> 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (Liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid Kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 2.1 Density or Mass Der Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the ‘mass of a fluid (0 its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. Itis denoted by the symbol p (tho), ‘The unit of mass density in SL unit 1s kg per cubic metre, Le, kB/m*. The density ot liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and ‘temperature. Mathematically, mass density is written as, Mass of fluid Volume of fluid ‘The value of density of water is 1 gm/em? or 1000 kg/m?, 1.2.2. Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and itis denoted by the symbol w. Fe eee wes Gi eat (Mass of fy ae due to gravity Mass of fluid x g ‘Volume of uid =pxe f Mass of fli } ” Volume of fluid wepe A)2 Fluid Mechanics ‘The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m? in SI units. 1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically. it is expressed as Speciic voh Volume of fluid 1 1 Specific volume = Mass of fia” Mass of uid Volume of fluid ‘Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m*/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. 1.2.4. Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a Mud to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid, For liquids, the standard fluid 18 taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Wi Mathematically, (for liquids) = Weight density (density) of Haid ly» S(for liquids) = ty (density) of gas, Weight density (density) of air ‘Thus weight density of a liquid = § x Weight density of water x 1000 x 9.81 Nim? x Density of water x 1000 kg/m’, (1A) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific ‘gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’, ‘The density of a liquid Problem 1.1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 1 Volume = I litre = ( Litre =m? of 1 titre = 1000 en?) 1000 1000 Weight = 7N (O Specific weight (w) Weight 2 TN __ 7900 N/m’. Ans. Volume ( 1) 1000. 000 , ti) Dens = = 1000 gj? = 713.5 kgm’. Ans. (a) Density (9) oo oar 5 kg/m Density of liquid _ 7135 © Density of water ~ 1000 = 0.7125. Ans. (iii) Specific gravity {+1 Density of water = 1000 kg/m3}Properties of Fluids 3) Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 1000 10° Solution, Given: Volume = | litre = 1 x 1000 em? = Sp. gravity S=07 (0 Density (p) Using equation (1.14), Density (p) = Sx 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m’. Ans. i) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w= pg = 700 «O81 Nim? = 6867 Nim’. Ans. (iii) Weight (W) Weight We know that specifie weight = Yeiaht ow that specifi weight = SHEN. or w= or 6867 = —Y 001 O01 W= 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. » 1.3 VISCOSITY ‘Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ apart, move ‘one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the uid Jayers. ‘The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes | {shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear a stress is proportional to the rate of change of ve- } | ou locity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol y + (Tau). Z_vevociry PROFLE Mathematically, rot TET , Fig. 11 Velocity variation near a solid boundary. or tan (1.2) ‘where j1 (called mu) isthe constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity ony viscosity. represent tert of sear stain oat of sear defomation or velocity rant y From equation (1.2), we have = 7 (1.3) (3) Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain, 1.3.1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the ‘quantities in equation (1.3)4 Fluid Mechanics Shear stress Force/ Area Change of velocity EZ) T Change of distance — (Time )”* Length _ Force/(Length)?