Organizational Behavior - Groups

We define "group" as more than two employees who have an ongoing relationship in which they interact and
influence one another behaviour and performance. The behavior of individuals in groups is something more than the
sum total of each acting in his or her own way. In other words, when individuals are in groups, they act differently
than they do when they are alone.

Groups can be either formal or informal.

1. Formal Groups: A formal group is set up by the
organization to carry out work in support of the
organization's goals. In formal groups, the behaviours
that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed
toward organizational goals. Examples include a book
keeping department, an executive committee, and a
product development team. Formal group may be
command groups or task groups.
i. Command Group: A command group consists of a
manager and the employees who report to him or her.
Thus, it is defined in terms of the organization's
hierarchy. Membership in the group arises from each
employee's position on the organizational chart.
ii. Task Group: A task group is made up of employees who
work together to complete a particular task or project. A
task group's boundaries are not limited to its immediate
hierarchical superior. It can cross command
relationships. A employee's membership in the group
arises from the responsibilities delegated to the
employee - that is, the employee's responsibility to carry
out particular activities. Task group may be temporary
with an established life span, or they may be open ended.
2. Informal Groups: An organization's informal groups are
groups that evolve to meet social or affiliation needs by
bringing people together based on shared interests or
friendship. Thus, informal groups are alliances that are
neither formally structured nor organizationally
determined. These groups are natural formations in the
work environment that appear in response to the need for
social contact. Many factors explain why people are
attracted to one another. One explanation is simply
proximity; when people work near one another every day,
they are likely to form friendships.
That likeli hood is even greater when people also share similar
attitudes, personalities, or economic status.
i. Friendship Groups: Groups often develop because the
individual members have one or more common
characteristics. We call these formations friendship
groups. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside
the work situation, can be based on similar age, hold same
political view, attended the same college etc.
ii. Interest Groups: People who may or may not be aligned
into common command or task groups may affiliate to
 attain a specific objective with which each is concerned.
This is an interest group.
iii. Reference Groups: Some times, people use a group as a
basis for comparison in making decisions or forming
opinions. When a group is used in this way, itis a
reference group. Employees have reference groups inside
or outside the organization where they work. For most
people, the family is the most important reference groups.
Other important reference groups typically include
coworkers, friends, and members of the person's
religious organization. The employee need not admire a
group for it to serve as a reference group. Some reference
groups serve as a negative reference; the employee tries to
be unlike members of these groups.
iv. Membership Groups: When a person does belong to a
group (formal and informal groups to which employees
actually belong) the group is called a membership group
(or affiliation group) for that person. Members of a group
have some collection of benefits and responsibilities that
go beyond the groups erving as a reference point. In a
membership group, each member would be expected to
contribute to the group's well being and would enjoy the
benefit arising from the group member's friendship.
In interpreting behaviour of a particular group, it is important
to recognize not only abroad pattern of development but also
the unique characteristics of the particular group and the
circumstances that contribute to (or detract from) its
development. The way in which a particular group develops
depends in part on such variables as the frequency with which
group members interact and personal characteristics of group
members.

Stages of Group development

process in Organisational
behaviour
The stages of group development
process are However, it was believed
groups pass through a standard
sequence of five stages.
1. Forming: When a group is initially
formed, its members cannot
accomplish much until they agree on
 what their purpose is, how they will
work together and so on.Answering
such questions brings group members
face to face with the first obstacle to
maturity: uncertainty, anxiety, and
disagreement over power and
authority. In this stage, the focus is on
the interpersonal relations among the
members. Members assess one another
with regard to trustworthiness,
emotional comfort, and evaluative
acceptance. Thus, the forming stage is
characterized by a great deal of
uncertainty about the group's purpose,
structure and leadership. Members are
testing the waters to determine that
type of behaviour is acceptable. This
stage is complete when members have
begun to think of themselves as part of
a group.
2. Storming: The storming stage is one
of inter-group conflict. Members accept
the existence of the group, but resist
the constraints the group imposes on
individuality.Further, there is conflict
over who will control the group. After a
group leader has emerged, the
remaining group members must sort
out where they fit in the group.Even if
all the group members must sort out
where they fit in the group. Even if all
the group members accept the leader,
the group enters a phase of conflict and
challenge. One or more followers may
test the leader. The group may split into
factions supporting and opposing the
leader. If the group gets stuck in this
 phase of development, group members
may engage in battles over turf and
expend their energies on a variety of
political tactics. When this stage is
complete, a relatively clear hierarchy
of leadership exists within the group.
3. Norming: In this stage, close
relationships develop and the group
demonstrates cohesiveness. Entering
and conducting the cohesion phase
requires intervention by a group
member who is emotionally unaffected
by power and authority issues.
Typically, such a person encourages
group members to confront these
issues openly. If the group engages in
this process, the cohesion phase
usually passes quickly.
Group members recognize where they
fit in, and the group agrees on how it
will operate. A new leader may emerge,
or the existing leader may become
more aware of how much others in the
group contribute. The norming stage is
complete when the group structure
solidifies and the group has
assimilated a common set of
expectations of what defines correct
member behaviour.
4. Performing: The fourth stage is
performing. The structure at this point
is fully functional and accepted. Group
energy has moved from getting to
know and understand each other to
performing the task at hand. Members'
attention is directed to self-motivation
 and the motivation of other group
members for task accomplishment.
Some members focus on the task
function of initiating activity and
ensure that the work of the group
really gets moving. Other members
contribute to motivation and
commitment within the group through
maintenance functions such as
supporting, encouraging and
recognizing the contributions of
members or through establishing the
standards that the group may use in
evaluating its performance.
5. Adjourning: For permanent work
groups, performing is the last stage in
their development. However for
temporary groups, there is an
adjourning stage. In this stage, the
group prepares for its disbandment.
High task performance is no longer the
group's top priority. Instead, attention
is directed toward wrapping up
activities.

Characteristics of Group behaviour in

an Organisation
These characteristics of group
behaviour act as a means of
understanding why some groups
perform better than others.
1. Role Structures: Each person in a
group has a role, or a pattern of
expected behaviours associated with a
certain position in the group. Each
group member's role is a part of the
 group's overall role structure, that is
the set of roles and relationships
among roles that has been defined and
accepted by group members.
Roles develop through a combination
of group processes and individual
processes.
i. Group members have an expected
role for each individual. In formal
groups, the organization has
expectations for what employees in
each position should do.
ii. Through verbal and behavioural
messages, group members
communicate their expectations: a
sent role. For expected roles in formal
groups, the organization often spells
out its expectations in job
descriptions.
iii. The individual group member's
perceptions of these communication
results in a perceived role.
iv. The group member's response, acting
out (or not acting out) the perceived
role is the enacted role. The way the
role is enacted influences the group's
future role expectations.
A group is most likely to be effective if
its members understand and accept
roles that are consistent with high
perform.
2. Norms: The standards that a work
group uses to evaluate the behaviour of
its members are its norms of
behaviour. These norms may be
written or unwritten, verbalized or not
verbalized, implicit or explicit. So long
as individual members of the group
should do, or they may specify what
members of a group should not do.
Norms may exist in any aspect of work
group life. They may evolve informally
or unconsciously within a group, or
they may arise in response to
challenges. Norms reflect the culture
of the particular group, so they vary
from one group to another. When the
group's norms are consistent with the
organization's goals, they can
contribute to organizational
effectiveness. The degree to which
norms have an impact depends on the
extent to which group members
comply with them and the group's
enforcement of them.
Individual Adjustment: The degree to
which group members accept norms is
called individual adjustment. The
impact of individual adjustment on the
group depends on whether norms are
pivotal or peripheral. Pivotal norms
define behaviour that is absolutely
required for continued membership in
the group. Peripheral norms define
behaviour that is desirable - but not
essential - for continued group
membership. Combining these types of
norms with the choice of whether to
accept them results in four possible
levels of individual adjustment:
 i. Acceptance of both kinds of norms is
"conformity" to the group.
ii. Rejection of both kinds of norms
results in "open revolution".
iii. Accepting only pivotal norms
amounts to "creative individualism".
iv. Accepting only peripheral norms
amounts to "subversive rebellion".
Enforcement of Norms: To function
effectively, groups enforce their norms
in various ways.
v. The group may increase
communication with a non-
conforming member.
vi. If that does not work, the group may
ignore the non-conforming member
and exclude him or her from
activities.
vii. In extreme cases, group members
may resort to physical coercion or
expulsion.
3. Cohesiveness: The commitment of
members to a group and the strength of
their desire to remain in the group
constituted the group's cohesiveness. It
is the "interpersonal glue" that makes
the members of a group stick together
is group cohesion. Group cohesion can
enhance job satisfaction for members
and improve organizational
productivity. Highly cohesive groups
at work may not have many
interpersonal exchanges away from
the workplace. However, they are able
to control and manage their
membership better than work groups
low in cohesion.
 This is due to the strong motivation in
highly cohesive groups to maintain
good, close relationships with other
members.
Factors Affecting
Cohesiveness: Individuals tend to
consider a group attractive if it meets
the following conditions:
o The group's goals are clear and
compatible with members' goals.
o The group has a charismatic leader.
o The group has a reputation for
successfully accomplishing its task.
o The group is small enough that
members can air their opinions and
have them evaluated.
o The members support one another
and help each other overcome
barriers to growth and development.
Furthermore, cohesiveness may be
easier to establish in a group whose
membership is homogeneous. Groups
also tend to be highly cohesive when
they perceive a threat that gives group
members a "common enemy".
4. Leadership: A key role in determining the
success of the group is the role of the leader.
Effective leadership can shape a group into a
powerful force for accomplishing what
individual members could not or would not
do alone. Organizations need to cultivate
effective group leaders whose goals support
the organization's objectives.
5. Status: Status is the degree of worth and
respects that other members of the group
accord individual group members. Status
may arise from the person's job or behavior in
the group. Often, a group member's status is
 linked to the person's position in the
organization. Someone near the top of the
organizations hierarchy has a higher status.
Status may also be based on age, gender,
education level, seniority, race or other
characteristics.
The status of group members can enhance
effectiveness if the high-status members have
the most to contribute to the group's
objectives. However, if status causes a person
to have influence beyond his or her ability to
contribute to group goals, the group's
effectiveness will suffer.
6. Tasks: The productivity and satisfaction
of group members also depend on the kinds of
tasks the group carries out. Major ways to
describe group tasks are in terms of type and
performance requirements.
. Task Type: The type of task carried out by a
group is defined by the major kinds of
activity involved. Tasks may be classified as
follows:
 Production tasks: Tasks requiring the
group to produce and present ideas, images
or arrangements.
 Discussion tasks: tasks requiring the
group to evaluate issues and
 Problem-solving tasks: Tasks requiring
the group to decide on a course of action for
resolving a particular problem.
i. Performing Requirements: The performing
requirements of a task may be of following
types:
 Disjunctive Tasks: Tasks that can be
completed through individual efforts of
group members.
 Conjunctive Tasks: These are tasks where
each person's efforts are tightly linked to
the efforts of others. Group members are
highly interdependent.
  Additive Tasks: Are tasks where
productivity is measured by adding
together the output of each group member.

