1

ELEMENTS OF WRITING MOVEMENTS

1. Writing (Pen) Pressure — is the average force with which the pen comes
in contact with the paper or the usual force involves in the
writing. This is one of the most personal but somewhat
hidden characteristics in writing.

2. Pen Emphasis - is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper
surface with increase pressure or the periodic increase
pressure of the writing.

Shading ---- writing with the use of fountain pen Rigid/Strong Strokes ----
writing with ball-points

2. Rhythm — is the balance quality of movement or the harmonious

recurrence of strokes or impulse. As an element of writing
movements, rhythm accounts to be one of the very essential for
there is nothing in handwriting so difficult to imitate as the exact
quality of a muscular rhythm.

POINTERS CONCERNNG RHYTHM:

2
 a. Lack of rhythm, as shown by a succession of awkward
independent, poorly directed and disconnected motion is often a
sign of forgery.
b. Perfect and continuous coordination of impulse are often sign of
forgery.

3. Skill — refers to the relative degree of the Writer’s proficiency. It cannot be

accurately measured although it can be grouped as to poor,
average and good. Writing skill is dependent to many factors,
manual dexterity being the most important. Its basis is either
legibility or symmetry.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH SKILL:

a. It is difficult for the average writer to improve his skill in writing

without considerable effort or long practice, as a rule, “A person
cannot write better than his usual best.”
b. That contrarily, most writers can write a poorer handwriting than his
accustomed one without much effort.

4. Speed — cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but it

can be interpreted in broad term as to slow and drawn, deliberate,
average and rapid. (See Fig 2)

INDICATION OF SPEED OF RAPIDNESS IN WRITING

1. Smooth, unbroken strokes

2. Misplaced and misshaped “I” dots and “t” crosses
3. Joining of initial or of words
4. Letters tapered illegibly towards end of words
5. Mark difference in pressure contact and down strokes
6. Wide writing and spacing
7. Simplification of letters especially in capitals

INDICATION OF SLOWNESS IN WRITING

1. Broken strokes, wavy lines

2. ‘1’ dots and “t’ crosses made and placed perfectly

3
 3. Pauses, unnecessary marks and angles retouching
4. Carefully made final spacing
5. Little difference in pressure on up and down strokes
6. Ornamentals of flourishing letters

2. Pen-lift — an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing

instrument from the paper. Disconnection between letters and letter
combination may be due to lack of movement control. Using a ballpoint
pen may cause pen lift due to failure of the ball to rotate.

3. Shading — refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter
strokes or the widening of the ink strokes due to the added ink on the
flexible pen point or the use of the stub pen.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED REGARDING SHADING:

a. its form
b. its intensity
c. its skill
d. its frequency
e. its exact location

4
4. Pen Position (pen hold) — is the location of the pen in relation to the
paper surface, which can be determined by the presence of the emphasis
or pen shading.

5. Pen Scope — represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest. is the
average scope or limits of the pen during the process of writing with the
wrist of the hand at still.

6. Retracing or Retrace — is the stroke that goes back over another writing
strokes; it is slightly to occur in others handwriting.

5
11. Retouching or Patching — is a stroke going back to repair a defective
portion of the writing stroke. Careful patching is a common fault in forgeries.

ELEMENTS OF LETTER FORMS

1. ARC = the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the upper loop
of such letters as c, h, m, n, etc.

2. BEARD = The slight up and down introductory stroke or sort of

double hitch, seen at the beginning of many capital letters.

3. Blunt = the beginning and ending strokes of letters, both small and
capital, in which the pen touch the paper without hesitation, beard.
Hitch, or knob.

6
4. Buckle Knot = the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used
to complete such letters as A, F, f, H and D.

5. Central Part or Body = the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a

small circle that usually lies on the line of writing, as the bodies of a,
b, d, g, o, p.

6. Dactus Broken or Junction Broken = the disconnected and non-

continuous stroke between two letters.

7. Dactus Link or Junction Connected = the continuous line that joins

two letters.

8. Eye Loop or Eyelet = the small loop formed by strokes that extend
in divergent directions as in b, c, f, k, p, q, r, s, v, w, and z.

7
9. Foot = the base, or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing.

10. Hitch = the introductory backward stroke added to the beginning of

many capital letters; it is also occasionally found in some small
letters.

11. Hook or Through = the bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of
the bottom loop, or curve of small letters.

12. Hump = the rounded outer side of the top of the bend, crook, or
curve in small letters such as h, k, m, n.

13. Initial Spur = the long initial rising stroke of a letter.

8
 14. Knob = found either at the beginning or end of letters, both small and
capital in which the pen touched or left the paper so slowly that a tiny
pool of ink spread slightly.

15. Main Stroke or Stem or Shank of Staff = the long upright downward
stroke that is the trunk or stalk, seen especially in B. F. K. P.

16. Space Filler or Terminal Spur = an upward horizontal or downward

fina stroke usually seen in small letters such as a, s, u, y.

17. Whirl = the upward stroke, usually on letters that have a high loops
such as h, d, and I.

COROLLARY 2. A particular writing instrument may not fully reflect all of

the qualities of writing movement.

