
2a 2(−2)
Hence, the maximum value is f (1) = −2(1)2 + 4(1) − 5 = −3.
64
Activity 3.2. A quadratic function is given. (a) Express the quadratic
function in standard form. (b) Sketch its graph. (c) Find its maximum or
minimum value.

(1) f (x) = x2 − 8x + 8
(2) f (x) = −x2 − 3x + 3
(3) f (x) = 1 − 6x − x2
(4) f (x) = 3 − x − 12 x2

3.1.2. Modeling with Quadratic Functions. We study some exam-

ples of real world phenomena that are modeled by quadratic functions.

Example 3.6. Most cars get their best gas mileage when traveling at a
relatively modest speed. The gas mileage M for a certain new car is modeled
by the function
1 2
M (s) = − s + 3s − 31, 15 ≤ s ≤ 70
28
where s is the speed in mi/h and M is measured in mi/gal. What is the
car’s best gas mileage, and at what speed is it attained?
Solution:
1
What we need is the maximum value of M . We have a = − 28 and b = 3.
The maximum value of the function M occurs at
b 3
s=− =− = 42.
2a 2(−1/28)
The maximum value of the function is
1
M (42) = − (42)2 + 3(42) − 31 = 32.
28
Therefore, the car’s best mileage is 32 mi/gal when it is travelling at
42 mi/h.

Activity 3.3. (1) If a ball is thrown directly upward with a velocity of

40 ft/s, its height (in feet) after t seconds is given by y = 40t−16t2 .
What is the maximum height attained by the ball?
65
 (2) A manufacturer finds that the revenue generated by selling x units
of a certain commodity is given by the function R(x) = 80x −
0.4x2 , where the revenue R(x) is measured in dollars. What is the
maximum revenue, and how many units should be manufactured to
obtain this maximum?
(3) The effectiveness of a television commercial depends on how many
times a viewer watches it. After some experiments an advertising
agency found that if the effectiveness E is measured on a scale of
0 to 10, then
2 1
E(n) = n − n2
3 90
where n is the number of times a viewer watches a given commer-
cial. For a commercial to have maximum effectiveness, how many
times should a viewer watch it?
(4) A community bird-watching society makes and sells simple bird
feeders to raise money for its conservation activities. The materi-
als for each feeder cost $6, and the society sells an average of 20
per week at a price of $10 each. The society has been considering
raising the price, so it conducts a survey and finds that for every
dollar increase, it loses 2 sales per week.
(a) Find a function that models weekly profit in terms of price per
feeder.
(b) What price should the society charge for each feeder to maxi-
mize profits? What is the maximum weekly profit?

3.2. Polynomial Functions and their Graphs

We know that a polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where n is a non-negative integer and an 6= 0.

66
The numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are called coefficients of the polynomial.
In the polynomial, a0 is known as the constant coefficient or constant
term, an is known as the leading coefficient and an xn is known as the
leading term.

Figure 3.7.

Example 3.7.

If a polynomial consists of a single term, it is known as a monomial. Ex-

amples are f (x) = x3 , f (x) = x5 . In general, any polynomial of the form
f (x) = axn where a and n are integers is a monomial.

3.2.1. Graphing Basic Polynomial Functions. We know that

graphs of polynomials of degree 0 and 1 are lines and those of degree 2
are parabolas. The greater the degree of a polynomial, the more compli-
cated its graph can be. However, the graph of a polynomial function is
continuous. The graph has no breaks or holes. It is a smooth curve. Check
the figure below:

67
 Figure 3.8.

The simplest polynomial functions are the monomials P (x) = xn . Some of

their graphs are shown in the figure below:

Figure 3.9.

As the figure shows, when n is even, the shape of the graph is similar to the
shape of the graph of f (x) = x2 , and when n is odd, the shape of the graph
is similar to the shape of f (x) = x3 .
The following are examples of some graphs of polynomials with degree
greater than 2.

Example 3.8. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

(a) P (x) = −x3 ,

Solution:
The graph of P (x) = −x3 is just the reflection of the graph of
y = x3 in the x-axis.
68
 Figure 3.10.

(b) Q(x) = (x − 2)4 ,

Solution:
This is just the graph of y = x4 shifted to the right 2 units.
(c) R(x) = −2x5 + 4.
Solution:
We start with the graph of y = x5 . The negative in the first term
of R(x) = −2x5 + 4 means we reflect the graph of y = x5 on the x-
axis, the 2 in that first term means we stretch the graph vertically 2
units, and lastly, the +4 means we shift the graph 4 units upwards.
See the figure below.

Figure 3.11.

69
Activity 3.4. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(1) P (x) = x2 − 4
(2) Q(x) = (x − 4)2
(3) P (x) = x4 − 16
(4) Q(x) = −2(X + 2)4

3.2.2. End-Behaviour of the Leading Term. The end-behaviour

is just the description of what happens as x becomes large in the positive
or negative direction, i.e.,

• x → ∞ means ”x becomes large in the positive direction,

• x → ∞ means ”x becomes large in the negative direction.

Example 3.9. Look at the function y = x2 . No matter the direction that

the value of x gets large, the value of y is always positive. Thus as x → ∞,
y → ∞ and as x → −∞, y → ∞.

The end-behaviour is determined by the term that contains the highest

power of x because when x is large, the other terms are relatively insignifi-
cant in size. Below are the four possible types of end-behaviours:

Figure 3.12. End-behaviour possible types

Example 3.10. Determine the end-behaviour of the following polynomials:

70
 (a) P (x) = −2x4 + 5x3 + 4x − 7,
Solution:
P has degree 4 and leading coefficient −2. Thus, P has even degree
and negative leading coefficient. So, y → −∞ as x → ∞ and
y → −∞ as x → −∞.

Figure 3.13.

(b) P (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 + 2x,

Solution:
The leading coefficient is positive and the leading term has an odd
degree 5. Then the end behaviour of the function is: y → ∞ as
x → ∞ and y → −∞ as x → −∞.

Activity 3.5. Determine the end behavior of the following functions.

(1) P (x) = 3x3 − x2 + 5x + 1

(2) Q(x) = x4 − 7x2 + 5x + 5
(3) P (x) = −x5 + 2x2 + x
(4) Q(x) = x11 − x9

3.2.3. Using Zeros to Graph Polynomials. If P is a polynomial,

then c is called a zero if P (c) = 0. In other words, zeros of a polynomial
are solutions to the equation P (x) = 0. These zeros are the x-intercepts of
the polynomial.

Example 3.11 (Real Zeros of a Polynomial). If P is a polynomial and c is

a real number, then the following are equivalent:
71
 1. c is a zero of P ;
• x = c is a solution of the equation P (x) = 0;
• x − c is a factor of P (x);
• c is an x-intercept of the graph of P .

Theorem 3.1 (Intermediate Value Theorem for Polynomials). If P is a

polynomial function and P (a) and P (b) have opposite signs, then there exists
at least one value c between a and b for which P (c) = 0.

The following are the guidelines for graphing polynomial functions:

Figure 3.14.

Example 3.12. Sketch the graph of the polynomial function

P (x) = (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3).
Solution:

• The zeros are −2, 1 and 3.

• These zeros provide the intervals (−∞, −2), (−2, 1), (1, 3) and
(3, ∞).
• It is clear that P (x) has odd degree. Thus, the end behavior is that
y → ∞ as x → ∞ and y → −∞ as x → −∞.
72
 • We get test points in these intervals to get information in the sign
diagram below.

Figure 3.15.

Plotting a few additional points and connecting them with a

smooth curve helps us to complete the graph as below.

Figure 3.16.

Example 3.13. Let P (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x.

(a) Find zeros of P .

Solution:
We need to factor P (x) completely.

P (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x

= x(x2 − 2x − 3)

= x(x − 3)(x + 1)
73
 So the zeros are x = 0, x = 3 and x = −1.
(b) Sketch the graph of P .
Solution:
From the zeros, we come up with the following intervals: (−∞, −1),
(−1, 0), (0, 3) and (3, ∞). Since P has odd degree, the end behavior
is as follows: y → ∞ as x → ∞ and y → −∞ as x → −∞. With
plotting a few more points and connecting them by a smooth curve,
we get the following graph:

Figure 3.17.

Activity 3.6. Sketch the graph of the polynomial function. Make sure your
graph shows all intercepts and exhibits the proper end behavior.

(1) P (x) = x(x − 3)(x + 2)

(2) P (x) = (2x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)
1 2 2
(3) P (x) = 12 (x + 2) (x − 3)
(4) P (x) = x3 (x + 2)(x − 3)2

3.2.4. Shape of the Graph Near a Zero. If c is a zero of P and the

corresponding factor x − c occurs exactly m times in the factorisation of P ,
then c has multiplicity m. For example, for P (x) = x4 (x − 2)3 (x + 1)2 ,
x = 2 has multiplicity 3 and x = −1 has multiplicity 2.
Near x = c, the graph has the same general shape as the graph of y =
A(x − c)m . If c is a zero of P of multiplicity m, then the shape of the graph
of P near C is as follows:
74
 Figure 3.18.

Example 3.14. Graph the polynomial P (x) = x4 (x − 2)3 (x + 1)2 .

Solution:

• The zeros are −1, 0 and 2 with multiplicity 2, 4 and 3.

• 2 has odd multiplicity, so the graph crosses the x-axis at 2. But
0 and −1 have even multiplicity so the graph does not cross the
x-axis at 0 and −1.
• P has odd degree 9 and has positive leading coefficient. So the end
behavior is: y → ∞ as x → ∞ and y → −∞ as x → −∞
• The graph is as follows

Activity 3.7. Graph the following polynomials functions.

