ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29 (2009) 248–252

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijadhadh

Adhesive technology and sustainability

D.E. Packham 
Materials Research Centre, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK

a r t i c l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: After considering problems associated with reconciling sustainability with a commitment to growth,
Accepted 17 June 2008 the major environmental impacts of adhesive technology are discussed.
Available online 28 June 2008 Most adhesives come from fossil fuel sources, but many adhesive types can be produced from
Keywords: renewable resources either by traditional or newly developed routes. Significant energy usage in
Environmental issues production and processing make energy conservation and renewable energy generation relevant to
Recycling adhesive technology. Considerable improvements have been made by the replacement of volatile
Solvent based organic compounds in pretreatments and as solvents by aqueous systems, and more remains to be done.
Water based. It is important to consider the total environmental impact of the engineering context in which the
adhesive is to be used: adhesive technology may give improved engineering efficiency in the traditional
sense of the term, and also lower environmental impact.
& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction consisted of a load-bearing ‘‘baseframe’’, to which unstressed

panels were attached. Applications of adhesion science enabled
Adhesion science and technology are deeply involved in the weight to be minimised: the baseframe was made of
contemporary industrial culture. The use of adhesives provides aluminium, bonded with impact-resistant epoxy resin, and the
many attractive solutions to problems which the design engineer body panels were reaction injection moulded reinforced polyur-
encounters. Among the many well-known advantages of adhe- ethane. Thus, the vehicle depended entirely on adhesives for its
sives over other joining technologies are: better stress distribution structural integrity.
over the joint area; the ability to join dissimilar materials; the Thus, adhesion science and technology are deeply involved in
ability to join thin materials; ease of manufacture, avoiding contemporary industrial culture. Deeply embedded in this culture
machining operations for keyways, circlips, etc.; reduction in is a belief in the desirability, indeed of the necessity, of continual
weight and often an improved esthetical appearance [1]. growth. This idea is traced back to Adam [3], the Scottish
As an example of design aesthetic resulting from the creative Enlightenment philosopher who argued that an expanding
use of the applications of adhesion science, consider the ECV-3, a economy would promote the wellbeing of all. Nowadays, growth
four-seater family car with the following performance character- is often presented in quasi-religious language as necessary, not
istics [2]: just for material prosperity, but for moral wellbeing—for ‘‘political
Non-corroding body democracy, individual liberty, and social tolerance’’ [4]. Thus, it
seems that the aspiration of every industrial corporation is for
unlimited growth, involving the production of more goods, the
Maximum speed; 185 km/h (115 mph)
exploitation of more raw materials and the penetration of more
Acceleration; 0–96 km/h (0–60 mph): 11.0 s
markets.
Fuel consumption; 5.8 l/100 km (ECE Urban Cycle) 49 mpg,
However, in recent years this commitment to growth has sat
4.6 l/100 km at 121 km/h (61 mpg at 75 mph), 5.0 l/100 km at
uneasily next to the increasing realisation that the natural
90 km/h (81 mpg at 56 mph), 2.1 l/100 km at 48 km/h (133 mpg
environment was rapidly approaching a state of crisis. Put simply,
at 30 mph)
the perceived crisis was associated with depletion of resources
Weight; 664 kg
and with pollution.
Many natural resources on which our civilisation depends are
These characteristics resulted from combining an aerodyna- not renewable, and some are being used up at a rate which is
mically efficient profile with a very low weight. The car’s body significant, when compared with the total reserves. Petroleum is
perhaps the most obvious and important example of a finite
 Tel.: +44 1225 386397; fax: +44 1225 386928. resource which is being rapidly depleted [5,6]. Because energy
E-mail address: [email protected] generation is so dependent on petroleum (and on other finite

0143-7496/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2008.06.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

D.E. Packham / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29 (2009) 248–252 249

fossil fuel resources), the energy crisis is one aspect of the crisis in
material resources.
As human industrial activity has grow, the carrying capacity of
the Earth—its ability to absorb the waste products (pollution) Consumption Wants
generated—has been saturated in more and more areas. The most
obvious example of world-wide significance is the effect on
climate of greenhouse gas pollutants, especially of carbon dioxide Exchange Organisation
from the burning of fossil fuel.
The publication of The Bruntland Report in 1987 [7], the Earth
Summit in Rı́o in 1992, and the Kyoto protocols in 1998 all served
to raise consciousness in governments, industry and among the
Distribution Production
general public of the damage that human activity was causing and
of the need to sustain the natural environment.
The concept of environmental sustainability presents a major
challenge to the ‘‘growth paradigm’’ of contemporary industrial
culture. It is a concept fundamentally rooted in ethics and
philosophy, but one which has strong technological ramifications.
In this paper, the implications of sustainability are first consid-
High Consumption
ered, and then practical consequences relating to the use of Wants
entropy
adhesives will be discussed.