Group and its Characteristics

Characteristics of a Well-Functioning, Effective Group

Characteristics of Mature Groups

The description of a well-functioning effective
groups in the figure above characterizes a
mature group. Such a group has four
distinguishing characteristics:
1. Purpose and Mission: The purpose
and mission may be assigned to a group
or may emerge from within the group.
Even in the case of an assigned
mission, the group may re-examine,
modify, revise, or question the
mission. It may also embrace the
mission as stated. The mission
statement is converted into a specific
agenda, clear goals, and a set of critical
success factors. Stating the purpose
and mission in the form of specific
 goals enhances productivity over and
above any performance benefits
achieved through individual goal
setting.
2. Behavioural Norms: Behavioural
norms, which evolve over a period of
time, are well-understood standards of
behaviour within a group. They are
benchmarks against which team
members are evaluated and judged by
other group members. Some
behavioural norms become written
rules while other norms remain
informal, although they are no less
well understood by group members.
3. Group Cohesion: It enables a group
to exercise effective control over its
members in relationship to its
behavioural norms and standards.
Goal conflict in a group, unpleasant
experiences, and domination of a
subgroup are among the threats to a
group's cohesion. Groups with low
levels of cohesion have greater
difficulty exercising control over their
members and enforcing their
standards of behaviour.
Group cohesion is influenced by a
number of factors, most notably time,
size, the prestige of the team, external
pressure, and internal competition.
Group cohesion evolves gradually over
time through a group's normal
development.
4. Status Structure: Status structure is
the set of authority and task relations
 among a group's members. The status
structure may be hierarchical or
egalitarian (democratic), depending on
the group. Successful resolution of the
authority issue within a team results
in a well-understood status structure
of leader-follower relationship. Where
leadership problems arise, it is
important to find solutions and build
team leader effectiveness.
External Conditions Imposed on the
Group
Groups are a subset of a larger
organization system. Therefore, the
organization will impose some
conditions on the group. These external
conditions are: -
1. Authority
Structures: Organizations have
authority structures that define
who reports to whom, who makes
decisions, and what decisions
individuals or groups are
empowered to make. So, while
someone who emerges informally
from within the group might lead
a work group, the formally
designated leader (appointed by
management) has authority that
others in the group don't have.
2. Organizational Culture: Every
organization has an unwritten
culture that defines standards of
acceptable and unacceptable
 behaviour for employees.
Members of work groups have to
accept the standards implied in
the organization's dominant
culture if they are to remain in
good standing.
3. Formal
Regulations: Organizations create
rules, procedures, policies and
other forms of regulations to
standardize employee behaviour.
The more formal regulations that
the organization imposes on all its
employees, the more the
behaviour of work group
members are consistent and
predictable.
4. Organizational
Resources: When organizations
have limited resources, so do their
work groups. What a group
actually accomplishes is, to a large
degree, determined by what it is
capable of accomplishing. The
presence or absence of resources
such as money, time, raw
materials and equipment – which
are allocated to the group by the
organization – has a large bearing
on the group's behaviour.
5. Physical Work Setting: The
physical work setting imposed on
 the group by eternal parties has an
important bearing on work group
behaviour. They physical setting
creates both barriers and
opportunities for work group
interaction. Workers will not be
able to waste time if their
superiors work close to them.
6. Reward System: Since work
groups are part of the larger
organizational system, group
members will be influenced by
how the organization evaluates
performance and what
behaviours are rewarded.
Reasons for Group formation in
an Organization
Formal and informal groups form
in organizations for different
reasons. Formal groups are
sometimes called official or
assigned groups and informal
groups may be called unofficial or
emergent groups. Organizations
routinely form groups. If we
assume management decisions are
rational, groups must benefit
organizations in some way.
Presumably, the use of groups can
contribute to achieving and
maintaining a sustainable
 competitive advantage. Groups can
do this if they enable an
organization to fully tap the
abilities and energy of its human
resources. Further more, with
regard to informal groups,
Why do people form groups ?
People form groups to meet their
individual needs.
Why do People Join Groups?

1. Performance: Group effort can be

more efficient and effective than
individual efforts because they enable
employees to specialize and contribute
a variety of strengths.Organizations
structure employees into functional
 and task groups so that they can
develop and apply expertise in
particular functions, products,
problems or customers. The other
factor contributing to performance is
motivation, and groups can enhance
this as well. When employees work in
groups, the group is an important force
for creating and enforcing standards
for behaviour.
2. Cooperation: Carrying out an
organization's mission is something no
single person can do alone. However,
for several people to accomplish a
mutual goal, they must cooperate.
Group dynamics and characteristics
can enhance cooperation among
employees, especially when members
identify themselves as group and are
rewarded for group success.
3. Satisfaction: If satisfaction improves
motivation (and therefore
performance), organizations as well as
individual employees can benefit from
employees' satisfaction derived from
group membership. A major source of
this satisfaction is that people have
needs for being with others and being
liked by them. The way people satisfy
this category of needs is participating
in groups focusing on social activity.
Group membership may also be a
means for satisfying needs for
security, power and esteem.

GROUP DYNAMICS
A group can be defined as several individuals who come together to
accomplish a particular task or goal. Group dynamics refers to the
attitudinal and behavioral characteristics of a group. Group dynamics
concern how groups form, their structure and process, and how they
function. Group dynamics are relevant in both formal and informal groups
of all types. In an organizational setting, groups are a very common
organizational entity and the study of groups and group dynamics is an
important area of study in organizational behavior.
The following sections provide information related to group dynamics.
Specifically, the formation and development of groups is first considered.
Then some major types or classifications of groups are discussed. Then
the structure of groups is examined.

GROUP DEVELOPMENT
As applied to group development, group dynamics is concerned with why and how groups
develop. There are several theories as to why groups develop. A classic theory, developed by
George Homans, suggests that groups develop based on activities, interactions, and sentiments.
Basically, the theory means that when individuals share common activities, they will have more
interaction and will develop attitudes (positive or negative) toward each other. The major
element in this theory is the interaction of the individuals involved.
Social exchange theory offers an alternative explanation for group development. According to
this theory, individuals form relationships based on the implicit expectation of mutually
beneficial exchanges based on trust and felt obligation. Thus, a perception that exchange
relationships will be positive is essential if individuals are to be attracted to and affiliate with a
group.
Social identity theory offers another explanation for group formation. Simply put, this theory
suggests that individuals get a sense of identity and self-esteem based upon their membership
in salient groups. The nature of the group may be demographically based, culturally based, or
organizationally based. Individuals are motivated to belong to and contribute to identity groups
because of the sense of belongingness and self-worth membership in the group imparts.
Group dynamics as related to development concerns not only why groups form but also how.
The most common framework for examining the "how" of group formation was developed by
Bruce Tuckman in the 1960s. In essence, the steps in group formation imply that groups do not
usually perform at maximum effectiveness when they are first established. They encounter
several stages of development as they strive to become productive and effective. Most groups
experience the same developmental stages with similar conflicts and resolutions.
According to Tuckman's theory, there are five stages of group development: forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning. During these stages group members must address
several issues and the way in which these issues are resolved determines whether the group
will succeed in accomplishing its tasks.
 1. Forming. This stage is usually characterized by some confusion and uncertainty. The
major goals of the group have not been established. The nature of the task or leadership
of the group has not been determined (Luthans, 2005). Thus, forming is an orientation
period when members get to know one another and share expectations about the
group. Members learn the purpose of the group as well as the rules to be followed. The
forming stage should not be rushed because trust and openness must be developed.
These feelings strengthen in later stages of development. Individuals are often confused
during this stage because roles are not clear and there may not be a strong leader.
2. Storming. In this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of disagreement and
conflict. Members often challenge group goals and struggle for power. Individuals often
vie for the leadership position during this stage of development. This can be a positive
experience for all groups if members can achieve cohesiveness through resolution.
Members often voice concern and criticism in this phase. If members are not able to
resolve the conflict, then the group will often disband or continue in existence but will
remain ineffective and never advance to the other stages.
3. Norming. This stage is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and
shared expectations. Hopefully, at this stage the group members will begin to develop a
feeling of group cohesion and identity. Cooperative effort should begin to yield results.
Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides how it will evaluate
progress.
4. Performing. Performing, occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of
cohesiveness. During this stage of development, individuals accept one another and
conflict is resolved through group discussion. Members of the group make decisions
through a rational process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional
issues.
5. Adjourning. Not all groups experience this stage of development because it is
characterized by the disbandment of the group. Some groups are relatively permanent
(Luthans, 2005). Reasons that groups disband vary, with common reasons being the
accomplishment of the task or individuals deciding to go their own ways. Members of
the group often experience feelings of closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.