The various elements that make up writing movement are not always
reflected in the specimen prepared with same classes of writing instrument. For
example, variation in pen emphasis appears as shading with a flexible but most
of this is lost when the writing is performed with a stiff pen. But the same token,
pencil and ball pen position which may be clearly disclosed when the writer uses
a relatively flexible nib pen. If one specimen of writing fail to show certain writing
qualities because of the instrument used and another does disclose these
qualities, this does not mean that we are dealing with two different writers. The
examiner must carefully determine the kind of writing instrument used in each
specimen and with this knowledge evaluate apparent differences of this nature.

9
RULE 3. Writing standards are necessary to establish the individual’s
normal writing habits and to show the degree of variation common to his
writing.

This rule actually defines adequate and proper standards. Useless they
completely fulfill these conditions their usefulness in any examination is limited.
in fact, in certain standards, which. do not comply with those requirements may in
certain instances lead to erroneous conclusion especially in the examination of a
writer who actually prepared the specimen in question.

COROLLARY 1. The best standards include writing which was prepared,

for a comparable purpose and under similar writing conditions to the
matter under investigation.

With standard consisting of a relatively small sample of a person’s total writing. It

is well to select them carefully. Statistical studies have shown that small properly
selected and controlled may give much more accurate picture of the whole than
the substantially larger but controlled sample. The problem is one of selection
and control. Thus, in writing standards all influencing factor should be kept as
much like those of the questioned material as possible. This means that writing
with similar instrument prepared under comparable condition at or about the
same time should be sought. It does not mean, however, that writing which was
prepared for every different purpose may not permit an accurate identification. If
the two writing contain the same identifying element, the’ certainly the
identification is valid. It does not mean, however, that the best procedure is to
seek writing prepared for a similar purpose, as reference has shown that writing
generally leads to the best identification and requires for less interpretation by the
expert.

RULE 4. A specimen of writing was written by a particular person if all its

identifying elements are a part of his handwriting and furthermore the
variation within its specimen falls within his range of writing variation.

RULE 5. (Converse) A specimen of writing was not written by a particular

person if there exist significant difference between its identifying elements
and those of the suspected writer.

In identifying the writer of the unknown material, the standard must contain
all of the identifying elements present in the questioned specimen. These
element includes personal writing habits, the manner of execution, and quality
and extent of variation. The unknown writing may contain elements not found in
the unknown. If those elements are rate or unusual characteristics of the
unknown writer, or it due unknown material is very limited, their occurrence does
not necessarily invalidate the identification. With no longer question specimen by
the same writer and under similar condition to the standard, not only should the
same combination of identifying characteristics to be expected but also those

10
personal writing attributes should occur in a somewhat frequency in both
specimens.

Difference between the known and unknown writing become significant

due to their clearly fundamental nature or to the repeated occurrence to the
same, all unconscious element. It is that the converse rules govern, and writing
are by different writers. Fundamental differences must be clearly distinguished
from variables, which are a part of every writer’s handwriting. Thus, the
identification of writing involves certain point of judgment as to whether an
apparent difference is really fundamental or is a variable or was introduced
purely by change. Fortunately, in the vast majority of question, Non-identity is
established by the presence of not one but a number of significant basic
difference.

These rules are basic and fundamental. No doubt could be added, but
such omissions in this paper are not many detract from or mitigate against the
significance of the anxious and corollaries set forth herein. The identification of
handwriting depends upon a consideration of each of these rules whenever
applicable.

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 CHAPTER VI

SIGNATURES AND FORGERY DETECTION

Signature is a name of a person signed by him on a document as a sign of

acknowledgment. Signature is said to be one important thing that a person owns.
You can be the riches among the rich or the poorest among the poor because of
your signature. Almost all documents requires signature for its complete
authenticity. When a person signed his name, he carries one of his most
common writing acts making his signature highly complex and individual. The
question of how he writes his name is dependent on a number of combined
factors. Just like for instance in a case of near-illiterate usually produces a
measurable, plodding pattern, lacks in skill and freedom of execution but still it is
individual to him alone. With those who have attained a higher level of writing
capabilities signature also assumes greater skills, its strokes flows with less
primitive effects. Some of the factors that contribute to this effect are his
muscular control and coordination, his health, age, nervous temperament, the
oftenest of being engaged to writing and even his personality. While a number of
these factors are blended in a person’s signature nonetheless, the writer is not
particularly conscious of these factors as he executes until such a time through
practice or repeated execution of which the strokes are somehow being formed
in a semi-automatic way carrying a consistent pattern with certain degree of
variation.

CLASSES OF SIGNATURE

a. FORMAL OR COMPLETE — class of signature used in acknowledging

important document such as will, checks, contract and business papers.

12
 b. INFORMAL OR CURSORY — a class of signature for routinely executed
document or made for personal correspondence.

c. CARELESS SCRIBBLE — used for mail carrier, delivery of

goods, purchase of equipments and an autograph collector.

Some writers make use of all these three classes of signature especially
those working in a business or a company in order for them to have a distinction
between important and not so important documents in the company and
differentiate them with his personal document. Some even makes a distinctive or
somewhat hidden mark to their signature in awareness of possible forgery of his
signature.

FORGERY

Documents containing disputed signature occupies the highest level the

hierarchy of questioned document cases. It is due to this, that a specialized
branch of questioned document examination was established —the Signature
Verification. The identification of one’s signature calls for a greater emphasis
than in handwriting identification but the basic principles remains the same.
There are certain characteristic or features that a signature has that do not
appear in the ordinary handwriting of a person, making signature more unique,
complex and truly individualized. The way signature is written is a great factor to
its recognition. Although it contains fewer letters and even sometimes-
unrecognizable letters strokes being in a form of highly individualized signature
its identification is being accomplished. This is due to the frequent use of one’s
signature, its great importance, its value to the author somehow that makes it
more automatic than the usual handwriting. Here the skills, the momentum of the
pen and the forms of the letters plays a very important role.