(1) P (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 8x

(2) P (x) = x4 − 3x3 + 2x2
(3) P (x) = x5 − 9x3
(4) P (x) = 2x3 − x2 − 18x + 9

3.2.5. Local Maxima and Minima of Polynomials. Let f be a

polynomial function and (a, f (a)) be the highest point on the graph of f
within some viewing rectangle, then f (a) is a local maximum value of f
and (a, f (a)) is a local maximum point.
75
 Figure 3.19.

If (a, f (a)) is the lowest point on the graph of f , then f (a) is the local
minimum value of f and (a, f (a)) is a local minimum point of f .

Figure 3.20.

76
Local Extrema of Polynomials
If P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial of degree n, then
the graph of P has at most n − 1 local extrema.

Example 3.15. Determine how many local extrema each polynomial has.

(a) P (x) = x4 + x3 − 16x2 − 4x + 48

Solution:
P has two local minimum points and one local maximum point
making it a total of 3 local extrema.

Figure 3.21.

(b) Q(x) = x5 + 3x4 − 5x3 − 15x2 + 4x − 15

Solution:
Q has two local minimum points and two local maximum points
making it a total of 4 local extrema.
(c) R(x) = 7x4 + 3x2 − 10x
Solution:
R has one local extrema, a local minimum point.

Activity 3.8. Graph the following polynomial functions and find all local
extrema.

(1) y = x3 − x2 − x
(2) y = x4 − 5x2 + 4
(3) P (x) = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
77
 Figure 3.22.

Figure 3.23.

(4) P (x) = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4) + 5

3.3. Dividing Polynomials

Division Algorithm
If P (x) and D(x) are polynomials, with D(x) 6= 0, then there exists unique
polynomials Q(x) and R(x), where R(x) is either 0 or of degree less than
the degree of D(x), such that

P (x) = D(x) · Q(x) + R(x).

The polynomials P (x) and D(x) are called the dividend and divisor, re-
spectively. The polynomials Q(x) and R(x) are called the quotient and the
remainder, respectively.
78
When dividing polynomials, there are two methods that are used, long di-
vision and synthetic division. We will mostly use synthetic division.

3.3.1. Synthetic Division. Synthetic division is a quick method of

dividing polynomials. This method can be used when the divisor is of the
form x − c. Only the essential parts are written. Look at the example below:

Figure 3.24.

The process starts with writing down the coefficients as follows:

Figure 3.25.

79
We then bring down the 2 and multiply it with 3, i.e., 2 · 3 = 6. We then
write 6 below −7 and add getting −1.

Figure 3.26.

We then multiply 3 with −1, i.e., 3 · −1 = −3 and write it below 0. We then

add getting −3. We do the same for the last column.

Figure 3.27.

Activity 3.9. Two polynomials P (x) and D(x) are given. Use either syn-
thetic or long division to divide P (x) by D(x).

(1) P (x) = 3x2 + 5x − 4, D(x) = x + 3

(2) P (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 2x, D(x) = 2x − 3
(3) P (x) = x4 − x3 + 4x + 2, D(x) = x2 + 3
(4) P (x) = 2x5 + 4x4 − 4x3 − x − 3, D(x) = x2 − 2

3.3.2. Remainder and Factor Theorem.

80
Theorem 3.2 (Remainder Theorem). If a polynomial P (x) is divided by
x − c, then the remainder is the value P (c).

Example 3.16. Let P (x) = 3x5 + 5x4 − 4x3 + 7x + 3.

• Find the quotient and remainder when P is divided by x + 2.

Solution:
We use synthetic division as follows

Figure 3.28.

So the quotient is Q(x) = 3x4 − x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 1 and the

remainder is 5.
• Use the Remainder Theorem to find P (−2).
Solution:
By the Remainder Theorem, P (−2) is the remainder when P (x) is
divided by x − (−2) = x + 2. Thus, the remainder is P (−2) = 5.

Theorem 3.3 (Factor Theorem). c is a zero of P if and only if x − c is a

factor of P (x).

Example 3.17. Let P (x) = x3 − 7x + 6. Show that P (1) = 0 and use this
fact to factor P (x) completely.

Solution:
We have that

P (1) = (1)3 − 7(1) + 6 = 0.

So x − 1 is a factor of P (x). We then use synthetic division as follows

81
 Figure 3.29.

So the quotient is Q(x) = x2 + x − 6. Then

P (x) = (x − 1)(x2 + x − 6)

= (x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)

Example 3.18. Find a polynomial of degree 4 that has zeros −3, 0, 1 and
5.
Solution:
By Factor Theorem, x + 3, x − 0, x − 1 and x − 5 are factors. Then

P (x) = (x − 0)(x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 5)

= x4 + 3x3 − 13x2 + 15x

Activity 3.10. (1) Use synthetic division and the Remainder Theo-
rem to evaluate P (c).
(a) P (x) = 4x2 + 12x + 5, c = −1
(b) P (x) = x7 − 3x2 − 1, c = 3
(2) Find a polynomial of degree 3 that has zeros 1, −2, and 3 and in
which the coefficient of x2 is 3.
(3) Find a polynomial of degree 4 that has integer coefficients and zeros
1, −1, 2, and 12 .

3.3.3. Real zeros of Polynomials.

Theorem 3.4 (Real Zeros Theorem). If the polynomial P (x) = an xn +

an−1 xn−1 + . . . a1 x + a0 has integer coefficients, then every rational zero of
P is of the form p/q, where p is a factor of the constant coefficient a0 and
q is a factor of the leading coefficient of an .
82
Finding the Rational Zeros of a Polynomial

1. List all possible zeros. List all possible rational zeros, using
the Rational Zeros Theorem.
2. Divide. Use synthetic division to evaluate the polynomial at
each of the candidates for the rational zeros that you found in Step
1. When the remainder is 0, note the quotient you have obtained.
3. Repeat. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for the quotient. Stop when you
reach a quotient that is quadratic or factors easily, and use the
quadratic formula or factor to find the remaining zeros.

Activity 3.11. Find all rational zeros of the polynomial, and write the
polynomial in factored form.

(1) P (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4

(2) P (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 8
(3) P (x) = x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 10
(4) P (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4
(5) P (x) = 4x3 − 7x + 3
(6) P (x) = 4x4 − 25x2 + 36
(7) P (x) = 6x3 + 11x2 − 3x − 2
(8) P (x) = x5 + 3x4 − 9x3 − 31x2 + 36

3.4. Rational Functions

Definition 3.4. A Rational Function is a function of the form

p(x)
r(x) =
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials. We assume P (x) and Q(x) have no factor
in common.

When graphing rational functions, we pay attention to the behavior of the

graph near the x-values.
83
 1
Example 3.19. Graph the rational function f (x) = X, and state the do-
main and range.
Solution:
1
The function f (x) = x is not defined for x = 0. We come up with table of
values for values of x closer to x = 0 from the negative side and from the
positive side.

Figure 3.30.

We also show how f (x) changes as |x| becomes large.

Figure 3.31.

So f (x) → 0 as x → −∞ and f (x) → 0 as x → −∞. The following is a

table of values for f (x) = x1 .

84
 Figure 3.32.

Figure 3.33.

The behavior explained in the example above has the following meaning:

Figure 3.34.

The line x = 0 in the above example is called a vertical asymptote and

the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

3.4.1. Transformations of f (x) = x1 . A rational function of the form

ax + b
r(x) =
cx + d
85
 Figure 3.35.

can be graphed by shifting, stretching and/or reflecting the graph of f (x) =

1
x. These functions are known as fractional transformations.

Example 3.20. Graph the following functions:

2
(a) r(x) = x−3
Solution:
We can express r(x) in terms of f (x) = x1
 
2 1
r(x) = =2 = 2(f (x − 3))
x−3 x−3
1
So we shift the graph of f (x) = x 3 units to the right and
stretch vertically by a factor of 2.
The domain of r(x) is {x|x 6= 3} since the function r(x) is
defined for all x other than 3. The range of r(x) is {y|y 6= 0}
3x+5
(b) s(x) = x+2
Solution:
1 1
Let f (x) = x. Using long division, we get s(x) = 3 − x+2 . So
s(x) = 3 − f (x + 2).
86
 Figure 3.36.

We therefore reflect the graph of f (x) on the x-axis. We also

shift it to the left 2 units and shift it upwards 3 units.

Figure 3.37.

87
 1
Activity 3.12. Use transformations of the graph of y = x to graph the
rational function.
1
(1) r(x) = x+4
2x−3
(2) s(x) = x−2
3x−3
(3) t(x) = x+2
2x−9
(4) r(x) = x−4

Figure 3.38.

3.4.2. Asymptotes of Rational Functions.

Example 3.21. Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of

3x2 − 2x − 1
r(x) = .
2x2 + 3x − 2

Solution:
Factor the denominator:

2x2 + 3x − 2 = (2x − 1)(x + 2).

1 1
Thus, x = 2 or x = −2. So the vertical asymptotes are the lines x = 2 and
x = −2.
To find the horizontal asymptotes, we look at the degrees of the numerator
and denominator and compare them according to the conditions mentioned
earlier. Thus we find that the degrees of the numerator and the denominator
88
are the same. Then the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 32 , i.e.,
leading coefficient of numerator 3
=
leading coefficient of denominator 2
If we graph the function using a graphing device, we get

Figure 3.39.