GROUP TYPES
One common way to classify group is by whether they are formal or informal in nature. Formal work groups are
established by an organization to achieve organizational goals. Formal groups may take the form of command
groups, task groups, and functional groups.

COMMAND GROUPS.
Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a
supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a
command group is an academic department chairman and the faculty members in that
department.
TASK GROUPS.
Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members
are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time
period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization
appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of
assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production
process, or the proposal of a motivational contest. Other common task groups are ad
hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are
temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process. Project
groups are similar to ad hoc committees and normally disband after the group
completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc
committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members
into the group.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.
A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an
unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of
current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing
department, a customer service department, or an accounting department.
In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the
common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other
than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time
frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the organization and members can invite
others to join from time to time. Informal groups can have a strong influence in
organizations that can either be positive or negative. For example, employees who form
an informal group can either discuss how to improve a production process or how to
create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest
groups, friendship groups, or reference groups.

INTEREST GROUPS.
Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general
informal groups. Members of interest groups may not be part of the same
organizational department but they are bound together by some other
common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are specific
to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and
objectives. An example of an interest group would be students who come
together to form a study group for a specific class.

FRIENDSHIP GROUPS.
Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social
activities, political beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds.
Members enjoy each other's company and often meet after work to
participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form
a friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a
potluck lunch once a month.

REFERENCE GROUPS.
A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate
themselves. According to Cherrington, the main purposes of reference
groups are social validation and social comparison. Social validation allows
individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison
helps individuals evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to
others. Reference groups have a strong influence on members' behavior.
By comparing themselves with other members, individuals are able to
assess whether their behavior is acceptable and whether their attitudes and
values are right or wrong. Reference groups are different from the
previously discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form
voluntarily. For example, the reference group for a new employee of an
organization may be a group of employees that work in a different
department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and religious
affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

GROUP STRUCTURE
Group structure is a pattern of relationships among members that hold the
group together and help it achieve assigned goals. Structure can be
described in a variety of ways. Among the more common considerations
are group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness.

GROUP SIZE.
Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people. Small
groups of two to ten are thought to be more effective because each
member has ample opportunity to participate and become actively involved
in the group. Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes and
trying to decide who should participate next. Group size will affect not only
participation but satisfaction as well. Evidence supports the notion that as
the size of the group increases, satisfaction increases up to a certain point.
In other words, a group of six members has twice as many opportunities for
interaction and participation as a group of three people. Beyond 10 or 12
members, increasing the size of the group results in decreased satisfaction.
It is increasingly difficult for members of large groups to identify with one
another and experience cohesion.

GROUP ROLES
In formal groups, roles are usually predetermined and assigned to
members. Each role will have specific responsibilities and duties. There
are, however, emergent roles that develop naturally to meet the needs of
the groups. These emergent roles will often replace the assigned roles as
individuals begin to express themselves and become more assertive.
Group roles can then be classified into work roles, maintenance roles, and
blocking roles.
Work roles are task-oriented activities that involve accomplishing the
group's goals. They involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator,
informer, clarifier, summarizer, and reality tester. The initiator defines
problems, proposes action, and suggests procedures.
The informer role involves finding facts and giving advice or opinions.
Clarifiers will interpret ideas, define terms, and clarify issues for the group.
Summarizers restate suggestions, offer decisions, and come to conclusions
for the group. Finally, reality testers analyze ideas and test the ideas in real
situations.
Maintenance roles are social-emotional activities that help members
maintain their involvement in the group and raise their personal
commitment to the group. The maintenance roles are harmonizer,
gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, and compromiser. The
harmonizer will reduce tension in the group, reconcile differences, and
explore opportunities. Gatekeepers often keep communication channels
open and make suggestions that encourage participation. The consensus
tester will ask if the group is nearing a decision and test possible
conclusions. Encouragers are friendly, warm, and responsive to other
group members. The last maintenance role is the compromiser. This role
involves modifying decisions, offering compromises, and admitting errors.
Blocking roles are activities that disrupt the group. They make take the form
of dominating discussions, verbally attacking other group members, and
distracting the group with trivial information or unnecessary humor. Often
times the blocking behavior may not be intended as negative. Sometimes a
member may share a joke in order to break the tension, or may question a
decision in order to force group members to rethink the issue. The blocking
roles are aggressor, blocker, dominator, comedian, and avoidance
behavior. The aggressor criticizes members' values and makes jokes in a
sarcastic or semi-concealed manner.
Blockers will stubbornly resist the group's ideas, disagree with group
members for personal reasons, and will have hidden agendas. The
dominator role attempts to control conversations by patronizing others.
They often interrupt others and assert authority in order to manipulate
members. Comedians often abandon the group even though they may
physically still be a part. They are attention-getters in ways that are not
relevant to the accomplishment of the group's objectives. The last blocking
role, avoidance behavior, involves pursuing goals not related to the group
and changing the subject to avoid commitment to the group.
Role ambiguity concerns the discrepancy between the sent role and the
received role, as shown in Exhibit 1. Supervisors, directors, or other group
leaders often send (assign) roles to group members in formal groups.
Group members receive roles by being ready and willing to undertake the
tasks associated with that role. Ambiguity results when members are
confused about the delegation of job responsibilities. This confusion may
occur because the members do not have specific job descriptions or
because the instructions regarding the task were not clear. Group members
who experience ambiguity often have feelings of frustration and
dissatisfaction, which ultimately lead to turnover.
Role conflict occurs when there is inconsistency between the perceived
role and role behavior. There are several different forms of role conflict.
Interrole conflict occurs when there is conflict between the different roles
that people have. For example, work roles and family roles often compete
with one another and cause conflict. Intrarole conflict occurs when
individuals must handle conflicting demands from different sources while
performing the tasks associated with the same role.

GROUP NORMS.
Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared
by the members of the group. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable
and unacceptable behavior. They are typically created in order to facilitate
group survival, make behavior more predictable, avoid embarrassing
situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish
its own set of norms that might determine anything from the appropriate
dress to how many comments to make in a meeting. Groups exert pressure
on members to force them to conform to the group's standards. The norms
often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the
group.
Performance norms determine how quickly members should work and how
much they should produce. They are created in an effort to determine
levels of individual effort. They can be very frustrating to managers
because they are not always in line with the organization's goals. Members
of a group may have the skill and ability to perform at higher levels but they
don't because of the group's performance norms. For example, workers
may stop working a production machine at 20 minutes before quitting time
in order to wash up, even though they produced fewer items that day than
management intended.
Reward-allocation norms determine how rewards are bestowed upon group
members. For example, the norm of equality dictates equal treatment of all
members. Every member shares equally so rewards are distributed equally
to everyone. Equity norms suggest that rewards are distributed according
to the member's contribution. In other words, members who contribute the
most receive the largest share of the rewards. Members may contribute
through effort, skill, or ability. Social responsibility norms reward on the
basis of need. Members who have special needs therefore receive the
largest share of the reward.
The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in
order for the behavior to be accepted. There must also be a shared
understanding

Exhibit 1

Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict

that the group supports the norms. It should be noted, however, that
members might violate group norms from time to time. If the majority of
members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually change and
will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behavior. Group members
who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded,
ignored, or asked to leave the group.

GROUP COHESIVENESS.
Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members and their desire to
remain part of the group. Many factors influence the amount of group
cohesiveness. Generally speaking, the more difficult it is to obtain group
membership the more cohesive the group. Groups also tend to become
cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a
serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend
considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive.
Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker
satisfaction, low turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity.
However, highly cohesive groups may be detrimental to organizational
performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals. Highly
cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink
occurs when members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to
a consensus in decision making. Groupthink results in careless judgments,
unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action, and a lack of reality
testing. It can lead to a number of decision-making issues such as the
following:

1. Incomplete assessments of the problem,

2. Incomplete information search,
3. Bias in processing information,
4. Inadequate development of alternatives, and
5. Failure to examine the risks of the preferred choice.

Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the

tasks involved require a variety of skills, experience, and decision making.
Groups are often more flexible and can quickly assemble, achieve goals,
and disband or move on to another set of objectives. Many organizations
have found that groups have many motivational aspects as well. Group
members are more likely to participate in decision-making and problem-
solving activities leading to empowerment and increased productivity.
Groups complete most of the work in an organization; thus, the
effectiveness of the organization is limited by the effectiveness of its
groups.
 Group Decision Making
Group decision-making commonly known as collaborative decision-making is a
situation faced when individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives before
them.
The decision is then no longer attributable to any individual group member as all the
individuals and social group processes like social influence contribute to the decision
outcome.
The decisions made by groups are mostly different from those made by individuals. For
example, groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than those made by
individual members, as individuals tend to be biased.

