Lecture #5.

Measurements of coefficient of friction. Measuring systems and methodology.

Measuring Friction
The measurement of the coefficient of friction involves measuring two quantities, namely F, the force
required to initiate and/or sustain sliding, and N, the normal force holding two surfaces together.
Some of the earliest measurements of the coefficient of friction were done by an arrangement of pulleys and
weights shown in Figure 5.12. Increasing load P is applied until sliding begins and one obtains the static, or
starting coefficient of friction, with μs =Ps / N=F s /W . If the kinetic coefficient of friction, μk is desired, a
weight is applied to the string and the slider is moved manually and released. If sliding ceases, more weight
is applied to the string for a new trial until sustained sliding of uniform velocity is observed.
In this case, the final load Pk is used to obtain μk =P k /N =F k /W .

Figure 5.12 A device for measuring static or FIGURE 5.13 The inclined plane method of
starting friction. measuring the static coefficient of friction.
A second convenient system for measuring friction is the inclined plane shown in Figure 5.13. The
measurement of the static coefficient of friction consists simply in increasing the angle of tilt, α of the plane
until the object begins to slide down the inclined plane: the angent of the angle of tilt, tanα is the
coefficient of static friction. If the kinetic coefficient of friction is required, the plane is tilted at some chosen
angle and the slider is advanced manually: if the object stops sliding, the proper angle of tilt has not been set.
When an angle of tilt is found at which sustained sliding of uniform velocity occurs, the tangent of that angle
is the kinetic coefficient of friction. Data will vary according to one’s judgment of the uniformity of sliding
speed.
Other friction force measuring devices range from the simple spring scale to transducers that produce an
electrical signal in proportion to an applied force. The deflection of the holder of one of the sliding members
can be measured by capacitance sensors, inductance sensors, piezoelectric materials, optical interference,
moire fringes, light beam deflection, and several other methods. The strain in the specimen holder can be
measured by strain gages, acoustic emission, etc. The most widely used, because of its simplicity and
reliability is the strain gage system.
Just as there are many sensing systems available, there are also many designs of friction measuring
machines: these can be classified in terms of range of load, range of speed, atmosphere in which they
function, reciprocating vs. continuous motion, rotating vs. linear motion, spherical or cylindrical or flat (e.g.)
shapes of sliding members, etc. Many machine configurations are available for purchase but all are variants
of the basic motion-producing and force-measuring components.

10.3 Angle of Friction

The simplest experimental method to determine the coefficient of friction, which is practically always
feasible, is the measurement of the inclination angle at which a body lying on an inclined plane begins to
slide. This angle is called the angle of friction. The forces acting on such a body are shown in Fig. 10.3 b.
 Fig. 10.3 A body on an inclined plane.

THE MEASUREMENT OF FRICTION FORCE and the calculation of the coefficient of friction are often
warranted for many tribosystems. Such testing is particularly critical for brakes, clutches, and similar power-
and motion-control mechanisms where the friction force must be known and controlled. If the friction
characteristics of a system are somehow changed, the results can be disastrous. For example, continuous
braking of an automobile on a steep incline can lead to "glazing" of the brake pad material: the surface
overheats and chars, forming a material with friction characteristics different from those of the bulk, and the
resulting friction coefficient may be much lower than the design coefficient of friction. Consequently, the
brakes may not work at the extremes of operating conditions. Thus, manufacturers of brake and clutch
facings must know the friction characteristics of their material against the counterfaces it will meet under all
operating conditions. This holds true for manufacturers of many different products that experience friction,
including flooring and tires.
In machine design, friction characteristics must be known for friction drives, for sizing motors, for
determining work forces, and for designing any part of a machine where changes in forces between sliding
members could affect operation. Friction is not a measure of wear or the tendency to wear; therefore, it does
not determine service life. Frictional heating sometimes causes a machine part to fail, but this usually occurs
when circumstances create abnormal friction effects. To emphasize the importance of friction in machine
design, it is estimated that one-third to one-half of the world's energy production is wasted through friction.
Historical Development of Friction Testing Techniques
Research into the history of tribology suggests that Greek philosophers were familiar with the concept of
friction. However, Leonardo da Vinci originated the basic precepts of friction, the basic laws, and the tests
used to measure and study friction. Da Vinci's sketches of friction testing apparatus (Fig. 1) were made circa 1495.
He used these devices to show that friction force is dependent on the force pressing two bodies together and that it is
independent of the apparent area of contact between the two bodies. Da Vinci essentially introduced the concept of a
friction coefficient. He found that the ratio of the friction force (F) to the pressing force (N) was about 1/4;
1 1
consequently, he suggested that F= N . The value of is fairly accurate for the materials that da Vinci tested
4 4
(wood, stone, hemp rope, bronze, and so forth) under conditions of low speed and low normal forces.

