COURSE CODE

(817303/822303)

NAME OF THE COURSE

AY 2020-21
G H RAISONI INSTITUTE OF
SEMESTER - III
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
JALGAON (5152)
An Autonomous Institution & Accredited with
NAAC 'A' grade

LAB MANUAL

NAME OF STAFF
Asst. Prof. Mayur Jakhete

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER/IT ENGINEERING

 Department of Comp/IT Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS

NAME OF EXPERIMENTS
EXP. NO. EXPERIMENT NAME PAGE NO.

1 Power Amplifier 3-5

2 CE- CE cascaded Amplifier 6-10

3 R- C Oscillator 11-13

4 Integrator and Differentiator 14-17

5 Low Pass Filter 18-20

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EXPERIMENT NO 1

AIM: To observe cross over distortion of Class B complementary symmetry configuration and
to study its elimination.

APPARATUS REQUIRE:

Sr No Equipment Quantity

1 Function Generator 1

2 Dual power supply 1

3 Oscilloscope 1

4 Kit 1

THEORY:

We have seen that one of the main disadvantages of the Class-A Amplifier configuration is its
low full power efficiency rating due to being biased around its central Q-point.
But we also know that we can improve the amplifier and almost double its efficiency simply by
changing the output stage of the amplifier to a Class B push-pull type configuration. However,
this is great from an efficiency point of view, but most modern Class B amplifiers are
transformer less or complementary types with two transistors in their output stage.
This results in one main fundamental problem with push-pull amplifiers in that the two
transistors do not combine together fully at the output both halves of the waveform due to their
unique zero cut-off biasing arrangement. As this problem occurs when the signal changes or
“crosses-over” from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage point it produces an amount of
“distortion” to the output wave shape. This results in a condition that is commonly
called Crossover Distortion.
Crossover Distortion produces a zero voltage “flat spot” or “deadband” on the output wave
shape as it crosses over from one half of the waveform to the other. The reason for this is that the
transition period when the transistors are switching over from one to the other, does not stop or
start exactly at the zero crossover point thus causing a small delay between the first transistor
turning “OFF” and the second transistor turning “ON”. This delay results in both transistors
being switched “OFF” at the same instant in time producing an output wave shape as shown
below.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Set and apply DC voltage of 10 V from the DC power supply.

2. Set the sine wave frequency of 1 KHz at 5V.
3. Connect Oscilloscope across output terminal.
4. Observe the output waveform of class B complementary symmetry configuration.
5. Apply the DC voltage 10V to figure no. 2.
6. Set and apply the sine wave 5V at 1 KHz from the function generator.
7. Observe the output waveform.

OBSERVATION:

RESULT:

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CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

Que. 1 What is meant by complementary symmetry.

Ans:

Que. 2 Why cross over distortion is produced ?

Ans:

Que. 3 How it is eliminated?

Ans:

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EXPERIMENT NO.2

AIM: To plot the frequency response CE- CE cascaded Amplifier

APPARATUS REQUIRE:

Sr No Equipment Quantity

1 Function generator 1

2 Single power supply 1

3 Oscilloscope 1

4 Kit 1

THEORY :

When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it is amplified and appears across its
collector load RC. Now the amplified signal developed across R C is given to the base of the next
transistor through a coupling capacitor CC . The second stage again amplifies this signal and the
more amplified signal appears across the second stage collector resistance. In this way the
cascaded stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably increased.

However, the total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual stages. It is because,
when a second stage follows the first stage, the effective load resistance of first stage is reduced
due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of second stage. This reduces the gain of the
stage which is loaded by the next stage.

To explain it better, let us take an example of  3-stage amplifier. The gain of first and second
stage will be reduced due to loading effect of the next stage. But the gain of the third stage which
has no loading effect due to subsequent stage, remains unchanged.

The overall gain is equal to the product of the gains of three stages.

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Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

The figure below shows the frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier.

You can notice from the above fig. that the voltage gain drops off at low (< 50 Hz) and high (>
20 KHz) frequencies. However, it is uniform over the mid-frequency range i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz.

This behaviour of the amplifier can be explained as follows :

(i) At Low Frequencies

At low frequencies i.e. below 50 Hz, the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high and
hence very small part of the signal will pass from one stage to the next stage.
Again CE can not shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large reactance at low
frequencies.
These two factors cause the dropping of voltage gain at low frequencies.

(ii) At High Frequencies

At high frequencies i.e. above 20 KHz, the reactance of  coupling capacitor CC is quite small and
hence it behaves as a short circuit. This increases the loading effect of next stage and results in
decreased voltage gain.
Again at high frequencies, capacitive reactance of base-emitter junction is low which in result
increases the base current. This causes decrease in current amplification factor β.