Advantages of Group Decision Making

Group decision making has two advantages over individual decision making.
Synergy
It is the idea that the whole is greater than the aggregate of its parts. When a group
makes a decision collectively, its judgment can be powerful than that of any of its
members. Through discussing, questioning, and collaborative approach, group
members can identify more complete and robust solutions and recommendations.
Sharing of information
Group decisions take into account a wider scope of information as each group member
may contribute distinct information and expertise. Sharing information increases
understanding, clarifies issues, and facilitates movement towards a collective decision.

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

The major disadvantages of group decision making are as follows −
Diffusion of Responsibility
Group decision making results in distribution of responsibility that results in lack of
accountability for outcomes. In this way, everyone is responsible for a decision, and no
one really is. Moreover, group decisions can make it easier for members to refuse
personal responsibilities and blame others for bad decisions.
Lower Efficiency
Group decisions can sometimes be less efficient than individual decisions. It takes
additional time because there is a need of active participation, discussion, and
coordination among group members. Without good facilitation and structure, meetings
can get eliminated in trivial details that may matter a lot to one person but not to the
others.
Groupthink
One of the biggest disadvantage of effective group decision making is groupthink. It is
a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the wish for
harmony or conformity results in an illogical or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.
By refraining themselves from outside influences and actively suppressing opposing
viewpoints in the interest of minimizing conflict, group members reach a consensus
decision without critical evaluation of substitute viewpoints.
Groupthink sometimes produces dehumanizing actions against the out-group.

Group Decision-Making Techniques

In order to eliminate group think and group shift from a group, we can use four different
techniques that will help us make a collaborative decision that is best for the group.
These techniques are −

 Brainstorming
 Nominal group thinking
 Didactic technique
 Delphi technique

Brainstorming
This technique includes a group of people, mostly between five and ten in number,
sitting around a table, producing ideas in the form of free association. The main focus
is on generation of ideas and not on evaluation of these ideas.
If more ideas can be originated, then it is likely that there will be a unique and creative
idea among them. All these ideas are written on the blackboard with a piece of chalk so
that all the team members can see every idea and try to improvise these ideas.
Brainstorming technique is very effective when the problem is comparatively precise
and can be simply defined. A complex problem can be divided into parts and each part
can be dealt with separately at a time.
Nominal Group Thinking
This technique is similar to brainstorming except that this approach is more structured.
It motivates individual creativity. Members form the group for namesake and operate
independently, originate ideas for solving the problem on their own, in silence and in
writing. Members do not communicate well with each other so that strong personality
domination is evaded.
The group coordinator either collects the written ideas or writes them on a large
blackboard so that each member of the group can see what the ideas are. These ideas
are further discussed one by one in turn and each participant is motivated to comment
on these ideas in order to clarify and improve them. After all these ideas have been
discussed, they are evaluated for their merits and drawbacks and each actively
participating member is needed to vote on each idea and allot it a rank on the basis of
priority of each alternative solution.
The idea with the highest cumulative ranking is selected as the final solution to the
problem.
Didactic Interaction
This technique is applicable only in certain situations, but is an excellent method when
a situation actually demands it. The type of problem should be such that it generates
output in the form of yes or no. Say for example, a decision is to be made whether to
buy or not to buy a product, to merge or not to merge, to expand or not to expand and
so on. These types of decision requires an extensive and exhaustive discussion and
investigation since a wrong decision can have serious consequences.
There are many advantages as well as disadvantages of this type of situation. The
group that makes the decision is divided into two sub-groups, one in favor of the “go”
decision and the opposing in favor of “no go” decision.
The first group enlists all the “pros” of the problem solution and the second group lists
all the “cons”. These groups meet and discuss their discoveries and their reasons.
After tiring discussions, the groups switch sides and try to find weaknesses in their own
original standpoints. This interchange of ideas and understanding of various viewpoints
results in mutual acceptance of the facts as they exist so that a solution can be put
together around these facts and ultimately a final decision is reached.
Delphi Technique
This technique is the improvised version of the nominal group technique, except that it
involves obtaining the opinions of experts physically distant from each other and
unknown to each other.
This isolates group members from the undue influence of others. Basically, the types of
problems sorted by this technique are not specific in nature or related to a particular
situation at a given time.
For example, the technique could be used to explain the problems that could be
created in the event of a war. The Delphi technique includes the following steps −
  The problem is first identified and a panel of experts are selected. These experts are asked to provide potential
solutions through a series of thoughtfully designed questionnaires.

 Each expert concludes and returns the initial questionnaire.

 The results of the questionnaire are composed at a central location and the central coordinator prepares a second
set of questionnaire based on the previous answers.

 Each member receives a copy of the results accompanied by the second questionnaire.

 Members are required to review the results and respond to the second questionnaire. The results typically trigger
new solutions or motivate changes in the original ideas.

 The process is repeated until a general agreement is obtained

Intergroup dynamics refers to the interaction types among groups

and the factors which influence them. These types are posited by Thomas (1976):

 accommodation: groups which have similar goals interact minimally to support

each others' efforts and maintain positive intergroup relations, but work toward their
respective goals independently
 avoidance: groups which have similar goals do not interact
 cooperation: groups work together toward some superordinate goal, or a goal
higher than any individual group's goal
 competition: groups may compete for resources and intergroup conflict may
emerge; especially happens when the groups have similar goals
 compromise: when there are not enough resources for two or more groups to
achieve their goals, in an effort to maintain positive intergroup relations or to ensure
self-preservation, groups may negotiate resources or work together in areas where
their goals overlap
 interdependence: groups are dependent upon one another to achieve their
respective goals

These interaction types are not mutually exclusive and may vary according to context.

Examples. The workshop itself is an example of accommodation. Two scientific code

communities which each must wait for the other community's release before pushing
their own release (but do not interact continuously) are sequentially interdependent.

One feasible way to improve intergroup communication for the purpose of

understanding another group's organizational values is by member exchange, i.e.
temporarily swapping one member of each virtual organization with another. Each
virtual organization gains the perspective of the member they swap with as well as the
renewed perspective of the member they swap.

Organizational Behavior - Culture

Organizational culture can be defined as the group norms, values, beliefs and
assumptions practiced in an organization. It brings stability and control within the firm.
The organization is more stable and its objective can be understood more clearly.
Organizational culture helps the group members to resolve their differences, overcome
the barriers and also helps them in tackling risks.

Elements of Organizational Culture

The two key elements seen in organizational culture are −
 Visible elements − These elements are seen by the outer world. Example, dress code, activities, setup, etc.

 Invisible elements − These inner elements of the group cannot be seen by people outside the group or firm.
Example, values, norms, assumptions, etc. Now let us discuss some other elements of organizational culture.
They are −

 Stories − Stories regarding the history of the firm, or founder.

 Rituals − Precise practices an organization follows as a habit.

 Symbol − The logo or signature or the style statement of a company.

 Language − A common language that can be followed by all, like English.

 Practice − Discipline, daily routine or say the tight schedule everyone follows without any failure.

 Values and Norms − The idea over which a company is based or the thought of the firm is considered as its
value and the condition to adopt them are called norms.

 Assumptions − It means we consider something to be true without any facts. Assumptions can be used as the
standard of working, means the employees prepare themselves to remain above standard.

Different Types of Organizational Culture

The culture a firm follows can be further classified into different types. They are −

 Mechanistic and Organic culture

 Authoritarian and Participative culture
 Subculture and Dominant culture
 Strong and Weak culture
 Entrepreneurial and Market culture

Mechanistic and Organic Culture

Mechanistic culture is formed by formal rule and standard operating procedures.
Everything needs to be defined clearly to the employees like their task, responsibility
and concerned authorities. Communication process is carried according to the direction
given by the organization. Accountability is one of the key factors of mechanistic
culture.
Organic culture is defined as the essence of social values in an organization. Thus
there exists a high degree of sociability with very few formal rules and regulations in
the company. It has a systematic hierarchy of authority that leads towards free flow of
communication. Some key elements of organic culture include authority, responsibility,
accountability and direct flow towards the employee.
Authoritarian and Participative Culture
Authoritarian culture means power of one. In this culture, power remains with the top
level management. All the decisions are made by the top management with no
employee involvement in the decision making as well as goal shaping process. The
authority demands obedience from the employee and warns them for punishment in
case of mistake or irregularity. This type of culture is followed by military organization.
In participative culture, employees actively participate in the decision making and goal
shaping process. As the name suggests, it believes in collaborative decision making. In
this type of culture, employees are perfectionist, active and professional. Along with
group decision making, group problem solving process is also seen here.
Subculture and Dominant Culture
In subculture, some members of the organization make and follow a culture but not all
members. It is a part of organizational culture, thus we can see many subcultures in an
organization. Every department in a company have their own culture that gets
converted to a subculture. So, the strength and adaptability of an organizational culture
is dependent on the success of subculture.
In dominant culture, majority of subculture combine to become a dominant culture. The
success of dominant culture is dependent on the homogeneity of the subculture, that
is, the mixture of different cultures. At the same point of time, some cold war between a
dominant culture and a minor culture can also be seen.
Strong and Weak Culture
In a strong culture, the employees are loyal and have a feeling of belongingness
towards the organization. They are proud of their company as well as of the work they
do and they slave towards their goal with proper coordination and control. Perception
and commitment are two aspects that are seen within the employees. In this culture,
there is less employee turnover and high productivity.
In a weak culture, the employees hardly praise their organization. There is no loyalty
towards the company. Thus, employee dissatisfaction and high labor turnover are two
aspects of this culture.
Entrepreneurial and Market Culture
Entrepreneurial culture is a flexible and risk-taking culture. Here the employees show
their innovativeness in thinking and are experimental in practice. Individual initiations
make the goal easy to achieve. Employees are given freedom in their activity. The
organization rewards the employees for better performance.
Market culture is based on achievement of goal. It is a highly target-oriented and
completely profit-oriented culture. Here the relationship between the employees and
the organization is to achieve the goal. The social relation among the workers is not
motivating.