2. Sustainability Exchange Organisation

Etymologically, the term sustainability carries the implication

of stability or equilibrium maintained ‘‘for ever’’, or at least for a
very long time. This concept is consistent with the psychology of Distribution Production
the vast majority of the human race who do not hope for the
extinction of the species, but is it consistent with the practice of
contemporary industrial society?
Western industry, and increasingly global industry, operates
within the terms of a neo-liberal economic paradigm. Fig. 1(a) Low entropy
taken from an elementary economics textbook [8] represents the
‘‘cycle of production’’ from ‘‘wants’’ through production to Fig. 1. The cycle of production shown: (a) as a closed circle [8] and (b) with
material inputs and waste outputs.
consumption and thence on to further wants. Fundamental to
the paradigm is the requirement for continuous growth, involving
the production of more goods, the exploitation of more raw
materials. The continuous circle of Fig. 1(a) might better be this was recognised long ago by Smith [3,11,12] as he is so often
represented as an ever-expanding spiral, depicting this require- quoted in support of those who advocate neo-liberal free market
ment for sustained (i.e. unlimited) growth. competition.
Fig. 1(a) omits two important factors: the inputs of raw The limits to growth argument, briefly outlined above, clearly
materials from the ecosystem and the discharge of wastes back to calls into question the validity of a belief in progress, in the sense
that ecosystem (cf. Fig. 1(b)). The economic growth paradigm may of a continuously improving material standards of living. Such
be criticised for ignoring the implications of the Laws of beliefs are very recent in the history of humanity, but have
Thermodynamics in respects to both these factors. become firmly embedded in the popular consciousness in
Standard economics treats inputs as if the resources concerned Western industrial society over the past century or so, and are
were infinite, which contravenes the First Law [9]. The aspiration now being increasingly adopted on a global scale. With such a
of many politicians and economists for continuous, preferably challenge to a deeply held dominant social paradigm—one
high growth aggravates the situation. It is readily shown that a supported by a host of powerful vested interests—it is not
constant rate of growth is, in mathematical terms, exponential surprising that the conclusions of the ‘‘limits to growth’’ argument
growth of the form: are far from universally accepted. There are those who dismiss the
argument as facile, countering that human ingenuity will always
P ¼ P0 expðktÞ,
discover new technologies and develop new materials which will
where P is the size of the economy or resource at time t and P0 is enable us to evade its stark logic [13]. This belief is sometimes
its value at t ¼ 0; k is the growth rate. It is clear that such growth referred to as ‘‘cornucopian’’. Others (the majority in the author’s
cannot be sustained in a world of finite resources. opinion) simply do not engage with the argument, and act as if
The Second Law of Thermodynamics has equally serious they believed that continuous growth is a law of nature, as
implications for an economic or industrial system based on inevitable as the phenomenon of gravity. They are unreflective
continuous growth. The inputs to the system are typically of low cornucopians.
entropy (highly ordered) and the wastes typically of high entropy The crisis demonstrated by the application of the Laws of
(disordered), as the Second Law predicts. Thus, low entropy Thermodynamics to energy and material resources is made more
petroleum is burnt to produce high entropy carbon dioxide and urgent by the aspirations of the developing world to share in the
water. West’s levels of prosperity. Some perhaps consider that the
The clear implication of these considerations is that the growth in consumption, and consequent increase in material
practice of contemporary industrial society is unsustainable: standard of living, should be confined to a small, perhaps to an
there must be limits to growth [10]. It is interesting to note that ever-smaller, proportion of mankind, so that the crisis could be
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