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 To ordinary layman letter structure is the most common eye-catching part
but to the lenient person who knows the art and science of signature
identification he knows that the factors of movements or execution is the most
important aspects for accurate and effective identification.

Once a person signed his name in a form of a signature there is

automatically that desire to produce something based on pre-determined pattern
as to how his signature would look like. This pattern consists of personal designs
with certain touch of artistic ability and personality. Once this is done in repetition
it will turn into a form that makes it distinguishable over all others.

Basically, there are two sets of elements to be considered. Those

elements associated to the form or designs of the letters that usually gives the
general form of the signature and those properties that are relative to the motion
of the writing instrument. If the questioned and all the standard signatures show
an excellent number of similarities with none of the significant differences,
therefore, you may say that same person wrote them.
Natural variations play a very important role in ascertaining the
genuineness of a signature. Its presence or absence, its degrees or extents are
very significant in determining whether or not the questioned and the sets of
standards belong to the same person. The concept of natural variation is in line
with the truth that no two specimen of signature are completely and absolutely
identical. Therefore, the extent in which variations in the specimen signature
varies, the condition of the writers, the conditions under which the writing was
prepared and other factors that might affect the over-all appearance of the writing
should be taken into consideration. Especially in determining differences that are
part of variation as distinguished from that of significant differences.

The process by which signature was forged is also an important factor that
is to be considered in determining the true nature of the signature. It is always
said that anything done out of imitation will leads to a poorer quality of writing.
But as what was discussed in earlier a matter of form or design is only one of the
factors to be considered in signature identification. The way a fraudulent
signature was made is also the reason for which it is identified to be truly forged
and not a genuine one. There is no perfect process of forgery, be it done by
simple, simulated or tracing for each one of these processes leave its trade mark
of being fraudulent to whatever will be its product.

There are various classes of forged signature but how they are made are
generally categories into three Major types - The simple, the simulated and the
traced forgery.

The Simple Forgery

Simple forgery is a forged signature made without any attempt on the pa

of the forger to imitate or make a facsimile of the genuine signature of the person

14
purported to sign the document. As the name implies, this is one of the simple
type for the forger need not have a genuine signature at hand in order to ma
such a forgery. Using his own style of writing, the forger executes the name the
person who supposed to sign the document. Sometimes it is done with se
modification of his own style and he takes advantage of the element of time that
things will be accomplished before it will be detected. This is one type of
forgeries that is very easy to be identified, even by ordinary person. There .s hard
and fast rule to its detection for at the moment a genuine signature is obtained
simple comparison will obviously show that they were not written only one
person. It is also this type of forgery, that identification of the forge quite more
easy than the two other processes. Its identification of the forger lies on the fact
that it is written in the own style of the forger, thus it reflects his writing
characteristics.

This is a common practice by check thief, criminals who steal, endorse or

passes government or corporate checks. BY utilizing fictitious signature and
pretence, the forger may successfully take things to his advantage.

There where simple instances at which this type of forgery are made. Like
for instance in school, there are students in the hope of giving faior to their
friends, might sign the name of their friend in the attendance sheet even though
the said student is actually absent, the student write his friend’s name and
opposite of which is a signature which is actually a mere creation of the one
signing it. This type of forgery is also called as Spurious Signature.

The Simulated Forgery

The simulated forgery is considered to be the most skilful type of forgery.

Although this form appears or made in various level of skills depending upon the
forger, The reason for its being branded as the most skillful type, lies on the fact
that this process is done in not just ordinary way, it takes real skill of different
degrees in order for a forger to successfully imitate the signature which he
intends to sign. Through free-hand imitation a gifted forger will make a practice
over a scratch paper for twenty-thirty times before signing it to the fraudulent
document. This is one of the reasons why at the moment the forger sign it, he
sign with certain continuity as distinguished from those of amateur forger. It is
also of this reason that detection of this type is relatively more difficult especially
if skillfully done.

Aside from the challenge of skills on the part of the forger, another thing
that he has to work for is to be able to understand the characteristics of the
mode) signature of another person, execute the same, while discarding his OW
writing style. See it is not just a simple job. There are even certain instances that
the forger could not be able to avail himself of the model signature, but because
of his desire to accomplish it and with sufficient familiarization with the signature

15
to be imitated, simulation can still be undertaken. Simulated forgery is also ca as
copied forgery.

The Traced Forgery

The traced forgery like a simulated forgery necessarily requires the ac f a

model signature. As the name implies, it is the result of an attempt of the b’ to
make a close resemblance of the original by means of some tracing proc so as to
transfer it to the fraudulent document.