Organizational change
Organizational change can be defined as the alteration in structure, technology or
people in an organization or behavior by an organization. Here we need to note that
change in organizational culture is different from change in an organization. A new
method or style or new rule is implemented here.
An organizational change occurs due to two major factors namely −
 External factor − External factors are those factors that are present outside the firm but force the firm to change
or implement a new law, rule etc. For example, all banks are bound to follow the rules laid down by the RBI.

 Internal factor − Internal factors are those factors that are caused or introduced inside an organization that forces
a change. For example, no smoking in the workplace.

Kurt Lewin’s Force Field Analysis

Kurt Lewin, is a noted organizational theorist, who proposed the force field analysis for
organizational change. In this theory, he has prioritized two factors for change in an
organization, namely −
 Driving force − Driving force can be defined as an organizational force that makes a change with respect to
structure, people and technology. In short, it drives the organization from one culture to another.

 Restoring force − Restoring force is the force which changes the culture from the existing state to the old state. It
indicates a backward motion while the driving force indicates a forward motion.

Importance of Organizational Change

There is a need of change in an organization because there is always a hope for
further development, and in order to survive in a competitive market, the organization
needs to be updated with changes. However, we have listed some reasons to explain
why changes are deliberately made and carefully planned by the organization before
implementation.

 It improves the means to satisfy the economic requirements of people.

 It enhances the profitability of organization.
 It promotes employee satisfaction and well-being.

Planned Change
We can define planned change as any kind of alteration or modification which is done
in advance and differently for improvement.
The Need for Planned Change
Planned change takes places in an organization when there is a demand for change
due to two types of forces. These forces are grouped into internal sources and external
sources.
Internal forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include obsolescence
of production and service, new market opportunities, new strategic direction, increasing
workforce diversity, and shift in socio-cultural values.
External forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include regulators,
competitors, market force, customers, and technology. Each of these forces can create
pressing demand for change in small or big, public or private, business or non-
business organizations.
Process of Planned Change
Once the management decides to implement some changes in the organization, it
needs to be done carefully as it is a very sensitive issue. It is very important for all the
employees to adapt to change. According to Kurt Lewin, the planned organizational
change is implemented in three different stages. They are −
 Unfreezing − In this stage, the organization studies if the change is required or not, what and why is the change
necessary. Considering the entire situation, the organization decides for appropriate change. Thus a plan and
strategy is formulated as required.

 Changing − In this stage, the organization executes the plan and program for change. For this purpose, proper
precautions are taken in order to maintain cooperation and coordination between the employees and
management, avoiding miscommunication or disputes. Adequate supervision and control is arranged as needed.

 Refreezing − This is the final stage, in order to bring organizational change. By way of supervision, the
organization tries to evaluate the effectiveness of change. Collecting all this information, the management
interprets whether to continue or replace change by some other alternatives or to make further minor changes.

Types of Planned Change

On the basis of a company’s requirement planned change is classified into three types.
They are −

 Change in structure
 Change in technology
 Change in people

Change in Structure
We say that the planned change required is change in structure when development is
required in these following areas −

 Change in management
 New management
 Change in position or location
 Change in objective, rules, regulations etc.
 Launching new branches
Change in Technology
We say that the planned change required is change in technology when development
is required in these following areas −

 Need of office automation

 Installing new hardware and software
 Executing new working procedures
 New methods in production function
 Producing new products and devices
 New training, research and development program

Change in People
We say that the planned change required is change in people when development is
required in these following areas −

 New candidate requirement

 Promotion or demotion
 Transfer to other location
 Suspension or dismissal
 Deputation
 Training and development
 Changing an organization is often essential for a company to remain competitive. Failure to change
may influence the ability of a company to survive. Yet, employees do not always welcome changes in
methods. According to a 2007 survey conducted by the Society for Human Resource Management
(SHRM), resistance to change is one of the top two reasons why change efforts fail. In fact, reactions
to organizational change may range from resistance to compliance to being an enthusiastic supporter
of the change, with the latter being the exception rather than the norm.
 Figure 14.10


 Reactions to change may take many forms.
 Active resistance is the most negative reaction to a proposed change attempt. Those who engage in
active resistance may sabotage the change effort and be outspoken objectors to the new procedures.
In contrast, passive resistance involves being disturbed by changes without necessarily voicing these
opinions. Instead, passive resisters may quietly dislike the change, feel stressed and unhappy, and
even look for an alternative job without necessarily bringing their point to the attention of decision
makers. Compliance, on the other hand, involves going along with proposed changes with little
enthusiasm. Finally, those who show enthusiastic support are defenders of the new way and actually
encourage others around them to give support to the change effort as well.
 Any change attempt will have to overcome the resistance on the part of people to be successful.
Otherwise, the result will be loss of time and energy as well as an inability on the part of the
organization to adapt to the changes in the environment and make its operations more efficient.
Resistance to change also has negative consequences for the people in question. Research shows
 that when people negatively react to organizational change, they experience negative emotions, use
sick time more often, and are more likely to voluntarily leave the company.
 The following is a dramatic example of how resistance to change may prevent improving the status
quo. Have you ever wondered why the letters on keyboards are laid out the way they are? The
QWERTY keyboard, named after the first six letters in the top row, was actually engineered to slow us
down. The first prototypes of the typewriter keyboard would jam if the keys right next to each other
were hit at the same time. Therefore, it was important for manufacturers to slow typers down. They
achieved this by putting the most commonly used letters to the left-hand side, and scattering the most
frequently used letters all over the keyboard. Later, the issue of letters being stuck was resolved. In
fact, an alternative to the QWERTY named the Dvorak keyboard provides a much more efficient
design and allows individuals to double traditional typing speeds. Yet the shift never occurred. The
reasons? Large numbers of people resisted the change. Teachers and typists resisted, because they
would lose their specialized knowledge. Manufacturers resisted because of costs inherent in making
the switch and the initial inefficiencies in the learning curve. In short, the best idea does not necessarily
win, and changing people requires understanding why they resist.
 Figure 14.11


 The Dvorak keyboard is a more efficient design compared to the QWERTY keyboard. Due to
resistance from typists, manufacturers, and teachers, it never gained widespread adoption.

 Why Do People Resist Change?

 Disrupted Habits

 People often resist change for the simple reason that change disrupts our habits. Do you think about
how you are driving when you drive? Most of the time probably not, because driving generally
becomes an automated activity after a while. You may sometimes even realize that you have reached
your destination without noticing the roads you used or having consciously thought about any of your
body movements. Now imagine you drive for a living, and even though you are used to driving an
automatic car, you are now forced to use a stick shift. You can most likely figure out how to drive a
stick, but it will take time, and until you figure it out, you cannot drive on auto pilot. You will have to
reconfigure your body movements and practice shifting until you become good at it. You may find that
for this simple reason, people sometimes are surprisingly outspoken when confronted with simple
changes such as updating to a newer version of a particular software or a change in their voice mail
system.

 Personality

 Some people are more resistant to change than others. Research shows that people who have a
positive self-concept are better at coping with change, probably because those who have high self-
esteem may feel that whatever the changes are, they are likely to adjust to it well and be successful in
 the new system. People with a more positive self-concept and those who are more optimistic may also
view change as an opportunity to shine as opposed to a threat that is overwhelming. Finally, risk
tolerance is another predictor of how resistant someone will be to stress. For people who are risk
avoidant, the possibility of a change in technology or structure may be more threatening.

 Feelings of Uncertainty

 Change inevitably brings feelings of uncertainty. You have just heard that your company is merging
with another. What would be your reaction? Such change is often turbulent, and it is often unclear what
is going to happen to each individual. Some positions may be eliminated. Some people may see a
change in their job duties. Things can get better—or they may get worse. The feeling that the future is
unclear is enough to create stress for people, because it leads to a sense of lost control.

 Fear of Failure

 People also resist change when they feel that their performance may be affected under the new
system. People who are experts in their jobs may be less than welcoming of the changes, because
they may be unsure whether their success would last under the new system. Studies show that people
who feel that they can perform well under the new system are more likely to be committed to the
proposed change, while those who have lower confidence in their ability to perform after changes are
less committed.

 Personal Impact of Change

 It would be too simplistic to argue that people resist all change, regardless of its form. In fact, people
tend to be more welcoming of change that is favorable to them on a personal level (such as giving
them more power over others, or change that improves quality of life such as bigger and nicer offices).
Research also shows that commitment to change is highest when proposed changes affect the work
unit with a low impact on how individual jobs are performed.