These two factors cause the dropping of voltage gain at high frequencies.

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(iii) At Mid Frequencies

At mid frequencies i.e. between 50 Hz to 20 KHz , the voltage gain of amplifier is constant.

The effect of coupling capacitor in this frequency range is such that the voltage gain remains
uniform.

As the frequency increases in this range, reactance of C C decreases which in result increases the
gain. However, at the same time lower reactance means higher loading effect of first stage to the
next one and hence gain decreases.
Thus, these two factor almost cancel each other, resulting in an uniform gain at this mid
frequency.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set &apply power supply voltage Vcc

2. Set a sine wave of 1KHz frequency with small magnitude and apply it at the input
terminal.
3. Connect the oscilloscope at its output terminals.
4. Increase the magnitude of input till maximum undistorted output is obtained.
5. Vary the frequency from 100Hz – 1MHz & note output voltage for each frequency.
6. Plot the frequency response characteristic between frequency Vs gain &calculate the
bandwidth.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Vin = at 1KHz

Sr. No Frequency Vo Gain=Vo/Vin

10

11

12

13

CALCULATION & RESULT:

FH =

FL =

B.W=fH - fL

CONCLUSION:

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QUESTIONS:

Que1. What is feedback & what are the types & where they are employed?

Ans:

Que2. What is the effect of feedback on frequency response characteristics of an amplifier ?

Ans:

Que3. What are ideal characteristics of voltage series feedback ?

Ans:

EXPERIMENT NO: 3

AIM: Study of R-C Phase shift Oscillator.

APPARATUS REQUIRE:

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Sr No Equipment Quantity

1 Power supply 1

2 CRO 1

3 Kit 1

THEORY:

In the amplifier tutorials we saw that a single stage transistor amplifier can produce 180oof phase
shift between its output and input signals when connected in a class-A type configuration.
For an oscillator to sustain oscillations indefinitely, sufficient feedback of the correct phase, that
is “Positive Feedback” must be provided along with the transistor amplifier being used acting as
an inverting stage to achieve this.
In an RC Oscillator circuit the input is shifted 180o through the amplifier stage and 180oagain
through a second inverting stage giving us “180o + 180o = 360o” of phase shift which is
effectively the same as 0o thereby giving us the required positive feedback. In other words, the
phase shift of the feedback loop should be “0”.
In a Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator or simply an RC Oscillator, we make use of the fact
that a phase shift occurs between the input to a RC network and the output from the same
network by using RC elements in the feedback branch
The basic RC Oscillator which is also known as a Phase-shift Oscillator, produces a sine wave
output signal using regenerative feedback obtained from the resistor-capacitor combination. This
regenerative feedback from the RC network is due to the ability of the capacitor to store an
electric charge, (similar to the LC tank circuit).
This resistor-capacitor feedback network can be connected as shown above to produce a leading
phase shift (phase advance network) or interchanged to produce a lagging phase shift (phase
retard network) the outcome is still the same as the sine wave oscillations only occur at the
frequency at which the overall phase-shift is 360o.
By varying one or more of the resistors or capacitors in the phase-shift network, the frequency
can be varied and generally this is done by keeping the resistors the same and using a 3-ganged
variable capacitor.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set and apply the DC voltage from the power supply.

2. Connect the oscilloscope across the output terminals and observe the output.
3. Determine magnitude of output frequency of oscillator.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Oscillator Vo T F
R-C Phase shift
Oscillator

CALCULATION:

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

Que.1 Define what is oscillator? What type of feedback is used?

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Que.2What is Barkhausen criteria?

Que.3 Classification of oscillator?

EXPERIMENT NO: 4

AIM: OP-AMP as an Integrator and Differentiator.

APPARATUS REQUIRE:

Sr No Equipment Quantity

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1 Function Generator 1

2 Dual power supply 1

3 Oscilloscope 1

4 Kit Each 1

THEORY:

Operational amplifiers can be used as part of a positive or negative feedback amplifier or as an

adder or subtractor type circuit using just pure resistances in both the input and the feedback
loop.
But what if we where to change the purely resistive ( Rƒ ) feedback element of an inverting
amplifier to that of a frequency dependant reactance, ( X ) type complex element, such as a
Capacitor, C. What would be the effect on the op-amps output voltage over its frequency range.
By replacing this feedback resistance with a capacitor we now have an RC Network connected
across the operational amplifiers feedback path producing another type of operational amplifier
circuit commonly called an Op-amp Integrator.
As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the
mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in
the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is
present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor
as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.
When a step voltage, VIN is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the uncharged
capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit allowing maximum current
to flow via the input resistor, RIN as potential difference exists between the two plates. No current
flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the
impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain ratio of XC/RIN is also very small
giving an overall voltage gain of less than one, ( voltage follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input voltage, its
impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The capacitor charges up at a
rate determined by the RC time constant, ( τ ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback
forces the op-amp to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the op-amp’s
inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is at earth
potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is negative), the potential voltage, Vc developed
across the capacitor slowly increases causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance
of the capacitor increases. This results in the ratio of XC/RIN increasing producing a linearly
increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.