_ Force x Time 1 (Length)* Time I MKS system, force is tepresented by kgf and length by motte (an), in COS system, free is represented by dyne and length by em and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m). " kgf-see = dyne-see a In the above expression N/m* is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa. Hence N/m’ = Pascal MKS unit of viseosity = CGS unit of viscosity SI unit of viscosity = Ns/m? = Pa s. SI unit of viscosity = Newtonssee _ Ms dyne-see “The unit of viscosity in CGS is also called Poise which i equal to SE, em But one Newton = one ks mass) x one) aceeeration 7 (10003) C100 = 4499 499 2 = 1000 x 100 dyne {: dyne = gm x bat 5 1 10900 BEES 9.91 100000 HEE m cm 100% 100 xem = 98,1 HBS _ 98,1 poise {: Stes pois cm cm ‘Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get tus equivalent numerical value in MKS. one kgf-see _ 9.81Ns But one kef-see _ 9BINS 98.1 poise fone Ns _ 981 LNs = 2B poise = 10 poise or Une poise= + NS, m ogi" " poses 0mProperties of Fluids 5) Alternate Method. One poi x2 dyne xs (lamin) s em: em But dyne et gmx tm = 1 Lem ke + One pote 4m _ 1000 pais 100 1 ke_ 1 ke ke = 100 KEE KE op 1 FE = 10 poise 1000 sm 10 sm sm Po Note. (#) In SI unlts second Is represented by °s" and not by “sec (Gi) It viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in SK units Sometimes a unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where [eP = Cemtipoise, P = Poise] L L | centipoise = 755 poise or 1eP= > ‘The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.01 poise or 1.0 centipoise, 1.3.2 Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. 1tis denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called ‘nu’. Thus, mathematically, Viscosity _ mw Density ~ p ‘The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as ya Unitsofy Force Time ___ Force Time Units of Penge? «_ Mass ey CLengthy” Length Mans COTES > Time Feros = Mase x Act — Time’ In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre*/see or m*/sec while in CGS units itis. written as em?/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke. Ly ay 4 . te (a) wees Centistoke means stoke 1.3.3 Newton’s Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (t) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, itis expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as du Ha6 Fluid Mechanics Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not, ‘obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids. 1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due to closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of ‘gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are: 1 (0 For liquids, » (ata) (14a) where 1 = Viscosity of liquid at °C, in poise Hy = Viscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise @, B = Constants for the liquid For water, Hp = 1.79 x 10° poise, o: = 0.03368 and B = 0.000221. Fauation (1.44) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases. (ii) For a gas, = fy + or BP (1.48) where for air 1) = 0.000017, o = 0.000000056, B = 0.1189 x 10-°. Equation (1.48) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases. 1.3.3, Types of Fluids, The fis may be clasified inc the following five pes 1, Ideal uid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4. Non-Newtonian fluid, and 5. Ideal plasti fui 1. Tdeal Fluid. A fia, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal uid Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity, 2. Real Fluid. A fuk, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. Al the fluids, in actual practic, are real fds 3. Newtonian Fluid, A real fluid, in which the shear stress is dtcetly proportional to the ttc of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid. 4. Non-Newtonian Fluid, A real fluid, in which the shear stress isnot proportional to the rte of shear strain (or FH 12 Types of fluids ‘locity gradient), known as a Non Newtonian flue 5, Ideal Plastic Fluid. A flud, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (r velocity gradient, is known as ideal plastic ud. 2 IDEAL SOLO ays ed) —> shear stress — vevocrry eeantenr (23) =" in which w is the 3 velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = Oand y = 0.15 m, Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises. Problem 1.3. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by wProperties of Fluids 7) Solution. Given : u fy-9 au 4) or ()_«G Ao ($4) (4) = B-2xs.sor—s0 = 0367 AY Ju ya0is 49), 2018 3 Vatue of x= 8.63 poise = 863 units = 0.863 N sm? du Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as t= 7 y (O Shear stress at (i Shear stress at y= 0.15 m is given by yoo ) = 0.863 0.367 = 0.3167 Nim?. Ans protien Pee cet eee eas teeter ree eee ee 2N per unit area i.e., 2 N/m? to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates. sofrton, Given: Diane teen plas, dy =.025 mm = .025x 103m Velocyofupperslae, w= emi = 0 mls ee eee ae 0 = 1 =0.60 mis where — du = Change of velocity ‘Change of distance = .025 x 10°? m = Fore per unit aca = 20 7 0.60 2.0 x 025 x10°* s Ns 20= 4 20% 025%10"" = 3.33 x 10° SS. cae 025 x10 0.60 a m = 833 x 10° x 10 poise = 8.33 x 10™ poise. Ans. Problem 1.5 A flat plate of area 1.5 x 10° mm? is pulled with a speed of 0.4 mlx relative to ‘another plate located at a distance of 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise.8 Fluid Mechanics Solution. Given : ‘Area of the plate, 5x 10° mm? = 1.5 m* Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10° m LNs vi = 1 poise = + Ms scosity He I poise = du 1 04 N Using equation (1.2) we haver=p “4 = 1 04 — _ 66,66 sing equation (1.2) we haver= 5% = 5 x Ta ea ( Shear force, F = 1x area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (W) Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec Fx w= 400 x 0.4 = 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used ‘for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 190 r.p.m. Solution. Given : [= I poise au Dia. of shaft, D=Wem=0.1m Distance between shaft and journal bearing, dy= 1.5 mm= 15% 10m Speed of shaft, N= 150rpm. ‘Tangential speed of shaft is given by RDN _ x01%150 u = 0.785 mis. 60 du Using equation (1.2), cop, 1B 4 Ma where du = change of velocity between shaft and bearin _ Los 10" 13x10" Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 14. The weight ofthe square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of V5 nvs. The thickness of ol film is 1.3 mm. Solution. Given : Area of plate, A= 080.8 = 0.64 m? Angle of plane, 0=30° Weight of plate, W=300N Velocity of plate, u=03 mis Fig. 1.4 Px uW Cs Novis = Watt)Properties of Fluids 9 ‘Thickness of oil film, t= dy = 1.5 mm= 15x 107 m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is ‘Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N Thus the shear force, F , on the bottom surtace ot the plate = 190 N Fo 1590 and shear stress, t= = Ni Arca 064 Now using equation (1.2). we have rept ay where du = change of velocity = w—0 = w= 0.3 mis dy=1= 15x10 m 10 o64 ~" 15x 107 _ 150x15%107 06403 Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 em apart, the space between them being filled with ail of viscosity 14 paises. Calculate the shear stress in ail if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5 mis Solution. Given : Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 em = 0.0125 m = LIT sim? = 1.17 x 10= 1.7 poise. Ans. Viscosity, = 14 poise = 1 wn? Velocity of upper pte, = 2.5 misce. Shear stress is piven by equation (1.2) as, ¢= 4 where du = Change of velocity between plates = 1 2.5 misec. ay=00125 m 14 2s 5 T= 10 O18 280 N/m’, Ans. Problem 1.9 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cn, The thickness of te vil film is 12.5 mm The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per see requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes ifthe specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate = 60 em = 0.60 m Area, A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m* ‘Thickness of oil film, dy = 19.8 mm = 19.5 x 10> m Velocity of upper plate, w= 2.5 mise10 Fluid Mechanics Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 misec Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N Force _F _ 981N ‘Area A 036m" (@ Let = Dynamic viscosity of oil Shear stuess, = 1.3635 * 10 ~ 13.635 poise. Ans. (ii) Sp. gr. of oil, $ = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oi Using equation (1.14), Mass density of ol, p= 3x 1000 = 099 x 1000 = 930 kg/m" 1 3635( ss) Using the relation, v= #, we get v= 0D = 991435 msce = 001435 x 10" ems ° 950 = 14.35 stokes. Ans. (5 cm'ls = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find she kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m’. The shear stress at 4 point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given Mass density, p= 981 kg/m? Shear stress, ‘T= 0.2452 Nim? du Velocity gradient, “2028 ty at a Using the equation (1.2), anit or 0.2452 = wx 0.2 y He So = 1.226 Nim? Kinematic viscosity v is given by wm _ 1n26 Pp 981 = 0.125 x 10 x 10* em*Is = 0.125 x 10? emis = 12.5 em’Js = 12.5 stoke. Ans. Ce om*ts 125 x 10°? m*/sec stoke) Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : Visco, = 0.05 pie = 228 a?Properties of Fluids 11 Kinematic viscosity, V= 0.035 stokes 0.035 em? Stoke = em*/s} 0.035 x 10-4 m/s Using the retaton v= #, we get 0.035 x 10-4 = 995 4 ° 10 “p os gt 10 0.035 x 10 __ Density of liquid _ 14285 ” Density of water 1000 p= = 1428.5 kg/m? Sp. gr. of liquid = 1.4285 = 1.43. Ans. Problem 4.