Most cases of traced are easy to identify than a simulated one. This to the
fact that a traced signature is done in a way foreign from writing actually not more
of writing rather a drawing. One exemption to this could e case of those who
traced the signature with certain practice that they ca with a fact, free pen
movement. But still the large numbers of these cases really drawn with a slow,
measurable stroke, done with much consciousness hesitation and abrupt turns
due to certain movement. Some of the processes used in making traced forgery
are as follows:
1. CARBON OUTLINE PROCESS

This process is one of the most common means utilized by forger in

making a number of identical copies or records of certain entries. A piece of
carbon paper either blue or black is interleaved between the genuine signature
and the fraudulent document with the genuine document placed on top. Using s
dry pen or pointed instrument the outline of the model signature will then be
traces in order to make an offset print the carbon on the fraudulent document. If a
piece of blue carbon was used, the signature outline will be grossly approximate
the line of a blue pen. When a black carbon was the one used, the signature
outline will grossly resemble the work of a self lead pencil. The genuine and the
carbon paper will be removed and the carbon outline will be inked using a pen.
One of the troubles that a forger has is how to put the ink strokes on the same
place where the carbon outline was. That is why he has to be slow in doing it.
Another draw could be the dirt that he carbon outline produced.

2. INDENTION OR CANAL-LIKE PROCESS

This is done in similar way the carbon outline process is made, only now a
carbon paper is eliminated in the process. The genuine document is placed
above the fraudulent document, the forger will follow the outline of the genuine
using a pressure, enough to make or leave an indented writing on the fraudulent
document. The depression or indented signature is thereafter overwritten with an
ink to I finish the forgery. Just like in carbon outline process, the difficulty now I
on the part of the forger is how to make the ink strokes coincide with the
depression or indented outline.

3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT OR PROJECTION PROCESS

16
 Among the three methods being utilized by some forger, tt6 method has
greater advantage on the part of the forger. Here the fraudulent document is the
one placed above the genuine document using a transmitted light, these two
documents will be placed on top the plane glass of the transmitted light. With a
strong light passing through these two documents, the image/outline of the
genuine signature will be projected to the fraudulent document and later traced
with ink. In this process the forger can be fast in his execution 3 the problem of
dirt by carbon or depression by indention process — eliminated. With this
process and with practice, forgery will be easier should be considered by a
document examiner or signature verifier as a challenge to their credibility in
signature identification.

N.B.

Simulated and traced forgeries have something in common. Both utilize

model signature and the objective of the forger is to affect a facsimile. They only
differ somehow on the manner of executing it or having it done.

There are a number of drawbacks on the part of the forger using

simulation as well as tracing and they are: (1) Giving much attention to the
conspicuous features of form and not to other details that encompasses the
execution of a genuine writing; (2) Imitation or tracing leads to disguised, and
disguised leads to a poorer result; (3) Too much consciousness of the process
leads to hesitation; (4) Failure to identify significant characteristics of the writing
of another; (5) Difficulty in eliminating or discarding his own writing habits; (6) It
needs great muscular skills to produce the writing being imitated; (7) Awareness
of criminal act, fear of discovery and anxiety to do the work well; and (8) the most
basic and fundamental defect is not on the divergent form but in the quality of the
line strokes.

Defects that a traced forgery might be evidenced by looking on one

or more of the following:

1. Quality of line strokes

2. Naturalness of movement, freedom strokes and speed of

execution of the writing;

3. Hesitation causing pen lifting, retouching and shading;

4. Selecting and dating model signatures;

5. Presence of pencil, carbon or indention outlines which

point to the process used; and

17
 Identification of the questioned signature with a genuine or model signature
used such as using actual measurements with the aid of test plates,
superimposition with transmitted light, or taking photographs and producing
transparencies to easily superimpose one over the other, transparent glass with
uniform ruled squares or various lines to show all parts agreeing with said
squares or lines.

SEVEN (7) CLASSES OF DISPUTED SIGNATURESI

QUESTIONED SIGNATURES

1. Forged signature where no attempt has been done to make a copy or

facsimile of the genuine signature of the person purporting to sign the
document. This is commonly referred to as Simple Forgery.

2. Forged signature of fictitious person.

3. Forged signature that closely resembles the genuine signature’ since they
have been produced by a tracing process referred to as Traced Forgery.

4. Forged signature that resembles the genuine signature written freehand

also called as Simulated or Copied Forgery.

5. Genuine signature which the writer honestly unwilling to accept a genuine.

6. Genuine signature obtained by trickery.

7. Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner to

afford signatures some plausible ground for disclaiming them should they
deem it expedient.

IDENTIFICATION OF FORGERY

1. Hesitation and pen stops at unusual places

2. Abrupt change in direction of strokes, showing uncertainty of movements
3. Concealed joining or carefully made patching or retouching
4. Blunt initial and/or terminal strokes
5. Lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes
6. Misplaced shading or shading in more than one direction caused by a
false start
7. Defective line quality
8. Slow, broken strokes, or wavy lines (Tremors)
9. Unnatural pen lifting

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 10. Presence of carbon, pencil or indented outlines along the strokes

EVIDENCE OF NATURALNESS IN WRITING HALLMARKS OF

SPONTANEOUS WRITING

1. A general rhythmic writing through out

2. Smooth unbroken strokes in writing
3. Finely tapered strokes both at the beginning and ending letters
4. Tendency towards illegibility especially towards end of signature or other
words indicating great speed.

PRIMARY SIGNS AND FORGERY

1. Slow broken strokes, way lines

2. Unnecessary retouching or patching
3. Lack of difference in pressure on up and down
4. Blunt starting and ending strokes
5. Meaningless markings and blots caused by a false start
6. Shading in more than one directed cause by a false start by an effort to
imitate line, which by twisting the pen rather than varying the pressure or
imitating pen hold.

CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. Line Quality — (Natural or Feigned)

2. Letter form — (General or Individual)
3. Proportions — (Balance or disproportionate)
4. Height Ratio — (Between different letter)
5. Skill — (lowest and highest level of dexterity and artistic or not)
6. Writing movement - (Rhythmic or varied)
7. Writing Continuity — (Joined or disjoined letters)
8. Writing Pressure — (Light, medium, heavy)
9. Pen scope — (Short, average or extended)
10. Letter spacing — (narrow or broad)
11. Speed — (Slow, average, or rapid)

19
 12. Slant — (Controlled or extremely variable)
13. letter size- (Large, Medium, Small)
14. Connections — (Angular, rounded or broken)
15. Other individual idiosyncrasies such as manner crossing t-bars, split letter,
excessive underlining, bent staff and diacritical markings.

CHAPTER VII

CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

The improper or careless handling of a disputed document can lead to a

serious curtailment of certain technical examinations. Most frequently this
condition is brought about by ignorance of the consequences of mishandling just
the simple act of removing and replacing a letter in its envelop repeatedly can
cause noticeable deteriorate.

The care, handling and preservation of documents can be discussed

adequately by setting forth certain positive rules of action in the form of “DO’s”
and listening in several admonitions in the form of “DONT’s”.

DO ‘s”

1. Keep documents unfolded in protective envelope.

Protective Envelopes

The most useful and effective protective covering of a disputed document is a

transparent plastic envelop. This kind of envelope can easily be purchased
commercially or can easily be made from sheets of clear plastic to a size
sufficient to accommodate any flat unfolded paper.

As an alternative, a large, heavy manila or craft envelope or folder can be

used. Again, the document should be laid flat, unfolded as to prevent wear along
folds. If a nontransparent envelope is used, it should be carefully labeled both for

20
convenience and to eliminate unnecessary handling. This kind of envelope
makes a poor permanent substitute for a transparent one because the document
is not easily examined but protection by any sort of envelope preserve the
documents and reduces the chance of damage.

2. Take disputed papers to the document examiner’s laboratory at the first

opportunity.

3. If storage is necessary, keep the document in a dry place away from

excessive heat and strong light.

Proper Storage

Once a document is disputed, it is seldom stored or filed for long, but

important documents are often kept for years. Some of these may be challenged
long after they were prepared, the document may deteriorate seriously. Moist or
humid atmosphere, excessive heat, and strong light accelerate the normal effects
of aging, bringing about changes in a relatively short time. Under these
conditions, it is entirely possible that even though there is no apparent effect for
exposure to moisture, heat or light, the document had undergone microscopic
changes.

“ DON’T’s”

1. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry them in a pocket

for a long time.

Avoid Excessive Handling

Repeated handling of a document can actually wear it out. In this way a

paper becomes dirty, frayed, and stained. Folds deemed and finally broken by
repeated opening and folding.

2. Do not mark disputed documents (either by consciously writing or

by pointing at them with a writing instruments or dividers)

Do Not Mark

Interfering marks may result either from someone’s deliberately writing in

the paper or form those unconscious strokes and smudges placed there by
someone’s pointing at the documents with a pen, pencil, pair of dividers, or
eraser. Both must be avoided.

3. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting,

tearing or punching for filing purposes.

21
 4. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or
do not treat or dust for latent fingerprint before consulting a
document examiner.

Do Not Mow “Amateur Testing”

Charred documents, because of their extremely fragile nature, must be

handled as little as possible. Even transporting them to the laboratory care.
When documents of this kind are discovered, much is to be gained by discussing
all aspects of the question with a qualified document examiner before any
attempt is made to move the materials to his laboratory.

When possible, the charred documents should be moved in the container

in which they are found. If the fragments are not packed tightly, lightweight
absorbent cotton may be used as padding. Jarring of the box must be kept to
minimum if not entirely eliminated.

THE EQUIPMENT OF A DOCUMENT LABORATORY

Tools are of great importance in any discovery and providing. There are
certain things that the physical evidence would like to tell us but sometimes only
with the aid of some scientific instrument that the evidence trying to tell us. Just
like a quotation that Osborn used in his book” Questioned Document Problems”,
regarding physical evidence ----. But human naked eye has its limitations and
these limitations leads the document examiner to the idea of needing some tools
in order to decipher if not to restore what is to be known or discover in the
document. Since Questioned Document is not an exact science exhibits are
necessary to convince the court. Such will be needing the aid of some
equipment.

Document examination is not very complicated in terms of the used for

equipment in as much as the instrument to be used depends on the scope of the
examination needed to perceived what is needed to be perceived. Sometimes
even an ordinary table lamp, a camera for photographing will do to discover and
prove something in the document under scrutiny. But there are some cases also
that a need for powerful equipment will be more desirable for it is the only means
to prove the authenticity or forgery of the document. Artificial light like Ultraviolet
Lamp and Infra-red gadget may sometimes be at used. There are several
equipment that can be of great significance to document examination but the
author decided to made mention of some of the most useful and commonly used
for the purpose as well as some facilities needed.

THE ROOM

22
 It is ideal that separate room should be built for physical examination and
for photographing and processing to the extent of utilizing specialized
photography.

The room should provide a means for storage of documents, a cool, dry
and ventilated storage. Ample bench space over which a number of documents
can be placed and can be scrutinized within an easy sight and reach of the
examiner. These make the examination easier and less time consuming
Comparison or collation can be made well and organized despite the number c’
documents being examined.