250 D.E. Packham / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29 (2009) 248–252

considerably postponed. Such a policy would be abhorrent to There has been a lot of interest in polyhydroxyalkanoates
many (the author included). (PHAs) which are produced within the cells of many different
The position adopted by individuals on issues of sustainability prokaryotic micro-organisms. PHAs are potential alternatives to
depends not so much on their interpretation of the scientific polyesters from petroleum sources [25]. Depending on the length
evidence, as on their personal philosophy and values. Irrespective and structure of the alkyl chain, they have properties ranging from
of this, there seems to be general agreement that steps should be those of crystalline thermoplastics to elastomers. Some PHAs
taken to limit environmental damage and to conserve non- can be used for the production of biodegradable packaging
renewable resources. The disagreement between ‘‘limits to materials [26]. A survey of adhesives from renewable resources
growth’’ and cornucopia (and a spectrum of positions between was published in 1989 [27]. PHBV, mentioned above, is of course
the extremes) is over the urgency and the extent to which a PHA.
fundamental change to current practice should be made. In the area of composite materials, interesting work is being
done involving natural fibres, such as sisal, and also with
renewable-based resin matrices [28,29].
Gandini and Belgacem [30] have reported the used the oxy-
3. Environment and the impact of adhesive technology
propylation of vegetable or animal biomass residues to produce
polyols, which they used in polyurethane formulations to forms
Thus, on the technical level, the crisis of environmental
and elastomers with properties comparable with those of petro-
sustainability is associated with depletion of non-renewable
chemical-based equivalents.
resources, with the large-scale use of energy derived from fossil
Advances in polymer blends and composites obtained from
fuels and with pollution, which includes the production of
renewable resources have recently been reviewed by Yu et al.
greenhouse gases. For many years, adhesives technology has had
They consider blends involving: (i) natural polymers, such as
an adverse impact in all these areas. The extent to which these
starch, protein and cellulose; (ii) synthetic polymers from natural
impacts can be, and are being, reduced will now be considered.
monomers, such as polylactic acid; and (iii) polymers such as
polyhydroxybutyrate produced by microbial fermentation, and
3.1. Resources report the successful development of environmentally friendly
composites [31].
Recycling is an important means of conserving material
Most adhesives are polymers which, at present, are derived
resources. Recycling of polymers, certainly of linear polymers, is
from petroleum feedstocks. Clearly, petroleum is a non-renewable
in principle possible [32,33]. In practice, successive grinding and
resource. Controversy attends predictions of how long reserves
remoulding may cause thermal degradation to an extent that the
will last, but there are some authorities, at least, which predict a
properties suffer. A serious problem is that feedstock for recycling
permanent down turn in production within the first or second
may consist of mixtures of different grades and compounds of the
decade of the present century [6]. How this will affect polymer
same polymer or, worse, of different polymer types, leading to
production and use is, of course, impossible to say, but the
poor properties because of polymer–polymer incompatibility. The
consequences of rapidly rising petroleum feedstock prices will
recycling of adhesives is even more difficult than of polymers in
certainly be great [14,15].
general as the adhesive is usually a small proportion of a larger
It should not be forgotten, however, that adhesives obtained
artefact all of which should, in principle, be recycled. Indeed,
from renewable animal and vegetable sources have long been in
inappropriate choice of adhesive can aggravate the difficulty of
use [16]. Starch- and gelatin-based glues are examples. Natural
recycling the components joined [34].
rubber is an important commercial material and, a rubber
plantation is almost as effective as virgin forest in carbon dioxide
absorption [17].
3.2. Energy
The pressures to move towards sustainability have stimulated
much interest in developing new polymers from plant sources,
Energy consumption is unavoidable in almost all technology. In
often using fermentation techniques or genetic modification
2005, the global primary energy use was of the order of 500 EJ/
[18,19]. Kamm and Kamm [20], and elsewhere Clark [21], have
year (1 EJ ¼ 1 exajoule ¼ 1018 joule). On the basis of the figures
discussed various types of biorefinery for converting biological
from the US Energy Information Administration, it is estimated
raw materials to industrially valuable intermediates and final
that the figure will have risen to 1200 EJ/year by 2095 (Fig. 2) [35].
products. Clark describes ways in which everyday chemical
From these data, cumulative primary energy required from 2005
products, currently obtained from petroleum, could be derived
to 2050 is about 30,000 EJ. It is relevant to compare these figures
from renewable biomass by fermentation or controlled pyrolysis.
with reserves of non-renewable energy. Various estimates are
Unfortunately, economic factors, which make no distinction
given in Table 1 [6] for oil and uranium [36]. Figures such as these
between materials derived from renewable and from non-renew-
serve to bring into a sharp quantitative focus the seriousness of
able resources, have sometimes inhibited their commercial
the energy crisis.
success [22]. Commercial production, by a fermentation route, of
To turn to polymers and adhesives, whether the source
3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxy-valerate (PHBV) was discontin-
material is renewable or non-renewable, energy is used during
ued in 1998 for economic considerations [23]. Murphy [24]
its production and processing. Table 2 gives approximate energy
pointed out that the free market regulations of G.A.T.T.1 prevented
contents of some polymers. Thus, considerations of energy
the subsidising of plant oils as a source of chemical feedstock. Oils
conservation and of renewable energy generation are very much
from soy, palm, rape and sunflower have potential as precursors
relevant to adhesive technology [37]. However, it is not just the
for lubricants, surfactants, surface coatings and polymers. Metzger
energy involved in production and processing that is relevant: it is
and Eissen [15] claim that European Union research and devel-
important to consider the environmental impact of an article from
opment in bitechnology ‘‘is being totally neglected’’ as a result to
initial extraction of the raw materials, through manufacture and
lobbying by vested interests of the European chemical industry.
service use, to ultimate disposal—‘‘from the cradle to the
grave’’[14]. Such a ‘‘life-cycle analysis’’ [38] may suggest that
1
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, an international free trade treaty. weight saving and engineering efficiency associated with the use
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

