Intraocular pressure

Harry Murgatroyd BSc MB ChB (Hons)

Jane Bembridge MB ChB (Hons) FRCA

Key points The tissue pressure of the intraocular contents eye. This will compensate to some degree for an
is called the intraocular pressure (IOP). The increase in pressure due to expansion of other
Intraocular pressure (IOP)
normal range for IOP is 10–20 mm Hg and is orbital elements; however, this may take as long
is normally regulated by
maintained at this level throughout life and as 15–30 min to occur. The vitreous humour in

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/8/3/100/293369 by guest on 16 May 2021

changes in the volume of
the aqueous humour. between the sexes, though there is some diurnal the posterior chamber has a relatively fixed
and seasonal variation. Control of IOP within volume and is not involved in IOP regulation.
Acute increases in IOP are
the correct physiological range is necessary to
caused by increases in
episcleral venous pressure, maintain the anatomical conditions necessary
determined by CVP. for optimal refraction and thus vision.
The importance of IOP for anaesthetists is Aqueous humour dynamics
Avoidance of coughing,
that: Aqueous humour is produced in the ciliary
straining and vomiting is
important in preventing (i) patients with acutely or chronically raised bodies to supply oxygen and glucose to the
acute increases in IOP. IOP may present for corrective surgery; avascular lens and cornea. Production is
Prevention of the (ii) patients with chronically raised IOP predominantly by active secretion mechanisms
hypertensive response to present for non-ophthalmic surgery; (80%); the NaþKþATPase enzyme creating an
intubation and extubation is (iii) patients present with open globes follow- osmotic gradient for the passage of water
important if control of IOP ing penetrating eye injuries; into the posterior chamber. This pathway is
is required. (iv) several drugs and procedures used in independent of IOP, though production may be
Acetazolamide can be used anaesthesia affect the IOP. reduced by a fall in the blood flow to the
to reduce an acutely raised ciliary body. A more minor pathway for
IOP. An acutely raised IOP may cause expulsion of humour production (20%) is through ultrafiltra-
the global contents through a surgical or trau- tion of the plasma. The rate of filtration is influ-
matic opening, or may lead to retinal artery enced by the blood pressure in the ciliary body
occlusion and retinal ischaemia. In the chronic capillaries, plasma oncotic pressure and IOP.
setting, raised IOP may cause nerve damage at The aqueous humour produced flows from the
the head of the optic nerve leading to visual posterior chamber over the lens surface, through
field loss. This may be due to a direct effect of the iris and into the anterior chamber where it is
the raised pressure upon the nerves, or the effect removed by two mechanisms. The bulk of resorp-
of chronic under-perfusion of the nerve head. tion occurs through the trabecular network and
This article will focus on the factors that canal of Schlemm in the angle between the
determine the level of IOP, its regulation, how cornea and the iris. Aqueous humour passes
acute elevation of IOP can be prevented and its through the progressively smaller pores that make
measurement. The effect of anaesthetic drugs up the trabecular network and through the cells
on the eye and IOP has been discussed pre- lining the wall of the canal. The canal communi-
viously in this journal.1 cates directly with the episcleral veins and
Harry Murgatroyd BSc MB ChB (Hons) absorption through this route is thus dependent
Specialist Registrar in Anaesthesia Determinants of intraocular upon the gradient of the IOP to episcleral venous
Airedale General Hospital Keighley UK pressure pressure. Around 20% of resorption occurs
Jane Bembridge MB ChB (Hons) FRCA through the uveoscleral route, which is the
The orbital globe is essentially a non-compliant
Consultant Anaesthetist reverse of ultrafiltration, relying on the pressure
sphere within a rigid box. Therefore, IOP can
Bradford Royal Infirmary gradient from the anterior chamber (IOP) to the
Duckworth Lane be influenced by a change in volume of the
interstitium of the sclera (Fig. 1).
Bradford BD9 6RJ contents of the orbit or by external pressure
Tel: þ44 (0) 1274364065 The implications of the above are:
(Table 1).
Fax: þ44 (0) 1274366548
E-mail: jane.bembridge@ Normal regulation of IOP occurs chiefly (i) a rise in IOP will be compensated to some
bradfordhospitals.nhs.uk through the regulation of the volume of the degree by an increased rate of aqueous
(for correspondence)
aqueous humour in the anterior chamber of the humour drainage;
doi:10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkn015
100 Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain | Volume 8 Number 3 2008
& The Board of Management and Trustees of the British Journal of Anaesthesia [2008].
All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: [email protected]
 Intraocular pressure