OPTICAL EQUIPMENTS

Some equipment can be made through improvise but not when we talked
of magnifiers, microscopes and camera lenses. A job well done cannot be
attained with the use of inferior optical equipment. Mounting of exhibits is of great
significance for demonstration and proving in court, thus quality should not be
compromise with the use of cheaper equipment of poor performance.

a. Hand Magnifier

There are varieties of magnifiers that are at used at present. What is

needed? Practically, what is necessary for use is one, which will serve the
greatest purpose of the examination. A magnifying lens that is just enough in its
magnification (at least capable of making four-times the size of the original),
having a diameter of about two inches but not more than or less than one inch
will be reasonable to cover a wider field of view.
Other forms such as Illuminated magnifier, Binocular magnifier, adjustable lens
can be of great help to document examiner but they are rarely used especially in
the country.

b. Microscopes

Microscope also appear in various forms, there are compound microscope

for biological testing, microscope with a wide-flat form for documents to be laid
and comparison microscope for simultaneous viewing and matching of two
specimen at one time.
One of the most useful types is that of a stereoscopic microscope for It
gives document examiner an extensive examination, showing great details of
documents and anything on it that our naked eye alone is impossible of being
deciphered. This microscope is of unique form for it gives an examiner three
dimensional enlargement of the specimen under consideration making it ideal for
examination of cross writings. writing across a folds, sequence of strokes and
disturb fiber partly concealed.

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 Stereoscopic microscopes can be purchased with built-in lighting systems,
this type is convenient for use but sometimes a separate illumination can be
found to be of greater advantage in some cases for such can be controlled in it
intensity and angle of illumination required. In a comprehensive laboratory one of
the most powerful and useful equipment used is that of the Forensic Comparator
microscope sometimes they called it three-in-one microscope, an instrument that
can bring together two objects into the same field of view so that they may easily
be compared under the same degree of magnification. This is extensively used in
questioned document, fingerprint, Ballistics and even for forensic chemistry
purpose.

c. Camera and Lens

An S-L-R Camera has its indispensable used in questioned document

examination for discovering and proving in court until at present. A photographic
enlargement of signature, handwritings and type prints including alterations in
documents with the use of some illuminations are very important to show
agreement or disagreement the characteristics of the questioned and standard
document. This will not be possible with the use of the document itself alone for
such is too small and comparison will be very difficult as to prove or disprove the
claims of either party concerned.
With S-L-R camera all it takes is to have a variety of lens that can be used for
different purposes. One type of lens that is commonly at use especially for
photographing handwritings, signatures and type prints is that of the macro lens
or a specialized short focus lens that does not only record image but also
enlarged the same in certain degrees.

An appropriate stand is necessary to maintain parallelism between the

camera and the document. A photographic stand with a built in stage is found to
be more convenient than an ordinary tripod in order to avoid distorted image of
the disputed as well as the standard documents.

MEASURING APPARATUS

In document examination, measurement plays a very significant role for in

some cases it is even become a sole basis in determining genuineness of the
document. There are various standards measuring instrument but some of which
were not available to our document examiner. In addition to the regular
photographing equipment it is necessary to have a number of measuring devices
that can be photograph with the documents when making court exhibits.

a. Handwriting Measuring Test Plates

This instrument is about a foot or fifteen inches in length either plastic,

metal, or glass made, an instrument wry’ graduated scales in both inches and
centimeters. With these scales, measurements will be easy and direct on the

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document. Handwriting measuring test plates also varies in form depending on
what is to be measured in a document. There are what called Handwriting slope
measuring test plates, design measure degree of writing inclination; Handwriting
comparison test plates design to make a simultaneous comparison of w
specimen handwriting, showing their alignment, slant or se and proportions.

b. Typewriting measuring test plates

Measuring instrument design to measure the typeface pitch of a given

typewriting as well as determining alignment, scale and proportion of the type
characters. A valuable scale for use on typescript consist of a set of parallel lines
about half-inch apart. Each line has a short intersecting lines at usual spacing of
9,10,12 and 16 to the inch as well as one of 2.6 mm. If a type prints does not
conform to any of this thin scale it only connotes that it was spaced on the metric
system.

One such article of universal utility is accurate ruler on paper which can be
placed directly on a document and photographed with it aid the photographer in
securing the exact extent of enlargement. For instance, if a paper ruler an inch in
length is placed on the document being photographed, the length of the image of
the ruler on the ground glass is a measure of the degree of enlargement.
Therefore, the image of the inch ruler measures six inches; the enlargement is
six-inch diameters. The degree of enlargement can also be determined in court in
the same way by measuring the length of the ruler on the photograph.

To show accurately the difference or identity in the slant, spacing,

alignment, curve, angle or proportion of two writings to be compared, the
document examiner must have a number of special measures on colorless glass
plates that can be placed over the documents and’ photographed with them. This
is an approved practice. When document testimony is illustrated photographically
in this way, points of identity or dissimilarity in different writings can be seen by
anyone able to understand the measures of the common ruler and protractors.

SPECIAL LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

A. The Visible Light application

1. Direct lighting

This type of light examination is generally applies for photographing

purpose. In as much as document are to be photograph in a close distance a
separate light should be required in order to obtain a good exposure of the
document being photograph and in some case this light examination is also
useful in cases of erasures and concealment of erased surface by addition of
certain substance after erasure has bee made.