Activity 3.13. Find all horizontal and vertical asymptotes (if any).
5
(1) r(x) = x−2
2x−4
(2) r(x) = x2 +x+1
6x3 −2
(3) r(x) = 2x3 +5x2 +6x
x3 +3x2
(4) r(x) = x2 −4

3.4.3. Graphing Rational Functions. The guidelines for sketching

the graphs of rational functions are outlined below:

89
 Figure 3.40.
2x2 +7x−4
Example 3.22. Graph r(x) = x2 +x−2
, and state the domain and range.
Solution:
Factor: We factor the numerator and denominator.
2x2 + 7x − 4 (2x − 1)(x + 4)
y= 2
= .
x +x−2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
1
x-intercepts: The x intercepts are the zeros of the numerator, x = 2 and
x = −4.
y-intercepts: We substitute x = 0 in r(x) to find the y-intercept:
2(0)2 + 7(0) − 4 −4
y= = = 2.
02 + 0 − 2 −2
Vertical asymptotes: These occur where the denominator is 0. So the
vertical asymptotes are the zeros of the denominator, x = 1 and x = −2.
Behavior near vertical asymptotes: We need to determine the behavior
of the function towards each asymptote. To do that, we use test values. The
following table shows whether y → ∞ or y → −∞ from each side of the
vertical asymptotes.

90
 Figure 3.41.

Horizontal asymptote: We look at the degrees of the numerator and

denominator. The degrees of the numerator and denominator are the same.
So, the horizontal asymptote is

leading coefficient of numerator 2

= =2
leading coefficient of denominator 1
Thus, the horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.
Graph: With some additional information as in the table below, And then

Figure 3.42.

we plot the graph:

Activity 3.14. Find the intercepts and asymptotes, and then sketch a graph
of the rational function and state the domain and range.
4x−4
(1) r(x) = x+2
18
(2) r(x) = (x−3)3
2x−4
(3) r(x) = x2 +x−2
(x−1)(x+2)
(4) r(x) = (x+1)(x−3)

91
 Figure 3.43.

3.4.4. Slant Asymptotes and End Behavior. For a rational func-

tion r(x) = P (x)/Q(x), in which the degree of the numerator is one more
than the degree of the denominator, we use the Division Algorithm to ex-
press r(x) in the form
R(x)
r(x) = ax + b +
Q(x)
where the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of Q(x). It means as
x → ±∞, R(x)/Q(x) → 0. This means for large values of |x| the graph of
r(x) approaches the graph of the line y = ax + b.
The line y = ax+b is known as a slant asymptote or oblique asymptote.

x2 −4x−5
Example 3.23. Graph the rational function r(x) = x−3 .
Solution:
Factor:

(x + 1)(x − 5)
r(x) = .
x−3
x-intercepts:

−1and5.

y-intercepts:

5
r(0) = .
3
92
Horizontal asymptote: There is no horizontal asymptote since the degree
of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator.
Vertical asymptote:
x=3

Behavior near vertical asymptote: y → ∞ as x → 3− and y → −∞

as x → 3+ .
Slant asymptote: Using long division, Then

Figure 3.44.

8
r(x) = x − 1 − .
x−3
Thus, the slant asymptote is y = x − 1.
Graph: With a few additional data points as below

Figure 3.45.

we then plot the graph:

93
 Figure 3.46.

Activity 3.15. Find the slant asymptote, the vertical asymptotes, and
sketch a graph of the function.
x2
(1) r(x) = x−2
x2 −2x−8
(2) r(x) = x
x3 +4
(3) r(x) = 2x2 +x−1
2x3 +2x
(4) r(x) = x2 −1

94
 UNIT 4

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS

Exponential Functions are functions where the independent variable is in

the exponent, e.g., f (x) = 2x . These are used for modeling many real world
phenomena such as growth of a population. They can be used to predict
population size at any given time. To find out when a population will reach
a certain level, we use the inverse functions of exponential functions called
logarithmic functions.

4.1. Exponential Functions

Definition 4.1. The exponential function with base a is defined for all real
numbers x by
f (x) = ax

where a > 0 and a 6= 1.

We assume a 6= 1 because f (x) = 1x = 1 is just a constant function.

Example 4.1. Let f (x) = 3x , and evaluate the following:

(a) f (2),
Solution:
f (2) = 32 = 9.
(b) f (−2/3).
Solution:
f (−2/3) = 3−2/3 ≈ 0.4807.

Activity 4.1. Use a calculator to evaluate the function at the indicated

values. Round your answers to three decimals.
95
 √
(a) f (x) = 4x ; f (0.5), f ( 2), f (−π), f ( 1[ 3]).

2x √
(b) g(x) = 43 ; g(0.7), g( 7/2), g(1/π), g(2/3).

4.1.1. Graphs of Exponential Functions. The exponential function

f (x) = ax (a > 0, a 6= 1)

has domain R̊ and range (0, ∞). The line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal
asymptote of f . The graph of f has one of the following shapes:

Figure 4.1.

Example 4.2. Find the exponential function f (x) = ax whose graph is

given.

Figure 4.2.

Solution:

(a) From the point (2, 25), we get that f (2) = a2 = 25. Then base
a = 5. So f (x) = 5x .
96
 1
(b) From the point (3, 1/8), we also get that f (3) = a3 = 8. Then

x
base a = 12 . So f (x) = 12 .

Activity 4.2. Sketch the graph of the function by making a table of values.
Use a calculator if necessary.

(a) g(x) = 8x
1 x


(b) f (x) = 3

x
(c) h(x) = 2 14
(d) f (x) = (1.1)x

4.1.2. Transformations of Exponential Functions.

4.1.2.1. Functions of the form f (x) = −ax and g(x) = a−x . To graph
the function f (x) = −ax , start with the graph of y = ax and reflect it on
the x-axis.

Example 4.3. Graph the function h(x) = −2x .

Solution:
Start with the graph of f (x) = 2x and reflect it on the x-axis to get the graph
of h(x) = −2x .

Figure 4.3.

To graph the function g(x) = a−x , start with the graph of y = ax and reflect
it on the y-axis.
97
Example 4.4. Graph the function g(x) = 2−x .
Solution:
Start with the graph of f (x) = 2x and reflect it on the y-axis to get the graph
of g(x) = 2−x .

Figure 4.4.

98
 4.1.2.2. Graphs of functions of the form f (x) = b + ax . To graph these
functions, we need to start with the graph of y = ax and shift it b units
upwards if b > 0 or shift it b units downwards if b < 0.

Example 4.5. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 1 + 2x .

Solution:
Start with the graph of y = 2x and shift it 1 unit upward to get the graph of
f (x) = 1 + 2x .

Figure 4.5.

4.1.2.3. Graphs of functions of the form f (x) = ax+b . To graph func-

tions of this form, we start with the graph of y = ax and shift it b units left
if b > 0 or shift it b units right if b < 0.

Example 4.6. Sketch the graph of k(x) = 2x−1 .

Solution:
Start with the graph of y = 2x , shift it to the right 1 unit to get the graph of
k(x) = 2x−1 .

Activity 4.3. Graph the following functions. State the domain, range and
asymptote.
99
 Figure 4.6.

(a) f (x) = 2x − 3
1 x


(b) h(x) = 4 + 2
(c) g(x) = 10x+3
(d) y = 2x−4 + 1

4.1.3. Compound Interest.

Definition 4.2. Compound Interest is calculated by the formula

 r nt
A(t) = P 1 +
n
where A(t) is the amount after t years, P is the principal, r is the interest
rate per year, n is the number of times interest is compounded per year and
t, the number years.

Example 4.7. A sum of $1000 is invested at an interest rate of 12% per

year. Find the amounts in the account after 3 years if interest is compounded
annually, semiannually, quarterly, monthly, and daily.

Solution:
We use the compound interest formula
 r nt
A(t) = P 1 +
n
with P = $1000, r = 0.12, and t = 3.
100
 Figure 4.7.

Activity 4.4. 1. Sketch the graphs of the following functions and ex-
plain the relationship between them.
(a) f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 3(2x );
(b) f (x) = 9x/2 and g(x) = 3x .
2. If $10,000 is invested at an interest rate of 3% per year, com-
pounded semiannually, find the value of the investment after the
given number of years. (a) 5 years (b) 10 years (c) 15
years.

4.2. The Natural Exponential Function

The natural exponential function is similar to the other exponential func-

tions except for the base. It uses a number e as the base.

1 n


Definition 4.3. The number e is defined as the value that 1 + n ap-
proaches as n becomes large.

1 n


The table below shows the value that 1 + n approaches for increasingly
large values of n.
In particular, e ≈ 2.71828182845904523536.

Definition 4.4. The Natural Exponential Function is the function

f (x) = ex with base e. It is often referred to as just the exponential function.
101
 Figure 4.8.

Since 2 < e < 3, the graph of f (x) = ex lies between the graphs of y = 2x
and y = 3x .

Figure 4.9.

The natural exponential function can be evaluated using a calculator.

Example 4.8. Evaluate each expression rounded to 5 decimal places:

(a) e3 ≈ 20.08554.
(b) 2e−0.53 ≈ 1.17721.
(c) e4.8 ≈ 121.51042.

Activity 4.5. Use a calculator to evaluate the function at the indicated

values. Round your answers to three decimals.
102
 (a) f (x) = ex ; f (3), f (0.23), f (1), f (−2).
√
(b) h(x) = e−2x ; h(1), h( 2), h(−3), h( 21 ).