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At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC current. The
ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN ) is now infinite resulting in infinite gain.
The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the
amplifier goes into saturation.

Op-amp as a differentiator :- Here, the position of the capacitor and resistor have
been reversed and now the reactance, XC is connected to the input terminal of the inverting
amplifier while the resistor, Rƒ forms the negative feedback element across the operational
amplifier as normal.
This operational amplifier circuit performs the mathematical operation of Differentiation, that is
it “produces a voltage output which is directly proportional to the input voltage’s rate-of-change
with respect to time“. In other words the faster or larger the change to the input voltage signal,
the greater the input current, the greater will be the output voltage change in response, becoming
more of a “spike” in shape.
As with the integrator circuit, we have a resistor and capacitor forming an RC Network across
the operational amplifier and the reactance ( Xc ) of the capacitor plays a major role in the
performance of a Op-amp Differentiator.
The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor blocks any DC
content so there is no current flow to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output
voltage. The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage changes to pass through and whose
frequency is dependant on the rate of change of the input signal.
At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is “High” resulting in a low gain ( Rƒ/Xc ) and
low output voltage from the op-amp. At higher frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is much
lower resulting in a higher gain and higher output voltage from the differentiator amplifier.
However, at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes unstable and will start to
oscillate. This is due mainly to the first-order effect, which determines the frequency response of
the op-amp circuit causing a second-order response which, at high frequencies gives an output
voltage far higher than what would be expected. To avoid this the high frequency gain of the
circuit needs to be reduced by adding an additional small value capacitor across the feedback
resistor Rƒ.

PROCEDURE:

Integrator:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply the square or sine input signal at high frequency using AFO.

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3. Note the corresponding output waveforms and plot the graph.

Differentiator:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply the square or sine input signal at low frequency using AFO.

3. Note the corresponding output waveforms and plot the graph.

OBSERVATION:

Parameters Input Output

Type of Waveform
Time Period (T)
Frequency = 1/T
Voltage (V)

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

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Que. 1 What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit:.

Ans:

Que. 2 Write down the condition for good differentiation

Ans:

EXPERIMENT NO: 5

AIM: OP-AMP as. Low Pass Filter

APPARATUS REQUIRE:

Sr No Equipment Quantity

1 Function Generator 1

2 Dual power supply 1

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3 Oscilloscope 1

4 Kit Each 1

THEORY:

This first-order low pass active filter, consists simply of a passive RC filter stage providing a low
frequency path to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier. The amplifier is configured
as a voltage-follower (Buffer) giving it a DC gain of one, Av = +1 or unity gain as opposed to
the previous passive RC filter which has a DC gain of less than unity.

The advantage of this configuration is that the op-amps high input impedance prevents excessive
loading on the filters output while its low output impedance prevents the filters cut-off frequency
point from being affected by changes in the impedance of the load.

While this configuration provides good stability to the filter, its main disadvantage is that it has
no voltage gain above one. However, although the voltage gain is unity the power gain is very
high as its output impedance is much lower than its input impedance. If a voltage gain greater
than one is required we can use the following filter circuit.

PROCEDURE:

1) Vary the input frequency at regular intervals and note down the output response from the
CRO.

2) Calculate the gain in dB.

3) Verify practical and theoretical cutoff frequency

4) Plot the frequency response on semi-log sheet

OBSERVATION:

Vin = at 1KHz

Sr. No Frequency Vo Gain=Vo/Vin

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10

11

RESULT:

CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

Que. 1 What is meant by filter and what are types of filter..

Ans:

Que. 2 What is meant by LPF .

Ans:

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REFERENCES

[1] Louis Nashelsky& Robert Boylestad, Electronics Devices and Cercuits Theory, Pearson
Publication, 10th Edition
[2] Dr. R. S. Sedha, Electronics Circuits by, S Chand Publication,4th Edition
[3] L.K. Maheshwari, Analog Electronics, Laxmi Publications
[4] A.K. Maini, Analog Electronics, Khanna Publishing House
[5] I.G. Nagrath, Analog Electronics, PHI

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