INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION  Before 1500, the Bible and Aristotle

were the only authorities accepted as

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
truth.
 It has been established that most, if  A geocentric model of the universe,
not all, of the discoveries and in which the Earth is at the center
inventions in science and technology was supported during the Middle
during each time period were due to Ages.
human needs and wants.  Until the mid-1500’s, European
 Brilliant minds responded to the call scholars accepted and believed the
of the times and created things that teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient
could make life easier for the people. Greek astronomer.
 There have also been instances when  Ptolemy taught that the Earth was
advancements in science and the center of the universe.
technology changed people’s  People felt this was common sense,
perceptions and beliefs. and the geocentric theory was
 Much of these events happened in a supported by the Church.
period now known as the Intellectual  It was not until some startling
Revolution discoveries caused Europeans to
 Scientific Revolution is used to refer change the way they viewed the
to the great intellectual achievements physical world.
of science from sixteenth to  Industrial revolution - refers to
seventeenth century marking a complex technological innovations
radical change in the assumptions from 1750 to 1895 characterized by
attitudes and methods in scientific the substitutions of machines for
inquiry. human skill and machine power for
 Scientific revolution was the golden that of human and animal bringing a
age for people committed to shift from handicraft to manufacture
scholarly life in science but it was and marking the birth of modern
also a deeply trying moments to economy.
some scientific individuals that led to
their painful death or condemnation GENESIS OF THE SCIENTIFIC
from the religious institutions who REVOLUTION
tried to preserve their faith, religion • The remarkable achievements of
and theological views. specific individuals such as Nicolas
 The Scientific Revolution develops Copernicus, Francis Bacon, Rene
as an offshoot of the Renaissance. Descartes, Andreas Vesalius,
The same questioning spirit that Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei,
fueled the Renaissance led scientists Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton.
to question traditional beliefs and the • The philosophy of new science, a
Church about the workings of the new way of doing science using what
universe. It was a new way of is known as the scientific method
thinking about the natural world. advocated by Francis Bacon and
Rene Descartes among others.
 • The desire to break away from the • Copernicus came to these
ideas of the feudal middle ages and conclusions using mathematical
the Aristotelian view. formulas.
• The establishments of the • The Copernican conception of the
universities from the 12th century universe marked the start of modern
which were later engaged in the science and astronomy.
critical analysis of the Aristotelean • Up to the time of Copernicus, people
views. thought that there was a sort of
• The Renaissance hopeful period of crystal sphere that kept the planets,
concerned with the present life as moon, and stars in orbit around the
well as the empirical and mundane Earth. It was Copernicus that
interest in the natural world and proposed the idea that the Earth
humanity. revolved around the sun, and not vice
• Important inventions such as versa... The sun was the center of the
mechanical clock, lenses, telescope, Universe, not the Earth.
microscope etc. • Most scholars rejected Copernicus’s
• The combinations and cooperation’s theory.
of the skills of the craftsmen and the • Most scholars rejected his theory
intellectual, computational and because it went against Ptolemy, the
logical method of the scholars. Church, and because it called for the
• Printing press spread new ideas Earth to rotate on its axis.
• Age of Exploration fueled a great • Many scientists of the time also felt
deal of scientific research because of that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the
technology needed for navigation planets was wrong, then the whole
• Translation of the works of Muslim system of human knowledge could
scholars opened the minds of be wrong.
European thinkers to new scientific
knowledge TYCHO BRAHE
• In the late 1500s, the Danish
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS astronomer Tycho Brahe provided
• Copernicus was a Polish evidence that supported Copernicus’
mathematician and astronomer who heliocentric theory.
studied in Italy. • Brahe set up an astronomical
• In 1543 Copernicus published De observatory.
revolutionibus orbium coelestium • Every night for years he carefully
(On the Revolutions of the Heavenly observed the sky, accumulating data
Spheres) about the movement of the stars and
• In his book, Copernicus made two planets.
conclusions:
• The universe is heliocentric, or sun- JOHANNES KEPLER
centered. • After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the
• The Earth is merely one of several German astronomer and
planets revolving around the sun. mathematician Johannes Kepler,
 used Brahe’s data to calculate the • When threatened with death before
orbits of the planets revolving around the Inquisition in 1633, Galileo
the sun. recanted his beliefs, even though he
• Kepler’s calculations supported knew the Earth moved.
Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. • Galileo was put under house arrest,
• His calculations also showed that the and was not allowed to publish his
planets moved in oval shaped orbits, ideas.
and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy
and Copernicus believed. SIR ISAAC NEWTON
• Kepler’s finding help explain the • Sir Isaac Newton was an English
paths followed by man-made scholar who built upon the work of
satellites today. Copernicus and Galileo.
• Newton was the most influential
scientist of the Scientific Revolution.
• He used math to prove the existence
of gravity - a force that kept planets
in their orbits around the sun, and
also caused objects to fall towards
the earth.
• Newton published his scientific ideas
GALILEO GALILEI in his book Mathematical Principles
• Galileo Galilei was an Italian of Natural Philosophy.
astronomer who built upon the • He discovered laws of light and
scientific foundations laid by color, and formulated the laws of
Copernicus and Kepler. motion:
• Galileo assembled the first telescope • A body at rest stays at rest
which allowed him to see mountains • Acceleration is caused by
on the moon and fiery spots on the force
sun. • For every action there is an
• He also observed four moons equal opposite reaction
rotating around Jupiter – exactly the • He invented calculus: a method of
way Copernicus said the Earth mathematical analysis.
rotated around the sun.
• Galileo also discovered that objects ORGANIC EVOLUTION
fall at the same speed regardless of • the slow and gradual process by
weight. which living organisms have
• The Church punished him for his changed from the simplest
belief in this idea. He was questioned unicellular form to the most complex
by the Inquisition and forced to multi-cellular forms that are existing
confess that his ideas were wrong. today.
• The Church came against Galileo
because it claimed that the Earth was
fixed and unmoving.
 • Some plants bear larger or smaller
fruits than others
• Some cows give more or less milk
than others in their herd
• This told Darwin that variation could
be passed from parents to offspring
and used to improve crops and
livestock
CHARLES DARWIN
• In artificial selection, nature provides
• Studied medicine at Edinburgh,
the variations, and humans select the
theology at Cambridge
ones they find useful
• Interest in natural history
• Darwin knew that variation occurs in
• Taught by a freed black slave who
wild species as well as domesticated
told him exciting tales of the South
species
American Rainforest
• Darwin developed the biological
• He realized that that natural variation
theory of evolution that explains how
provided the raw material for
modern organisms evolved over long
evolution
periods of time through descent from
• Darwin wanted to gather as much
common ancestors
evidence as he could to support his
• In 1831, he began a 5-year voyage
ideas before he made them public
on the HMS Beagle that would
• n 1858, Darwin read an essay by
change his life.
Alfred Wallace whose thoughts
• Darwin observed that the
about evolution were almost
characteristics of many animals and
identical to his!
plants varied noticeably among the
• In order to not get “scooped”,
different Galapagos Islands. Among
Darwin decided to present his work
the tortoises, the shape of the shell
at a scientific meeting in 1858 along
corresponds to different habitats.
with some of Wallace’s essay
• Darwin thought about the patterns
• The next year, Darwin published his
he’d seen on his voyage
complete work on evolution: On the
• He realized that there were many
Origin of Species
similarities between the animals he’d
seen.