4.2.1. Transformation of Exponential Functions. The transfor-

mations of these functions are the same as those done on other exponential
functions as explained earlier in the chapter.

Example 4.9. Sketch the graph of each function:

(a) f (x) = e−x ,

Solution:
We start with the graph of y = ex and reflect it on the y-axis.

Figure 4.10.

(b) f (x) = 3e0.5x ,

Solution:
We come up with a table of values as below. Then we plot the
resulting points and connect them with a smooth curve.

Activity 4.6. 1. Graph the function, not by plotting points, but by

starting from the graph of y = ex . State the domain, range and
asymptote.
(a) y = 1 − ex
(b) f (x) = e−x − 1
(c) y = ex−3 + 4
103
 Figure 4.11.

(d) f (x) = −ex−1 − 2

2. Find the local maximum and minimum values of the function and
the value of x at which each occurs. State each answer correct to
two decimal places.
(a) g(x) = xx
(b) g(x) = ex + e−3x
3. A sky diver jumps from a reasonable height above the ground. The
air resistance she experiences is proportional to her velocity, and
the constant of proportionality is 0.2. It can be shown that the
downward velocity of the sky diver at time t is given by

v(t) = 80(1 − e−0.2t )

where t is measured in seconds and v(t) is measured in f t/sec.

(a) Find the initial velocity of the sky diver.
(b) Find the velocity after 5 s and after 10 s.
(c) Draw a graph of the velocity function v(t).
(d) The maximum velocity of a falling object with wind resistance
is called its terminal velocity. From the graph in part (c) find
the terminal velocity of this sky diver.

4.3. Logarithmic Functions

Every exponential funtion f (x) = ax with a > 0 and a 6= 1 is a one-to-one

function by the horizontal line test and therefore has an inverse function.
104
The inverse function f −1 of the exponential function is called the logarithm
function with base a and is denoted by loga .

Definition 4.5. Let a be a positive number with a 6= 1. The logarithm

function with base a denoted by loga is defined by

loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x.

So loga x is the exponent to which the base a must be raised to give x.

Example 4.10. The logarithmic and exponential forms are equivalent equa-
tions: If one is true, then so is the other. So we can switch from one form
to the other as in the following illustrations.

Figure 4.12.

Example 4.11. Evaluate the following logarithms:

(a) log1 01000 = 3 because 103 = 1000.

(b) log2 32 = 5 because 25 = 32.

With the following properties of logarithms, we will find it easier to

understand the above examples.

Properties of Logarithms:

1. loga 1 = 0,
2. loga a = 1,
3. loga ax = x,
4. aloga x = x.
105
Activity 4.7. (1) Evaluate the expression.
(a) log2 32
(b) log8 827
(c) log49 7
(d) 3log3 8
(2) Use the definition of the logarithmic function to find x.
(a) log2 x = 5
(b) log4 2 = x
(c) log2 16 = x
(d) log10 0.1 = x

4.3.1. Graphing Logarithmic Functions. Since the exponential

function f (x) = ax with a 6= 1 has domain R̊ and range (0, ∞), its inverse
function f −1 (x) = loga x has domain (0, ∞) and range R̊.
The graph of f −1 (x) = loga x is obtained by reflecting the graph of f (x) = ax
in the line y = x.

Figure 4.13.

Example 4.12. Sketch the graph of f (x) = log2 x.

Solution:
We make a table of values and choose the x values to be powers of 2 so we
can find their logarithms easily.
106
 Figure 4.14.

The following graphs are graphs of logarithmic functions with bases 2,3, 5,
and 10.

Figure 4.15.

It is clear to see that these graphs are obtained by reflecting the graphs of
y = 2x , y = 3x , y = 5x , and y = 10x in the line y = x.

4.3.2. Transformations of Graphs of Logarithmic Functions.

Transformations of graphs of logarithmic functions follow the same suit as
exponential functions.
As we will see in the following example, reflection in the x-axis happens when
f (x) = − loga x while reflection in the y-axis happens when f (x) = loga (−x).
107
Example 4.13. Sketch the graphs of the following functions:

(a) g(x) = − log2 x.

(b) h(x) = log2 (−x).

Solution:

Figure 4.16.

The graph of any logarithmic function of the form f (x) = b + loga x where
b is an integer, is just the graph of y = loga x shifted upward b units.
If f (x) = loga (x − b), then the graph is just the graph of y = loga x shifted
b units to the right. See the examples below.

Example 4.14. Find the domain of each function and sketch the graph.

(a) g(x) = 2 + log5 x.

Solution:
The graph of g is obtained from the graph of f (x) = log5 x by
shifting it upwards 2 units. The domain of f is (0, ∞).
(b) h(x) = log10 (x − 3).
Solution:
The graph of h is obtained from the graph of f (x) = log10 x by shift-
ing to the right 3 units. The line x = 3 is the vertical asymptote.
The domain is

{x|x − 3 > 0} = {x|x > 3} = (3, ∞)

108
 Figure 4.17.

Figure 4.18.

Definition 4.6. The logarithm with base 10 is called the common loga-
rithm and is denoted by omitting the base

log x = log10 x

Common logarithms can be evaluated using calculators.

Activity 4.8. Graph the function. State the domain, range, and asymptote.

(a) f (x) = log2 (x − 4)

(b) y = 1 − log x
(c) y = 2 + log3 x
(d) y = log3 (x − 1) − 2
109
 4.4. The Natural Logarithm Function

Definition 4.7. The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm
and is denoted by ln.
ln x = loge x.

So ln x = y ⇐⇒ ey = x.

Properties of Natural Logarithmic Functions

The properties are just similar to the properties of the logarithmic function.

1. ln 1 = 0.
2. ln e = 1.
3. ln ex = x.
4. eln x = x.

Example 4.15. Evaluate

(a) ln e8 = 8;
(b) ln e12 = ln e−2 = −2;

(c) ln 5 ≈ 1.609.

Example 4.16. Find the domain of the function f (x) = ln(4 − x2 ).

Solution:

{x|4 − x2 > 0} = {x|x2 < 4}

= {x||x| < 2}

= {x| − 2 < x < 2}

= (−2, 2)

Activity 4.9. Draw the graph of the function in a suitable viewing rectangle,
and use it to find the domain, the asymptotes, and the local maximum and
minimum values.

(a) y = x + ln x
110
 ln x
(b) y = x
(c) y = x(ln x)2
(d) y = ln(x2 − x)

4.5. Laws of Logarithms

Let a be a positive number, with a 6= 1. Let A, B, and C be any real

numbers with A > 0 and B > 0,

1. loga (AB) = loga A + loga B;

A


2. loga B = loga A − loga B;
3. loga (AC ) = C loga A.

Example 4.17. Evaluate the following:

(a) log4 2 + log4 32

Solution:

log4 2 + log4 32 = log4 (2 × 32)

= log4 64

= log4 43

= 3 log4 4

=3
(b) log2 80 − log2 5
Solution:

 
80
log2 80 − log2 5 = log2
5
= log2 16

= log2 24

= 4 log2 2

=4

111
 (c) − 31 log 8
Solution:

1
− log 8 = log 81/3
3
 
1
= log
81/3
1
= log
2
≈ −0.301

4.5.1. Expanding and Combining Logarithmic Functions. We

can use the Laws of Logarithms to expand or combine logarithmic expres-
sions.

Example 4.18 (Expanding expressions). Use the Laws of Logarithms to

expand each expression:

(a) log2 (6x) = log2 6 + log2 x;

(b) log5 (x3 y 6 ) = log5 x3 + log5 y 6 = 3 log5 x + 6 log5 y;
 
ab √
(c) ln √ 3c = ln(ab) − ln( 3 c) = ln a + ln b − 13 ln c.

Example 4.19 (Combining expressions). Combine the following into a sin-

gle logarithmic expression.

(a) 3 log x + 21 log(x + 1);

Solution:

1
3 log x + log(x + 1) = log x3 + log(x + 1)1/2
2
√
= log(x3 x + 1)

(b) 3 ln s + 12 ln t − 4 ln(t2 + 1);

Solution:
112
 1 √
3 ln s + ln t − 4 ln(t2 + 1) = ln s3 + ln t − ln(t2 + 1)4
2
√
= ln(s3 t) − ln(t2 + 1)4
 3√ 
s t
= ln
(t + 1)4
2

Activity 4.10. (1) Use the Laws of Logarithms to expand the expres-
sion.
(a) log2 (2x)
(b) log2 (ab2 )
 2
x
(c) loga yz 3
 
10x
(d) log x(x2 +1)(x 4 +2)

(2) Use the Laws of Logarithms to combine the expression.

(a) log2 A + log2 B − 2 log2 C
(b) log 12 + 12 log 7 − log 2
(c) ln(a + b) + ln(a − b) − 2 ln c
(d) 13 log(x + 2)3 + 12 log x4 − log(x2 − x − 6)
 

4.5.2. Change of Base Formula. Sometimes we would want to

change from logarithms in one base to logarithms in another base. We
can use the following to accomplish this.
loga x
logb x = .
loga b

Example 4.20. Use the change of base formula and common or natural
logarithms to evaluate each logarithm, correct to five decimal places.
log10 5
(a) log8 5 = log10 8 ≈ 0.77398;
(b) log9 20 = lnln20
9 ≈ 1.36342.

Activity 4.11. Use the Change of Base Formula and a calculator to eval-
uate the logarithm, rounded to six decimal places. Use either natural or
common logarithms.

