Cognitive Benefits of Language Learning

Selected Articles
Cognitive Benefits of Bilingualism/Second Language Learning

▪ Foster, K. M., & Reeves, C. K. (1989). Foreign Language in the Elementary School
(FLES) improves cognitive skills. FLES News, 2(3), 4.

This study looks at the effects of an elementary school foreign language program on
basic skills by looking at the relationship between months of elementary foreign
language instruction in French and scores on instruments designed to measure
cognitive and metacognitive processes. The study included 67 sixth-grade students
who were divided into four groups that differed by lengths of time in the foreign
language program. There was a control group of 25 students who had no French
instruction and three groups of students who had participated in the program for
different lengths of time (6.5 months, 15.5 months, and 24.5 months). The students
who did receive foreign language instruction had received 30 minutes of French
instruction daily after 30 minutes of basal reading in English. The control group
received an additional 30 minutes of reading instruction in place of foreign language
instruction. The results of the analysis showed that the groups who received foreign
language instruction scored significantly higher in three areas (evaluation on the
Ross test, total score of all cognitive functions on Ross test, and total score on
Butterfly and Moths test) than the control group. In particular, the students who
had received foreign language instruction scored higher on tasks involving
evaluation which is the highest cognitive skill according to Bloom's
taxonomy. The linear trend analysis showed that the students who had
studied French the longest performed the best.

▪ Landry, R. G. (1973). The enhancement of figural creativity through second

language learning at the elementary school level. Foreign Language Annals, 7(1),
111-115. from Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database.

The main hypothesis of this study is that the experience of learning a second
language at the elementary school level is positively correlated to divergent thinking
in figural tasks. This study is concerned with flexibility in thinking through experience
with a foreign language. Comparisons are made between second language learners
and single language learners. The second language learners score significantly
higher than do the monolingual students. Second language learning
appears, therefore, not only to provide children with the ability to depart
from the traditional approaches to a problem, but also to supply them with
possible rich resources for new and different ideas.

▪ Hakuta, K. (1985). Cognitive development in bilingual instruction. U.S.; Virginia:

Theory and research on bilingualism and its relationship to cognitive development

have provided mixed results, especially in relation to the value of United
States bilingual education programs. Little of the existing research on bilingualism is
generalizable to U.S. minority language groups. However, one study of children
in a bilingual program designed to see if intellectual abilities are related to
the student's degree of bilingualism rather than to compare bilingual and
monolingual children found that a positive relation exists between
bilingualism and various abilities, such as the ability to think abstractly
about language and to think nonverbally. In addition, the correlation between
the students' abilities in the two languages developed in the bilingual education
 program became stronger in the course of the program, supporting the idea of the
interdependence of the languages of the bilingual.

▪ Ricciardelli, L. A. (1993). An investigation of the cognitive development of

Italian-English bilinguals and Italian monolinguals from Rome. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 14(4), 345-346. from Linguistics and
Language Behavior Abstracts database.

The cognitive development of Italian-English bilingual & Italian monolingual children

(aged 5-6) was studied based on measures of metalinguistic awareness, creativity,
nonverbal abilities, & reading achievement. Following proficiency testing in both
languages, students were assigned to groups of high & low Italian proficiency & high
& low English proficiency, producing six groups for comparison. Results of
comparison of performance on the measures of cognitive development
indicated that students who demonstrated high proficiency in both English
& Italian achieved higher scores on the creativity, metalinguistic awareness,
& reading achievement tests

▪ Rodriguez, Y. G. (. (1992). The effects of bilingualism on cognitive development.

(EdD, ProQuest Information & Learning/Temply University). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 53 (4-A), 1104.

It was the primary purpose of this study to investigate the effects of bilingualism on
the cognitive development and linguistic performance of children at various ages
living in the same cultural environment. It also studied the relationship between
formal operational thought and a prerequisite cognitive style as typified by field
independence/field dependence for both bilingual and monolingual subjects. The
bilingual subjects were tested for both language dominance and language
proficiency. To investigate the interrelationships between bilingualism and cognitive
function, it was necessary to include both verbal and non-verbal tests of cognition.
No significant differences in performance could be attributed to lingualism, grade, or
age with the exception of language proficiency correlated with cognitive level on
analytical reasoning. The childrens' overall cognitive level indicated some justification
for the theoretical relationship between verbal and non-verbal measures of abstract
thinking. The bilingual children used higher order rules more frequently than
the monolingual children. The evidence seems to suggest that bilingualism
may scaffold concept formation and general mental flexibility.

