Table 8.

1 – Pin out of 741C Operational Amplifier

PIN NO. NAME DESCRIPTION
1 NU NOT USED
2 v- INVERTING INPUT
3 v+ NON-INVERTING INPUT
4 VNEG NEG. DC PS VOLTAGE
5 NU NOT USED
6 vo OUTPUT VOLTAGE
7 VPOS POS. DC PS VOLTAGE
8 NU NOT USED

1) Construct the circuit in Figure 8.2. Set RF = 10k ohms, and apply a 0.3V peak, 1kHz
sine wave at Vi. Use your oscilloscope to observe Vi and Vo simultaneously. Record the
peak value of Vo. Compare it to the value calculated in the pre-lab. What is the phase
difference between Vo and Vi?

2) Repeat 1 for RF = 27k ohms and 100k ohms.

3) Repeat parts 1 and 2 for the circuit of Figure 8.3.

4) Replace RF in Figure 8.3 with a short circuit. What is the peak value of Vo?

5) Construct the circuit of Figure 8.4. Measure the voltage Vab with an oscilloscope.
Compare your result to that obtained in the pre-lab.

52
 EXPERIMENT NINE:
FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
1) Oscilloscope
2) Function Generator
3) Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors

THEORY

Voltage-Current Relationship for a Capacitor:

The voltage across a capacitor and the current through the capacitor are related as follows:

t
vC t    iC t 'dt 'vC    9.1
1
C 

dvC t 
iC t   C 9.2
dt

VC
+ ic(t)

vc(t)
C
-
VC

Figure 9.1

Equation (9.1) can be written as (if vC   =0)

0 t
vC t   iC t 'dt '  iC t 'dt ' 9.3
1 1
C  C 0

0 t
iC t 'dt '  vC t   V0  iC t 'dt ' 9.4
1 1
C  C 0
with V0 

53
If the capacitor has no initial voltage (Vo = 0), then equation (9.4) reduces to:

t
vC t   iC t 'dt ' 9.5
1
C 0

It is also clear that, when the voltage v(t) across the capacitor is constant, the current through the
capacitor is zero. Under such a condition the capacitor can be replaced by an open circuit. This
occurs for the case of DC input, steady state condition.

Voltage-Current Relationship for an Inductor:

The voltage across an inductor and the current through the inductor are related as follows:

diL t 
vL t   L 9.6
dt

t
iL t   vL t 'dt ' 9.7 
1
L 

VC
iL(t)
+

vL(t)
L

VC

Figure 9.2

54
Equation (9.7) can be written as

0 t
iL t   vL t 'dt '  vL t 'dt ' 9.8
1 1
L  L 0

0 t
vL t 'dt '  iL t   I 0   vL t 'dt ' 9.9
1 1
with I0  
L  L0

If the inductor has no initial current (I0 = 0), then equation (9.9) reduces to:
t
iL t   vL t 'dt ' 9.10
1
L 0

It is also clear that, when the current iL(t) through the inductor is constant, the voltage across the
inductor is zero. Under such a condition the inductor can be replaced by a short circuit. This
occurs for the case of DC input, steady state condition.

Simple RC and RL Circuits:

The differential equation of a simple RC and RL circuits (first order differential equation) can be
obtained by application of KVL or KCL and using equations (9.1) and (9.2) for the capacitor and
equations (9.6) and (9.7) for the inductor.

For the case of a simple RC circuit the time constant τ in seconds is defined as;

τ = RC (9.11)

For the case of a simple RL circuit the time constant τ in seconds is defined as

τ = L/R (9.12)

The terms τ = RC and τ = L/R appear in the solutions of simple RC and RL circuits respectively.
It is important to remember that for the case of DC input, it takes approximately 5τ (5RC) for
the capacitor to become fully charged, and 5τ ( 5L/R) for the inductor to become fully fluxed or
energized, assuming initially there is no voltage across the capacitor and no current flowing
through the inductor.
For the DC input, steady state solution, the capacitor is replaced by an open in the RC circuit and
inductor is replaced by a short in the RL circuit.
For further information, review the sections on RC and RL circuits in your textbook.

55
Preliminary Calculations:

1) A voltage source can be modeled as an ideal voltage source in series with a resistance,
Rint as shown in figure 9.3.

Rint
a

VS

Figure 9.3

The internal resistance of the voltage source (Rint), can be determined by placing a known
resistance of R across the open terminals of the circuit in figure 9.3. In doing so, the following
procedure allows the student to measure this internal resistance and use it in circuits that are
energized by voltage sources.

If:
Voc = Vab, when a-b is open-circuited, and
VR = Vab, when a resistance, R, is connected between a and b

Show that
RVOC  VR 
Rint  9.13
VR

56
2) At t = 0, the switch in Figure 9.4 is moved from position 1 to position 2.
Find and sketch, vC(t), t ≥ 0.

1 t=0 R

+
VS
vC(t)
C
-
2

Figure 9.4

3) An "actual" inductor can be modeled as a resistor in series with an ideal inductor. If the
circuit in Figure 9.5 is constructed with a one volt d.c. source, show that:

 R 
Rdc   VL (9.14)
 1  VL 

R
VC

+
Rdc actual
inductor
1V
VL
L

VC

Figure 9.5

57
4) Assume the actual inductor in Figure 9.6 has a dc resistance, Rdc and an inductance, L.
Find and sketch, VR(t), the voltage across the resistor.

VCC
L

+
actual
VS inductor R VR(t)
2
-

Figure 9.6

58
Procedure:

1) Use the technique described in part 1 of the pre-lab to determine Rint for your square
wave generator, when the generator is set to 2kHz. Use values of R that give VR
readings in the range of 1/3 Voc - 2/3 Voc. Be sure to include this as a part of your total
resistance in the remainder of this and other labs. You should recheck the value if you
vary the frequency later in the experiment.

1 t=0 R

+
V
vC(t)
C
-
2

Figure 9.7

59
The natural response of RC, RL and RLC circuits can be demonstrated with the use of a square
wave function generator. Consider Figure 9.7. The switch is left in position 1 for a "long time"
so that the capacitor charges to V volts. When the switch is moved to position 2 (at t = 0) the
capacitor discharges and we have the natural response of the RC circuit. The circuit in Figure
9.8 provides the same result repeatedly for the ease of viewing on the oscilloscope as long as T/2
is long compared to the circuit time constant, RC.

vs(t) R
+

vs(t)
C vC(t)

t -

T/2

Figure 9.8

2) Construct the circuit in Figure 9.8. Use R = 470Ω and C = 0.1µF. Set the function
generator for a 1 volt peak-to-peak square wave of 2 KHz. Use the oscilloscope to
observe, vc (t). Sketch the portion of the waveform in which the capacitor is discharging.
Use your sketch to determine the time constant of the circuit. Compare this to the
theoretical time constant (be sure to include the internal resistance of the source).

3) Repeat part 2 for R = 6.8kΩ and C = 0.1µF. Adjust the frequency of the function
generator to obtain an adequate display.

4) Using the procedure described in part 3 of the pre-lab, find Rdc for a 68mH inductor.

5) Construct the circuit of Figure 9.9. Use R = 680Ω and L = 68mH. Set the amplitude of
vs(t) to a 1 volt peak-to-peak square wave. Adjust the frequency of the function generator
for an adequate display of the resistor voltage as it decreases. Sketch the voltage and
determine the time constant of your circuit from the sketch. Compare this value to the
calculated time constant. Be sure to include the effects of Rint and Rdc into your
calculations.

60