 Prevalence of Change

 Any change effort should be considered within the context of all the other changes that are introduced
in a company. Does the company have a history of making short-lived changes? If the company
structure went from functional to product-based to geographic to matrix within the past 5 years, and the
top management is in the process of going back to a functional structure again, a certain level of
resistance is to be expected because people are likely to be fatigued as a result of the constant
changes. Moreover, the lack of a history of successful changes may cause people to feel skeptical
toward the newly planned changes. Therefore, considering the history of changes in the company is
important to understanding why people resist. Also, how big is the planned change? If the company is
considering a simple switch to a new computer program, such as introducing Microsoft Access for
database management, the change may not be as extensive or stressful compared to a switch to an
enterprise resource planning (ERP) system such as SAP or PeopleSoft, which require a significant
time commitment and can fundamentally affect how business is conducted.

 Perceived Loss of Power

 One other reason why people may resist change is that change may affect their power and influence in
the organization. Imagine that your company moved to a more team-based structure, turning
supervisors into team leaders. In the old structure, supervisors were in charge of hiring and firing all
those reporting to them. Under the new system, this power is given to the team itself. Instead of
 monitoring the progress the team is making toward goals, the job of a team leader is to provide support
and mentoring to the team in general and ensure that the team has access to all resources to be
effective. Given the loss in prestige and status in the new structure, some supervisors may resist the
proposed changes even if it is better for the organization to operate around teams.

Stress

Stress is a psychological condition and body discomfort. Stress is a common phenomenon. Every
individual experiences stress at some or other time. Employees experience stress in the process of
meeting the targets and working for long hours. When the person experiences a constraint inhibiting the
accomplishment of desire and demand for accomplishment, it leads to potential stress. Anxiety is
converted into stress and ultimately it leads to job burnout. In fact for most of the time individuals are
responsible for stress. However, organisations also create stress in the individuals. Why one should be
concerned about stress? The reason is that the stress has more negative consequences than positive. In
this unit, you will learn the definition, causes and consequences of stress. You will be exposed to the
techniques of managing stress. You will further learn the process of creating stress free environment.

DEFINITION OF STRESS

Stress is a state of discomfort experienced by an individual. Loss of emotional stability is the general
expression of stress. It is generally apparent when the individual experiences a biological disorder. Stress
has a positive association with the age, life styles, time constraints and the nature of occupation. Certain
occupations are more prone to the stress than the others. For instance, drivers of vehicles, doctors,
lawyers and managers are more likely to get stress than teacher, bankers and operating personnel.
Individuals feel stress when the needs or desires are not accomplished in the normal expected ways.
This is because of the natural constraints operated on the individuals. The more the intensity of the
desire and greater is the uncertainty associated with the achievement of the goal, the greater is the
degree of stress. Employees are working for longer hours, taking on the work once done by laid-off
colleagues, meeting tighter deadlines and cutting back on expenses are some of the causes of stress.
Combined to this with the double-income family demands of monthly mortgages, childcare issues and
aging parents, and the result for many is anxiety, sleeplessness, irritability, and physical and mental
deterioration. Perhaps these are the potential reasons for stress in the employees. Let us first learn
what is stress? In the words of Fred Luthans, stress is defined as an adaptive response to an external
situation that results in physical, psychological, and/or behavioural deviations for organisational
participants. Ivancevich and Matteson define stress as the interaction of the individual with the
environment. It is an adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological
processes that are consequence of any external action, situation or event that places special physical
and / or psychological demands upon a person. Schuler defines stress as a dynamic condition in which
an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires
and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important.

The following are the features of stress.

• Stress is both psychological and physical aspect.

• It is common to both the genders.

• It results from the deviation of expectations from actual situation.

• It is symptomatic. Potential stress appears with the symptoms. If the potential stress is ignored it leads
to actual stress.

• Stress is treated to be negative. Nevertheless, it has positive consequences. This is called as eustress.

• Stress is an interactive concept. It does not spring from the internal organs of the individual. It comes
from the interaction of the human being with the environment. Thus, environment has a profound
influence on the stress.

• Stress is generic term. If it is applied to the context of organisation, it is known as work stress or job
stress.

• Stress occurs only when the human being feels mediation of the internal or external factors.

• Stress is related to the attitude of the person. Stress does not occur when the person is having an
indifferent attitude to the opportunity.

• Stress is associated with certain common biological disorders such as heart attack, stroke, diabetic,
blood pressure, neurological disorders etc.

The stress is caused when a person has needs, desires, wishes and expectations and certain forces
prevent the person from doing the desired activities. Stress and anxiety are not similar concepts. Anxiety
occurs as a result of emotions caused by the interactions of environmental stimuli. Thus, it is confined to
the psychological disturbance. On the other hand, stress is originated by the psychological tensions and
slowly leads to physical or biological breakdown. While stress is accompanied by anxiety, the latter need
not always lead to stress. Similarly, stress and burnout are different concepts. Prolonged stress leads to
burnout. It is a state of mind. It results from a continuous feeling of emotional stress. An individual feels
physical, mental and emotional exhaustion. Job burnout is characterised by emotional exhaustion,
depersonalisation, and diminished personal accomplishment. Burnout is also closely associated with the
so-called helping professions such as nursing, education, and social work

CAUSES OF STRESS
Stress is a psychological state of imbalance coupled with biological disorder. Individual experiences
deviation in his biological system which is called potential stress. Potential stress moderated by
individual, organisational and environmental variable leads to actual stress. The variables that convert
potential stress into actual stress are known as stressors. Thus, stressors can be intra- organisational and
extra organisational. Intra-organisational stress arises out of individual, group, and organisational
factors. Extra organisational factors relate to environment of the organisation. The intra organisational
factors causing stress are divided into individual factors and organisational factors. Let us learn them in
detail.

9.3.1 Intra Organisational Factors

Individual Factors: Individual factors, which cause stress include: personality and individual differences,
family problems, economic problems, life styles and role demands.

i) Personality and individual differences: Individual basic dispositions are the main reason for potential
stress. Introversion, extroversion, masculinity, rigidity, locus of control, personal life, demographic
differences such as age, health, education and occupation are some of the reasons causing stress in
individuals. It is found that type A personality is prone to more stress than type B personality. Type A
personality is characterised by emotion and sensitivity to organisation goals, competitive spirit and
achievement oriented behaviour. This leads to frustration even for small deviations from the
expectations, thus feeling of more stress. Type B personality is typically relaxed, carefree, patient and
less serious in achieving objectives. Thus, he never feels stress. Some propositions of personality and
individual stress are:

• Age is positively related to stress. When a person grows older, his expectations also go up. If he is
unable to find avenues for realising expectations, he feels stress.

• Sound health enables a person to cope up stress better than unsound health.

• Education and health are related positively and negatively. Better education provides an opportunity
to understand things in a better manner. Even the level of maturity increases with better education. So
better educated persons are less prone to stress. Poorly educated people in relation to the jobs are
likely to feel more stress due to the poor adaptability on the jobs.

• The nature of the occupation and stress are related. Certain occupations are inherently stressful than
the other occupations. For instance, doctors, lawyers, politicians etc. At the same time occupation also
gives enough stress tolerance ability. Politicians are found to posses more stress tolerance ability.

• Strong urge for satisfaction of needs compel people to over work and may lead to stress.

• Greater degree of locus of control leads to stress. A person is less likely to feel stress as he believes
that he can exercise control over external factors.
• Self-efficacy and stress are negatively related. Higher degree of self-efficacy elevates motivation
levels. Therefore people with greater self-efficacy remain calm and effectively face stressful situation.
Perception of capacity to bring changes provides greater ability to withstand stress.

• Another personal disposition related to stress is psychological hardiness. Hardiness is the ability to
withstand provocation from others. People with greater psychological hardiness are able to survive and
withstand stressful environment. For instance, people who remain calm even at the provocation of
others and ignore the esteem are less likely to feel stress. Individual differences in perception, job
experiences, social support, hostility etc., are some of the reasons that cause stress.

• Perception helps in understanding the environment. Person possessing a positive perception

understands reality and appraises the events objectively. Thus, he feels less stress.

• Job experience and stress are negatively related. As one gains experience he develops adaptability to
various job and organisational demands. He realises the job expectations. He develops a mechanism to
deal with stress situations. Therefore more experienced people remains cool, calm, and ignore stressors
than young and inexperienced employees.

