Figure 8-5 Modern digital transmitter.

LPF Mixer
I I
DAC

cos
90
DSP  PA
Serial sin
digital Osc.
data to be Summer
transmitted
Q
DAC
Q
LPF Mixer

signals. The analog signals are filtered in a low-pass filter (LPF) and then applied to
mixers that will up-convert them to the final output frequency. The mixers receive their
second inputs from an oscillator or a frequency synthesizer that selects the operating
frequency. Note that the oscillator signals are in quadrature; i.e., one is shifted 90° from
the other. One is a sine wave, and the other is a cosine wave. The upper signal is referred
to as the in-phase (I ) signal and the other as the quadrature (Q) signal. The output signals
from the mixers are then added, and the result is amplified and transmitted by the power
amplifier (PA). Two quadrature signals are needed at the receiver to recover the signal
and demodulate it in a DSP chip. This configuration works for any type of modulation
as all of the modulation is done with mathematical algorithms. You will learn more about
this technique in Chap. 11.

8-2 Carrier Generators Carrier generator

The starting point for all transmitters is carrier generation. Once generated, the carrier
can be modulated, processed in various ways, amplified, and finally transmitted. The
source of most carriers in modern transmitters is a crystal oscillator. PLL frequency
synthesizers in which a crystal oscillator is the basic stabilizing reference are used in
applications requiring multiple channels of operation.

Crystal Oscillators Crystal oscillator

Most radio transmitters are licensed by the FCC either directly or indirectly to operate Crystal
not only within a specific frequency band but also on predefined frequencies or chan- Piezoelectric effect
nels. Deviating from the assigned frequency by even a small amount can cause interfer-
ence with signals on adjacent channels. Therefore, the transmitter carrier generator must
be very precise, operating on the exact frequency assigned, often within very close
tolerances. In some radio services, the frequency of operation must be within 0.001 GOOD TO KNOW
percent of the assigned frequency. In addition, the transmitter must remain on the
assigned frequency. It must not drift off or wander from its assigned value despite the The only oscillator capable of
many operating conditions, such as wide temperature variations and changes in power maintaining the frequency preci-
supply voltage, that affect frequency. The only oscillator capable of meeting the preci- sion and stability demanded by
sion and stability demanded by the FCC is a crystal oscillator. the FCC is a crystal oscillator.
A crystal is a piece of quartz that has been cut and ground into a thin, flat wafer In fact, the FCC requires that a
and mounted between two metal plates. When the crystal is excited by an ac signal
crystal oscillator be used in all
across its plates, it vibrates. This action is referred to as the piezoelectric effect. The
frequency of vibration is determined primarily by the thickness of the crystal. Other transmitters.
factors influencing frequency are the cut of the crystal, i.e., the place and angle of cut

Radio Transmitters 241

 made in the base quartz rock from which the crystal was derived, and the size of the
crystal wafer. Crystals frequencies range from as low as 30 kHz to as high as 150 MHz.
As the crystal vibrates or oscillates, it maintains a very constant frequency. Once a
crystal has been cut or ground to a particular frequency, it will not change to any great
extent even with wide voltage or temperature variations. Even greater stability can be
achieved by mounting the crystal in sealed, temperature-controlled chambers known as
crystal ovens. These devices maintain an absolute constant temperature, ensuring a
stable output frequency.
As you saw in Chap. 4, the crystal acts as an LC tuned circuit. It can emulate a series
or parallel LC circuit with a Q as high as 30,000. The crystal is simply substituted for
the coil and capacitor in a conventional oscillator circuit. The end result is a very precise,
stable oscillator. The precision, or stability, of a crystal is usually expressed in parts per
million (ppm). For example, to say that a crystal with a frequency of 1 MHz has a preci-
sion of 100 ppm means that the frequency of the crystal can vary from 999,900 to
1,000,100 Hz. Most crystals have tolerance and stability values in the 10- to 1000-ppm
range. Expressed as a percentage, the precision is (100/1,000,000) 3 100 5 0.0001 3
100 5 0.01 percent.
You can also use ratio and proportion to figure the frequency variation for a crystal
with a given precision. For example, a 24-MHz crystal with a stability of 650 ppm has
a maximum frequency variation ¢f of (50/1,000,000) 3 24,000,000. Thus, ¢ f 5
50(24,000,000)/1,000,000 5 24 3 50 5 1200 Hz or 61200 Hz.

