MODULE 1

Chapter 1

Introduction and Fundamental Concepts

Lecture 1:

Definition of Stress

Consider a small area δA on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force
acting on this area is  δF 
This force can be resolved into two perpendicular components

 The component of force acting normal to the area

called normal  force and is denoted by  δFn 

 The component of force acting along the plane of area is

called tangential force and is denoted by δFt

Fig 1.1 Normal and Tangential Forces on a surface

When they are expressed as force per unit area they are called as normal
stress and tangential stress respectively. The tangential stress is also
called shear stress

The normal stress

(1.1)

And shear stress

(1.2)

1
Definition of Fluid

 A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of

tangential or shear stress, irrespective of the   magnitude of
shear stress .This continuous deformation under the application
of shear stress constitutes a flow.

 In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter

that cannot sustain any shear stress.

Example : Consider Fig 1.2

Fig 1.2 Shear stress on a fluid body

If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011'

which is initially at rest, will move to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves
to 044' and continues to move in a similar fashion.

In other words, the tangential stress in a fluid body depends on velocity

of deformation and vanishes as this velocity approaches zero. A good
example is Newton's parallel plate experiment where dependence of
shear force on the velocity of deformation was established.

Fig 1.3 Deformation of a Solid Body

2
Distinction between Solid and Fluid

Solid Fluid

 More Compact Structure   Less Compact Structure 

 Attractive Forces between  Attractive Forces between

the molecules  the molecules 
are larger therefore more are smaller therefore more
closely packed loosely packed

 Solids can resist tangential  Fluids cannot resist

stresses in static condition tangential stresses in static
condition.

 Whenever a solid is  Whenever a fluid is

subjected to shear stress subjected to shear stress

a. It undergoes a a. No fixed deformation

definite
deformationα or
breaks b. Continious
deformation takes
b. α is proportional to
place until the shear
shear stress upto
stress is applied 
some limiting
condition   A fluid can never regain its
original shape, once it has
 Solid may regain partly or
been distorded by the shear
fully its original shape
stress
when the tangential stress
is removed

Concept of Continuum

3
  The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the
continuous description of matter where the properties of the
matter are considered as continuous functions of space
variables. Although any matter is composed of several
molecules, the concept of continuum assumes a continuous
distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of
separate molecules. 

 Describing a fluid flow quantitatively makes it necessary to

assume that flow variables (pressure , velocity etc.) and fluid
properties vary continuously from one point to another.
Mathematical description of flow on this basis have proved to
be reliable and treatment of fluid medium as a continuum
has firmly become established. For example density at a
point is normally defined as

Here Δ  is the volume of the fluid element and m is the mass

 If Δ  is very large ρ is affected by the inhomogeneities in the

fluid medium. Considering another extreme if Δ  is very
small, random movement of atoms (or molecules) would
change their number at different times. In the continuum
approximation point density is defined at the smallest
magnitude of Δ , before statistical fluctuations become
significant. This is called continuum limit and is denoted by
Δ c.

Concept of Continuum - contd from previous slide

 One of the factors considered important in determining the

validity of continuum model is molecular density. It is the
distance between the molecules which is characterized by
mean free path ( λ ). It is calculated by finding statistical
average distance the molecules travel between two
successive collisions. If the mean free path is very small as

4
 compared with some characteristic length in the flow domain
(i.e., the molecular density is very high) then the gas can be
treated as a continuous medium. If the mean free path is
large in comparison to some characteristic length, the gas
cannot be considered continuous and it should be analysed
by the molecular theory. 

 A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen

number, K n = λ / L, where λ is the mean free path and
L is the characteristic length. It describes the degree of
departure from continuum.

Usually when K  n> 0.01, the concept of continuum does not hold good.

Beyond this critical range of Knudsen number, the flows are known as

slip flow (0.01 < K  n < 0.1),

transition flow (0.1 < K  n < 10) and

free-molecule flow (Kn > 10).

However, for the flow regimes considered in this course , K  n  is always

less than 0.01 and it is usual to say that the fluid is a continuum.

Other factor which checks the validity of continuum is the elapsed time
between collisions. The time should be small enough so that the random
statistical description of molecular activity holds good. 

In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal

conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of
space and time.

Fluid Properties:

Characteristics of a continuous fluid which are independent of the

motion of the fluid are called basic properties of the fluid. Some of the
basic properties are as discussed below.

Symbo
Property Definition Unit
l

Density ρ The density p of a fluid is its mass per unit volume kg/m3

5
 . If a fluid element enclosing a pointP has a
volume Δ  and mass Δm (Fig. 1.4), then density
(ρ)at point P is written as

However, in a medium where continuum model is

valid one can write -

(1.3)

   

Fig 1.4 A fluid element enclosing point P

The specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit

volume. The specific weight is given

by     γ= ρg  (1.4)
Specific
γ N/m3
Weight Where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as
weight must be clearly distinguished from mass, so
must the specific weight be distinguished from
density.

6
 The specific volume of a fluid is the volume
occupied by unit mass of fluid.
Specific
v Thus m3/kg
Volume

(1.5)

For liquids, it is the ratio of density of a liquid at

actual conditions to the density of pure water at
101 kN/m2 , and at 4°C.

The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its

Specific
s density to that of either hydrogen or air at some -
Gravity
specified temperature or pressure.

However, there is no general standard; so the

conditions must be stated while referring to the
specific gravity of a gas.

iscosity ( μ ) :

 Viscosity is a fluid property whose effect is understood when the

fluid is in motion.

 In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different

velocities, each element will feel some resistance due to fluid 
friction within the elements.

  Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid

elements with different velocities.

 The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field
was given by Sir Isaac Newton.

Fig 1.5 Parallel flow of a fluid Fig 1.6 Two adjacent layers of a

7
 moving fluid.

Consider a flow (Fig. 1.5) in which all fluid particles are moving in the
same direction in such a way that the fluid layers move parallel with
different velocities.

 The upper layer, which is moving faster, tries to draw the lower
slowly moving layer along with it by means of a force F along the
direction of flow on this layer. Similarly, the lower layer tries to
retard the upper one, according to Newton's third law, with an
equal and opposite force F on it (Figure 1.6).

 Such a fluid flow where x-direction velocities, for example, change

with y-coordinate is called shear flow of the fluid.