• Hostility and aggressive behaviour is positively related to stress. A person who becomes aggressive
and gets quick anger is cynical and does not trust others. He feels more stress than others who are cool
and calm.

ii) Family Problems: Family issues influence the personal life of individuals. Sound marital relationships,
marital discipline, early and healthy children may lead to happy personal life. They enjoy the life and
become positive in their attitudes. So they do not tend to greater stress. On the other hand, poor
marital relationships, nagging wife, family separations, extra marital relationships, disturbing children,
poor settlement of family members, aging parents, dual working couple, death of spouse or other close
family member are some of the reasons for greater stress in the individuals.

iii) Economic Problems: Economic difficulties are the main cause of stress. Poor management of
personal finances, heavy family expenditure, and constant demand for money, poor incoming earning
capacity and slow financial growth in the job are some of the economic reasons responsible for greater
stress. For instance, an increasing family expenditure, increased expenditure on children education and
health create heavy demand for income. This creates greater stress in the individuals.

iv) Life Styles: Life Styles of individuals can cause stress. The following situations of life style cause
stress: • Sedentary life styles cause greater stress. • Individuals experiencing certain unique situations
may be compelled to alter their attitude, emotions and behaviour. These are known as life trauma. Life
trauma is potential reason for stress. • Faster career changes bring more responsibilities to the
individuals. Persons occupying higher positions in the younger age are likely to get heart attacks due to
greater stress. This is because of inability to adapt to the new carrier responsibilities.

v) Role Demands: Individuals play multiple roles in their personal life and organisations. In their
personal life, they play the roles of family head, husband, father, brother and son. In social life they play
the roles of club members, informal community group members, members of recreation groups,
religious groups and a number of other social groups. Similarly in organisations, employees play the role
of superior, subordinate, co-worker, union leader, informal group leaders etc. Incidentally, all these
roles are performed simultaneously. Thus, they cause anxiety and emotion. Another potential reason is
role conflict. It arises because of poor role perception, role ambiguity, role overload and role
overlapping. Role ambiguity and stress are positively related. The greater the role conflict, individual
experiences more stress.

Organisational Factors: An organisation is a combination of resources, goals, strategies, and policies. In

order to make people to work, organisations create structure, process and working conditions. In
modern organisations, number of factors create an environment of stress. The changing environmental
dynamics, globalisation, organisational adjustments like mergers and acquisitions lead to stress among
employees. In addition, a number of internal organisational factors cause employee stress. Some of
them are poor working conditions, strained labour management relations, disputed resource
allocations, co-employee behaviour, organisational design and policies, unpleasant leadership styles of
the boss, misunderstandings in organisational communication, bureaucratic controls, improper
motivation, job dissatisfaction, and less attention to merit and seniority. Let us learn the organisational
stressors in detail.

i) Working Conditions: Working conditions and stress are inversely related. Employees working with
poor working conditions are subject to greater stress. The factors that lead to more stress are crowded
work areas, dust, heat, noise, polluted air, strong odour due to toxic chemicals, radiation, poor
ventilation, unsafe and dangerous conditions, lack of privacy etc.

ii) Organisational Tasks: Organisational tasks are designed to meet the objectives and goals. Poorly
designed tasks lead to greater stress. Task autonomy, task inter-dependency, task demands, task
overload are some of the potential reasons for stress in organisations. For instance greater the task
interdependence, greater is the coordination required. This requires employees to adjust themselves to
coworkers, superiors, and subordinates, irrespective of their willingness. They are expected to
communicate, coordinate, exchange views, with other people irrespective of caste, creed, gender,
religion and political differences. Lack of adjustment and poor tolerance to others lead to greater degree
of stress.
iii) Administrative Policies and Strategies: Employee’s stress is related to certain administrative
strategies followed by the organisations. Down sizing, competing pressure, unfair pay structures, rigidity
in rules, job rotation and ambiguous policies are some of the reasons for stress in organisations.

iv) Organisational Structure and Design: As pointed out earlier organisational structure is designed to
facilitate individual’s interaction in the realisation of organisational goals. Certain aspects of design like
specialisation, centralisation, line and staff relationships, span of control, and organisational
communication can severely create stress in organisations. For example, wider span of management
compels the executive to manage large number of subordinates. This may create greater stress.
Similarly, frequent line and staff conflict lead to obstacles in the work performance. Inability to resolve
the conflicts lead to stress.

v) Organisation Process and Styles: A number of organisational processes are designed for meeting
organisational goals. Communication process, control process, decision making process, promotion
process, performance appraisal process, etc. are designed for realising organisational objectives. These
processes limit the scope of functioning of employees. Improper design of various organisational
processes leads to strained relationships among the employees. They may also cause de-motivation and
job dissatisfaction. Consequently, employee feels stress in adapting to the processes.

vi) Organisational Leaderships: Top management is responsible for creation of a sound organisation
climate and culture by appropriate managerial style. The climate provided should be free of tensions,
fear, and anxiety. Authoritarian leadership style creates a directive environment in which employees are
pressurised to attain targets. They work under impersonal relationships and tight controls. This creates
greater work stress to employees. On the other hand, a climate of warm and friendliness, scope for
participation in decision making, non financial motivation and flexibility are encouraged under
democratic leadership style. This relieves stress in the employees. Therefore, employees working under
authoritarian leadership styles experience stress than employees working under democratic leadership
style.

vii) Organisational Life Cycle: Every organisation moves through four phases of organisational life cycle.
They are birth, growth, maturity and decline. In each of these stages the structure and the design of
organisation undergoes frequent changes. In addition, human beings are subject to metamorphosis to
adapt to the stages in the life cycle. In this process, employees are subject to job stress. For instance in
the initial stages of organisational birth, stress is caused because of ambiguous policies and designs. In
the growth stage, employees experience stress due to failure to meet conflicting demands. At the time
of decline, stress is caused due to down sizing, retrenchment and loss of financial rewards and changing
organisational systems
viii) Group Dynamics: Groups are omni present in organisations. Groups arise out of inherent desire of
human beings and spontaneous reactions of people. In organisations both formal groups and informal
groups exist. A formal group exist in the form of committees, informal group exit among different levels
of organisation. Groups have a number of functional and dysfunctional consequences. They provide
social support and satisfaction, which is helpful in relieving stress. At the same time, they become the
source of stress also. Lack of cohesiveness, lack of social support, lack of recognition by the group and
incompatible goals cause stress

Extra-Organisational Factors
Environmental Factors: Environmental factors are extra organisational. Nevertheless, they create job
stress in the individuals. These are internal and external factors. Most of the internal environmental
factors
relate to the organisational goals, management systems, structure, processes and design of
organisations.
They are discussed in the preceding section. External environmental factors relate to the general
environment of the organisation. They are political, economical, technological, legal, ecological,
governmental, social, cultural and ethical. Certain propositions describing the impact of environment on

stress are presented below

i) The political party in power as per their ideology enacts legislation in the Parliament. As the new
laws and regulations are enacted by the new political party, the political changes bring uncertainty in
the environment. This compels employees to adapt to the new legal order. This creates stress.
ii) Economic environment deals with income levels, demand and supply,
inflation etc. Changes in these factors may require more work or better
strategy to cope up with the environment. This creates stress when the
employees are unable to adjust to the new situations. For instance,
increase in inflation levels creates pressures on the employee income
levels leading to stress.
iii) Technological changes bring new methods of production and new ways
of handling the organisational tasks. Employees are required to learn
new skills in order to discharge their jobs effectively. Unable to cope up
with the new technology creates stress in the employees. For example,
bank employees felt stress when the bank management decided to
introduce computers.
iv) Legal environment consists of complex web of laws and regulation
intended to control the business operations. Organisations are required
to follow the legal provisions otherwise they are subject to prosecution.
Practical difficulties arise in the implementation of the legislative
framework. Employees who are unable to respond properly to the laws and regulations find themselves
in stressful situation.
v) The government is enacting legislation to protect the ecological
environment in the country. Organisations are compelled to adapt to the
legislative framework protecting the ecological environment. Protecting
the ecological balance becomes a cause for potential stress.
vi) Government Administration is composed of the administrative
machinery and institutions that enforce the laws, regulations, policies
and other government instructions. The bureaucratic practices of the
administrative machinery can create stress in the executives.
vii) Social, cultural and ethical environment can bring stress in the
individuals. Social factors influence the life styles of employees.
Certain social security measures such as health protection, civic
facilities and social groups reduce stress in the employees. Certain
sociological variables such as race, sex, social class, gender etc., and
cultural factors such as beliefs, customs and traditions cause potential stress.

Certain other environmental factors that result in stress in recent times are stock market crashes, frequent
elections, down sizing, information technology and the related changes in the business. Career oriented
couples, racial and gender discriminations, health hazards due to pollution and imbalance in the natural
environment etc. are contributing to stress

CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS

An individual experiences stress through psychological emotions and is disseminated through

physiological breakdown or biological changes. However stress is not negative always. Stress has also
positive consequences. The positive form of stress is known as eustress. The word taken from Greek
language means good stress. Mild stress elevates body metabolic and biological rates. The increase in
the metabolism leads to secretion of juices from body glands that will increase the inner drive for
achievement. Achievement motivation comes from deep intention, mild tensions, inner urge, fire and
feeling of restlessness to achieve objectives. Stress helps in the development of people too. In its mild
form it enhances job performance, leads to excellence and provides impetus to work hard and perform
better. Individuals involved in the discharge of professional oriented jobs, jobs involving creativity,
challenge, interpersonal communications and certain managerial jobs, will be benefited by stress, which
leads to positive performances. However, jobs involving physical effort do not get benefit out of stress.
As indicated above mild levels of stress increases job performance. It stimulates body and increases
reactivity. Thus, individuals perform tasks better and in a rapid way. Inverted-U relationship illustrates
this phenomenon. Some positive consequences are: increased productivity, positive response to target,
development of proper perception in the decision making, increased motivation and performance,
increased adaptability to change and increased quality of job performance. For instance, employee
experiencing a moderate stress of repetitiveness on the job finds new ways of discharging jobs. Thus,
stress promotes creativity in the employees. However, in the modern organisations the negative
consequences of stress are creating more problems. As pointed out by Schuler, Khan and Byosiyere,
stress leads to high blood pressure, ulcer, cancer, accident proneness and irritation. Though there is no
perfect association between stress and its consequences, stress itself demonstrates into physiological,
psychological, behavioural, job and organisational consequences. The positive and negative
consequences are discussed below:

Physiological Consequences: Stress influences the biological system of the human being. Certain visible
forms of stress are increased blood pressure, proneness to heart disease, cancer, sweating, dry mouth,
hot and cold flashes, frustration, anxiety, depression, increased level of cholesterol, ulcer, arthritis etc.
Physical stress increases the body metabolic rate. This results into malfunctioning of internal gland and
consequently the body disorder. This is felt in the form of increasing heart beating, increase in breathing
rate and headache. This creates biological illness. The physical stress also creates psychological
problems. In fact, physical stress and physiological disorders are interrelated. However, physical
disorders and stress always need not associate positively. This is because of complexity of symptoms of
physical stress and lack of objective measurement of impact of stress on bodily disorders.