Table 1 Anatomical and pathological features of the orbit

that influence intraocular pressure

Intraglobal
Aqueous humour volume
Blood volume
Foreign bodies
Sulphur hexafluoride or carbon octafluoride bubble
Tumours
Haemorrhage
Vitreous humour volume
Scleral rigidity
Extraglobal
Anaesthetic regional blocks

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/8/3/100/293369 by guest on 16 May 2021

Extraocular compression devices
Honan balloon
Extraocular muscle tone
Scleral strapping (for retinal detachment)
Retrobulbar or peribulbar
Haematoma Fig 2. Factors affecting cerebral blood flow.
Abscess
Tumour
Face mask if the blood pressure is significantly raised, the choriodal vessels
Prone positioning do not have myogenic autoregulation and will dilate in response to
a raised perfusion pressure. Vasodilatation occurs with hypoxae-
mia, hypercarbia, and an increase in metabolic rate. However,
(ii) aqueous humour production is largely constant. When the these effects are small compared with the effect that a raised
capacity of the trabecular drainage system is reduced (e.g. venous pressure has on blood volume. The normal venous pres-
glaucoma) or the episcleral venous pressure is raised (e.g. a sure within the globe is only just above IOP (15 mm Hg), so if
rise in central venous pressure), IOP will rise. episcleral venous pressure outside the globe rises, the pressure
gradient draining the choroidal venous plexuses falls and blood
pools within the orbit.
Blood volume
The blood supply to the vitreous chamber in the posterior section
Foreign bodies
of the eye is formed from the retinal arteries and veins on the
surface of the retina, the choroidal arteries and veins and their Addition of sulphur hexafluoride or carbon octafluoride to the vitr-
chorioplexus lying beneath. A change in the volume of blood in eous chamber following vitreoretinal surgery may increase IOP.
the eyeball would lead to a change in IOP and a pressure wave of Expansion of this gas due to an increase in altitude, a lowering of
1 mm Hg amplitude is seen with arterial pulsation. ambient pressure, or exposure to nitrous oxide (which will diffuse
Several factors affect the blood flow and therefore blood into the bubble faster than inert insoluble gasses will leave it) will
volume of the eye. These are the same factors which affect cer- cause an increase in IOP. Carbon octafluoride may remain in the
ebral blood flow (Fig. 2). Whilst the retinal artery will only dilate globe for 70 days after insertion and there have been numerous
accounts of visual loss following inadvertent use of nitrous oxide
during this period.2 It has been proposed that patients with intra-
ocular gas bubbles should wear a warning bracelet until the
ophthalmologist has confirmed absorption of the bubble.

Other intraglobal masses

Intraorbital and extraorbital bleeds are usually of insufficient
volume to lead to raised IOP. However, debris or blood in
the anterior chamber may lead to a blockage of aqueous humour
drainage and an acute glaucoma.