▪ Bialystok, E. (1999). Cognitive complexity and attentional control in the bilingual

mind. Child Development, 70(3), 636-644. from PsycINFO database.

Investigates whether the bilingual advantage in control (selective attention) can be

found in a nonverbal task, the dimensional change card sort, used by P. D. Zelazo
and D. Frye (e.g., 1997) to assess Cognitive Complexity and Control (CCC). The
author contends this problem contains misleading information characteristic of high-
control tasks but minimal demands for analysis. 60 preschool children, half of whom
were bilingual, were divided into a group of younger (mean age 4.2 yrs) and older
(mean age 5.4 yrs) children. All the children were given a test of English proficiency
(PPVT-R; L. M. Dunn and L. M. Dunn, 1981) and working memory (Visually-Cued
Recall Task) to assure comparability of the groups and then administered the
dimensional change card sort task and the moving word task. The bilingual
children were more advanced than the monolinguals in the solving of
 experimental problems requiring high levels of control. It is concluded that
these results demonstrate the role of attentional control in both these tasks.

▪ Mohanty, A. K. (1992). Bilingualism and cognitive development of kond tribal

children: Studies on metalinguistic hypothesis. Pharmacopsychoecologia.Special
Issue: Environmental Toxicology and Social Ecology, 5(1-2), 57-66. from PsycINFO
database.

Bilinguals' superiority over unilinguals on cognitive, linguistic, and academic

achievement measures has been explained in terms of a metalinguistic hypothesis
that suggests that use of 2 or more languages endows the language users with
special awareness of objective properties of language and enables them to analyze
linguistic input more effectively. A series of studies compared unilingual and
balanced bilingual Kond children to investigate the metalinguistic hypothesis. These
studies show that the bilinguals outperform the unilinguals on a number of
cognitive, linguistic, and metalinguistic tasks, even when the differences in
intelligence are controlled. However, a study with unschooled bilingual and
unilingual children showed no significant differences in metalinguistic skills. The
metalinguistic hypothesis of bilinguals' superiority in cognition may need to be
reexamined in the context of the effect of schooling on metalinguistic processes.
L earning , M emory , and L anguage
Learning and MemorY. A major break- Distinct areas within the prefrontal cortex support executive
through in understanding how the brain accomplishes learning and functions, such as selection, rehearsal, and monitoring of informa-
memory began with the study of a person known by his initials, tion being retrieved from long-term memory. To serve these func-
H.M. As a child, H.M. developed a severe and intractable epilepsy, tions, the prefrontal cortex also interacts with a large network of
and an experimental surgical treatment involving removal of the posterior cortical areas that encode, maintain, and retrieve specific
medial regions of his temporal lobes greatly alleviated the seizures. types of information, such as visual images, sounds, and words, as
However, the surgery left H.M. with severe amnesia. He can re- well as where important events occurred and much more.
member recent events for only a few minutes and is unable to form Semantic memory is a form of declarative knowledge that in-
explicit memories of new experiences. Talk with him awhile, and cludes general facts and data. Although scientists are just beginning
then leave the room. When you return, he has no recollection of to understand the nature and organization of cortical areas involved
ever having seen you. in semantic memory, it appears that different cortical networks are
Despite his inability to remember new information, H.M. specialized for processing particular kinds of information, such as
remembers his childhood very well. From these observations, faces, houses, tools, actions, language, and many other categories of
researchers concluded that the parts of H.M.’s medial temporal lobe knowledge. Studies using functional imaging of normal humans have
that were removed, including the hippocampus and parahippocampal revealed zones within a large cortical expanse that selectively process
region, play critical roles in converting memories of experiences different categories of information, such as animals, faces, or words.
from short-term memories to long-term, permanent memories. The Our memories of specific personal experiences that happened
fact that H.M. retains some memories for events that occurred long at a particular place and time are called episodic memories. It is gen-
before his surgery indicates that the medial temporal region is not erally believed that the medial temporal lobe areas serve a critical
the site of permanent storage but instead plays a role in the organi- role in the initial processing and storage of these memories. Studies
zation and permanent storage of memories elsewhere in the brain.
The medial temporal region is richly connected to widespread
areas of the cerebral cortex, including the regions responsible for
thinking and language. Whereas the medial temporal region is
important for forming, organizing, consolidating, and retrieving How exactly are memories
memory, cortical areas are important for the long-term storage of stored in brain cells? After years
knowledge about facts and events and for how this knowledge is
used in everyday situations.
of study, much evidence supports
Our ability to learn and consciously remember everyday facts the idea that memory involves a
and events is called declarative memory. Studies using functional
brain imaging have identified a large network of areas in the
persistent change in synapses, the
cerebral cortex that work together to support declarative memory. connections between neurons.
These cortical areas play a distinct role in complex aspects of per-
ception, movement, emotion, and cognition.
When we have new experiences, information initially enters
working memory, a transient form of declarative memory. Working
memory depends on the prefrontal cortex as well as other cerebral have shown that different parts of the parahippocampal region play
cortical areas. Studies on animals have shown that neurons in the distinct roles in processing “what,” “where,” and “when” informa-
prefrontal cortex maintain relevant information during working tion about specific events. The hippocampus links these elements
memory and can combine different kinds of sensory information of an episodic memory. The linkages are then integrated back into
when required. In humans, the prefrontal cortex is highly activated the various cortical areas that represent the details of each type
when people maintain and manipulate memories. of information.