Charles Darwin: Struggle of existence
• There was evidence that suggested
• From Malthus’ theory of supply and
that species were not fixed and that
demand, Darwin reasoned that if
they could change by some natural
more individuals are produced than
process.
can survive, they will have to
compete for food, living space and
Charles Darwin: Artificial Selection
other necessities of life
• To find an explanation for change in
• Darwin described this as the struggle
nature, Darwin studied the changes
for existence
produced by plant and animal
breeders
Charles Darwin: Variation and most suited to their local
Adaptation environment survive and leave more
• Individuals have natural variations offspring
among their inheritable traits • Natural Selection occurs in any
• Some variations are better suited to situation in which more individuals
life in their environment than others are born than can survive
• Fast predators capture prey more
efficiently
• Prey that are faster, better
camouflaged or better protected
avoid being caught.

Charles Darwin: Survival of the Fittest

• Darwin felt that there must be a
connection between an animal’s
environment and how it survives
• Ability to survive and reproduce in a
specific environment is called
FITNESS
• Fitness depends upon how well an • Over time, natural selection results in
organism is suited for its changes in the inherited
environment characteristics of a population.
• Fitness is a result of ADAPTATION • These changes increase a species’
• Good adaptations allow organisms to fitness in its environment.
survive and are passed on to their • A single “tree of life” links all living
offspring. things
• Good fitness: Reproduce • This is known as the principle of
• Low Fitness: Few common descent.
offspring/extinction • Darwin argued that living things
• Darwin thought that this seemed very have been evolving on Earth for
similar to artificial selection millions of years.
• He referred to “survival of the • Today, fields like genetics and
fittest” as Natural Selection molecular biology support Darwin’s
• Survival means more than just basic ideas about evolution
staying alive. It means reproducing
and passing adaptations on to the Darwin’s Four Postulates
next generation • Individuals within species vary
• Natural Selection: Nature chooses • Some of these variations are passed
• Artificial selection: Man chooses on to offspring
• Favorable characteristics are • Individuals vary in their ability to
inherited over several generations. survive and reproduce
• Natural Selection is the process by
which organisms with variations
 • Individuals with the most favorable • He observed that most organisms
adaptations are more likely to produce many more offspring than
survive and reproduce. survive.
• Natural selection produces organisms • He wondered which individuals
with different structures than their would survive.
ancestor, different niches, and new • If all the offspring that were
habitats. produced did survive, they would
• Each living species has descended, overrun the world.
with changes, over time.
SIGMUND FREUD
LAMARCK’S EVOLUTIONARY • An Austrian Neurologist who
HYPOTHESES became fascinated with studying
• Proposed that the use or disuse of hysteria.
organs caused organisms to gain or • Father of psychoanalysis.
lose traits over time. • Psychology was considered more of
• These new characteristics could be an art rather than a science.
passed on to the next generation. • Psychoanalysis- is the study that
• Suggest that species are not explains human behavior.
fixed
• Explain that evolution uses LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS:
natural processes ICEBERG THEORY
• Recognize that there is a link • Conscious mind – like the top of the
between an organism’s iceberg, only a small portion of our
environment and its body mind is accessible to us.
structures • Preconscious mind – material that is
• Lamarck’s work paved the unconscious, but can be easily
way for later biologists, brought into awareness. Moves back
including Darwin. & forth easily between conscious &
unconscious.
THOMAS MALTHUS • Unconscious mind – is completely
• In 1798, Thomas Malthus noticed outside of our awareness (could
that people were being born faster produce anxiety if made conscious).
than people were dying
• He reasoned that if the human
population grew unchecked, there
would not be enough living space
and food for everyone
• The forces that work against human
population growth are war, famine
and disease
• He reasoned that what Malthus
proposed for human populations also
applied to all living things.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
• Id – “pleasure principle”
unconscious impulses that want to be
gratified, without regard to potential
punishment.
• Original Core of an
Individual personality
• Biological Driven
• Primarily Unconscious
• Ego “reality principle” – tries to
satisfy id impulses while minimizing
punishment & guilt.
• Self- Identity which arises
out of ID
• It controls voluntary motion
and self- reservation behavior
• Superego – the “moral principle” of
our personality which tells us right
from wrong our conscience.
• Developing out of the Ego
• Serves as conscience