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2. Oblique Lighting

This type of lighting process positioned the lamp at one’s with the source
of illumination striking the surface of the paper at a very low angle. This will
cause varying angles to the light incident for every uneven area on a document
This light examination is best use in indented writings and erasures.

3. Side lighting

In this process the paper is held vertically and the light strikes the surface
of the paper from one side. This is used in showing presence of disturb fiber due
to mechanical erasure and indention.

4. Transmitted light

One of the very useful instruments in document examination is the

transmitted light gadget. It gives a source of illumination that would strike the
back or the bottom of the paper. This apparatus is so simple, it is essentially
consisting of a plane glass on which the document is placed and a source of light
placed beneath it. The lamp is house in a box sealed in all side except with one
with the glass or a lamp may also be backed with a metal reflector for a more
powerful source of illumination. This lighting examination is very useful in
determination of watermarking in paper, shows fiber arrangement in paper as
well as sequence of strokes.

B. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT GADGET

1. The X-ray or Roentgen

This gadget is rarely at used in questioned document examination

although sometimes an X-rays of very soft radiation or Genz rays can be of use
for purpose of making a transmitted light photograph to show up watermarking as
well any thinner surface of the paper like the site of erasures. But such activity
can likewise be best shown with the used of ordinary transmitted light, that is only
X-ray is not commonly at use cc practically it is more applied in medico-legal
examination.

2. The Ultra-violet light gadget

The Ultra-violet light gadget appears in various forms, some in a form

similar to a fluorescent lamp where the glass envelope also acts as a filter which
absorbs the bulk of the visible radiation and allowing the shorter wave lengths to

26
pass through. This lamp is commercially termed as the “black light” for at the the
power is off the bulb is colored black. This lamp is found to be very useful both
for commercial and laboratory application. One of its widest applications is in
detection of counterfeit Philippine Currency notes. Many businesses established
big or small that are directly involved in money transaction Ultra-violet lamp for
security reason.

This lamp makes a discharge through mercury vapor confined in a tube of

transparent fused quarts. Heat and visible lights are generated along with the
ultra-violet light, A nickel glass independently mounted from the discharge tube
absorbs the visible light

3. Infra-red Lamp

The used of infra-red photography refers to that special type of black and
white photography whereby image are reproduced through the action of infra-red
rays on sensitized films.

The value of photography by infra-red lies on the fact that infrared

radiation like visible light often are reflected and or transmitted quite differently by
common objects. Some objects subjects under infra-red rays are transparent
while others are opaque. Objects which reflects the infra-red rays are said to be
transparent to infra-red rays. On the positive print the objects appear gray or as
white shades. Where the infra-red rays are not reflected but absorbed, the
objects are said to be opaque to infra-red rays. On the positive prints the object
will appear as black shades.

The word infra-red means” below or beyond the red”. As the wave
increases to 700 milimicrons and above the radiation merges into heat wave and
finally into the radio waves. Even though the infra-red extends far out only the
region quite near the visible light, is of interest photographically. Infra-red rays in
the longest wavelength among the photographic rays arid it is also called the
heat rays.

Infra-red radiation can be made by photoflood bulb with infra-red

transmitting filters like No. 25, 87, 80A or by black-out flash bulb. Blackout flash
lamp makes photography in almost complete darkness without the usual visible
light. Only a dull red glow from the lamp, is visible. In such case, it is necessary
for the photographer to know where the subject is and the distance.

USES OF INFRA-RED:

1. Shows gun powder stains;

2. Deciphering altered or faded writings due to age;
3. Restoration of writing in charred documents;

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 4. Decipherment of Obliterated writing;
5. Differentiate paints or pigments which visually identical but & different
composition;
6. Detection and demonstration of certain secret writings or stains ion cloth
or paper;
7. Record subject in total darkness without being detected;
8. Addition, interlineations or insertion; and
9. In Surveillance Photography and night vision.

CHAPTER VIII

INKS AND WRITING INSTRUMENTS

IMPORTANCE

Practical knowledge about inks, their composition, resistance to moisture,

performance and absorption effects, manufacturing dates, is a valuable asset in
questioned document examinations. Ink used is Usually examined when the date
or age of document is questioned or when some parts of a document are
suspected to have been corrected, added, altered and/or inserted by another
hand with the intent to defraud.

ANCIENT INKS

Pre-Christian era inks were mostly soot or carbon blacks dissolved in

water with holding solutions to attain desired fluidity. The Chinese and Indians
were expert crude ink manufacturers using pulverized stones and saps of woods.

MODERN BLACK INKS

The modern Chemist, learned from the ancient crude preparations, has
the following ink solutions in black:

1. Tanno-gallate from sulphate of iron with gum — the most durable ink
solution for records purposes

2. Lampblack with alkaline solution

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 3. Coal tar dyestuff with water

4. Iron tannate with aniline colorings –

5. The ink containing tannin and iron salts takes an everlasting nature for it
resist alcohol and stays black indefinitely.

Another kind of black ink that appears blue initially but becomes black
when exposed to moisture is the logwood ink with potassium chromate.

ANILINE INK

This is made out of coal tar dissolved in acids. This was used as early as
1870.

However, the ink is washable and) therefore) is not good for permanent records.