Example 8-1
What are the maximum and minimum frequencies of a 16-MHz crystal with a stability
of 200 ppm?
The frequency can vary as much as 200 Hz for every 1 MHz of frequency or
200 3 16 5 3200 Hz.
The possible frequency range is
16,000,000 2 3200 5 15,996,800 Hz
16,000,000 1 3200 5 16,003,200 Hz
Expressed as a percentage, this stability is (3200/16,000,000) 3 100 5
0.0002 3 100 5 0.02 percent.
In other words, the actual frequency may be different from the designated fre-
quency by as much as 50 Hz for every 1 MHz of designated frequency, or
24 3 50 5 1200 Hz.
A precision value given as a percentage can be converted to a ppm value as follows.
Assume that a 10-MHz crystal has a precision percentage of 60.001 percent;
0.001 percent of 10,000,000 is 0.00001 3 10,000,000 5 100 Hz.
Thus,
ppm/1,000,000 5 100/10,000,000
ppm 5 100(1,000,000)/10,000,000 5 10 ppm
However, the simplest way to convert from percentage to ppm is to convert the
percentage value to its decimal form by dividing by 100, or moving the decimal point
two places to the left, and then multiplying by 106, or moving the decimal point six
places to the right. For example, the ppm stability of a 5-MHz crystal with a precision
of 0.005 percent is found as follows. First, put 0.005 percent in decimal form:
0.005 percent 5 0.00005. Next, multiply by 1 million:
0.00005 3 1,000,000 5 50 ppm

242 Chapter 8
Example 8-2
A radio transmitter uses a crystal oscillator with a frequency of 14.9 MHz and a
frequency multiplier chain with factors of 2, 3, and 3. The crystal has a stability of
6300 ppm.
a. Calculate the transmitter output frequency.
Total frequency multiplication factor 5 2 3 3 3 3 5 18
Transmitter output frequency       5 14.9 MHz 3 18
5 268.2 MHz

b. Calculate the maximum and minimum frequencies that the transmitter is likely to
achieve if the crystal drifts to its maximum extreme.
300
6300 ppm 5 3 100 5 6 0.03%
1,000,000
This variation is multiplied by the frequency multiplier chain, yielding
60.03 percent 3 18 5 60.54 percent. Now, 268.2 MHz 3 0.0054 5 1.45 MHz.
Thus, the frequency of the transmitter output is 268.2 6 1.45 MHz. The upper
limit is
268.2 1 1.45 5 269.65 MHz
The lower limit is
268.2 2 1.45 5 266.75 MHz

Typical Crystal Oscillator Circuits. The most common crystal oscillator is a

Colpitts type, in which the feedback is derived from the capacitive voltage divider made Colpitts oscillator
up of C1 and C2. An emitter-follower version is shown in Fig. 8-6. Again, the feedback
comes from the capacitor voltage divider C1–C2. The output is taken from the emitter,
which is untuned. Most oscillators of this type operate as class A amplifiers with a sine
wave output. JFETs are also widely used in discrete component amplifiers.
Occasionally you will see a capacitor in series or in parallel with the crystal (not
both), as shown in Fig. 8-6. These capacitors can be used to make minor adjustments in

Figure 8-6 An emitter-follower crystal oscillator.

V

R1

Q1
C1
Output

R2
XTAL
C2

Crystal “pulling”
or “rubbering”
capacitors

Radio Transmitters 243

 the crystal frequency. As discussed previously, it is not possible to affect large frequency
changes with series or shunt capacitors, but they can be used to make fine adjustments.
The capacitors are called crystal pulling capacitors, and the whole process of fine-tuning
Rubbering a crystal is sometimes referred to as rubbering. When the pulling capacitor is a varactor,
FM or FSK can be produced. The analog or binary modulating signal varies the varactor
capacitance that, in turn, shifts the crystal frequency.