 Thus, the dragging effect of one layer on the other is experienced

by a tangential force F on the respective layers. If F acts over an
area of contact A, then the shear stress τ is defined as

τ = F/A

Viscosity ( μ ) :

 Newton postulated that τ is proportional to the quantity Δu/

Δy where Δy  is the distance of separation of the two layers
and Δu  is  the difference in their velocities.

 In the limiting case of , Δu / Δy equals du/dy, the velocity gradient

at a point in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the
motion of the layer.

 According to Newton τ and du/dy bears the relation

(1.7)

where, the constant of proportionality μ is known as the coefficient of

viscosity or simply viscosity which is a property of the fluid and depends
on its state. Sign of τdepends upon the sign of du/dy. For the profile
shown in Fig. 1.5, du/dy is positive everywhere and hence, τ is positive.
Both the velocity and stress are considered positive in the positive
direction of the coordinate parallel to them. 
Equation

8
  

Defining the viscosity of a fluid is known as Newton's law of viscosity.

Common fluids, viz. water, air, mercury obey Newton's law of viscosity
and are known as Newtonian fluids.

Other classes of fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, and blood
do not obey the typical linear relationship, of τ and du/dy and are known
as non-Newtonian fluids. In non-Newtonian fluids viscosity itself may be
a function of deformation rate as you will study in the next lecture.

Causes of Viscosity         

 The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two

factors:

(i) intermolecular force of cohesion

(ii) molecular momentum exchange

 Due to strong cohesive forces between the molecules, any layer in

a moving fluid tries to drag the adjacent layer to move with an
equal speed and thus produces the effect of viscosity as discussed
earlier. Since cohesion decreases with temperature, the liquid
viscosity does likewise.

Fig 1.7 Movement of fluid molecules between two adjacent moving layers

 Molecules from layer aa in course of continuous thermal agitation

migrate into layer bb 

 Momentum from the migrant molecules from layer aa is stored by

molecules of layer bb by way of collision

 Thus layer bb as a whole is speeded up

9
 Molecules from the lower layer bb arrive at aa and tend to retard
the layer aa 

 Every such migration of molecules causes forces of acceleration or

deceleration to drag the layers so as to oppose the differences in
velocity between the layers and produce the effect of viscosity. 

 As the random molecular motion increases with a rise in

temperature, the viscosity also increases accordingly. Except for
very special cases (e.g., at very high pressure) the viscosity of both
liquids and gases ceases to be a function of pressure. 

 For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly

on temperature but varies very little with pressure.

 For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the forces of

cohesion, thus viscosity of liquids decrease with increase in
temperature.

 For gases, molecular motion is more significant than the cohesive

forces, thus viscosity of gases increase with increase in
temperature.

Fig 1.8: Change of Viscosity of Water and Air less than 1 atm

10
No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids

 It has been established through experimental observations that the

relative velocity between the solid surface and the adjacent fluid
particles is zero whenever a viscous fluid flows over a solid surface.
This is known as no-slip condition. 

 This behavior of no-slip at the solid surface is not same as the

wetting of surfaces by the fluids. For example, mercury flowing in a
stationary glass tube will not wet the surface, but will have zero
velocity at the wall of the tube.

 The wetting property results from surface tension, whereas the no-
slip condition is a consequence of fluid viscosity.

11
 Lecture 2
Ideal Fluid

 Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity ( μ = 0). Such

a fluid is called an ideal fluid and the resulting motion is called
as ideal or inviscid flow. In an ideal flow, there is no existence
of shear force because of vanishing viscosity.

 All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they are

termed as real fluid and their motion is known as viscous flow. 

 Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous fluids,

an accurate analysis of flow field away from a solid surface can be
made from the ideal flow theory.

  Non-Newtonian Fluids

 There are certain fluids where the linear relationship between the
shear stress and the deformation rate (velocity gradient in parallel

flow) as expressed by the   is not valid. For these fluids the

viscosity varies with rate of deformation. 

 Due to the deviation from Newton's law of viscosity they are

commonly termed as non-Newtonian fluids. Figure 2.1 shows the
class of fluid for which this relationship is nonlinear.

Figure 2.1   Shear stress and deformation

rate relationship of different fluid
12
  he abscissa in Fig. 2.1 represents the behaviour of ideal fluids
since for the ideal fluids the resistance to shearing deformation
rate is always zero, and hence they exhibit zero shear stress under
any condition of flow.

 The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no deformation

rate under any loading condition.

 The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress
is linearly proportional to velocity gradient or rate of shear
strain  . Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear stress
against velocity gradient is a straight line through the origin. The
slope of the line determines the viscosity. 

 The non-Newtonian fluids are further classified as pseudo-plastic,

dilatant and Bingham plastic.

Classification of non-Newtonian fluids

 Many mathematical models are available to describe the nonlinear

"shear-stress vs deformation-rate" relationship of non Newtonian
fluids. But no general model can describe the constitutive equation
("shear stress vs rate of deformation" relationship) of all kinds of
non-Newtonian fluids. However, the mathematical model for
describing the mechanistic behaviour of a variety of
commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is the Power-Law
model which is also known as Ostwald-de Waele model (the
name is after the scientist who proposed it).According to
Ostwald-de Waele model

 (2.1
)

where m is known as the flow consistency index and n is the flow

behavior index. 
Hence viscosity for the Power-law fluids (as per Power Law model) can be
described as:

(2.2)
μ = 

13
It can be observed from above that the viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid is
function of deformation rate and is often termed as apparent or effective
viscosity.

 When n = 1, m equals   , the model identically satisfies

Newtonian model as a special case. 
When n < 1, the model is valid for pseudoplastic fluids, such as
gelatine, blood, milk etc.

When n > 1, the model is valid for dilatant fluids, such as sugar

in water, aqueous suspension of rice starch etc.

 There are some substances which require a yield stress for the
deformation rate (i.e. the flow) to be established, and hence their
constitutive equations do not pass through the origin
thusviolating the basic definition of a fluid. They are termed
as Bingham plastic. For an ideal Bingham plastic, the shear
stress- deformation rate relationship is linear.

Compressibility

 Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in

volume under the action of external forces.

 The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is

known as hydrostatic pressure p and arises as a result of
innumerable molecular collisions in the entire fluid. 

 The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterized by

the bulk modulus of elasticity E defined as 

(2.3)


Where Δ  and Δp are the changes in the volume and pressure
respectively, and   is the initial volume. The negative sign (-sign) is
included to make E positive, since increase in pressure would
decrease the volume i.e for Δp>0 , Δ <0) in volume.