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 19. Solution. Given Kinematic viscosity V=6 stokes = 6 em‘Is = 6 x 10° mis, Sp. gr. of liquid =19 Let the viscosity of liquid = pt Density of the liquid Now sp. gr. of a liquid = ve “ Density of water or 19 = Density of ligui 7) Perec ne ee ont A Using the elation vz we get : a 6x 1042 =) or w= 6 x 10 x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m? 1.14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = 4 y—y" in which tis the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress aty = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8. poise. Soliton.cinen: w= 3 yy! au 3 m3, ay 4” dud eect #4 3 _axoiseo7s-030=045 aa eat w= 83 pes ASME (+ topo12_Finid Mechanics du _ 85 Using equation (1.2), cop B= xoas 1g eat (1.2), “ay 10 Problem 1.14 The dynamie viseasity af an ail, used for lubrication benween a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing {fora sleeve length of 90 mmm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : 15mm Viscosity 1 =6 poise ¢ = ONS Log NE o4m 10mm Dia. of shaft, D=04m eae Speed of shatt, N= 190rpm Be eos Sleeve length, L-= 90mm = 90 x 10°? m ‘Thickness of oil film, r= 1.5 mm=15x 10m Fig. 15 ‘Tangential vetocty of shatt, «= BON = RX04%190 _ 5.95 mys 60 60 du Using the relation cop n “SD 5.98 mis where du = Change of velocity = u~ dy = Change of distance ‘This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, roqieoniesin, — T=Famex 2 aN _ 210053601 stove 1 DENT 2819053601 164. ENT _ 2919022601 gag Problem 1.15 Ifthe velocity profile ofa fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, ifthe viscosity ofthe fluid is 8.5 poise. Solution. Given y Distance of vertex from plate = 20 cm Velocity at vertex, w= 120 em/sec = 120 cm/sec Viscosity, [= 85 poise a Fig. 1.6Properties of Fluids 13 ‘The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is, usaytbyte where a, b and ¢ are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (@ aty=0,u=0 (b) at y= 20 em, w= 120 cm/sec du (c) aty= 20m, “ =0, (©) aty as ‘Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get, c=0. Boundary condition (6) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = @(20)* + 6(20) = 4000 + 200 Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives du oye or 0=2xax20+b=40a+b Solving equations (ii) and (ii) for a and b From equation (iii), b=-400 ‘Substituting this value in equation (i), we get 120 = 400a + 20 x (- 40a) = 400a ~ 8004 = ~ 4000 120 00 s b=-40x(-03) Substituting the values of a, b and c in equation (i), u=— 039 + 12y. Velocity Gradient du ay 03x 2y +1 06y + 12 aty Velocity gradient,( 4") =~ 0.6 x0 + 12 = 12/8. Ans. ay), at y= 10 cm, 0.6 x 10+ 1 =~ 6+ 12 = 6/s. Ans. at y= 20 em, == 0.6 20+ 12=-12 + 12=0. Ans. Shear Stresses Shear stress is given by. t )14 Fluid Mechanics 6 stew siesaty=0, =u (44) = 085120 102 yo (id Shear sess at y= 10 ) = 0.85 x60= 51 Nim, (Gi) Shear stress at y= 20, + = 0.85% 0= 0, Ans. Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cm/s, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed ifa force of 200 N is applied. Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, u, = 50 emis when force, F,=40N. Let speed of sleeve is uy when force, My ~ 200 N. Using relation re where + = Shear stress = “° du = Change of velocit dy = Clearance = y A, qt and y are constant) Substituting values, we get 40 200 0 50200 2OXSDO = 50 x 5 = 250 emis. Ans. 5 ems Problem 1.17 4 15 cm diameter vertical eylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 15.10 cm. Both cylinders are 25 em high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 rpm, determine the viscosity of the fluid. Solution. Given Diameter of eylinder = 15 em=0.15 m Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10 em = 0.151 m Length of cylinders, 25m Torque,Properties of Fluids 15 Speed, N Let the viscosity (00 rpm. RDN _ x0.15x 100 Tangential velocity of cylinder, uw = TPN X015%100 _ 9.1554 mys 8 y of cy a a Surface area of cylinder, A= RD x L= wx 0.15 X 0.25 = 1178 m? Now using relation wx. 7854 F = shear stress x Area = 47854 1175 0005 D Torque, T=Fx2 : 2 120 = ESTES t7g x 8 12.0x.0005%2__ 9.664 Ny sim? 7854x1178 x 15 = 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise, Ans. Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 em apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 mis, if: (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10 N sim’. Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 em Area of thin plate, A=05m* 120m Velocity of thin plate, w= 0.6 mis even SD ae Viscosity of glycerine, w= 8.10 x 10" N sim? tem Case I. When the thin plate isin the middie of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 1.7 (a) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F = Total force required to drag the plate Then Fary+h; ‘The shear stress (t)) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,16 Fluid Mechanics du HEB) where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface 06 misee dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface 1.2 em = 0.012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate neglected) 4,= 810x107 x2] = 40.5 Nim? 012 Now shear force, 1 = Shear stress x Area =, xA=40.5 x05 = 20.25 N Similarly shear stress (2) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by 10x10 x (29_) = 40.5 Nim? 0012 Shear force, Fy =, A= 40.5 x0.5 = 20.25 N Total force, 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans. (Case II. When the thin plate is ata distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (b)] Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 cm from the lower plane surface. ten ‘Then distance ofthe pate fom the upper plane surface atm | =24-0.8= 16cm =.016m Te (Neglecting thickness of the plate) am ‘The sear fore om the per ideo he pate, = Shear sess Area =, vin 170 du 1, {06 =n (“| xa=s10x10'x{ °°) x05 =15. (4) A= 8.1010 (#5) 0.5= 15.18 N a rresica(®) oa 06 08/100 15.18 + 30.36 =10%104 5) cas an30n Total force required = Fy + S.54.N. Ans. Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N sin? and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m X 0.2 em is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. Ifthe plate isin the middle ofthe gap, find the force required. The weight ofthe plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap = 2.2 em, viscosity, = 2.0 N sim? Sq. gr of fluid 09Properties of Fluids 17 Weight density of fluid 0.9 x 1000 = 900 ket/m® = 900 x 9.81 Nim? (Co Lkgf= 9.81 N) Volume of plate = 1.2 mx 1.2mx02.em 1.2 x 1.2 x .002 m= .00288 m* Thickness of pte = 0.2m Velo ofpiue = 049 asee Weight of plate = 40, ‘When plate sin the middle ofthe gap the distance ofthe plate from venal surface ofthe gap Fig. 18 ~ [tho gp Thicknessof pate -( 2 ) _ (22-02) Now the shear force on the left side of the metallie plate, F, = Shear stress x Area (ye Area = 1.21.2 m?) =43.2N, Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate, Total shear force =FeP In this case the weight of plate (which is a taken into account. ‘The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced = (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced = 9.81 x 900 x 00288 N (Ce Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plat = 2543 N. ‘The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate ~ Upward thrust = 40 ~ 25.43 = 14.57 N Total force required to lift the plate up = Total shear force + 14.57 = 96.4 1 14.57 = 100.97 N. Ans. 13.2 443.2 = 864 N. ing vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be (00288) > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergoR_ Fluid Mechanics large variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as 5) » pv=Rror © =ar P where p= Absolute pressure of a gas in Nim? 1 ¥ = Specific volume = — ° = Gas constant Absolute temperature in °K Density of a gas. R 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as P oF (In MKS units = Kell _kehm (He m (i) In SI units, p is expressed in Newton/m* or N/m*. Ném? Nm _JOUE youre = Nm} OTe ek kek Bex We ke -—_ ie For air. Rin MKS = 293 ag Nm Rin si=29.3 x 9.81 NM ~ 97 1 ek pk 1.4.2 Isothermal Process. If the change