(a) log2 5
113
 (b) log5 2
(c) log4 125
(d) log12 2.5

4.6. Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

We first look at exponential equations and then we will look at logarithmic

equations. The following are the guidelines for solving exponential equa-
tions.

Figure 4.19.

Example 4.21. Solve 3x+2 = 7.

Solution:

3x+2 = 7

log(3x+2 ) = log 7

(x + 2) log 3 = log 7
log 7
x+2=
log 3
log 7
x= −2
log 3

Example 4.22. Solve the equation 8e2x = 20.

Solution:
114
 8e2x = 20
20
e2x =
8
ln e2x = ln 2.5

2x = ln 2.5
ln 2.5
x=
2
x ≈ 0.458

Example 4.23. Solve e2x − ex − 6 = 0.

Solution:
Let y = ex , then

e2x − ex − 6 = 0

y2 − y − 6 = 0

(y − 3)(y + 2) = 0

So either y = 3 or y = −2. Thus, ex = 3 =⇒ x = ln 3. We do not consider

the second case because ex > 0 for all x, so the second case gives no solution.

We now look at logarithmic equations. The following are the guidelines for
solving logarithmic equations.

Figure 4.20.

Example 4.24. Solve each equation for x.

115
(a) ln x = 8.
Solution:
x = e8 = 2981.
(b) log2 (25 − x) = 3.
Solution:

log2 (25 − x) = 3

25 − x = 23

25 − x = 8

x = 17

(c) 4 + 3 log(2x) = 16.

Solution:

4 + 3 log(2x) = 16

3 log(2x) = 12
12
log(2x) =
3
log(2x) = 4

2x = 104
10000
x=
2
x = 5000

(d) log(x + 2) + log(x − 1) = 1.

Solution:
116
 log(x + 2) + log(x − 1) = 1

log ((x + 2)(x − 1)) = 1

(x + 2)(x − 1) = 10

x2 + x − 2 = 10

x2 + x − 12 = 0

(x + 4)(x − 3) = 0

So x = −4 or x = 3.

Activity 4.12. (1) Solve the equation.

(a) e2x + 3ex + 2 = 0
(b) x2 2x − 2x = 0
(c) e1−4x = 2
(d) 23x+1 = 3x−2
(2) Solve the logarithmic equation.
(a) log(3x + 5) = 2
(b) log2 (x2 − x − 2) = 2
(c) log x + log(x − 1) = log(4x)
(d) log9 (x − 5) + log9 (x + 3) = 1

4.7. Modeling with Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

4.7.1. Exponential Growth. Suppose we start with a single bac-

terium which divides every hour. After one hour we have 2 bacteria, after 2
hours 22 bacteria, after 3 hours 23 . We can model the bacteria population
after t hours by f (t) = 2t . If we start with n0 bacteria, then f (t) = n0 2t .
If the initial size of a population is n0 and the doubling time is a, then the
size of the population at time t is

n(t) = n0 2t/a
117
where a and t are measured in the same time units (minutes, hours, days,
years, and so on).

Example 4.25. Under ideal conditions a certain bacteria population doubles

every three hours. Initially there are 1000 bacteria in a colony.

(a) Find a model for the bacteria population after t hours.

Solution:
The population at time t is modeled by

n(t) = 1000 · 2t/3 .

(b) How many bacteria are in the colony after 15 hours?

Solution:

n(15) = 1000 · 215/3 = 1000 · 25 = 32000.

(c) When will the bacteria count reach 100,000?

Solution:
We need to find the time t given n(t) = 100, 000. So

100, 000 = 1000 · 2t/3

100 = 2t/3

log 100 = log 2t/3

t
2= log 2
3
6
t=
log 2
t ≈ 19.93

4.7.2. Exponential Growth (Relative Growth Rate). We can

also model the population growth with an exponential function in any base.

Definition 4.8. A population that experiences exponential growth in-

creases according to the model

n(t) = n0 ert
118
where n(t) is the population at time t, n0 is the initial size of the population,
r is the relative rate of growth expressed as a proportion of the population,
and t the time.

Example 4.26. The initial bacterium count in a culture is 500. A biologist

later makes a sample count of bacteria in the culture and finds that the
relative rate of growth is 40% per hour.

(a) Find a function that models the number of bacteria after t hours.
Solution:
We have n0 = 500 and r = 0.4. Then

n(t) = 500 · e0.4t

where t is in hours.
(b) What is the estimated count after 10 hours?
Solution:

n(t) = 500 · e0.4t = 500 · e0.4(10) = 500 · e4 ≈ 27, 300

(c) When will the bacteria count reach 80,000?

Solution:
We set n(t) = 80, 000 and solve for t.

80, 000 = 500 · e0.4t

160 = e0.4t

ln 160 = 0.4t
ln 160
t=
0.4
t ≈ 12.68

(d) Sketch the graph of n(t).

Solution:

119
 Figure 4.21.

4.7.3. Radioactive Decay. Radioactive substances decay by sponta-

neously omitting radiation. The rate of decay is proportional to the mass
of the substance. Physicists express the rate of decay in terms of half-life
(amount of time taken for the decay of half of the substance).
In general, for a radioactive substance with mass m0 and half-life h, the
amount remaining at time t is modeled by

m(t) = m0 2−t/h .

If m0 is the initial mass of a radioactive substance with half-life h, then the

mass remaining at time t is modeled by the function

m(t) = m0 e−rt

ln 2
where r = h .

Activity 4.13. (1) A certain species of bird was introduced in a cer-

tain county 25 years ago. Biologists observe that the population
doubles every 10 years, and now the population is 13,000.
(a) What was the initial size of the bird population?
(b) Estimate the bird population 5 years from now.
(c) Sketch a graph of the bird population.
(2) The population of a certain city was 112,000 in 2006, and the ob-
served doubling time for the population is 18 years.
120
 (a) Find an exponential model n(t) = n0 2t/a for the population t
years after 2006.
(b) Find an exponential model n(t) = n0 2rt for the population t
years after 2006.
(c) Sketch the graph of the population at time t.
(d) Estimate when the population will reach 500,000.
(3) The half-life of cesium-137 is 30 years. Suppose we have a 10-g
sample.
(a) Find a function m(t) = m0 2−t/h that models the mass remain-
ing after t years.
(b) Find a function m(t) = m0 2−rt that models the mass remain-
ing after t years.
(c) How much of the sample will remain after 80 years?
(d) After how long will only 2 g of the sample remain?

121
 UNIT 5

Trigonometry

5.1. Angles

An angle is determined by rotating a ray (half-line) about its endpoint. The

starting position of the ray is the initial side of the angle, and the position
after rotation is the terminal side. The endpoint of the ray is the vertex
of the angle.

Figure 5.1.

Positive angles are generated by counterclockwise rotation, and negative

angles by clockwise rotation.

Figure 5.2.

122
 5.1.1. Radian Measure. So far, it is commonly known that angles
are measured in degrees. We introduce another way of measuring angles in
this section known as the radian measure.
Suppose we have a circle with radius r and s an arc length on the circle. Let
θ be an angle whose initial point is the x-axis and its terminal point is at a
distance s from the x-axis. A radian is the measure of a central angle that
intercepts an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle. See the circle
below:

Figure 5.3.

Algebraically,
s
θ=
r
where θ is measured in radians.
Since the circumference of a circle is given by 2πr, a central angle of one full
revolution corresponds to an arc length of

s = 2πr.

Therefore, the radian measure of an angle of one full revolution is 2π. We

can then obtain the following:
1 2π
revolution = = π radians,
2 2
1 2π 1
revolution = = radians,
4 4 2
1 2π 1
revolution = = radians.
6 6 3
123
In the xy-coordinate system, there are four quadrants numbered I, II, III
and IV as shown below.

Figure 5.4.

It should be noted that the angles 0, π/2, π and 3π/2 do not lie in any
quadrant.
Two angles are coterminal if they have the same initial and terminal sides.
For instance, the angles 0 and 2π are coterminal. You can find an angle
that is coterminal to θ by adding 2π if θ is positive and subtracting 2π if θ
is negative.
π π 13π
Example: The coterminal angle to θ = 6 is 6 − 2π = 6 . The coterminal
angle to θ = − 2π 2π
3 is − 3 + 2π =
4π
3 .
Two positive angles α and β are complementary if their sum is π/2, i.e.,
α + β = π/2. Two angles are supplementary if their sum is π.

Figure 5.5.

124
Activity 5.1. Find (if possible) the complement and supplement of each
angle.
π
(1) 3
3π
(2) 2
π
(3) 12
11π
(4) 12

5.1.2. Conversion Between Degrees and Radians.

π rad
(1) To convert degrees to radians, multiply degrees by 180 .
1800
(2) To convert radians to degrees, multiply radians by π rad .

Example:
π
(a.) Express 600 in radians (b.) Express 6 rad in degrees.

π π π π 180
Solution 5.1. (a.) 600 = 60




180 rad = 3 rad, (b.) 6 rad = 6 π =
300 .

Activity 5.2. (1) Rewrite each angle in radian measure as a multiple

of (Do not use a calculator).
(a) 300
(b) 1500
(c) 3150
(d) −2400
(2) Rewrite each angle in degree measure. (Do not use a calculator.)
3π
(a) 2
7π
(b) 3
(c) − 7π
12
11π
(d) − 30

5.2. The Unit Circle

The unit circle is the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin in the xy-
plane. Its equation is
x2 + y 2 = 1.
125
 Figure 5.6.

Suppose t is a real number. Imagine that the real number line is wrapped
around this circle, with positive numbers corresponding to a counterclock-
wise wrapping and negative numbers corresponding to a clockwise wrapping
as shown below:

Figure 5.7.