14
  For a given mass of a substance, the change in its volume and
density satisfies the relation

Dm = 0,    D( ρ  ) = 0   

(2.4)

 
using  

we get

(2.5)

     

 Values of E for liquids are very high as compared with those of

gases (except at very high pressures). Therefore, liquids are usually
termed as incompressible fluids though, in fact, no substance is
theoretically incompressible with a value of E as   .

 For example, the bulk modulus of elasticity for water and air at
atmospheric pressure are approximately 2 x 10 6 kN/m 2 and 101
kN/m 2 respectively. It indicates that air is about 20,000 times
more compressible than water. Hence water can be treated as
incompressible. 

 For gases another characteristic parameter, known as

compressibility K, is usually defined , it is the reciprocal of E

(2.6)

 K is often expressed in terms of specific volume  .

 For any gaseous substance, a change in pressure is generally

associated with a change in volume and a change in temperature
simultaneously. A functional relationship between the pressure, volume and
temperature at any equilibrium state is known as thermodynamic equation of

15
  state for the gas. 

For an ideal gas, the thermodynamic equation of state is given by

p = ρRT (2.7)

 where T is the temperature in absolute thermodynamic or gas

temperature scale (which are, in fact, identical), and R is known
as the characteristic gas constant, the value of which depends
upon a particular gas. However, this equation is also valid for the
real gases which are thermodynamically far from their liquid
phase. For air, the value of R is 287 J/kg K. 

Distinction between an Incompressible and a Compressible Flow

 In order to know, if it is necessary to take into account the

compressibility of gases in fluid flow problems, we need to consider
whether the change in pressure brought about by the fluid motion
causes large change in volume or density.

Using Bernoulli's equation 

p + (1/2)ρV2= constant (V being the velocity of flow), change in

pressure, Δp, in a flow field, is of the order of (1/2)ρV 2 (dynamic
head). 
Invoking this relationship into 

  we get ,  

(2.12)

          
So if Δρ/ρ is very small, the flow of gases can be treated as
incompressible with a good degree of approximation.

 According to Laplace's equation, the velocity of sound is given by 

16
 Hence               

       
where, Ma is the ratio of the velocity of flow to the acoustic velocity
in the flowing medium at the condition and is known as Mach
number. So we can conclude that the compressibility of gas in a
flow can be neglected if Δρ/ρ is considerably smaller than unity,
i.e. (1/2)Ma2<<1.

 In other words, if the flow velocity is small as compared to the local

acoustic velocity, compressibility of gases can be
neglected. Considering a maximum relative change in density of 5
per cent as the criterion of an incompressible flow, the upper limit of
Mach number becomes approximately 0.33. In the case of air at
standard pressure and temperature, the acoustic velocity is about
335.28 m/s. Hence a Mach number of 0.33 corresponds to a
velocity of about 110 m/s. Therefore flow of air up to a velocity of
110 m/s under standard condition can be considered as
incompressible flow.

Surface Tension of Liquids

 The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of

intermolecular forces 

(i) Cohesion : The force of attraction between the molecules of a

liquid by virtue of which they are bound to each other to remain
as one assemblage of particles is known as the force of cohesion.
This property enables the liquid to resist tensile stress.

(ii) Adhesion : The force of attraction between unlike molecules, i.e.

between the molecules of different liquids or between the molecules
of a liquid and those of a solid body when they are in contact with
each other, is known as the force of adhesion. This force enables two
different liquids to adhere to each other or a liquid to adhere to a
solid body or surface.

17
Figure 2.3 The intermolecular cohesive force field in a bulk of liquid
with a free surface A and B experience equal force of cohesion in all
directions, C experiences a net force interior of the liquid The net
force is maximum for D since it is at surface

 Work is done on each molecule arriving at surface against the

action of an inward force. Thus mechanical work is performed in
creating a free surface or in increasing the area of the surface.
Therefore, a surface requires mechanical energy for its formation
and the existence of a free surface implies the presence of stored
mechanical energy known as free surface energy. Any system
tries to attain the condition of stable equilibrium with its
potential energy as minimum. Thus a quantity of liquid will
adjust its shape until its surface area and consequently its free
surface energy is a minimum.

 The magnitude of surface tension is defined as the tensile force

acting across imaginary short and straight elemental line divided
by  the length of the line. 

 The dimensional formula is F/L or MT-2 . It is usually expressed

in N/m in SI units.

 Surface tension is a binary property of the liquid and gas or two

liquids which are in contact with each other and defines
the interface. It decreases slightly with increasing temperature.
The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is about
0.073 N/m. 

18
 It is due to surface tension that a curved liquid interface in
equilibrium results in a greater pressure at the concave side of
the surface than that at its convex side.

Capillarity

 The interplay of the forces of cohesion and adhesion explains the

phenomenon of capillarity. When a liquid is in contact with a   
solid, if the forces of adhesion between the molecules of the liquid
and the solid are greater than the forces of cohesion among the
liquid molecules themselves, the liquid molecules crowd towards
the solid surface. The area of contact between the liquid and solid
increases and the liquid thus wets the solid surface.

 The reverse phenomenon takes place when the force of cohesion is

greater than the force of adhesion. These adhesion and cohesion
properties result in the phenomenon of capillarity by which a
liquid either rises or falls in a tube dipped into the liquid
depending upon whether the force of adhesion is more than that of
cohesion or not (Fig.2.4).

 The angle θ as shown in Fig. 2.4, is the area wetting contact angle
made by the interface with the solid surface.

Fig 2.4   Phenomenon of Capillarity

 For pure water in contact with air in a clean glass tube, the
capillary rise takes place with θ = 0. Mercury causes capillary
19
 depression with an angle of contact of about 130 0 in a clean glass
in contact with air. Since h varies inversely with D as found from

Eq. (  ), an appreciable capillary rise or depression is

observed in tubes of small diameter only.

Vapour pressure

All liquids have a tendency to evaporate when exposed to a gaseous

atmosphere. The rate of evaporation depends upon the molecular energy
of the liquid which in turn depends upon the type of liquid and its
temperature. The vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space
above the liquid, known as vapour pressure. If the space above the liquid
is confined (Fig. 2.5) and the liquid is maintained at constant
temperature, after sufficient time, the confined space above the liquid
will contain vapour molecules to the extent that some of them will be
forced to enter the liquid. Eventually an equilibrium condition will evolve
when the rate at which the number of vapour molecules striking back
the liquid surface and condensing is just equal to the rate at which they
leave from the surface. The space above the liquid then becomes
saturated with vapour. The vapour pressure of a given liquid is a
function of temperature only and is equal to the saturation pressure for
boiling corresponding to that temperature. Hence, the vapour pressure
increases with the increase in temperature. Therefore the phenomenon of
boiling of a liquid is closely related to the vapour pressure.