FOUNTAIN PEN INKS

Fountain pen inks are supposed to be the best writing inks, quick drying,
waterproof and durable. So, manufacturers introduced alkali-resistant dyes in
caustic soda solutions.

INDELIBLE FLUIDS

These are used mostly when a penetrating marking is desired that will not be
erased. It is not commonly used except for special reasons. It is compos
logwood, potassium) aniline, bi-chromate, nutgall, gum and silver nitrate.

INVISIBLE OR SECRET INKS

These are classified according to the mode by which can make them visible:

1. Heating Process
2. Chemical Reaction
3. Moistening or Immersing in Water
4. Crude preparations take the form of secretions, juices, saliva, gum, milk,
etc.

AGE OF WRITING

At most, modern chemistry can only approximate whether a document written

with an ink is recent or old. A recent writing is usually determined by incomplete
oxidation process but once oxidation is completed, age determination basing

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solely on the ink is impossible. The best method here is not by a chemical test
but by comparison with other contemporary documents in which persons
knowledgeable of their production could establish their ages.

RESTORATION TECHNIQUES

When a writing is suspected to be erased either by optical illusion or by

chemical erasures or by removing paper fibers by rubber erasures, the following
are recommended to restore the writing:

1. Expose it under ultra-violet rays then, photograph.

2. Test ink used before erasure (thru chemical analysis). Depending on the
ink, the erased writing containing iron would appear by means of:
a. Iodine or Ammonium Sulfide Fuming;
b. Treatment of Tannic or Gallic Acid

SEQUENCE OF WRITING

The difference in absorption effects of inks accounts for the easy

determination of the sequence of writing where the problem is to determine which
of the two (2) writings with crossed lines was written first or last.

The following factors are considered, kind and quality of ink, pen use.
quality of paper and time. Extensions of letters above or below the baseline 31
helpful especially under magnifications. Consider the following: (1) When the first
ink fine is still moist, the crossing second line will not only darken the scored
portion but will have its ink on the scored portion fused through the first line
appearing as expanded. (2) When the first line is dry, the crossing line will darken
the scored portion and will appear to be overlapping or plowing the first line.

In this problem, it is a lot easier to determine ink writing versus writing.

When pen and ink are used to cross some lead lines, the ink flowing the pen will
fully cover the lead. But when a pen is used first and the pen used to cross some
ink lines, the lead strokes scoring the ink lines will ape top of the ink when the ink
is dried and will appear plowing the ink line if yet completely dried.

Whether it is ink versus ink or ink versus lead, ten to fourteen times
magnification is necessary to expose the crossing lines.

OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORY OF INK, WITH APPROXIMATELY DATES

NAME ORIGINATING PERIOD MATERIALS USED

COUNTRY

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CARBON China Dawn of Fine carbon in water
Egypt Civilization containing a mucilaginous
India substances or vegetable gum

Egypt At present

SEPHIA Rome 34 B.C. Secret by cuttlefish and

exuded when alarmed to stain
the water for protection.

England 500 A.D. Crushed galls soaked in

IRON – water, added to which are
TANNIN gum or salt and sulfate of
iron. At the time of writing,
or IRON- GALL such ink can hardly be
Egypt 600 A.D. discerned, but in time the iron
oxides and the writing turns
black.

BLUE BLACK Germany 1760 Indigo added to an iron tannin

England 1835 solution. Blue at time of
writing, but that fades, the
iron oxides, and the writing
turns black.

Nigrosine or United States 1850 Many compounds or salts of

black Aniline aniline dyes

Logwood England Logwood, which gives

1760 permanent color, usually
violet or purple, to iron
compounds, with other
ingredients.

Aniline Colors United States Colored with aniline dyes, but

1860 these inks fade when
England exposed to sunlight.

At one time was made from

vegetable juices and from

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 United States 1840 silver compounds, but today
Indelible aniline black is used.

Usually made of aniline black

Typewriter with glycerin or some oil
base. Colors made with
aniline dyes may be used but
they fade with exposure to
light.

Printing China 1000 B.C. Usually lampblack mixed with

boiled linseed oil. Modern
printing inks also contains
considerable dyer.

OUTLINE OF EARLY HISTORY OF OTHER WRITING INSTRUMENTS

ORIGINATING DATE DESCRIPOTION

NAME COUNTRY
Made of metallic lead or some
of the alloys of lead in
Central Europe 1000 A.D. cylindrical shape, around
LEAD And Asia Minor which was wrapped or twisted
the container or holder.
Natural graphite sawed into
him sheets thicker on one
edge than on the other and
GRAPHITE England 1550 then glued between two
grooved pieces of wood.
BISMUTH Germany and Graphite was called Flemish
Central Europe 1700 Stone in Central Europe.
Finely ground graphite made
PRESSED into cakes by subjecting to
GRAPHITE England 1850 great pressure. It was then
sawed into strips.
Finely ground graphite mixed
MODERN Germany 1760 with sulfur and rosin or with
GRAPHITE heavy gums.
France 1795 Finely group graphite mixed
with clay and forced through
small holes issuing in long
twine-like strands, then baked
and glued into a circular
glove, between two semi-

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 cylindrical strips of woods.
Finely ground graphite, clay
INDELIBLE OR England 1875 ad aniline dye mixed ad made
COPYING into the writing center, or
core, of wood holders.
Wax and dyes combined so
Wax Crayons Central Europe 1890 that a core is obtained which
is suitable for writing
purposes.

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