As the real number line is wrapped around the unit circle, each real number
t corresponds to a point on the circle. The point obtained in this way is
called the terminal point determined by the real number t.

Figure 5.8.

126
The circumference of the unit circle is C = 2π. So if a point starts at (1, 0)
and moves counterclockwise all the way around the unit circle and returns
to (1, 0), it travels a distance of 2π. Check the figure below for instance:

Figure 5.9.

Let t be a real number. The reference number t associated with t is the

shortest distance along the unit circle between the terminal point determined
by t and the x-axis. To find the reference number t, its helpful to know the
quadrant in which the terminal point determined by t lies. If the terminal
point lies in quadrants I or IV, where x is positive, we find by moving along
the circle to the positive x-axis. If it lies in quadrants II or III, where x is
negative, we find by moving along the circle to the t negative x-axis.

Figure 5.10.

Example:
5π 7π
Find the reference number for each value of t. (a.) t = 6 , (b.) t = 4 ,
(c.) t = − 2π
3 .

5π
Solution 5.2. (a.) t = π − 6 = π6 ,
7π π
(b.) t = 2π − 4 = 4,
2π π
(c.) t = π − 3 = 3.

In general, each real number also corresponds to a central angle whose radian
measure is t. The following table shows some common t values and their
corresponding terminal points.
127
 Figure 5.11.

Activity 5.3. (1) Find the point (x, y) on the unit circle that corre-
sponds to the real number t.
π
(a) t = 4
5π
(b) t = 3
(c) t = π
3π
(d) t = 2
(2) Find the reference number for each t in question 1 above.

128
 5.3. Trigonometric Functions

Remember that for a given real number t, to find the terminal point P (x, y),
we move along the unit circle a distance of t starting at the point (1, 0). If t
is positive, we move counterclockwise and if t is negative, we move clockwise.
The x and y coordinates of the terminal point P (x, y) can be used to define
trigonometric functions.
sin t = y cos t = x tan t = xy (x 6= 0)

csc t = y1 (y 6= 0) sec t = x1 (x 6= 0) cot t = xy (y 6= 0)

Examples: Find the six trigonometric functions of each real number t.
π π
(a)t = 3 (b) t = 2
√
3
Solution 5.3. (a) The terminal point determined by t is P ( 12 , 2 ).
We have √
√
3
3 √
sin π3 = 2 , cos π
3 = 1
2, tan π
3 = 2
1 = 3
2

√ √
2 3 1/2 3
csc π3 = 3 , sec π3 = 2, cot π3 = √
3/2
= 3 .
(b) The terminal point determined by π/2 is P (0, 1). So we have
sin π2 = 1, cos π2 = 0, csc π2 = 1, cot π2 = 0
1 = 0.
Note that tan π2 and sec π2 are undefined because x = 0 appears in
the denominator.

The following table shows some special values of the trigonometric functions.

Figure 5.12.

129
Activity 5.4. (1) Evaluate (if possible) the six trigonometric func-
tions of the real number.
3π
(a) t = 4
(b) t = 5π
(c) t = − 15π
2
(d) t = − 9π
4
1
(2) Use sin t = 3 to evaluate the indicated functions.
(a) sin(−t)
(b) csc(−t)
(c) sin(π − t)
(d) sin(t + π)

5.3.1. Domains of Trigonometric Functions.

Function Domain
sin,cos All real numbers
π
tan, sec All real numbers other than 2 + nπ for any integer n
cot,csc All real numbers other than nπ for any integer n.

130
 5.3.2. Values of Trigonometric Functions. When computing the
values of trigonometric functions, we first determine their signs. The sign of
a trigonometric function is determined by the quadrant in which the terminal
point of t lies. The following device becomes useful to remember the sign of
any trigonometric function in any quadrant.

Figure 5.13.

In the first quadrant, all trigonometric functions are positive. In the second,
only sine is positive. In the third, only tangent is positive and in the fourth,
only cosine is positive. It should be noted that where sin is positive, then
csc is also positive since they are just reciprocals of each other. The same
applies to tan and cot, and to cos and sec.
Example: Find each value:
(a) cos 2π
3 (b) tan − π3 (c) sin 19π
4

2π
Solution 5.4. (a) Since the terminal point for 3 is in quadrant II,
2π π
cos 3 is negative. We find the reference number to be 3.
Then
2π π 1
cos = − cos = − .
3 3 2
(b) The reference number for − π3 is π
3. Since the terminal point of − π3
is in quadrant IV, tan − π3 is negative. Thus,
 π π √
tan − = − tan = − 3.
3 3
(c) Since (19π/4) − 4π = 3π/4, the terminal points determined by
19π/4 and 3π/4 are the same. The reference number for 3π/4 is
131
 π/4. The terminal point is in quadrant II, therefore, sin(3π/4) is
positive. Thus,

    √
19π 3π π 2
sin = sin = + sin = .
4 4 4 2

Figure 5.14.

Activity 5.5. Find the values of the trigonometric functions of t from the
given information.

(1) sin t = 35 , terminal point of t is in quadrant II.

(2) cos t = − 54 , terminal point of t is in quadrant III.
(3) tan t = − 23 , cos t > 0.
(4) sec t = 2, sin t < 0.

5.3.3. Even-Odd Trigonometric Functions. Recall that if a func-

tion f satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for every x in its domain, then f is called an
even function. If a function f satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) for every x in its
domain, then it is an odd function.
As is every function, trigonometric functions are either even or odd. Sine,
cosecant, tangent, contangent are all odd functions while cosine and secant
are even functions, i.e.,

sin(−t) = − sin t, cos(−t) = cos t, tan(−t) = − tan t,

csc(−t) = − csc t, sec(−t) = sec t, cot(−t) = − cot t.

132
Activity 5.6. Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

(1) f (x) = x2 sin x

(2) f (x) = sin x cos x
(3) f (x) = x sin3 x
(4) f (x) = cos(sin x)

133
 5.4. Right Triangle Trigonometry

We also look at trigonometric functions from a right triangle perspective.

Consider the following right triangle:

Figure 5.15.

Based on this triangle, the six trigonometric functions are defined as follows:

opp adj opp

sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = ,
hyp hyp adj

hyp hyp adj

csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ = .
opp adj opp

The abbreviations opp, adj and hyp represent the lengths of the three sides
of a right triangle, i.e.,

• opp = length of the side opposite θ,

• adj = length of the side adjacent to θ,
• hyp = length of the hypotenuse.

It must be clear that the opposite and adjacent sides are always in relation
to θ. In other words, they can be different depending on the position of θ
while the hypotenuse is always the same.
It is clear to see that the functions in the second row above are just recip-
rocals of the functions in the first row.
Example: Consider the following triangle: Find the six trigonometric func-
tions.
134
 Figure 5.16.

Solution 5.5. We first have to compute the value of the hypotenuse using
the Pythagorean Theorem. Thus
p
hyp = 42 + 32
√
(5.1) = 25

= 5.

Thus, the six trigonometric functions of θ are

4 3 4
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = ,
5 5 3

5 5 3
csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ = .
4 3 4

Example: Find the values of sin 450 , cos 450 and tan 450 .
Construct a right triangle with 450 as one of its acute angles, the adjacent
and opposite sides to the 450 angle should have length 1 each. Then the
√
hypotenuse is computed to be 2. The triangle is shown below:

Solution 5.6. Thus,

√
0 1 2
sin 45 = √ =
2 2
√
1 2
cos 450 = √ =
2 2
1
tan 450 = = 1
1
135
 Figure 5.17.

Example: Use the equilateral triangle as shown below to find the values of
sin 600 , cos 600 , sin 300 , and cos 300 .

Figure 5.18.

Solution 5.7. The lengths of the sides can be verified using the Pythagorean
Theorem.

√
0 3 1
sin 60 = and cos 600 = ,
2 2

√
0 1 0 3
sin 30 = and cos 60 = .
2 2

The following table shows the sine, cosine and tangent values of the common
angles, 300 , 450 and 600 .
The angles used in the two previous examples are most common. From the
right triangle definitions, it can be shown that cofunctions of complemen-
tary angles are equal. That is, if θ is an acute angle, then the following
relationships are true.
136
 Figure 5.19.

sin(900 − θ) = cos θ cos(900 − θ) = sin θ,

tan(900 − θ) = cot θ cot(900 − θ) = tan θ,

sec(900 − θ) = csc θ csc(900 − θ) = sec θ.

Activity 5.7. (1) Find the exact values of the six trigonometric func-
tions of the angle shown in the figure. (Use the Pythagorean The-
orem to find the third side of the triangle.)

Figure 5.20.

(2) Use the given function value(s), and trigonometric identities (in-
cluding the cofunction identities), to find the indicated trigonomet-
ric functions.
√
0 3 1
sin 60 = , cos 600 =
2 2
(a) tan 600
(b) sin 300
(c) cos 300
(d) cot 600
137
 (3) Find the values of θ in degrees (00 < θ < 900 )and radians (0 < θ <
π/2) without the aid of a calculator.
1
(a) sin θ = 2
√
2
(b) cos θ = 2
√
(c) tan θ = 3
√
2 3
(d) csc θ = 3

5.4.1. The Law of Sines. Trigonometric ratios are used to solve right
triangles. Trigonometric functions can be used to solve oblique triangles,
thus, triangles without right angles. We follow the convention of labeling
angles of a triangle as A, B, C and the lengths of the corresponding opposite
sides as a, b, and c as shown below.