in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by 2 = Constant (1.6) ° 1.4.3 Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the gas, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by 2 = Constant (1.7) where k = Ratio of specifi heat ofa gas at constant pressure and constant volume. = 14 for airProperties of Fluids 19 1.4.4 Universal Gas Constant Let ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg WV ~ Volume of gas of mass m p= Absolute pressure T= Absolute temperature ‘Then, we have pv = mkT 1.8) where = Gas constant, [Equation (1.8) can be made universal, ie, applicable to all gases i it is expressed in mole-basis. Let n= Number of moles in volume of a gas = Volume of the gas __ Mass of the gas molecules * "Mass of a hydrogen atom m= Mass of a gas in kg ‘Then, we have nM =m, ‘Substituting the value of m in equation (1.8), we get pV=nxMxkT wf.) “The product M x R is called universal gas constant and is equal to 848 ma MKS units and 8314 Jkg-mole K in SI units. ‘One kilogram mole is defined asthe product of one kilogram mass ofthe gas and its molecular weight Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 Nin’ at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 Ninmt. Deter- rine the gas constant and density ofthe gas. Solution. Given Weight density, w= 16 Nim? “Temperature, 125°C . T= 273 + 1= 273-425 = 288K p= 0.25 Nimm? abs.) = 0.25 x 10° Nin? = 25 x 10* Nim? (@ Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as w 16 21S 61.63 beim, Ans, g 981 eh (a Using equation (15), 2 = Rr p 25x10" pT 163x288 Problem 1.21 A cylinder of 0.6 m’ in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 Nim? absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 m'. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 Solution. Given Initial volume, Y= 0.6 m?20 Fini Mechanics ‘Temperature 1, = 50°C 1, = 273 + 50 = 323°K Pressure py = 0.3 Nimm? = 0.3 x 10° Nim? = 30 x 10° Nim’ Final volume Y,=03 m? keld (@ Isothermal process : Using equation (1.6), = Constant or p¥ = Constant. _ BAY, _ 30x10" x06 = 0.6 x 10° Nim? = 0.6 Nimm?, Ans. 03 Pa i) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), 2 = Constant orp = Constant Dives pay. vi 06 \'* py =p Zt =30x10"x | 28) =30x 10" 2"4 mony (<3) = 0.791 x 10° Ni For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get pV = RT and also p V" = Constant 0.791 Némm?, Ans. or Ris also constant} =323 (28) 23232 =426.2°K 03, 1 = 426.2 ~ 273 = 153.2°C. Ans. Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at « temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m'. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28, Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given Mass of nitrogen =5kg ‘Temperature, = 10°C A T= 273 + 10 = 283°K Volume of nitrogen, Vv=04m? Molecular weight =28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV = x Mx RTProperties of Fluids 21 where M x R = Universal gas constant = 8314 —Nt™ ikg-mole°K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x 28 314 Nm R for nitrogen = S314 - 296.9 Ben OR eK ‘The gas laws for nitrogen isp = mRT, where R = Characteristic gas constant or pxO4= 5.x 2969 x 283 5x 2969 x 283 ’ 04 = 1050283.7 Nim? = 1.05 N/mm? Ans. > 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS ‘Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of = y__» clastcity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress res to volumetric stain. TTL PISTON ‘Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig. 1.9. | HAC INNIING

1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas for on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like @ ‘membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter 6 (called sigma). In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as Nim. ‘The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by PRES SURE Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a ‘mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction, The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is an elastic membrane under tension. Fig. 1.10 Surface tension. 1.6.1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius *r’, On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting. Let a= Surface tension of the liquid Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) Dia. of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (Say left half) will be G) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (6) and this is equal to x Circumference soxnd24 Fini Mechanics Rpeyyk (i) pressure force on the area ~ d?