22 Brain Facts | learning, memory, and language Society for Neuroscience

 LEARNING AND MEMORY. Different brain areas
and systems mediate distinct forms of memory. The
hippocampus, parahippocampal region, and areas of the
cerebral cortex (including prefrontal cortex) compose a system
that supports declarative, or cognitive, memory. Different forms
of nondeclarative, or behavioral, memory are supported by
the amygdala, striatum, and cerebellum.

The fact that H.M. and other people with amnesia show Another important model for the study of memory is the
deficits in some types of memories and not others indicates that phenomenon of long-term potentiation (LTP), a long-lasting increase
the brain has multiple memory systems supported by distinct brain in the strength of a synaptic response following stimulation. LTP
regions. Nondeclarative knowledge, the knowledge of how to do occurs prominently in the hippocampus, as well as in the cerebral
something, is expressed in skilled behavior and learned habits and cortex and other brain areas involved in various forms of memory.
requires processing by the basal ganglia and cerebellum. The cer- LTP occurs through changes in the strength of synapses at contacts
ebellum is specifically involved in motor tasks that are time-depen- involving N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors.
dent. The amygdala appears to play an important role in emotional Subsequently, a series of molecular reactions plays a vital
aspects of memory attaching emotional significance to otherwise role in stabilizing the changes in synaptic function that occur in
neutral stimuli and events. The expression of emotional memories LTP. These molecular events begin with the entry of calcium ions
involves the hypothalamus and sympathetic nervous system, which into the synapse, which activates the cyclic adenosine monophos-
support emotional reactions and feelings. Thus, the brain appears to phate (cAMP) molecule. This molecule activates several kinds of
process different kinds of information in separate ways. enzymes, some of which increase the number of synaptic receptors,
How exactly are memories stored in brain cells? After years making the synapse more sensitive to neurotransmitters. In addi-
of study, much evidence supports the idea that memory involves a tion, cAMP activates another molecule, called cAMP-response ele-
persistent change in synapses, the connections between neurons. In ment binding protein (CREB). CREB operates within the nucleus
animal studies, researchers found that this occurs in the short term of the neuron to activate a series of genes, many of which direct
through bio­chemical events that affect the strength of the relevant protein synthesis. Among the proteins produced are neurotrophins,
synapses. Turning on certain genes may lead to modifications within which activate growth of the synapse and increase the neuron’s
neurons that change the strength and number of synapses, stabilizing responsiveness to stimulation.
new memories. Researchers studying the sea slug Aplysia californica, for Many studies have shown that the molecular cascade lead-
example, can correlate specific chemical and structural changes in rel­ ing to protein synthesis is not essential to initial learning or to
evant cells with several simple forms of memory that the animal shows. maintaining short-term memory; however, this cascade is essential

