GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

QUIZ NO. 1 Coverage

Lecture (1/24/20)
Cell Reproduction and Differentiation
Cell Division is necessary for:
❖ Growth
❖ Healing
❖ Cell Repair
❖ Cell Replacement
❖ Reproduction
Cell Reproduce by Dividing into Two
❖ Unicellular organisms
o Cell division = reproduction
❖ Multicellular organism Go – cells stop growing
o Cell division = development
Interphase
▪ Growth from a fertilized egg to
a multicellular individual ❖ Long growth period between cell divisions
▪ Renewal and repair in fully ✔ G1 (first gap)
grown multicellular organism ▪ Primary growth phase, very active
growth
Types of Cells ✔ S (synthesis)
❖ Somatic Cells (n  2n): Mitosis ▪ Synthesis of DNA for next cell
❖ Meiotic Cells (2n  n): Meiosis division
✔ G2 (second gap)
▪ Final growth phase before cell
division
The Cell Cycle Creates New Cells
Mitotic Phase (cell division phase)
Cell cycle includes two major phases:
A. Mitosis
❖ Interphase “between cell division”
❖ Nuclear division
❖ Mitotic Phase (nuclear division and
▪ Duplicated DNA is distributed
cytokinesis)
between two daughter nuclei,
The cell division process is an integral part of the cell nucleus divides.
cycle, the life of a cell from the time it is first formed B. Cytokinesis
during division of a parent cell until its own division into ❖ Cytoplasm divides
two daughter cells. (Our use of the words daughter or ❖ Two new daughter cells are formed.
sister in relation to cells is the biological convention and
Cell Cycle….
is not meant to imply gender.) Passing identical genetic
material to cellular offspring is a crucial function of cell ❖ Complete cell cycle takes 18-24 hours
division. ❖ Mitosis and cytokinesis take less than one hour
The cell cycle consist of two distinct periods — the of the complete cell cycle
INTERPHASE (or the stagnant phase) and the ❖ Many cells enter a non-dividing state, Go, either
MITOTIC PHASE (which is the cell division proper) temporarily or permanently
▪ Osteocytes enter Go after adolescence.

Stages of Cell Cycle DNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

❖ Human DNA: organized into 46 separate
chromosomes containing 3 billion base pairs of
DNA
❖ Chromosomes consist of DNA and histones
(proteins)
❖ Throughout most of the cell cycle, DNA is loose
and diffuse, referred to as chromatin.
❖ During mitosis, DNA is compacted into
chromosomes that are visible under the
microscope, each consisting of two sister
chromatids joined at the centromere
❖ Gene: short segment of DNA that contains the
code, or recipe for a protein
❖ Twenty thousand genes on the 46 chromosomes.

CELL REPRODUCTION:
ONE CELL BECOMES TWO
MITOSIS
❖ Maintains the chromosome
❖ Used in growth, development, replacement of
damaged/dead cells, or as part of asexual
reproduction
❖ Generates new diploid cells
❖ Produces Cells identical to the parent cell
❖ All body cells other than sperm and eggs divide
by mitosis and have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs
of homologous chromosomes)
➢ 22 pairs are autosomes (chromosomes
other than sex chromosomes)
➢ 1 pair of sex chromosomes
➔ Prophase
◆ Mitotic spindle formed
● Centrosomes, microtubules, ➔ Anaphase
asters ◆ Sister chromatids separate
◆ Centrosomes migrate to cell poles ● Daughter chromosomes are
● Only found in animal cells pulled toward poles by
◆ Chromatin condenses into visible microtubules
chromosomes (sister chromatids) ● Cell elongated as non-
◆ Nucleoli disappear kinetochore microtubules
◆ Metabolic activity decreases lengthen.
➔ Prometaphase ◆ Shortest stage
◆ Nuclear envelope fragments
◆ More condensed chromosomes
◆ Each chromatid now has kinetochores
◆ Kind of Microtubules
● Kinetochore Microtubules
● Non-Kinetochore
● Some microtubules attach to the
kinetochores - these are kinetochore
microtubules
● Non-kinetechore microtubules interact
with those at the opposite pole of the ➔ Telophase
spindle ◆ Reverse of prophasev
◆ Mitotic spindle disintegrates
◆ Nuclei forms
● Nuclear membrane reforms
● Nucleoli reappear
◆ Chromosomes uncoil and revert to
chromatin