Figure 5.21.

The Law of Sines states that in a triangle ABC, we have

sin A sin B sin C
= = .
a b c
This law is used to solve two cases:

• Given one side and two angles, (ASA or SAA), e.g., given a and
A, B, find b.
• Given two sides and an angle opposite one of those sides, (SSA),
e.g., given a, b and B, find A.

Example: Solve for a, b and B in the following triangle.

Solution 5.8. We find ∠B:

∠B = 1800 − (200 + 250 ) = 1350 .

138
 Figure 5.22.

To find a, we need A, C and c to use the sine rule. Thus SAA, two angles
and one side.
sin A sin C
=
a c
c sin A
a=
sin C
80.4 sin 200
a=
sin 250
a ≈ 65.1

And to find b, we need B, C and c. Thus

sin B sin C
=
b c
c sin B
b=
sin C
80.4 sin 1350
b=
sin 250
b ≈ 134.5

Activity 5.8. (1) Use the Law of Sines to find the indicated side x.

Figure 5.23.

(2) Use the Law of Sines to find the indicated angle θ.

139
 Figure 5.24.

(3) Sketch each triangle, and then solve the triangle using the Law of
Sines.
(a) ∠A = 500 , ∠B = 680 , c = 230.
(b) ∠A = 300 , ∠C = 650 , b = 10.

5.4.2. The Cosine Rule. The Law of Cosines applies for the following
two cases:

• Given two sides and the included angle, (SAS),

• Given all three sides, (SSS).

The law states that in any triangle ABC, we have

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A,

b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B,

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C.

Example: A tunnel is to be built through a mountain. To estimate the

length of the tunnel, a surveyor makes the measurements shown in the figure
below. Use the surveyors data to approximate the length of the tunnel.
140
 Figure 5.25.

Solution 5.9. We have to approximate the length c. We have two sides and
an angle in between, this is the case SAS. So, we use the Law of Cosines.

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C

c2 = 3882 + 2122 − 2(388)(212) cos 82.40

c2 ≈ 173730.2367
√
c2 ≈ 173730.2367

c ≈ 416.8

Thus the tunnel will be approximately 417 ft long.

Activity 5.9. (1) Use the Law of Cosines to determine the indicated
side x.

Figure 5.26.

(2) Use the Law of Cosines to determine the indicated angle θ.

(3) Sketch each triangle, and then solve the triangle using the Law of
Cosines.
141
 Figure 5.27.

(a) a = 3.0, b = 4.0, ∠C = 530

(b) b = 125, c = 162, ∠B = 400

5.4.3. Navigation: Heading and Bearing. In navigation, direction

is often given as a bearing, that is, an acute angle measured from due north
or due south. Check the examples below:

Figure 5.28.

Example: A pilot sets out from an airport and heads in the direction N
200 E, flying at 200 mi/h. After one hour, he makes a course correction and
heads in the direction N 400 E. Half an hour after that, engine trouble forces
him to make an emergency landing.

(a) Find the distance between the airport and his final landing point.
(b) Find the bearing from the airport to his final landing point.

We will need to sketch the course first.

Solution 5.10. (a) Using the Law of Cosines, we find b,

b2 = 2002 + 1002 − 2(200)(100) cos 1600

b2 ≈ 87587.70

b ≈ 295.95
142
 Figure 5.29.

The pilot lands about 296 mi from his starting point.

(b) We need to find ∠A using the Law of Sines.

sin A sin 1600

=
100 295.95
sin 1600
sin A = 100 ·
295.95
sin A ≈ 0.11557

A ≈ sin−1 (0.11557)

A ≈ 6.6360

The line from the airport to the final landing site points in the
direction 200 + 6.6360 = 26.6360 east of due north. The bearing is
about N 26.60 E.

Activity 5.10. (1) A short-wave radio antenna is supported by two

guy wires, 165 ft and 180 ft long. Each wire is attached to the top
of the antenna and anchored to the ground, at two anchor points
on opposite sides of the antenna. The shorter wire makes an angle
of 67! with the ground. How far apart are the anchor points?
(2) A communications tower is located at the top of a steep hill, as
shown. The angle of inclination of the hill is 580 . A guy wire is
to be attached to the top of the tower and to the ground, 100m
143
 downhill from the base of the tower. The angle a in the figure is
determined to be 120 . Find the length of cable required for the guy
wire.

Figure 5.30.

(3) Two straight roads diverge at an angle of 650 . Two cars leave the
intersection at 2:00 P.M., one traveling at 50 mi/h and the other
at 30 mi/h. How far apart are the cars at 2:30 P.M.?
(4) Two boats leave the same port at the same time. One travels at a
speed of 30 mi/h in the direction N 500 E and the other travels at
a speed of 26 mi/h in a direction S700 E (see the figure). How far
apart are the two boats after one hour?

Figure 5.31.

144
 5.5. Trigonometric Identities

Trigonometric functions are related to each other through equations called

trigonometric identities.
Reciprocal identities:

1 1 1
sec θ = , csc θ = , cot θ = .
cos θ sin θ tan θ

Quotient Identities:

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = , cot θ = .
cos θ sin θ

Pythagorean Identities:

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ, 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ.

Sum Identities:

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Double Angle Identities:

If in the sum identities above, A = B, then the identities become the fol-
lowing:

sin 2A = sin A cos A + cos A sin A = 2 sin A,

cos 2A = cos A cos A − sin A sin A = cos2 A − sin2 A.

3
Example: If cos θ = 5 and θ is in quadrant IV, Find the values of all the
trigonometric functions at θ.
145
Solution 5.11. Using cos θ, we can find sin θ using the Pythagorean identity
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. Thus

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
 2
2 3
sin θ + =1
5
(5.2)  
2 9 16
sin θ = 1 − =
25 25
4
sin θ = ±
5

Since θ is in quadrant IV, sin θ is negative, so sin θ = − 45 . Now we can use

the reciprocal identities to find values of the other functions at θ.

4 3 sin θ 4/5 4
sin θ = − , cos θ = , tan θ = = =− ,
5 5 cos θ 3/5 3

1 5 1 5 1 3
csc θ = =− , sec θ = = , cot θ = =− .
sin θ 4 cos θ 3 tan θ 4

Example:
Simplify sin t + cot t cos t.

Solution 5.12.
 
cos t
sin t + cot t cos t = sin t + cos t
sin t
sin2 t + cos2 t
=
sin t
1
=
sin t
= csc t

Example:
1−sin2 x
Simplify csc2 x−1
.
146
Solution 5.13. We know that 1 − sin2 x = cos2 x and csc2 x − 1 = cot2 x.
Then
1 − sin2 x cos2 x
=
csc2 x − 1 cot2 x
sin2 x
 
2
= cos x ·
cos2 x
= sin2 x

Activity 5.11. (1) Use the given values to evaluate (if possible) all
six trigonometric functions.
√
3
(a) sin x = 2
3
(b) tan θ = 4
(2) Use the fundamental identities to simplify the expression. There is
more than one correct form of each answer.
(a) cot θ sec θ
(b) sec2 x(1 − sin2 x)
sin α
(c) sec α · tan α
tan2 θ
(d) sec2 θ
4
(e) sin x − cos4 x
(f) tan2 x − tan2 x sin2 x

5.6. Trigonometric Graphs

5.6.1. Sine and Cosine Functions. A function f is periodic if there

is a positive number p such that f (t + p) = f (t) for every t. The Sine and
Cosine functions are periodic in nature. They repeat values every 2π. Thus,

sin(t + 2nπ) = sin(t) for any integer n

cos(t + 2nπ) = cos(t) for any integer n

To sketch their graphs, we only sketch one period 2π. To draw their graphs
more accurately, we use a table of values below. Note that we could still
find other values by using a calculator.
Now we use this information to graph these functions.
147
 Figure 5.32.

Figure 5.33.

Figure 5.34.

It is easy to see that the graph repeats itself after every 2π period.
NB: It is customary to use the letter x to denote the variable in the domain
of a function, so we will use this notation onwards, i.e., y = sin x.

5.6.2. Graphs of y = a sin x and y = a cos x. In the graphs of y =

a sin x and y = a cos x, the number |a| is called its amplitude. This number
dictates the height of the curve. If |a| < 1, then the graphs are shrunk
vertically. If |a| > 1, then the graphs are stretched vertically.
Example:
1
Look at the graph of y = 2 sin x and y = 2 sin x. We first start with the graph
1
of y = sin x and then multiply the y-coordinates by 2 and 2 respectively.
When we multiply by 2, the graph is stretched vertically by a factor of 2
and when we multiply by 21 , the graph is shrunk vertically by a factor of 21 .
148
 Figure 5.35.

This applies to cosine graphs as well.

Activity 5.12. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(1) y = 3 cos x
1
(2) y = 2 sin x
(3) y = − 31 cos x
(4) y = −3 sin x

5.6.3. Graphs of y = sin kx and y = cos kx. In these functions, if

2π
k 6= 0, then both y = sin kx and y = cos kx have period given by k . If
0 < |k| < 1, the graphs are stretched horizontally and if |k| > 1, the graphs
are shrunk horizontally.
Example:
Let’s graph the sine curves y = sin 2x and y = sin 12 x.
2π
For y = sin 2x, we find that the period is 2 = π, so the graph completes
one period in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
For y = sin 12 x, we find that the period is 2π÷ 12 = 4π, so the graph completes
one period in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 4π.

Figure 5.36.

The same principles apply to the cosine curves as well.