Society for Neuroscience learning, memory, and language | Brain Facts 23

for long-term memory. In addition, studies using genetically modi- is a strongly left-dominant function that relies on frontal lobe areas
fied mice have shown that alterations in specific genes for NMDA but also involves posterior brain regions in the left temporal lobe.
receptors or CREB can dramatically affect the capacity for LTP in These appear to be important for accessing appropriate words and
particular brain areas, and the same studies have shown that these speech sounds.
molecules are critical to memory. Recently, functional imaging methods have identified new
The many kinds of studies of human and animal memory have structures involved in language. For example, systems involved in
led scientists to conclude that no single brain center stores memory. accessing the meaning of words appear to be located (in part) in the
It most likely is stored in distributed collections of cortical process- middle and inferior portions of the temporal lobe. In addition, the
ing systems that are also involved in the perception, processing, and anterior temporal lobe is under intense investigation as a site that
analysis of the material being learned. In short, each part of the brain may participate in some aspect of sentence-level comprehension.
most likely contributes differently to permanent memory storage. Recent work has also identified a sensory-motor circuit for
speech in the left posterior temporal lobe, which is thought to
Language translate between speech recognition and speech production sys-
One of the most prominent human abilities is language, a tems. This circuit is involved in speech development and is thought
complex system involving many components, including sensory- to support verbal short-term memory.
motor functions and memory systems. Although the neural basis of Although the understanding of how language is implemented
language is not fully understood, scientists have learned a great deal in the brain is far from complete, there are now several techniques
about this function of the brain from studies of patients who have that may be used to gain important insights into this critical aspect
lost speech and language abilities owing to stroke, and from brain of brain function.
imaging studies of normal people.
It has long been known that damage to different regions within
the left hemisphere produce different kinds of language disorders,
or aphasias. Damage to the left frontal lobe can produce nonfluent
aphasias, such as Broca’s aphasia, a syndrome in which speech produc-
tion abilities are impaired. Speech output is slow and halting, requires
effort, and often lacks complexity in word or sentence structure.
By comparison, comprehension of heard speech is spared, although
structurally complex sentences may be poorly understood.
Damage to the left temporal lobe can produce fluent aphasia,
such as Wernicke’s aphasia, in which comprehension of heard speech
is impaired. Speech output, although of normal fluency and speed,
is often riddled with errors in sound and word selection and tends
to be unintelligible gibberish.
Damage to the superior temporal lobes in both hemispheres
can produce word deafness, a profound inability to comprehend
auditory speech on any level. Whereas Wernicke’s aphasics can
often comprehend bits and pieces of a spoken utterance and can
comprehend isolated words, patients with word deafness are func-
tionally deaf for speech, lacking the ability to comprehend even
single words, despite being able to hear sound and even identify the
emotional quality of speech or the gender of the speaker.
Research on aphasia has led to several conclusions regarding
the neural basis of language. Researchers once believed that all
aspects of language ability were governed only by the left hemi-
sphere. Recognition of speech sounds and words, however, involves
both left and right temporal lobes. In contrast, speech production

24 Brain Facts | learning, memory, and language Society for Neuroscience

 How The Brain Organizes Language

NEW YORK, July 09 (Reuters) -- Researchers have discovered that the age at
which a second language is acquired determines just where that language is
'stored' within the brain.

"A second language acquired during the teenage years, which is late in
developmental life, is represented in the brain in a separate location from the
native language," says Dr. Joy Hirsch, a professor of neuroscience at New York's
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, and senior author of a study published in
the current issue of the journal Nature. "But when both languages are learned at
the same time early in life, they are represented in areas that have a considerable
amount of overlap."

Hirsch used an advanced brain-imaging technology called functional magnetic

resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe activity patterns within the brains of 12
fluently bilingual study subjects.

Six of the subjects had learned two languages in early childhood, while the other
six had picked up a second language during their teenage years.

Each subject was placed within the fMRI scanner, and asked to engage in a silent,
internal monologue about the previous day's events, conducted in each of their
acquired languages. The researchers asked the subjects not to speak aloud, since
this can cause small head movements which obscure fMRI readings.