➔ Metaphase
◆ Duplicate chromosomes form single line
at the equator between centriole poles
“metaphase plate:
◆ Meta - “after”
◆ Centrosomes are at opposite poles of the
cell ➔ Cytokinesis
◆ Animal cells
● Contractile ring of filaments
forms are midsection of cell and
tightens, forming a cleavage
furrow
 ◆ Result: two identical daughter cells cell division process that occurs in ovaries and
(diploid) testes
◆ Plant cells: ❖ Meiosis includes two successive cell division
● Vesicles derived from Golgi processes: Meiosis I (Prophase I, Metaphase I,
apparatus move along Anaphase I, Telophase I and Cytokinesis) and
microtubules to the middle of Meiosis II (Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase
the cell forming a cell plate II, Telophase II and Cytokinesis)
● Cell wall materials carried in the
vesicles collect inside the cell as
it grows
● The cell plate enlarges until its
surrounding membrane fuses
with the plasma membrane
along the perimeter of the cell
◆ Result: two identical daughter cells
(diploid)
Mitosis Produces Cells Identical to the Parent Cell
▪All cells in human body divide by mitosis, with the
exception of the cells that form sperm and eggs
▪All body cells other than sperm and eggs have 46
chromosomes (are diploid)
–These represent 23 pairs of chromosomes
–The chromosomes in each pair are called
homologous chromosomes
▪23 pairs of chromosomes
–22 pairs are autosomes (chromosomes
other than sex chromosomes)
➔ Prophase I
–1 pair of sex chromosomes
◆ Duplicated homologous chromosomes
–XX in females, XY in males (can be collectively called as tetrads)
pair up
MEIOSIS ◆ Before crossing over occurs, the two
HOMOLOGOUS PAIRS should find
Meiosis: Prepares Cells for Sexual Reproduction
each other and move side by side.
▪Gametes (sperm, eggs) are haploid Crossing over is possible through
synapsis, wherein two chromatids
▪Have just one set of 23 chromosomes intertwine together.
● Chiasma - point of crossing
▪Reduction in chromosome number from diploid to over, or exchange of
haploid is accomplished by meiosis, a special cell chromosome segments between
division process that occurs in ovaries and testes non-sister chromatids; it
happens randomly
Meiosis ◆ Crossing over is important because it
❖ Halves the chromosome number leads to genetic variation
❖ Used in sexual reproduction, in which two
parents contribute genes to offspring
❖ Generates haploid gametes
❖ Gametes are haploid
❖ Reduction in chromosome number from diploid
to haploid is accomplished by meiosis, a special
 chromosomes number.
However, because of crossing
over during meiosis I, none of
the four haploid daughter cells
are exactly alike.
◆ End of meiosis II: 4 haploid daughter
cells

➔ Metaphase I
◆ Spindle fibers attach to the kinetochore
and enable homologous pairs of
chromosomes line up
◆ Double line of chromosome pairs
➔ Anaphase I
◆ Pairs of chromosomes separated, but
duplicated chromosomes stay intact.
◆ Disjunction occurs here. Disjunction is WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF MITOSIS AND
the separation of the two recombinant MEIOSIS DID NOT OCCUR??
chromosome. Either chromosome may
end up on either side→ Law of SEX DIFFERENCES IN MEIOSIS: FOUR SPERM
Segregation. BERSUS ONE EGG
➔ Telophase I Males
◆ The nuclear envelope starts to develop
again. Cleavage furrow starts to happen - Four sperm produced from each cell entering
and cytoplasm starts to divide. meiosis
◆ Two haploid daughter cells, but - All viable, functional
chromosomes are still in duplicated
state. Female
- unequal cytokinesis during meiosis I and II
- One egg and three polar bodies produced from
each cell entering meiosis
- Only the egg is viable
- If fertilized, an egg will need a lot of energy
➔ Meiosis II to grow and develop. A large egg with
◆ Each of the two daughter cells from plenty of cytoplasm and lots of organelles
meiosis I goes through meiosis II has a better chance of surviving the early
● Similar process to mitosis stage of development.
● Prophase II - In females, therefore, as much of the
◆ Metaphase II cytoplasm as possible is reserved for only
◆ Anaphase II one daughter cell at each meiotic division.
● Duplicated chromosomes - The smaller cell produced at each division is
(chromatids) and the sister called a polar body.
chromatids are separated from - The polar body produced during meiosis I,
each other just as they have in may or may not divide again during meiosis
mitosis. II, but in any event the two or three polar
◆ Telophase II and cytokinesis bodies eventually degenerate. Some
● All the genetically different references say that it provide nutrients for
haploid nucleus are settled at the the egg.
poles. Nuclei have the haploid
 - ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INFLUENCE CELL
DIFFERENTIATION
● All body cells have the same DNA, yet there are
great differences between the shape and function
of different cell types
● Differentiation
○ Process by which a cell becomes
different from its parent or sister cell
○ Differentiation is based on different
gene expression