D.E. Packham / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29 (2009) 248–252 251

1.400 Table 3
Some compounds of relevance to polymer technology with reported endocrine-
disrupting properties [41]
1.200
Compounds Comment
1.000
Polychlorinated compounds Formed in some incineration processes
Alkylphenols Stabilisers
800 Alkylphenol ethoxylates Surfactants
Phthalates Plasticisers
Bi-phenols (e.g. bisphenol-A) Constituent of most epoxy resins
600

400 For all these reasons, there is an increasing move away from
using organic solvents and dispersing media both in pretreat-
200 ments and in adhesives and coatings themselves.
Degreasing of metals has traditionally been done with the help
- of chlorinated solvents. Since their implication in depletion of the
2005 2020 2035 2050 2065 2080 2095 ozone layer, much effort has been devoted to developing less
damaging procedures, such as alkaline solutions and organic
Fig. 2. IPCC primary energy use [35] projected to 2095. aqueous emulsions [39].
Many adhesive systems formerly based on organic solvents are
now produced as aqueous emulsions. Adhesives for rubber to
Table 1 metal bonding provide a good example. Similarly, there has often
Some estimates of energy reserves been substitution of hot melt or of radiation-cured adhesives for
solvent systems [40]. Despite all these developments, volatile
Total energy (EJ)
emissions associated with adhesive use remain high [15].
Oil reserves [6] Increasing attention has been focussed in recent years on the
B.P.: Reserves 6000 effects of very low concentrations in the environment of a range of
Low estimate 4500 organic compounds. Many have been implicated in producing
High toppers 11,000
physiological change in humans and other animals [41,42]. For
Nuclear [36] example, some mimic the action of hormones. There is evidence
o40$ per kg 810 that residues of some compounds are xeno-oestrogenic and may
o80$ per kg 1620 disrupt the endocrine system (Table 3), depressing the human
With fast breeder 81,000
sperm count and sometimes leading to male genital deformity.
Many such compounds are used as additives in adhesives and
composites and, because of their fundamental incompatibility
Table 2 with the polymer phase, are likely to be released into the
Approximate energy content of some polymers (GJ/tonne) [17] environment. This is an area of controversy, with much dispute
over the effects on humans of low concentrations of such
Polymer Energy consumption
chemicals in the environment, as opposed to their effects on test
Polypropylene 110 animals under laboratory conditions. At one time it was expected
Styrene butadiene rubber 130 that the European Union ‘‘REACH’’ (Registration, Evaluation,
Polyurethane 174 Authorisation and restriction of Chemicals) regulations [43,44]
Polychloroprene 120
would oblige industry to replace endocrine disruptors with safer
Natural rubber 30
alternatives. However, vigorous lobbying by the Chemical Indus-
tries’ Association [45] and similar organisations has succeeded in
of adhesives and composites may, by saving energy during use, diluting the impact of REACH, and a decision on endocrine
more than compensate for problems over recycling and disposal. disruptors has been postponed to a future date [46].