Fig. 1 Schematics of friction-measuring devices based on early work of Leonardo da Vinci

In about 1750, the mathematician Euler developed the concept of an actual friction coefficient: μ=F / N . He also
introduced the concept of static friction, which states that when a block is on an inclined plane, the tangent of the
angle at which motion starts is the static coefficient of friction:
μ=tan θ (Eq 1)
From this point on, two types of friction (static and kinetic) and two friction coefficients (the static μs and the kinetic μ
μk) had to be considered. The static coefficient was measured in the inclined plane test, and the kinetic was measured
using one of da Vinci's devices. Essentially the same situation exists today, except that electronic force-measuring
systems may allow determination of static and kinetic friction forces on the same device in the same test.
Research in the early 19th century on the effect of lubricants on friction suggested that friction in lubricated systems
depends more on the nature of the lubricant than on the nature of the materials that are in sliding contact. Later in that
century, the Petrov equation was developed, which related the friction coefficient of a lubricated journal-bearing
couple to the viscosity of the lubricant and the operational conditions of the bearing (diameter, velocity, length, and
normal force). As shown in Fig. 2, this equation states that:

4 π r2 l
μ= ( c )( ηNP ) (2)

where r is the shaft radius, l is the bushing length, η is the viscosity of the lubricating fluid, N is the shaft velocity, c is
the film thickness, and P is the normal force.

A significant amount of reseach on rolling friction was also conducted during the 19th century. It was learned that the
friction of tires on surfaces is a function of the surface hardness, but a separate test for rolling friction did not emerge.
By the start of the 20th century, the friction tests shown schematically in Fig. 1 were the most commonly used, and the
situation remains nearly the same today.

Friction Testing Techniques

Every high school physics class usually performs laboratory tests on an inclined plane to demonstrate the
concept of sliding friction. The inclined plane, as demonstrated by da Vinci, remains one of the more
commonly accepted techniques for measuring friction. Other techniques used to measure coefficients of
friction are also modifications of concepts developed by da Vinci. Popular methods for measuring friction
forces are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Schematics of current friction-measuring concepts

In the inclined plane test (Fig. 3a), one member of the couple of interest is placed on the plane and the plane
is tilted until the object starts to move. The tangent of this critical angle is the static coefficient of friction,
µ= tan θ.
The problem with this technique is that it does not simulate many real-life tribosystems. Machine designers
do not design systems that involve only inclined planes. Friction is a system parameter. A single material
does not have a coefficient of friction; even a material pair does not necessarily have a coefficient of
friction. Only when a material is mated with another material (or more than one material) and some type of
sliding motion is present in the system can the coefficient of friction be measured. To be valid, a friction test
should simulate the system of interest.
Figure 3(b) is classified as a "capstan test" because its principle is employed in capstans used to hold lines
under tension.
This friction test has utility when the system under study involves a belt, cable, rope, or web sliding over a
roll or cylindrical surface. It simulates slip of plastic films on rolls during manufacturing operations, slip of
belts on drive sheaves, or other practical engineering systems involving this type of tribosystem. It can be
used to determine both static friction and kinetic friction, and transducers can be used to measure T1 and W.
In highspeed web handling, common practice is to place load-sensing idler rolls on either side of a system of
interest. These rolls come in many sizes and often detect tension through strain gages mounted at the base of
a cantilevered beam that supports the roll.
When using this type of system, it is important that the slip over the test roll simulate the service conditions.
If a web is being transferred at 10 m/s (33 ft/s), the slip of the web on an idler (nondriven) roll will not be 10
m/s (33 ft/s), but some fraction of this (usually less than 10%). The actual slip at a roll can be measured by
instruments on the web (footage meter) and on the roll (tachometer). The difference between the two
measurements yields the slip, and friction tests should be performed at this slip speed. It is also important to
ensure that the surface textures on the cylinder (roll) and web duplicate the conditions in the system of
interest.
The system illustrated in Fig. 3(c) can be any system where motion of one member is produced by a load
cell. Pulling a block on a flat surface with a load sensor yields the friction force F in the basic friction
equation,
F=μN.
In wear studies, it is common practice to restrain a member with a load cell; the friction coefficient is
calculated from this measured forced (Fig. 4). This is probably the most common method of measuring
friction force. Although there are countless variations of this test, most devices use a force sensor that is
essential a calibrated spring. This spring has a spring constant that determines the sensitivity of the system;
there is probably some damping associated with the system.
A free-body diagram of a sled friction tester is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4 Use of load cells for measurement of friction force