EARLY EMBRYONIC STAGE

HOW CELL REPRODUCTION IS REGULATION

- Not all cells divide at the same rate

- Cells also have internal surveillance and control

mechanism
- Several key checkpoints with “go ahead” signals
- G1, G2, M checkpoints
- Outside influences 1. Gamete formation
- Can modify cell cycle 2. Fertilization
- Hormones, growth factors, 3. Cleavage - cell division converts the zygote into
presence of other cells a ball of cells
 ○ Morula - sixteen-celled zygote; ■ Morphogenesis - The
mulberry; uterus beginning of form; Specific
○ Blastula - embryo having the form of a organs and tissue form
hollow fluid-filled; blastula in mammals
is specifically called blastocyst
○ Blastomere - each new cell that forms EARLY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
during cleavage
Implantation
Blastocyst
- Embryonic stage that develops from morula and
will eventually implant in the uterine wall; once
implanted, placenta secretes HCG
- Happens when the Morula enters the uterus
- Trophoblast - outer layer or surface
epithelium of the blastocyst consisting
of layers of cells
- It contains an Inner cell mast - small
clump of cell where embryo develops
- Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) - DIFFERENTIATION LATER IN DEVELOPMENT
hormone produced by placenta and indicator of
● External substances harmful to fetuses:
pregnancy in the pregnancy test
4. Gastrulation - process of early development ○ Cigarette smoke: retards growth
○ Alcohol: fetal alcohol syndrome
that produces the three germ layers
○ Germ Layers - three primary tissues ○ Medications: pass through placenta
○ Illegal drugs: child born addicted
that form as an early embryo develops
○ Environmental chemicals: in air, water,
soil
○ Radiation: radon, x-rays
○ Intrauterine infections: HIV, syphilis,
rubella
REPRODUCTIVE CLONING REQUIRES AN
UNDIFFERENTIATED CELL
○
Ectoderm
■ Nervous system and sense ● Reproductive cloning
organs ○ Producing a copy of an entire organism
■ Pituitary gland ○ Requires a completely undifferentiated
■ Epidermis and associated cells as the starting point
structures ○ Two methods
○ Mesoderm ■ Embryo splitting
■ Cartilage, bones, muscles ■ Somatic cell nuclear transfer
■ Cardiovascular, lymphatic, EMBRYO SPLITTING: PRODUCING IDENTICAL
urinary, reproductive OFF-SPRING
■ Outer layers of digestive system
○ Endoderm
■ Lining of digestive tube
■ Lining of respiratory airways
5. Organ Formation
6. Growth tissue specialization
■ Cell Differentiation - Newly
formed cells become specialized
for a certain function
● Procedure
 ○ Egg is fertilized in vitro, and allowed to
divide to the eight cell stage
○ Cells of eight-cell stage are carefully
separated and each is implanted into a
different surrogate mother in which it
develops
● Results, clones are genetically identical to each
other but not to either parent
● process has not been attempted with humans

SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER

PRODUCES CLONE OF AN ADULT

● Somatic cell: any cell other than a gamete. Racb

somatic cells has a full diploid set of
chromosomes
● Procedure
○ Somatic cell from the adult organism to
be cloned is inserted into an enucleated
fertilized egg
○ An electrical current is used to fuse the
cells
○ Fused cell is implanted into uterus of
surrogate mother and allowed to develop
● Result
○ Offspring is a clone of the adult
organism that provided the somatic cell.

THERAPEUTIC CLONING: Creating Tissues and

Organs
● Therapeutic cloning
○ The cloning of human cells specifically
for treating patients
○ Ideally, remove a single cell from a
patient and nurture it to develop and
differentiate into the cell type needed to
treat the disease
○ Potential for creating new cells, tissues,
or organ as yet unrealized
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Edited and updated by Ms. Lorraine Del Rosario