3.3. Pollution 4. Conclusions

Some authors consider the Earth’s capacity to carry pollutants, What is the environmental impact of adhesive technology?
to be even more pressing a problem than those of depletion of Adhesives are mostly derived from non-renewable resources,
material and energy sources. Our record of replacing pollutants many involve a significant energy input in manufacture or use,
with less damaging alternatives is rather poor [21]. Like most and most are associated in some way with emission of organic
industrial processes, the production and use of adhesives pollutants. However, as the short review above shows, much
produces pollutants which can have an adverse environmental technical ingenuity has been used in developing ways of
effect. Much attention has been given in recent years to reducing addressing all or most of these problems. Moreover, it must be
their impact. emphasised that a broad view of environmental impact must be
It is now generally recognised that the emission of any volatile taken. It is not just a question of whether a particular adhesive
organic compound to the atmosphere is undesirable, as they manifests some undesirable feature: it is important to consider
contribute to the formation photochemical smog and many are the total environmental impact of the engineering context in
implicated in the aggravation of lung diseases such as asthma. which the adhesive is to be used. A full ‘‘life-cycle analysis’’ may
Moreover, organic vapours absorb infra-red radiation and there- well find that the use of adhesive technology gives not only
fore act as greenhouse gases. Adhesives and coatings are a major improved engineering efficiency in the traditional sense of the
industrial source of volatile organic compounds [15]. term, but lower environmental impact as well.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