 How to measure friction?

Method 1 Weight ratio

The sketch shown originates from Leonardo da Vinci (ca 1500).

He studied friction by measuring the load hanging on a cord, at
which the block begins to slide. The coefficient of friction is found
by the quotient of the dead weight of the mass hanging on the
cord and the mass of the block, i.e.
 µ =  Ff / N = mdead weight / mblock
 
Static coefficient of friction - dynamic coefficient of friction The moment at which the block begins to
slide (break away force) is the so called static friction, the force at which the block continues to slide is the
dynamic or kinetic coefficient of friction. For most material combinations the value of the static friction
exceeds that of the dynamic friction. Be aware that the dynamic friction can still be dependent on velocity,
contact pressure, temperature and surface roughness. The static friction can be dependent on the time that
the block is in rest, which is typically the case when lubricated.

Method 2:
Spring balance

Pull a spring balance connected to the block  and

slowly increase the force until the block begins to
slide. Make sure the spring balance is parallel to the surface. The reading on the spring balance scale when
the load begins to slide is a measure for the static friction, while the reading when the block continues to
slide is a measure of dynamic friction. The coefficient of friction is simply µ =  Fspring /Fnormal =  Fspring /(mblock ·g ),
g=9.81 m/s²
  
Hint: Pulse rotation sensors (multi-turn potentiometers, pulse encoders) often prove to be very useful to
create low cost sensors for measuring displacement by combining the sensor with a cable and a pulley, for
measuring torque with a torsional spring, for measuring force with a wire, a pulley and a spring etc.

Method 3: Tilted plane

Place a block on a tilted plane and increase the angle of tilt until the block begins
to slide. The tangent of the tilting angle just found is the so called "friction angle".
This angle is related to the coefficient of friction µ, i.e. µ = tanø = F f /F

Method 4: Clamping

To measure the static coefficient of friction under conditions of high contact pressure the object may be
clamped between two surfaces. The force necessary to put the object in motion must be halved to obtain
the friction force because of the two contacting surfaces.
 
Method 5: Pendulum

The pendulum is suitable to analyze the static and dynamic friction under
reciprocal motion by monitoring the bearing torque. This however requires a
torque sensor. The energy loss of combined static and dynamic friction can be
analyzed by considering the reduction of the amplitude of motion in time. This
only requires a simple rotary potentiometer or pulse rotation sensors to visualize
the amplitude reduction in time.
 

Method 6: Motorized Tribometers

In the measuring methods discussed above the friction coefficient is measured in fresh contacts, not after
running in. The coefficient of friction may change significantly during first half hour of sliding. The time
necessary to obtain a stable value of the coefficient of friction can be observed in a motorized tribometer by
monitoring the friction over time. This method is common for measuring the specific wear rate and the
contact temperature during operation. You may visit the useful links on the right of this window to find more
information about motorized tribometers.
http://www.tribology-abc.com/abc/friction.htm

References
1. Bharat Bhushan. Modern Tribology Handbook. Vol.1. Princilpes of Tribology. 2001.
2. Bhushan, B. (2002) Introduction to Tribology. John Wiley & Sons.
3. Bhushan, B., ed. (2001) Modern Tribology Handbook. CRC Press.
4. Dowson, D. (1998) History of Tribology, 2nd ed., Professional Engineering Publishing.
5. Ludema, K. (1996) Friction, Wear, Lubrication: A Textbook in Tribology, CRC Press.
6. Stolarski, T.A. (2000) Tribology in Machine Design. Butterworth
7. Heineman. Williams, J. (2005) Engineering Tribology. Cambridge University Press.