Figure 2.5 To and fro movement of liquid molecules from an interface

in a confined space as a closed surrounding

20
 In fact, when the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the total
pressure impressed on its surface, the liquid starts boiling. This
concludes that boiling can be achieved either    by raising the
temperature of the liquid, so that its vapour pressure is elevated to the
ambient pressure, or by lowering the pressure of the ambience
(surrounding gas) to the liquid's vapour pressure at the existing
temperature.

Exercise Problems  -  Chapter 1

1. A thin film of liquid flows down an inclined channel. The velocity

distribution in the flow is given by

where, h = depth of flow, α = angle of inclination of the channel to the

horizontal, u = velocity at a depth h below the free surface, ρ = density of
liquid, μ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Calculate the shear stress: (a)
at the bottom of the channel (b) at mid-depth and (c) at the free surface.
The coordinate y is measured from the free surface along its normal

  [(a)   α,   (b)   α ,   (c)

0]    

2. Two discs of 250 mm diameter are placed 1.5 mm apart and the gap is
filled with an oil. A power of 500 W is required to rotate the upper disc at
500 rpm while keeping the lower one stationary. Determine the viscosity
of the oil.

  [ 0. 71 kg/ms]   

3. Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is 100
MPa. Determine the specific weight of sea water at this depth if the
specific weight at the surface is 10 kN/m3 and the average bulk modulus
of elasticity of water is 2.30 GPa. Neglect the variation of g.

  [ 10. 44 kN/m3 ]   

4. The space between two large flat and parallel walls 20 mm apart is
filled with a liquid of absolute viscosity 0.8 Pas. Within this space a thin
flat plate 200 mm × 200mm is towed at a velocity of 200 mm/s at a
distance of 5 mm from one wall. The plate and its movement are parallel
21
to the walls. Assuming a linear velocity distribution between the plate
and the walls, determine the force exerted by the liquid on the plate.

  [1. 71 N]   

5.  What is the approximate capillary rise of water in contact with air
(surface tension 0.073 N/m) in a clean glass tube of 5mm in diameter?

  [ 5.95]

Chapter 2
22
 Fluid Statics
Lecture 3:

Forces on Fluid Elements

Fluid Elements - Definition:

Fluid element can be defined as an infinitesimal region of the fluid

continuum in isolation from its surroundings.

     Two types of forces exist on fluid elements

 Body Force: distributed over the entire mass or volume of the

element. It is usually expressed per unit mass of the element or
medium upon which the forces act.
Example: Gravitational Force, Electromagnetic force fields etc. 

 Surface Force: Forces exerted on the fluid element by its

surroundings through direct contact at the surface.
    Surface force has two components:

 Normal Force: along the normal to the area

 Shear Force: along the plane of the area.

The ratios of these forces and the elemental area in the limit of the area
tending to zero are called the normal and shear stresses respectively.

The sheer force is zero for any fluid element at rest and hence the only
surface force on a fluid element is the normal component.

Normal Stress in a Stationary Fluid

Consider a stationary fluid element of tetrahedral shape with three of its

faces coinciding with the coordinate planes x, y and z.

Since a fluid element at rest can develop neither shear stress nor tensile
stress, the normal stresses acting on different faces are compressive in
nature. Suppose, ΣFx, ΣFy and ΣFz  are the net forces acting on the fluid
element in positive x,y and z directions respectively. The direction
cosines of the normal to the inclined plane of an area ΔA are cos α, cos β
and cos g.

23
 Fig 3.1   State of Stress in a Fluid Element at Rest

Considering gravity as the only source of external body force, acting in

the -ve z direction, the equations of static equlibrium for the
tetrahedronal fluid element can be written as

(3.1)

(3.2)

(3.3)

where    = Volume of tetrahedral fluid element

Pascal's Law of Hydrostatics

Pascal's Law

The normal stresses at any point in a fluid element at rest are directed
towards the point from all directions and they are of the equal
magnitude.

Fig 3.2 State of normal stress at a point in a fluid body at rest

24
Derivation: 
The inclined plane area is related to the fluid elements (refer to Fig
3.1) as follows

    (3.4)

    (3.5)

    (3.6)

Substituting above values in equation 3.1- 3.3 we get

(3.7)

Conclusion:

The state of normal stress at any point in a fluid element at rest is same
and directed towards the point from all directions. These stresses are
denoted by a scalar quantity p defined as the hydrostatic or
thermodynamic pressure. Using "+" sign for the tensile stress the above
equation can be written in terms of pressure as

(3.8)

Fundamental Equation of Fluid Statics

The fundamental equation of fluid statics describes the spatial variation

of hydrostatic pressure p in the continuous mass of a fluid.

Derivation:

Consider a fluid element at rest of given mass with volume V and

bounded by the surface S.

Fig 3.3 External Forces on a Fluid Element at Rest

25
The fluid element stays at equilibrium under the action of the following
two forces

 The Resultant Body Force

: element of volume

(3.9) : mass of the element

: body Force per unit 

                               mass acting on the
elementary volume

 The Resultant Surface Force

  
dA : area of an element of surface
(3.1
   : the unit vector normal to 
0)
     the elemental surface,taken
                         positive when directed outwards
     

Using Gauss divergence theorem, Eq (3.10) can be written as 

(3.11)

 Derivation

We have,

Actually, here p is a tensor (3x3 matrix) and so has 9 components as-

26
However, as there are only normal stresses acting in the fluid on the
body, we have -

(i)

Now, invoking Gauss Divergence Theorem, Equation( 3.10) gives -

In Tensorial form -

Invoke Divergence Theorem =>

Now,

For an orthogonal coordinate system (x1,x2,x3).

For unit vectors 

Relation (i) =>

27
  

And We know,

Further as the fluid is in steady state and equilibrium =>

(say)  

Thus, Relation (i) =>

Hence the relation is derived.

For the fluid element to be in equilibrium, we have

(3.12)

The equation is valid for any volume of the fluid element, no matter how
small, thus we get

(3.13)

Fundamental Fluid Static Equations in Scalar Form

Considering gravity as the only external body force acting on the fluid
element, Eq. (3.13) can be expressed in its scalar components with
respect to a cartesian coordinate system (see Fig. 3.3) as

Xz: the external body force

        (in x direction)        (3.13a) per unit mass in the

28
 positive direction of z
    (in y direction)            (3.13b) (vertically upward), equals
to the negative value of g
(the acceleration due to
    (in z dir.) (3.13c) gravity).