Overtone Oscillators. The main problem with crystals is that their upper frequency
operation is limited. The higher the frequency, the thinner the crystal must be to oscillate
at that frequency. At an upper limit of about 50 MHz, the crystal is so fragile that it
becomes impractical to use. However, over the years, operating frequencies have contin-
ued to move upward as a result of the quest for more frequency space and greater chan-
nel capacity, and the FCC has continued to demand the same stability and precision that
are required at the lower frequencies. One way to achieve VHF, UHF, and even micro-
wave frequencies using crystals is by employing frequency multiplier circuits, as described
earlier. The carrier oscillator operates on a frequency less than 50 MHz, and multipliers
raise that frequency to the desired level. For example, if the desired operating frequency
is 163.2 MHz and the frequency multipliers multiply by a factor of 24, the crystal fre-
quency must be 163.2/24 5 6.8 MHz.
Another way to achieve crystal precision and stability at frequencies above 50 MHz
Overtone crystal is to use overtone crystals. An overtone crystal is cut in a special way so that it optimizes
its oscillation at an overtone of the basic crystal frequency. An overtone is like a harmonic
as it is usually some multiple of the fundamental vibration frequency. However, the term
Harmonic harmonic is usually applied to electric signals, and the term overtone refers to higher
Overtone mechanical vibration frequencies. Like a harmonic, an overtone is usually some integer
multiple of the base vibration frequency. However, most overtones are slightly more or
slightly less than the integer value. In a crystal, the second harmonic is the first overtone,
the third harmonic is the second overtone, and so on. For example, a crystal with a
fundamental frequency of 20 MHz would have a second harmonic or first overtone of
40 MHz, and a third harmonic or second overtone of 60 MHz.
The term overtone is often used as a synonym for harmonic. Most manufacturers
GOOD TO KNOW refer to their third overtone crystals as third harmonic crystals.
Overtones refer to multiples of the The odd overtones are far greater in amplitude than the even overtones. Most overtone
harmonic frequency. The second crystals oscillate reliably at the third or fifth overtone of the frequency at which the crystal
harmonic is the first overtone, the is originally ground. There are also seventh-overtone crystals. Overtone crystals can be
obtained with frequencies up to about 250 MHz. A typical overtone crystal oscillator may
third harmonic is the second
use a crystal cut for a frequency of, say, 16.8 MHz and optimized for overtone service will
overtone, and so on. have a third-overtone oscillation at 3 3 16.8 5 50.4 MHz. The tuned output circuit made
up of L1 and C1 will be resonant at 50.4 MHz.
Most crystal oscillators are circuits built into other integrated circuits. The crystal is
external to the IC. Another common form is that shown in Fig. 8-7, where the crystal and
oscillator circuit are fully packaged together as an IC. Both sine and square output versions
are available.
There are many different versions of these packaged crystal oscillators. These are the
basic crystal oscillator (XO), the voltage-controlled crystal oscillator (VCXO), the tempera-
ture-compensated crystal oscillator (TCXO), and the oven-controlled crystal oscillator
(OCXO). The selection depends upon the desired degree of frequency stability required by
the application. The basic XO has a stability in the tens of ppm.
A VCXO uses a varactor in series or parallel with the crystal (Fig. 8-6) to vary the
crystal frequency over a narrow range with an external DC voltage.
Improved stability is obtained in the TCXO, which uses a feedback network with a
thermistor to sense temperature variations, which in turn controls a voltage variable capacitor
(VVC) or varactor to pull the crystal frequency to some desired value. TCXOs can achieve
stability values of 60.2 to 62 ppm.
An OCXO packages the crystal and its circuit in a temperature-controlled oven that
holds the frequency stable at the desired frequency. A thermistor sensor in a feedback network

244 Chapter 8
Figure 8-7 The Pierce crystal oscillator using an FET.

varies the temperature of a heating element in the oven. Stabilities in the 61 3 1028 or
better can be obtained.

Frequency Synthesizers
Frequency synthesizers are variable-frequency generators that provide the frequency sta- Frequency synthesizer
bility of crystal oscillators but with the convenience of incremental tuning over a broad
frequency range. Frequency synthesizers usually provide an output signal that varies in
fixed frequency increments over a wide range. In a transmitter, a frequency synthesizer
provides basic carrier generation for channelized operation. Frequency synthesizers are
also used in receivers as local oscillators and perform the receiver tuning function.
GOOD TO KNOW
Using frequency synthesizers overcomes certain cost and size disadvantages associ- A growing alternative to crystal
ated with crystals. Assume, e.g., that a transmitter must operate on 50 channels. Crystal oscillators are those made with
stability is required. The most direct approach is simply to use one crystal per frequency micro-electro-mechanical sys-
and add a large switch. Although such an arrangement works, it has major disadvantages.
tems (MEMS) technology. The
Crystals are expensive, ranging from $1 to $10 each, and even at the lowest price,
50 crystals may cost more than all the rest of the parts in the transmitter. The same frequency determining element is
50 crystals would also take up a great deal of space, possibly occupying more than a vibrating silicon mechanical
10 times the volume of all the rest of the transmitter parts. With a frequency synthesizer, structure within the electronic
only one crystal is needed, and the requisite number of channels can be generated by silicon oscillator circuit.
using a few tiny ICs.
Over the years, many techniques have been developed for implementing frequency
synthesizers with frequency multipliers and mixers. Today, however, most frequency
synthesizers use some variation of the phase-locked loop (PLL). A newer technique called Phase-locked loop (PLL)
digital signal synthesis (DSS) is becoming more popular as integrated-circuit technology Digital signal synthesis (DSS)
has made high-frequency generation practical.

Phase-Locked Loop Synthesizers Phase-locked loop synthesizer

An elementary frequency synthesizer based on a PLL is shown in Fig. 8-8. Like all phase-
locked loops, it consists of a phase detector, a low-pass filter, and a VCO. The input to
the phase detector is a reference oscillator. The reference oscillator is normally crystal-
controlled to provide high-frequency stability. The frequency of the reference oscillator
sets the increments in which the frequency may be changed. Note that the VCO output
is not connected directly back to the phase detector, but applied to a frequency divider
first. A frequency divider is a circuit whose output frequency is some integer submultiple Frequency divider
of the input frequency. A divide-by-10 frequency synthesizer produces an output frequency

Radio Transmitters 245