Extraglobal
Anaesthetic blocks
The introduction of several millilitres of local anaesthetic into the
Fig 1. Production and flow of aqueous humour in the eye. orbit would be expected to lead to a rise in IOP. Indeed, a rise in

Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain j Volume 8 Number 3 2008 101
Intraocular pressure

IOP has been demonstrated following peribulbar anaesthesia.3 Reducing intraocular pressure
However, a reduction in IOP has been shown following sub-Tenon
blocks, possibly due to a reduction in muscle tone.4 Pharmacological treatments to reduce the IOP are shown in
Table 2. Systemic absorption of topical glaucoma medications
such as the sympathomimetic drugs or b-adrenoceptor antagonists
Ocular compression devices can have rapid and profound effects on the cardiovascular system
The role of ocular compression devices such as the Honan balloon due to the lack of first-pass liver metabolism when absorbed via
is contentious. The application of such a device may improve the conjunctiva or nasal mucosa.
surgical conditions by a reduction in chemosis, lid swelling, and If there is an acute elevation of IOP during surgery, detected by
bleeding. It may also aid spread of the local anaesthetic. However, either protrusion of the orbital contents or by palpation of the globe,
the value of the balloon in the reduction of IOP has been questioned the IOP may be rapidly reduced by the use of intravenous acetazola-

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/8/3/100/293369 by guest on 16 May 2021

due to an initial rise in pressure whilst the balloon is in situ.5 mide or possibly mannitol. A head-up tilt, prevention of venous con-
gestion and mild hypocapnia may be used in addition, if appropriate.
Extraocular muscle tone
Contraction of the extraocular muscles leads to an increase in IOP.
This is evidenced by the increase in IOP observed when eye
Effect of general anaesthesia on intraocular
movement is opposed by traction by the surgeon. Forceful contrac-
pressure
tion of the orbicularis oculi can increase IOP to .50 mm Hg; The effect of anaesthetic drugs on IOP has been reviewed in this
even normal blinking increases IOP by 10 mm Hg.6 journal.1 In summary, all induction agents (apart from ketamine)
It has previously been proposed that succinylcholine raises IOP and all inhalational anaesthetic agents reduce IOP. This fall in IOP
by its depolarization and contraction of the extraocular muscles. is independent of their effect on blood pressure, central venous
However, the rise in IOP has been demonstrated experimentally pressure and extraocular muscle tone and is more likely to be a
even when the muscle insertions have been released.7 direct action on central control mechanisms. Opioids have no
direct effect on IOP, but attenuate the elevation in pressure due to
intubation. Non-depolarizing muscle relaxants have a minimal
Avoiding a raised intraocular pressure effect on IOP. Succinylcholine leads to an increase in IOP of up to
Of all the factors detailed, the most important in determining IOP 10 mm Hg for 10 min but, as has been debated frequently, it is
acutely is the episcleral venous pressure, which is determined by also the drug of choice to provide rapid, short acting and ideal
CVP. A raised episcleral venous pressure would lead to vitreous intubation conditions in an emergency situation where there is a
chamber venous engorgement and a reduction in aqueous humour risk of aspiration. The balance of airway risks vs eye risks should
drainage, both of which will raise IOP. Therefore, the use of the be weighed up in each individual case.
reverse Trendelenberg position and the avoidance of venous con- General anaesthesia enables easier manipulation of physiologi-
gestion caused by neck positioning or tube ties around the neck cal factors important in the control of IOP, such as PaO2 and
are important factors in controlling IOP. PaCO2. Anaesthesia for a patient with an open eye should include
Coughing, straining, and vomiting can lead to an increase in consideration of the following factors:
IOP of 30 –40 mm Hg. Laryngoscopy and intubation lead to a rise
(i) a smooth induction with muscle relaxation (as determined by
of 10–20 mm Hg and this may be prevented by avoiding the
the risk of losing the airway);
hypertensive response to intubation and extubation. This may be
achieved by using a laryngeal mask, propofol, deep extubation or
by covering intubation with lidocaine, clonidine, b-blockers or Table 2 Therapeutic intraocular pressure reduction
high-dose opioids. Intravenous
Inadvertent external pressure on the eye is an important and Acetazolamide
Carbonic anhydrase inhibition leads to a reduction in aqueous humour production
largely avoidable cause of postoperative blindness. Prone and
Mannitol
lateral positionings both carry an increased risk, though visual loss Osmotic diuretic dehydrates the vitreous chamber
may be multifactorial in some cases.8 For example, visual loss Topical
Parasympathomimetics
may be due to a combination of ischaemic optic neuropathy
Cholinergic and anticholinesterase medication contract the ciliary body and
caused by hypotension, and raised IOP due to the venous engorge- increase aqueous humour drainage through the trabecular network
ment that both accompany prone positioning. Sympathomimetics
Epinephrine reduces aqueous humour production and increases drainage, possibly
It is worth emphasizing that patients with a chronically raised
through ciliary body vasoconstriction and adenylate cyclase inhibition
IOP due to a reduced capacity for aqueous humour drainage b-adrenoceptor antagonists
(chronic open angle glaucoma) have a reduced capacity to com- Timolol reduces aqueous humour production through adenylate cyclase inhibition
Prostaglandin analogues
pensate for an acute rise and are therefore at an increased risk of
Increase aqueous humour drainage via uveoscleral route
having a marked rise in IOP.