From Eqs (3.13a)-(3.13c), it can be concluded that the pressure p is a

function of z only.

Thus, Eq. (3.13c) can be re-written as,

                    
(3.14

Constant and Variable Density Solution

Constant Density Solution

The explicit functional relationship of hydrostatic pressure p with z can

be obtained by integrating the Eq. (3.14).

For an incompressible fluid, the density r is constant throughout. Hence

the Eq. (3.14) can be integrated and expressed as

(3.15)

where C is the integration constant. 

If we consider an expanse of fluid with a free surface, where the pressure

is defined as p = p0, which is equal to atmospheric pressure.

29
Fig 3.4 Pressure Variation in an Incompressible Fluid at rest with a Free
Surface

Eq. (3.15) can be written as,

(3.16a)

Therefore, Eq. (3.16a) gives the expression of hydrostatic pressure p at a

point whose vertical depression from the free surface is h.

Similarly,

(3.16b
)

Thus, the difference in pressure between two points in an incompressible

fluid at rest can be expressed in terms of the vertical distance between
the points. This result is known as Torricelli's principle, which is the
basis for differential pressure measuring` devices. The pressure p 0 at free
surface is the local atmospheric pressure.

Therefore, it can be stated from Eq. (3.16a), that the pressure at any
point in an expanse of a fluid at rest, with a free surface exceeds that  of
the local atmosphere by an amount ρgh, where h is the vertical depth of
the point from the free surface.

Variable Density Solution: As a more generalized case, for compressible

fluids at rest, the pressure variation at rest depends on how the fluid
density changes with height z and pressure p. For example this can be
done for special cases of "isothermal and non-isothermal fluids"

Isothermal and Non-Isothermal Fluids

Isothermal Fluid (Constant Temperature Solution)

Recap equation (1.7)

The equation of state for a compressible system generally relates its

density to its pressure and temperature. If the fluid is a perfect gas at
rest at constant temperature, it can be written from eq (1.7) that

Since,                                                                  

30
 = constant  

(3.17)

Where po and ro are the pressure and density at some reference

horizontal plane. With the help of Eq. (3.17), Eq. (3.14) becomes,

(3.18)

(3.19)

where z and z0 are the vertical coordinates of the plane concerned for

pressure p and the reference plane respectively from any fixed datum.

Non-isothermal Fluid

The temperature of the atmosphere up to a certain altitude is frequently

assumed to decrease linearly with the altitude z as given by

(3.20)

where T0 is the absolute temperature at sea level and the constant a is
known as lapse rate. For the standard atmosphere, a = 6.5 K/km
and T0= 298 K. With the help of p =rRT and (3.20), the Eq. (3.14) can be
written as,

(3.21)

 Integration of Eq. (3.21) yields

 Hence,

(3.22)

The altitude z in Eq. (3.22) is measured from the sea level where the
pressure is po.

31
Lecture 4:

Units and scales of Pressure Measurement

Pascal (N/m2) is the unit of pressure.

Pressure is usually expressed with reference to either absolute zero

pressure (a complete vacuum)or local atmospheric pressure.

 The absolute pressure: It is the difference between the value of the

pressure and the absolute zero pressure.
                            

 Gauge pressure: It is the diference between the value of the

pressure and the local atmospheric pressure(p atm)

                              

 Vacuum Pressure: If p<patm then the gauge pressure   

becomes negative and is called the vacuum pressure.But one
should always remember that hydrostatic pressure is always
compressive in nature 

Fig 4.1 The Scale of Pressure

At sea-level, the international standard atmosphere has been chosen

as Patm = 101.32 kN/m2

32
Piezometer Tube

The direct proportional relation between gauge pressure and the height h

for a fluid of constant density enables the pressure to be simply

visualized in terms of the vertical height, . 
The height h is termed as pressure head corresponding to pressure p.
For a liquid without a free surface in a closed pipe, the pressure
head   at a point corresponds to the vertical height above the point
to which a free surface would rise, if a small tube of sufficient length and
open to atmosphere is connected to the pipe

Fig 4.2 A piezometer Tube

Such a tube is called a piezometer tube, and the height h is the measure
of the gauge pressure of the fluid in the pipe. If such a piezometer tube of
sufficient length were closed at the top and the space above the liquid
surface were a perfect vacuum, the height of the column would then
correspond to the absolute pressure of the liquid at the base. This
principle is used in the well known mercury barometer to determine the
local atmospheric pressure.

The Barometer

Barometer is used to determine the local atmospheric pressure. Mercury

is employed in the barometer because its density is sufficiently high for a
relative short column to be obtained and also because it has very small
vapour pressure at normal temperature.

33
 Fig 4.3   A Simple Barometer

High density scales down the pressure head (h) to represent same
magnitude of pressure in a tube of smaller height.Even if the air is
completely absent, a perfect vacuum at the top of the tube is never
possible. The space would be occupied by the mercury vapour and the
pressure would equal to the vapour pressure of mercury at its existing
temperature. This almost vacuum condition above the mercury in the
barometer is known as Torricellian vacuum.

The pressure at A equal to that at B (Fig. 4.3) which is the atmospheric

pressure patm since A and B lie on the same horizontal plane. Therefore,
we can write

(4.1)

The vapour pressure of mercury pv, can normally be neglected in

comparison to patm.
At 20 C,Pv is only 0.16 patm, where patm =1.0132 X10  Pa at sea level. Then
0 5

we get from Eq. (4.1)

For accuracy, small corrections are necessary to allow for the variation
of r with temperature, the thermal expansion of the scale (usually made
of brass). and surface tension effects. If water was used instead of
mercury, the corresponding height of the column would be about 10.4 m
provided that a perfect vacuum could be achieved above the water.
However, the vapour pressure of water at ordinary temperature is
appreciable and so the actual height at, say, 15°C would be about 180
mm less than this value. Moreover, with a tube smaller in diameter than
about 15 mm, surface tension effects become significant

Manometers for measuring Gauge and Vacuum Pressure

Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to

measure the difference in pressure between two points or between a
certain point and the atmosphere.