Psychological Consequences: Psychological consequences are interrelated to biological consequences.

They are invisible, but affect the employees’ job performance. Psychological stress creates a pressure on
human brain. This is expressed in terms of certain psychological symptoms such as anger, anxiety,
depression, nervousness, irritation, tension, boredom, aggressiveness, moodiness, hostility and poor
concentration. Tensions, anxiety, and emotions lead to procrastination. Psychological stress produces
interpersonal aggressions, misunderstanding in communication, poor interpersonal communication and
low interpersonal attraction. This is demonstrated through aggressive actions like sabotage, increased
interpersonal complaints, poor job performance, lowered self-esteem, increased resentment, low
concentration on the job and increased dissatisfaction. Psychological stress produces harshness in the
behaviour and may lead to assumption of authoritarian leadership style by the superior executive

Behavioural Consequences: Stress has an impact on employee’s behaviour. An abnormal behaviour is

observed in those individuals who are prone to stress. A change in eating habits, sleep disorder,
increased smoking, alcoholism, fidgeting and aloofness are some of the behavioural changes observed in
stressful employees. Sometimes stress leads to anxiety, apathy, depression and emotional disorder. This
leads to impulsive and aggressive behaviour and frequent interpersonal conflicts. Under eating,
overeating, drug abuse and sleeplessness are some of the behavioural consequences. The following are
some propositions relating to stress and behaviour:

i) Perception: Stressful individuals develop tension and anxiety. As a result, their level of understanding
considerably decreases. When perceptual distortions occur in the employees, it may adversely affect
decision making process, interpersonal understanding, interpersonal communication and capacity to
work with groups. They become stress intolerable. All these lead to increased levels of interpersonal
conflicts.

ii) Attitudes: Continued stressful environment creates certain permanent negative impressions in the
mind of the employees. These permanent impressions adversely influence their work performance. For
example, an employee developing a negative attitude on work, superior, working conditions,
organisational climate and culture intentionally decreases his output. He also becomes demoralised and
the motivation level decreases.

iii) Learning : Employees in organisations continuously learn new skills and techniques. Learning new
methods and techniques to adapt themselves and discharge their jobs effectively is inevitable to
employees. Stressful employees can not learn the things quickly
Organisational Consequences : Stress has negative impact on the performance of the job. Organisations
face the problems of poor performance and other negative consequences. Some of them are described
below:

i) Absenteeism: Employees subject to stress were found to addict to drugs and alcohol. Thus, they
abstain from the jobs frequently. This creates discontinuity in the jobs and adversely effect performance
of other employees.

ii) Turnover: Turnover and stress have shown some relationships. An employee experiencing continued
stress develops disgust and frustration. Therefore, they are likely to change their jobs

iii) Decision-Making: Excessive stress distorts perception of managers. This adversely effects their
capacity to take decision. Thus, stressful executives become irrational in the decision making. This leads
to loss of organisational resources and reputation

iv) Disturbed Customer Relationships: Employees experiencing excessive stress develop irritation,
looses emotional stability and emotional tolerance. Intolerance impels them to pick up conflicts easily
due to misunderstandings. Employees dealing with the customers and the public disturb relationship
due to their inpatient behaviour. For instance sales persons, bank employees, public relation executives
are required to be more emotionally stable. Otherwise, customers dealing with them will have trouble in
dealing with the company. This also creates poor impression on the corporate image of the organization

The consequences of stress are multifaceted. Stress has a vicious circle. Most of the consequences of the
stress are interdependent. One has roots into the other. For instance, psychological consequences result
in physiological disorders, the later will produce behavioural consequences and ultimately the
organisation suffers from adverse effects. The ill effects of stress are more dangerous. Addiction to
smoking, drinking alcohol, narcotic drugs, perverted sex, atrocities on women and children, criminal
attitude, terrorism and indecent behaviour are some of the social consequences of stress. It is in this
context that stress received more attention of the organisations, psychologists and the medical
practitioners in recent times. A number of strategies exist to overcome stress. Most of them suggest
leading a peaceful, calm and regulated life. Interestingly people overlook their life styles and suffer from
stress. However, stress is not difficult to overcome.

Coping strategies for stress

When we look at stress from organizational point of view, management may not be concerned about the low to moderate
levels of stress experienced by the employees. The reason is, that some functional level of stress is necessary to improve
employee performance. But high levels of stress and sustained low levels of stress are a cause of action by the
management. But when we look at stress from individual's point of view even the low levels of stres s are perceived to be
undesirable. Keeping this in mind we can discuss the individual and organizational approaches towards managing stress.
Before discussing these approaches, we must keep in mind two points :

(i) Firstly, we must not make any generalization. Each of us have different limits, different optimum stress levels and will
perceive the sources of stress differently. One person's overstress may be another person's challenge and optimum stress.
 (ii) Secondly, we need to differentiate between what we can do to equip ourselves and to organise our environment to
prevent us from becoming over or under stressed. We label this as Prevention. Yet, however, well, we prepare ourselves
and try to control our environment from time to time, we will still experience undesirable stress. It is then that we need to
have developed Management Skills.

Now we discuss the individual's and organizational approaches to managing stress.

Individual approaches

As we know that stress has got a number of negative consequences for the individuals, that is why every individual should
take personal responsibility for reducing his or her stress level. There are a number of ways by which a person can either
avoid stressful conditions, change them or learn to cope with them. Stress can be managed by an individual, which will
enable him to regain control over his life. Some of the stress reducing strategies from individual's point of new are :

1. Knowledge About Stress : in the first stage, an individual should become knowledgeable about stress. He should
know about the process and effects of stress. He must find out the major sources of his stress. He must anticipate stressful
periods and plan accordingly in advance. He must be honest with himself and decide what he can cope with what h e cannot.

2. Physiological Fitness : Exercise in any form can help people in coping with the stress. Non competitive physical
exercise such as aerobics, walking, jogging, swimming, riding a bicycle, playing softball or tennis have been recommended
by physicans as a way to deal with excessive stress levels. There is evidence to suggest that individuals who exercise are
much less likely to suffer from certain types of stress related exercises. With proper exercise, diet control and nonsmoking
habits, blood pressure and cholesterol become controlled and the body becomes more resistant to pressures. People are
more likely to get physically sick or emotionally depressed if they are over weight or poorly nourished.

3. Time Management : Most of the people are very poor in managing the time. They do not know that what must be done
and when it would be desirable to do so. The result of poor time management is feeling of work overload, skipped schedules
and tension. A well organized person can often accomplish twice as much as the person who is poorly organized. Therefore,
an individual must understand how to manage his time so that he can cope with tensions created by job demands. A few of
the well known time management principles are :

(i) Preparing a daily list of activities to be attended to.

(ii) Prioritizing activities by importance and urgency.

(iii) Scheduling activities according to the priorities set.

(iv) Knowing your daily schedule and handling the most demanding parts of a job when you are most alert and productive.

4. Assertiveness : An individual should become assertive. He should not say 'Yes' when he wants to say 'No'. He should
start saying No to people or managers who demand too much of his time. Being assertive is an important factor in reducing
stress.

5. Social Support Network : Every person should have people to turn to, talk to and rely upon. Good friends become
highly supportive during times of stress and crisis. Social network includes friends, family or work colleagues. Expanding
your social support system can be a means for tension reduction because friends are there when needed and provide
support to get the person through stressful situation.

6. Readjust life Goals : Every individual must know what he really wants to do. This should relate to not only the major
decision of the life but to all activities in our life. He must know what is important for his. Because of the severe competition
in life to go ahead, most individuals set very high standards and goals for themselves. These high expectati ons and limited
resources to reach such expectations result in stress. Accordingly, every person must readjust his goals and make sure he
has ability and resources to reach such goals. Perhaps the goals should be established after the resources have been
analysed.

7. Relaxation Techniques : Every individual must teach himself to reduce tension through relaxation techniques such as
Yoga, mediation, hypnosis and biofeedback. 15-20 minutes a day of deep relaxation releases tension and provides a person
with pronounced sense of peacefulness. Deep relaxation condition will bring significant changes in heart rate, blood
pressure and other physiological factors. Yoga is probably the most effective remedy for stress. Studies have revealed that
Yoga has cured several stress related diseases.

8. Plan Your Life in Advance : So many times, people create situations which induce stress because they either did not
plan or did a bad job of planning. The traditional Indian attitude of "Whatever will be, will be" a way of accepting the
unexpected difficulties in life. This attitude may be relevant in those situations over which we do not have any control like
death in the family, but for other events in life, it is better to plan in advance, so that we can confront them with confidence
when they occur.