252 D.E. Packham / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29 (2009) 248–252

The extent to which adhesive technology develops in the [14] Clark JH. Green chemistry: today (and tomorrow). Green Chem 2006;8:
direction of sustainability, depends not just on skilled technolo- 17–21.
[15] Metzger HO, Eissen M. Concepts on the contribution of chemistry to a
gical innovation, it depends crucially on the society in which it the sustainable development. Renewable raw materials. Comptes Rendus Chimie
technology is to be applied. Several examples have been cited 2004;7(6–7):569–81.
where economic criteria appear to favour the undesirable [16] Finch CA. In: Packham DE, editor. Handbook of adhesion. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2005
p. 400 and p. 47.
rather than the environmentally desirable. It is significant that [17] Rahaman WA. Natural rubber as a green commodity, part 1. Rubber Dev
the ECV-3, the highly efficient car discussed above, was developed 1994;47:13.
as long ago as 1982, but never put into production. It might be [18] Marchessault RH. Tender morsels for bacteria: recent developments in
microbial polyesters. Trends Polym Sci 1995;4(5):163.
thought that, rather than making environmental efficiency a [19] Moore SK. Natural synthetics, genetically engineered plants produce cotton/
major criterion, motor manufacturers have chosen to incorporate polyester blends and non-allergenic rubber. Scientific American 1997:23.
what Adam Smith called ‘‘baubles and trinkets’’ into their [20] Kamm B, Kamm M. Principles of biorefineries. Applied Microbiology and
Biotechnology 2004;64(2):137–45.
vehicles, adding to weight and increasing fuel consumption [47].
[21] Clark JH. Green chemistry for the second generation biorefinery—sustainable
It may be that some changes to regulations associated with use chemical manufacturing based on biomass. Journal of Chemical Technology
of taxes and subsidies would be beneficial. That is a specialised and Biotechnology 2007;82(7):603–9.
economic question, but it is not a specialised economic issue to [22] Gruber E. Limitations of efficient usage of renewable materials. Wochenblatt
für Papierfabrikation 2000;128(9):594–8.
insist that environmental benefit should be reflected in economic [23] Evans J. Non-food crops. Chemistry of Britain 2000:41.
criteria. That is a matter of philosophy and values. However, [24] Murphy J. New oils for old. Chemistry of Britain 1995;31(4):300.
despite what changes might be effected in this way, as long as the [25] Braunegg G, Bona R, Koller M. Sustainable polymer production. Polymer-
Plastics Technology and Engineering 2004;43(6):1779–93.
economic system seeks continuous (exponential) growth, adhe- [26] Madden LA, Anderson AJ, Asrar J, Berger P, Garrett P. Production and characteri-
sive technology will not be sustainable: the Laws of Thermo- zation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)
dynamics will ensure that. synthesized by Ralstonia eutropha in fed-batch cultures. Polymer 2000;41:
3499.
[27] Hemingway RW, Connor AH, Barnham SJ, editors. Adhesives from Renew-
able Resources. In: ACS symposium series no. 385. Oxford University Press,
Acknowledgements 1989.
[28] Aziz SH, Ansell MP. Optimizing the properties of green composites. Chapter
15. In: Baillie C, editor, Green composites. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., 2004.
This paper is an extended and developed version of oral papers [29] Towo AN, Ansell MP, Pastor M-L, Packham DE. Weibull analysis of microbond
given at the Swiss Bonding Conference in Rapperswil, near Zürich, shear strength at sisal fibre–polyester resin interfaces. Composite Interfaces
May 2007 and at the ‘‘Greener Adhesives and Sealants’’ meeting of 2005;12(1):77–93.
[30] Gandini A, Belgacem MN. Recent contributions to the preparation of
the Society for Adhesion & Adhesives and the British Adhesives polymers derived from renewable resources. Journal of Polymers and the
and Sealants Association in London, December 2007. The author is Environment 2002;10(3):105–14.
grateful for the generosity of the Armourers & Brasiers’ Company [31] Yu L, Dean K, Li L. Polymer blends and composites from renewable resources.
Progress in Polymer Science 2006;31(6):576.
in awarding him a travel grant to attend the former meeting. [32] Hoyle W, Karsa DR, editors. Chemical aspects of plastics recycling. Royal
Society of Chemistry, London; 1997.
References [33] Scheirs J. Polymer recycling: science, technology and applications. Wiley;
1998.
[34] Onusseit H. The influence of adhesives on recycling. Resources Conservation
[1] Watson C. Engineering design with adhesives. In: Packham DE, editor. and Recycling 2006;46(2):168–81.
Handbook of adhesion. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2005. p. 138. [35] IPCC special report carbon dioxide capture and storage, 2005
[2] King CS. A car for the nineties: BL’s energy conservation vehicle. Proc Inst [36] Commissariat à l’Énergie Atomique, CEA /http://www.industrie.gouv.fr/energie/
Mech Eng 1984;198D(3):21–31. comprendre/q-r-nuc-res.htmS.
[3] Smith A. An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, 1776. [37] Elliott D. Energy, society and environmental technology for a sustainable
In: Campbell RH, Skinner AS, editors. Critical edition, vol. 2. Oxford University future. Routledge, 1997.
Press; 1976. [38] van den Berg NW, Dutilh CE, Huppes G. Beginning LCA: a guide into
[4] Bradfold Delong J. Growth is good: an economist’s take on the moral environmental life cycle assessment. Unilever; 1995.
consequences of material progress. Harvard magazine. January-February [39] Watts JF. Degreasing. In: Packham DE, editor. Handbook of adhesion. 2nd ed.
2006 /http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/010678.htmlS. Wiley; 2005. p. 101.
[5] Hatfield CB. Nature 1997;387:121. [40] Packham DE, editor. Handbook of adhesion. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2005 passim.
[6] Leggett J. Half gone: oil, gas, hot air and the global energy crisis. London: [41] Anon. Endocrine-disrupting substances in the environment: what should be
Portobello Books; 2005. done? UK Environment Agency, January 1998.
[7] World Commission on environment and development our common future [42] Theo C, Dianne D, Meyers JP. Our stolen future—are we threatening our
(the Bruntland Report). Oxford University Press, 1987. fertility, intelligence and survival?—a scientific detective story. Little Brown,
[8] Whitehead G. Economics. Heinemann, 1970. p. 5. 1996 [Abacus 1997].
[9] Daly Herman E. Steady-state economics. 2nd ed. Earthscan; 1992. [43] European Commission, Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction
[10] Meadows D. The limits to growth: the 30-year update. Chelsea Green; 2004. of Chemicals Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 and Directive 2006/121/EC.
[11] Buchan J. Adam Smith and the pursuit of perfect liberty. Profile Books; 2006. [44] European Commission, The New EU Chemicals Legislation—REACH /http://
[12] Alvey JE. Adam Smith: optimist or pessimist? Aldershot: Ashgate; 2003. ec.europa.eu/enterprise/reach/index_en.htmS.
[13] Cole MA. Limits to growth, sustainable development kuznets curves: an [45] Judith H. Chemical Industries Association. Annual review, 2005.
examination of the environmental impact of economic development. Sustain [46] Sandra J, Cobbing M. Navigating REACH. Chemical reaction, August 2007.
Dev 1999;7(2):87–97. [47] op. cit. 3, book 3, chapter 4.