34
Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is basically
the modified form of the piezometric tube. A common type manometer is
like a transparent "U-tube" as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig 4.4 A simple manometer to Fig 4.5 A simple manometer to

measure gauge pressure measure vacuum pressure

One of the ends is connected to a pipe or a container having a fluid (A)

whose pressure is to be measured while the other end is open to
atmosphere. The lower part of the U-tube contains a liquid immiscible
with the fluid A and is of greater density than that of A. This fluid is
called the manometric fluid. The pressures at two points P and Q (Fig.
4.4) in a horizontal plane within the continuous expanse of same fluid
(the liquid B in this case) must be equal. Then equating the pressures
at P and Q in terms of the heights of the fluids above those points, with
the aid of the fundamental equation of hydrostatics (Eq 3.16), we have

Hence,

where p1 is the absolute pressure of the fluid A in the pipe or container

at its centre line, and patm  is the local atmospheric pressure. When the
pressure of the fluid in the container is lower than the atmospheric
pressure, the liquid levels in the manometer would be adjusted as shown
in Fig. 4.5. Hence it becomes,

35
  

(4.2)

Manometers to measure Pressure Difference

A manometer is also frequently used to measure the pressure difference,

in course of flow, across a restriction in a horizontal pipe.

Fig 4.6     Manometer measuring pressure difference

The axis of each connecting tube at A and B should be perpendicular to

the direction of flow and also for the edges of the connections to be
smooth. Applying the principle of hydrostatics at P and Q we have,

(4.3)

where, ρ  m is the density of manometric fluid and ρ w is the density of the
working fluid flowing through the pipe. 

We can express the difference of pressure in terms of the difference of

heads (height of the working fluid at equilibrium).

(4.4)

 Inclined Tube Manometer

36
  For accurate measurement of small pressure differences by an
ordinary u-tube manometer, it is essential that the
ratio rm/rw should be close to unity. This is not possible if the
working fluid is a gas; also having a manometric liquid of density
very close to that of the working liquid and giving at the same time
a well defined meniscus at the interface is not always possible. For
this purpose, an inclined tube manometer is used. 

 If the transparent tube of a manometer, instead of being vertical, is

set at an angle θ to the horizontal (Fig. 4.7), then a pressure
difference corresponding to a vertical difference of levels x gives a
movement of the meniscus s = x/sinq along the slope.

Fig 4.7   An Inclined Tube Manometer

 If θ is small, a considerable magnification of the movement of the

meniscus may be achieved.

 Angles less than 50 are not usually satisfactory, because it

becomes difficult to determine the exact position of the meniscus.

 One limb is usually made very much greater in cross-section than

the other. When a pressure difference is applied across the
manometer, the movement of the liquid surface in the wider limb is
practically negligible compared to that occurring in the narrower
limb. If the level of the surface in the wider limb is assumed
constant, the displacement of the meniscus in the narrower limb
needs only to be measured, and therefore only this limb is required
to be transparent.

Inverted Tube Manometer

37
For the measurement of small pressure differences in liquids, an inverted
U-tube manometer is used.

Fig 4.8 An Inverted Tube Manometer

Here   and the line PQ is taken at the level of the higher meniscus
to equate the pressures at P and Q from the principle of hydrostatics. It
may be written that

where   represents the piezometric pressure,   (z being the

vertical height of the point concerned from any reference datum). In case
of a horizontal pipe (z1= z2) the difference in piezometric pressure
becomes equal to the difference in the static pressure. If   is
sufficiently small, a large value of x may be obtained for a small value

of  . Air is used as the manometric fluid. Therefore,   is negligible

compared with   and hence,

(4.5)

Air may be pumped through a valve V at the top of the manometer until
the liquid menisci are at a suitable level.

Micromanometer

When an additional gauge liquid is used in a U-tube manometer, a large

difference in meniscus levels may be obtained for a very small pressure
difference.

38
 Fig 4.9     A Micromanometer

The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium at PQ can be written as

where   and   are the densities of working fluid, gauge liquid and
manometric liquid respectively. 
From continuity of gauge liquid,

(4.6)

(4.7)

If a is very small compared to A

(4.8)

With a suitable choice for the manometric and gauge liquids so that their
densities are close   a reasonable value of y may be achieved for
a small pressure difference.

39
Lecture 5

Hydrostatic Thrusts on Submerged Plane Surface

Due to the existence of hydrostatic pressure in a fluid mass, a normal

force is exerted on any part of a solid surface which is in contact with a
fluid. The individual forces distributed over an area give rise to a
resultant force.

Plane Surfaces

Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape wholly submerged in a liquid

so that the plane of the surface makes an angle θ with the free surface of
the liquid. We will assume the case where the surface shown in the
figure below is subjected to hydrostatic pressure on one side and
atmospheric pressure on the other side.

Fig 5.1   Hydrostatic Thrust on Submerged Inclined Plane Surface

Let p denotes the gauge pressure on an elemental area dA. The resultant
force F on the area A is therefore

(5.1)

According to Eq (3.16a) Eq (5.1) reduces to

(5.2)

Where h is the vertical depth of the elemental area dA from the free
surface and the distance y is measured from the x-axis, the line of

40
intersection between the extension of the inclined plane and the free
surface (Fig. 5.1). The ordinate of the centre of area of the plane surface
A is defined as

(5.3)

 Hence from Eqs (5.2) and (5.3), we get

(5.4)

where   is the vertical depth (from free surface) of centre c of

area .

Equation (5.4) implies that the hydrostatic thrust on an inclined plane is

equal to the pressure at its centroid times the total area of the surface,
i.e., the force that would have been experienced by the surface if placed
horizontally at a depth hc from the free surface (Fig. 5.2).

Fig 5.2   Hydrostatic Thrust on Submerged Horizontal Plane Surface

The point of action of the resultant force on the plane surface is called

the centre of pressure  . Let   and   be the distances of the centre
of pressure from the y and x axes respectively. Equating the moment of
the resultant force about the x axis to the summation of the moments of
the component forces, we have

(5.5)

Solving for yp from Eq. (5.5) and replacing F from Eq. (5.2), we can write

41
 (5.6)

In the same manner, the x coordinate of the centre of pressure can be

obtained by taking moment about the y-axis. Therefore,

From which,

(5.7)

The two double integrals in the numerators of Eqs (5.6) and (5.7) are the
moment of inertia about the x-axis I xxand the product of inertia  Ixy about
x and y axis of the plane area respectively. By applying the theorem of
parallel axis

(5.8)

(5.9)

where,   and   are the moment of inertia and the product of inertia
of the surface about the centroidal axes  , and   are the
coordinates of the center c of the area with respect to x-y axes.