149
Activity 5.13. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(1) y = 2 cos 2x
(2) y = − cos 4x
(3) y = − sin 2πx
3
(4) y = sin πx
4

5.6.4. Graphs of y = a sin k(x − b) and y = a cos k(x − b). These

graphs have the same shape as the graphs of y = a sin kx and y = a cos kx
respectively but shifted c units to the right if c > 0 and |c| units to the
left if c < 0. The number c is called the phase shift of the sine or cosine
graph. An appropriate interval on which to graph one complete period is
[b, b + (2π/k)].
Example:
π π



Shown below are graphs of y = sin x − 3 and y = sin x + 6 .

Figure 5.37.

Example:
π


Find the amplitude, period and phase shift of y = 3 sin 2 x − 4 and graph
one complete period.
2π 2π
The amplitude is |a| = |3| = 3. The period is k =
= π. The phase shift
2
is π4 to the right. One complete period occurs on the interval π4 , π4 + π =
 
 π 5π 
4, 4 .

Activity 5.14. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(1) y = 3 cos(x + π)
πt
(2) y = −3 + 5 cos 12
150
 Figure 5.38.

(3) y = −2 sin(4x + π)
2 π


(4) y = −4 sin 3x − 3

5.6.5. Graphs of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant and Cosecant.

The graphs of tangent and cotangent have period π:

tan(x + π) = tan x and cot(x + π) = cot x.

The graphs of cosecant and secant have period 2π:

csc(x + 2π) = csc x and sec(x + 2π) = sec x.

5.6.5.1. Tangent and Cotangent Graphs. We will start with the graph
of the tangent function. Since the tangent function has a period of π, we
can only sketch the graph on any interval of length π. We sketch the graph
on the interval (−π/2, π/2). Note that as x approaches −π/2 and π/2, cos x
sin x
approaches 0 and sin x approaches 1. Thus, tan x = cos x gets large.
The graph of tan x, thus, approaches the vertical lines x = π/2 and x =
−π/2. These lines are vertical asymptotes. Graphing the cotangent function
follows the same arguments. The figure below shows the graph of y = tan x
on the interval −π/2 < x < π/2 and y = cot x on the interval 0 < x < π.
5.6.5.2. Cosecant and Secant graphs. To graph these functions, we use
the reciprocal identities. Just as their reciprocals, they have a period of 2π.
So the graphs of these two functions look as below:
151
 Figure 5.39.

Figure 5.40.

All the graphs described above are shown below. Note the vertical asymp-
totes.

Figure 5.41.

152
 5.7. Graphs of Transformations of Tangent and Cotangent

5.7.1. Graphs of y = a tan kx and y = a cot kx. The functions y =

a tan kx and y = a cot kx, k > 0 have period π/k. Thus, one complete
period of these functions occurs on any interval of length π/2.

• To graph one period of y = a tan kx, an appropriate interval is

π π


− 2k , 2k .
• To graph one period of y = a cot kx, an appropriate interval is
0, πk .

Example:
Graph the following tangent functions:

a. y = tan 2x,

Solution 5.14. The period is π/2 and the appropriate interval is

(−π/4, π/4). The graph has the same shape as that of the tangent
1
function, but is shrunk horizontally by a factor of 2. We then
repeat that portion of the graph to the left and to the right.

Figure 5.42.

π


b. y = tan 2 x − 4 .
153
 π


Solution 5.15. This function completes one period as 2 x − 4
varies from − π2 to π
2. So the start of period is
 π π
2 x− =−
4 2
π π
x− =−
4 4
x=0

and the end of period is

 π π
2 x− =
4 2
π π
x− =
4 4
π
x=
2

The graph is the same as the graph in (a) but it is shifted to

the right by π/4.

Figure 5.43.

Activity 5.15. Graph the following functions.

1
(1) y = tan(πx − π)
2
(2) y = tan 12 x + π4

(3) y = cot 2x − π2

(4) y = cot π2 x
154
 5.8. Graphs of Transformations of Cosecant and Secant
Functions

The functions y = a csc kx and y = a sec kx for any integer k > 0 have
period 2π/k.
1
The following are examples of such graphs. (a.) y = 2 csc 2x.
We see here that the period is 2π/2 = π. An appropriate interval is [0, π]
and the asymptotes occur in this interval whenever sin 2x = 0. Thus, the
asymptotes are x = 0, x = π/2 and x = π. In this interval, we sketch a
graph with the same shape as that of one period of the cosecant function.
The complete graph is obtained by repeating this shape to the left and to
the right.
1 π


(b.) y = 2 csc 2x + 2 .
We first notice that a graph of y = csc x completes one period between x = 0
and x = 2π. So
π
2x + =0
2
π
2x = −
2
π
x=−
4
and
π
2x + = 2π
2
3π
2x =
2
3π
x=
4
1 π
on the interval [− π4 , 3π


So we graph the function y = 2 csc 2x + 2 4 ]. So
the graph is the same as that in (a.) but shifted to the left π/4.

Activity 5.16. Graph the following functions.

(1) y = 5 csc 3x
1 π


(2) y = 2 sec x − 6
π


(3) y = csc 2 x + 2
155
 Figure 5.44.
1 π


(4) y = 2 sec 2x − 3

5.9. Inverse Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

5.9.1. The Inverse Sine Function. The sine function is one-to-one

on the interval [
pi/2, π/2] and it attains all the values in its range on this interval. So, the
sine function has an inverse in this interval.
The inverse sine function is the function sin−1 with domain [−1, 1] and range
[−π/2, π/2] defined by

sin−1 x = y ⇐⇒ sin y = x.

The inverse function is also called arcsine, denoted by arcsin.

The graph of sin−1 x is obtained by reflecting the graph of sin x, −π/2 ≤
x ≤ π/2, in the line y = x. This is shown below:

Figure 5.45.

We have the following cancellation properties:

156
 • sin(sin−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
• sin−1 (sin x) = x for − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 .

Example:
Find each value:

(a) sin−1 21 ,

Solution 5.16. The number in the interval [−π/2, π/2] whose sine
1
is 2 is π/6.

(b) sin−1 − 12 ,

Solution 5.17. The number in the interval [−π/2, π/2] whose sine
is − 21 is −π/6.

(c) sin−1 3


2 .

Solution 5.18. Since 23 > 1, it is not in the domain of sin−1 x, so

sin−1 32 is not defined.

Activity 5.17. Find the exact value of the expression, if it is defined.

(1) sin sin−1 12

(2) sin−1 (−1)

5.9.2. The Inverse Cosine Function. We restrict the domain of the

cosine function to the interval [0, π] because on it, the function attains each
of its values exactly once. Thus, the cosine function is one-to-one in the
interval [0, π] and so has an inverse.
The inverse cosine function is the function cos−1 with domain [−1, 1] and
range [0, π] defined by

cos−1 y = x ⇐⇒ cos x = y.

The inverse cosine function is also called the arccosine, denoted by arccos.
The graph of sin−1 x is obtained by reflecting y = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π, in the
line y = x.
157
 Figure 5.46.
We have the following cancellation properties that follow from the inverse
properties:

• cos(cos−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
• cos−1 (cos x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π.

Example:
Find each value:
√
• cos−1 3
2 ,
√
Solution 5.19. In the interval [0, π], cos−1 2
3
= π/6.

• cos−1 0,

Solution 5.20. In the interval [0, π], cos−1 0 = π/2.

• cos−1 57 .

Solution 5.21. No rational multiple of π has cosine 75 , so we use

a calculator in radian measure to find the value approximately
5
cos−1 ≈ 0.77519.
7
Activity 5.18. Find the exact value of each expression, if it is defined.

(1) cos−1 (−1)

(2) cos−1 1
2
(3) cos−1 cos 5π


6
(4) cos(sin−1 0)
158
 5.9.3. The Inverse Tangent Function. Recall that the tangent func-
tion tan x has period π, and when graphing the function, we used the interval
(−π/2, π/2). We restrict the domain of the tangent function to this interval,
i.e., (−π/2, π/2) to obtain a one-to-one function.
The inverse tangent function is the function tan−1 with domain R̊ and range
(−π/2, π/2) defined by

tan−1 x = y ⇐⇒ tan y = x.

The inverse tangent function is also called arctangent, denoted by arctan.

The following cancellation properties follow:

• tan(tan−1 x) = x for x ∈ R̊,

• tan−1 (tan x) = x for −π/2 < x < π/2.

The graph is shown below:

Figure 5.47.

Example:
Find each value:

• tan−1 1,

Solution 5.22. In the interval (−π/2, π/2), we find tan−1 1 =

π/4.

√
• tan−1 3,
159
 √
Solution 5.23. In the interval (−π/2, π/2), we find tan−1 3=
π/4.

• tan−1 20.

Solution 5.24. Use a calculator in radian measure, tan−1 20 ≈

−1.52084.

Activity 5.19. Find the exact value of each expression, if it is defined.

√
(1) tan−1 3
√
(2) tan−1 3
3

tan sin−1 21


(3)
(4) sin(tan−1 (−1))

5.9.4. The Inverse Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent Functions.

It is better to restrict the domain of the inverse function to an interval in
which the function is one-to-one and on which it can attain all its values.
We display the graphs of inverse secant, cosecant and cotangent functions
below.

Figure 5.48.

Activity 5.20. Find the exact value of each expression, if it is defined.

(1) sec arctan − 53

5



(2) csc arctan − 12
(3) cot arctan 58

160
 Figure 5.49.

Figure 5.50.

(4) sec arcsin 45

161