Neurologists believe language and speech functions are concentrated in two

specific areas of the brain: Wernicke's area, located in the left temporal lobe (sited
just over each ear), and Broca's area (in the left frontal lobe of the brain). Broca's
area is thought to play a role in our ability to speak, while Wernicke's area assists
in understanding words spoken to us.

Looking at the fMRI pictures, the study authors discovered that "in both late and
early bilingual subjects, Wernicke's area... show(s) effectively little or no separation
of activity based on the age of language acquisition."

However, scans of Broca's area revealed a different picture. "Within... Broca's

area, second languages acquired in adulthood ('late' bilingual subjects) are
spatially separated from native languages."

This meant that when a particular study subject thought in his mother tongue (for
example, English), the fMRI scan registered activity in a particular spot within
Broca's area. When asked to think in the French he acquired in high school, a
separate area stirred into action.
However, for those who became bilingual as toddlers, "native and second
languages tend to be represented in common... areas," of the Broca's area,
researchers say.

It's still not clear just why child and adult language acquisition take such divergent
neurological paths. But Hirsch and her colleagues speculate that infants, with
relatively 'plastic', still-developing brains, may easily adapt to two incoming
language patterns, incorporating both into the same storage space within Broca's
area. But after the passage of early childhood, that area may become less
malleable and, as the researchers say, "not subsequently modified." They believe
"this could necessitate the utilization of adjacent... areas for the second language
learned as an adult."

Hirsch believes her research could have a real benefit for Sloan-Kettering's cancer
patients. In fact, she initiated her research with those individuals in mind. Twenty-
five percent of all brain tumors occur in and around speech-sensitive areas of the
brain. Surgeons must be extremely careful in excising tumors, to try to minimize
damage to the patient's language capability.

"Based on the results of the current study, we always ask our patients whether they
speak more than one language," said Hirsch's colleague and study lead author Dr.
Karl Kim. "If they do, both languages need to be mapped to acquire a complete
picture of language-sensitive areas of the brain."

SOURCE: Nature (1997,388(10):171-174)

 A Dozen Activities for Promoting
the Use of Spanish Outside of School
The ACIE Newsletter, November 1997, Vol. 1, No. 1

Submitted by David Downs-Reid, Instructional Assistant Robbinsdale Spanish Immersion, Robbinsdale, MN

Adapted from a list compiled by Laura Pezan, 1st grade teacher at Robbinsdale Spanish Immersion,
Robbinsdale, MN

1) Check out books and audiotapes at your local public library or invest in books/audiotapes that are
written in Spanish. (Books are available at Barnes & Noble, through Scholastic and Troll book orders,
book fairs at school, and other sources.)

2) Designate a time for daily family reading and/or silent reading. Encourage your child to read
something in Spanish as well as English.

3) Invite a classmate/schoolmate over to have a special "Spanish evening" or "Spanish night over."

4) Let your child call a student from the immersion school to speak Spanish on the phone.

5) Host a teacher's assistant (T.A.) from Mexico or be an "Aunt and Uncle" family and invite a T.A.
over for dinner or a party, or include a T.A. in a family outing.

6) Give your child the necessary supplies to write letters to Spanish-speaking families and/or friends
from school. Get on the "super highway" by using the Internet to speak with others who can
communicate in Spanish - parent supervision is advised.

7) Use your child's Spanish writing skills to write to the embassies or offices of tourism of Spanish-
speaking countries. Request information, pamphlets, posters, postcards, booklets about the country.
Use the information to make your own travel guide, mural, poster, etc.

8) Visit a Latino market in your community. Cheer your child on as s/he helps you purchase your food
in Spanish.

9) Talk about the reasons why you want your child to learn another language and ask your child why
s/he thinks it is important to know a second language.

10) Recognize, praise and encourage any efforts your child makes to speak Spanish. Often, just the
 vocalization of our pride in his or her efforts can make the difference.

11) Review the songs and poems that your child sings and recites at school. Your child can sing the
song or recite the poem alone by memory, then ask him or her to teach you a song or poem. Let your
child be the singing entertainment on your next road trip!

12) Purchase children's videos, music and software programs in Spanish. Call the company "Niños" at
1-800-634-3304 for a catalog. Blockbuster video stores will order Disney videos in Spanish for
purchase upon request.

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