With the help of Eqs (5.8), (5.9) and (5.3), Eqs (5.6) and (5.7) can be
written as

(5.10a)

(5.10b
)

The first term on the right hand side of the Eq. (5.10a) is always positive.
Hence, the centre of pressure is always at a higher depth from the free
surface than that at which the centre of area lies. This is obvious

42
because of the typical variation of hydrostatic pressure with the depth
from the free surface. When the plane area is symmetrical about the y'

axis,  , and  .

Hydrostatic Thrusts on Submerged Curved Surfaces

On a curved surface, the direction of the normal changes from point to

point, and hence the pressure forces on individual elemental surfaces
differ in their directions. Therefore, a scalar summation of them cannot
be made. Instead, the resultant thrusts in certain directions are to be
determined and these forces may then be combined vectorially. An
arbitrary submerged curved surface is shown in Fig. 5.3. A rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system is introduced whose xy plane coincides with
the free surface of the liquid and z-axis is directed downward below the x
- y plane.

Fig 5.3   Hydrostatic thrust on a Submerged Curved Surface

Consider an elemental area dA at a depth z from the surface of the liquid.

The hydrostatic force on the elemental area dA is

(5.11)

and the force acts in a direction normal to the area dA. The components
of the force dF in x, y and z directions are

(5.12a)

(5.12b

43
 )

(5.13c)

Where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the normal to dA. The
components of the surface element dA projected on yz, xz and xy planes
are, respectively

(5.13a)

(5.13b
)

(5.13c)

Substituting Eqs (5.13a-5.13c) into (5.12) we can write

(5.14a)

(5.14b
)

(5.14c)

Therefore, the components of the total hydrostatic force along the

coordinate axes are

(5.15a)

(5.15b
)

(5.15c)

where zc is the z coordinate of the centroid of area Ax and Ay (the

projected areas of curved surface on yz and xz plane respectively).
If zp and yp are taken to be the coordinates of the point of action of Fx on
the projected area Ax on yz plane, , we can write

(5.16a)

44
 (5.16b
)

where Iyy is the moment of inertia of area Ax about y-axis and Iyz is the

product of inertia of Ax with respect to axes y and z. In the similar
fashion, zp' and x p' the coordinates of the point of action of the
force Fy on area Ay, can be written as

(5.17a)

(5.17b
)

where Ixx is the moment of inertia of area Ay about x axis and Ixz is the

product of inertia of Ay about the axes x and z.

We can conclude from Eqs (5.15), (5.16) and (5.17) that for a curved
surface, the component of hydrostatic force in a horizontal direction is
equal to the hydrostatic force on the projected plane surface
perpendicular to that direction and acts through the centre of pressure of
the projected area. From Eq. (5.15c), the vertical component of the
hydrostatic force on the curved surface can be written as

(5.18)

 where   is the volume of the body of liquid within the region extending
vertically above the submerged surface to the free surface of the liquid.
Therefore, the vertical component of hydrostatic force on a submerged
curved surface is equal to the weight of the liquid volume vertically above
the solid surface of the liquid and acts through the center of gravity of
the liquid in that volume

Buoyancy

 When a body is either wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, a lift

is generated due to the net vertical component of hydrostatic
pressure forces experienced by the body.

 This lift is called the buoyant force and the phenomenon is

called buoyancy

45
  Consider a solid body of arbitrary shape completely submerged in
a homogeneous liquid as shown in Fig. 5.4. Hydrostatic pressure
forces act on the entire surface of the body.

Fig 5.4     Buoyant Force on a Submerged Body

To calculate the vertical component of the resultant hydrostatic force, the

body is considered to be divided into a number of elementary vertical
prisms. The vertical forces acting on the two ends of such a prism of
cross-section dAz (Fig. 5.4) are respectively

(5.19a)

(5.19b
)

Therefore, the buoyant force (the net vertically upward force) acting on
the elemental prism of volume   is -

46
 (5.19c)

Hence the buoyant force FB on the entire submerged body is obtained as

(5.20)

Where   is the total volume of the submerged body. The line of action
of the force FB can be found by taking moment of the force with respect
to z-axis. Thus

(5.21)

Substituting for dFB and FB from Eqs (5.19c) and (5.20) respectively into
Eq. (5.21), the x coordinate of the center of the buoyancy is obtained
as 

(5.22)

which is the centroid of the displaced volume. It is found from Eq.

(5.20) that the buoyant force F B equals to the weight of liquid displaced
by the submerged body of volume  . This phenomenon was discovered by
Archimedes and is known as the Archimedes principle.

ARCHIMEDES   PRINCIPLE

The buoyant force on a submerged body

 The Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force on a

submerged body is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the
body, and acts vertically upward through the centroid of the
displaced volume.

 Thus the net weight of the submerged body, (the net vertical
downward force experienced by it) is reduced from its actual weight
by an amount that equals the buoyant force.

The buoyant force on a partially immersed body

 According to Archimedes principle, the buoyant force of a partially

immersed body is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.

 Therefore the buoyant force depends upon the density of the fluid
and the submerged volume of the body.

47
   For a floating body in static equilibrium and in the absence of any

other external force, the buoyant force must balance the weight of
the body.

Stability of Unconstrained Submerged Bodies in Fluid

 The equilibrium of a body submerged in a liquid requires that the

weight of the body acting through its cetre of gravity should be
colinear with an equal hydrostatic lift acting through the centre of
buoyancy.

  In general, if the body is not homogeneous in its distribution of

mass over the entire volume, the location of centre of gravity G
does not coincide with the centre of volume, i.e., the centre of
buoyancy B.

 Depending upon the relative locations of G and B, a floating or

submerged body attains three different states of equilibrium-

Let us suppose that a body is given a small angular displacement and

then released. Then it will be said to be in

 Stable Equilibrium: If the body  returns to its original

position by retaining the originally vertical axis as vertical. 

 Unstable Equilibrium: If the body does not return to its original

position but moves further from it.

 Neutral Equilibrium: If the body  neither returns to its original

position nor increases its displacement further, it will simply
adopt its new position.

Stable Equilibrium

Consider a submerged body in equilibrium whose centre of gravity is

located below the centre of buoyancy (Fig. 5.5a). If the body is tilted
slightly in any direction, the buoyant force and the weight always
produce a restoring couple trying to return the body to its original
position (Fig. 5.5b, 5.5c).