102 Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain j Volume 8 Number 3 2008
 Intraocular pressure

(ii) intubation or LMA placement with care to avoid coughing that, because the application of the weight will lead to an increase in
and the hypertensive response to intubation; IOP, the capacity for a compensatory increase in aqueous humour drai-
(iii) ventilation to control PaO2 and PaCO2; nage can be measured by using a single prolonged measurement.
(iv) head up tilt with no obstruction to venous drainage by the
tube tie;
(v) smooth extubation with consideration of changing an References
endotracheal tube to a LMA prior to reversal to minimize the
1. Raw D, Mostafa SM. Drugs and the eye. Br J Anaesth CEPD Reviews 2001;
risk of coughing; 1: 161– 5
(vi) meticulous avoidance of postoperative nausea and vomiting.
2. Lee EJK. Use of nitrous oxide causing severe visual loss 37 days after
retinal surgery. Br J Anaesth 2004; 93: 464–6

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/8/3/100/293369 by guest on 16 May 2021

3. Bowman R, Liu C, Sarkies N. Intraocular pressure changes after peribul-
Measurement of intraocular pressure bar injections with and without ocular compression. Br J Ophthalmol
1996; 80: 394 –7
The gold standard for measurement of IOP is the Goldmann
4. Alwitry A, Koshy Z, Browning AC, Kiel W, Holden R. The effect of
tonometer. This is an applanation tonometer, measuring the force sub-Tenon’s anaesthesia on intraocular pressure. Eye 2001; 15: 733– 5
necessary to flatten the area of the surface of the cornea. However, 5. Morgan JE, Chandna A. Intraocular pressure after peribulbar anesthesia.
this requires use of a slit lamp, fluorescein dye and topical anaes- Is the Honan balloon necessary? Br J Ophthalmol 1995; 79: 46–9
thesia to the cornea. A portable version is available (Perkins) but 6. Miller D. Pressure of the lid on the eye. Arch Ophthalmol 1967; 78:
more commonly seen is the ‘air-puff’ tonometer. This device 328–30
forces a burst of air onto the cornea until it is flat and reflects an 7. Kelly RE, Dinner M, Turner LS, Haik B, Abramson DH, Davies P.
emitted light beam. No topical anaesthesia is required. Succinylcholine increases intraocular pressure in the human eye with the
extra ocular muscles detached. Anesthesiology 1993; 79: 948–52
An alternative method is indentation tonometry, relying on the
8. Kamming D, Clarke S. Postoperative visual loss following prone spinal
measurement of the indentation of the cornea by a known weight.
surgery. Br J Anaesth 2005; 95: 257–60
However, this is subject to error by variations in the rigidity and thick-
ness of the sclera. An advantage of the use of indentation tonometry is Please see multiple choice questions 18 –21

Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain j Volume 8 Number 3 2008 103