48
 Fig 5.5    A Submerged body in Stable Equilibrium

Unstable Equilibrium

On the other hand, if point G is above point B (Fig. 5.6a), any

disturbance from the equilibrium position will create a destroying couple
which will turn the body away from its original position (5.6b, 5.6c).

Fig 5.6    A Submerged body in Unstable Equilibrium

Neutral Equilibrium

When the centre of gravity G and centre of buoyancy B coincides, the

body will always assume the same position in which it is placed (Fig 5.7)
and hence it is in neutral equilibrium.

49
 Fig 5.7    A Submerged body in Neutral Equilibrium

Therefore, it can be concluded that a submerged body will be in stable,

unstable or neutral equilibrium if its centre of gravity is below,
above or coincident with the center of buoyancy respectively (Fig.
5.8).

Fig 5.8   States of Equilibrium of a Submerged Body a) stable

equilibrium    (b) unstable equilibrium      (c) neutral equilibrium

Stability of Floating Bodies in Fluid

 When the body undergoes an angular displacement about a

horizontal axis, the shape of the immersed volume changes and so
the centre of buoyancy moves relative to the body.

  As a result of above observation stable equlibrium can be

achieved, under certain condition, even when G is above B. 
Figure 5.9a illustrates a floating body -a boat, for example, in its
equilibrium position.

Fig 5.9     A Floating body in Stable equilibrium

Important points to note here are

a. The force of buoyancy FB is equal to the weight of the body W

50
 b. Centre of gravity G is above the centre of buoyancy in the same
vertical line.

c. Figure 5.9b shows the situation after the body has undergone a
small angular displacement q with respect to the vertical axis.

d. The centre of gravity G remains unchanged relative to the body

(This is not always true for ships where some of the cargo may
shift during an angular displacement).

e. During the movement, the volume immersed on the right hand

side increases while that on the left hand side decreases. Therefore
the centre of buoyancy moves towards the right to its new position
B'.

Let the new line of action of the buoyant force (which is always

vertical) through B' intersects the axis BG (the old vertical line
containing the centre of gravity G and the old centre of buoyancy B) at M.
For small values of q the point M is practically constant in position and
is known as metacentre. For the body shown in Fig. 5.9, M is above G,
and the couple acting on the body in its displaced position is a restoring
couple which tends to turn the body to its original position. If M were
below G, the couple would be an overturning couple and the original
equilibrium would have been unstable. When M coincides with G, the
body will assume its new position without any further movement and
thus will be in neutral equilibrium. Therefore, for a floating body, the
stability is determined not simply by the relative position of B and
G, rather by the relative position of M and G. The distance of
metacentre above G along the line BG is known as metacentric height
GM which can be written as

GM = BM -BG

Hence the condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be

expressed in terms of metacentric height as follows: 

GM > 0 (M is above G)                                      Stable equilibrium 

GM = 0 (M coinciding with G)                          Neutral equilibrium 
GM < 0 (M is below G)                                      Unstable equilibrium 

51
The angular displacement of a boat or ship about its longitudinal axis is
known as 'rolling' while that about its transverse axis is known
as "pitching".

Floating Bodies Containing Liquid

If a floating body carrying liquid with a free surface undergoes an

angular displacement, the liquid will also move to keep its free surface
horizontal. Thus not only does the centre of buoyancy B move, but also
the centre of gravity G of the floating body and its contents move  in the
same direction as the movement of B. Hence the stability of the body is
reduced. For this reason, liquid which has to be carried in a  ship is put
into a number of separate compartments so as to minimize its movement
within the ship.

Period of Oscillation

The restoring couple caused by the buoyant force and gravity force acting
on a floating body displaced from its equilibrium placed from its
equilibrium position is   (Fig. 5.9 ). Since the torque equals to
mass moment of inertia (i.e., second moment of mass) multiplied by
angular acceleration, it can be written

(5.23)

Where IM represents the mass moment of inertia of the body about its
axis of rotation. The minus sign in the RHS of Eq. (5.23) arises since the
torque is a retarding one and decreases the angular acceleration. If θ is
small, sin θ=θ and hence Eq. (5.23) can be written as

(5.24)
 

Equation (5.24) represents a simple harmonic motion. The time period

(i.e., the time of a complete oscillation from one side to the other and

back again) equals to  . The oscillation of the body results

in a flow of the liquid around it and this flow has been disregarded here.
In practice, of course, viscosity in the liquid introduces a damping action

52
 which quickly suppresses the oscillation unless further disturbances
such as waves cause new angular displacements.

Exercise Problems - Chapter 2

1. For the system shown in Fig 5.10,determine the air pressure p A which
will make the pressure at N one fourth of that at M.

  [3.33 kPa]   

Fig 5.10

2. Consider the pipe and manometer system as shown in Fig 5.11. The
pipe contains water. Find the value of manometer reading h, and the
difference in pressure between A and B if there is no flow. If there is a
flow from A towards B and the manometer reading is h = 60 mm, then
determine the static pressure difference pA - pB

    [0, 2.94 kPa; 3.53 kPa]   

53
 Fig 5.11

 3. Determine the air pressure above the water surface in the tank if a
force of 8 kN is required to hold the hinged door in position as shown in
Fig 5.12.

    [10.76 kPa]   

Fig 5.12 

4. The profile of the inner face of a dam takes the form of a parabola with
the equation 18y = x2 , where y is the height above the base and x is the
horizontal distance of the face from the vertical reference line. The water
level is 27m above the base. Determine the thrust on the dam (per meter
with) due to the water pressure, its inclination to the vertical and the
point where the line of action of this force intersects the free water
surface

  [ 5.28 MN/m, 42o 33', 30.29 m

54
 from face ]  

 5. A solid uniform cylinder of length 150 mm and diameter 75 mm is to

float upright in water. Determine the limits within which its mass should
lie.

  [ 0.641 kg and 0.663 kg]

 6. A long prism, the cross-section of which is an equilateral traingle of

side a, floats in water with one side horizontal and submerged to a
depth h. Find

      (a) h/a as a function of the specific gravity, S of the prism.

      (b) The metacentric height in terms of side a, for small angle of
rotation if specific gravity, S=0.8.

7.  A metal sphere of volume  , specific gravity   and fully

immersed in water is attached by a flexible wire to a buoy of
volume   and specific gravity  . Calculate the tension T in
the wire and volume of the buoy that is submerged. Refer to Fig 5.13.

Fig 5.13

55