= p x ~ das shown in (ii) pr 4 4 o ig. 1-11 (c). These two forces will be equal and opposite E a ie (@)DROPLET —(b) SURFACE TENSION or (c) PRESSURE FORCES Equation (1.14) shows that with the decrease of diameter Fig. 111 Forces on droplet. of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases. 1.6.2 Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface pxide x (0x nd) 2ond . fo (1.9) “a 4 1.6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘a’ and length “L’ as shown in Fig. 1.12, Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure = Surface tension ofthe liquid : Consider the equilibrium ofthe sent et, we have : Force due 19 pressure xe aea of seml Jet z xLxd L o 4 Force due to surface tension = 6 x 2L. Z Equating the forces, we have Z pxLxd =0%2L : p= Ok (1.16) ha a Bs Fig. 142 Forces on liquid jet. Problem 1.25 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 Nim. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/em? greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. Solution. Given Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is .02 Nfem? = 0.02 x 10" ia. of the dropletProperties of Fluids 25 Us equion 1.14, we psip= 4 or 2 tos 20728 ‘coms 00145 m = .00145 x 1000 = 1.45 mm. Ans. 0.02 x (10) Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 Nin? above atmospheric pressure. Solution. Given Dia. of bubble, 01m Pressure in excess of outside,p = 2.5 N/m? For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get SS oe 25- 8x8 40x10" 40x 10° m 25 x d0 x10" 8 Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 Nre mospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 Nim of water. Solution. Given : Nim = 0.0128 Nim. Ans. Dia. of droplet, d= 0.04 mm = 04 x 10 m Pressure outside the droplet 10.32 N/em? = 10.32 x 10* N/m? Surface tension, = 00725 Nim ‘The pressure inside the droplet in exes f outside pressure i given by equation (1.14) oe p= 48. _4X00725 «7559 nim?x 7250N. «9725 Nien? ad 04 x 10 10* cm? Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet = 0.725 + 10,32.= 11.048 Niem?. Ans. 1.6.4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as @ phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube 1s Neld vertically in the liquid. ‘The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of em or mm of liquid. Its %, value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surtace tension of the liquid. Expression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small diameter “d’ opened at both ends and is inserted in aliquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let h= height of the tguid In the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height his balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube, But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension, Fig. 1.13 Capillary rise. Let 6 = Surface tension of liquid @= Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. ‘The weight of liquid of height in the tube = (Area of tube x h) x p xg aut26 Fluid Mechanics == exhxpxg 17) 4 where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (6 x Circumference) x cos @ =0xndxcos 0 o(L18) For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get Fb xhxpxgsaxndxcos® = FXRAXCos8 _ 45-c050 or n = pxexd <1.19) Ta? xpx ge Xexe ‘The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos 8 is ‘equal to unity, Then rise of water is given by 40 pxexd Expression for Capillary Fall. Ifthe glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14, Let f= Height of depression in tube. ‘Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to 0 x ma x cos 8. Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth “hx Area (1.20) x x =px SPs pexhx © dy pzpehl Equating the two, we get oxndxcos0=pghx pe Aoc08® an ped MERCURY Value of @ for mercury and glass tube is 128°. Fig. 114 Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions = 0.0725 N/m for water and = 0.52. N/m {for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact 30°. Solution. Given Dia. of tube, S mm =2.5x 10° m Surface tension, 6 for water = 0.0725 Nim G for mercury 52 Nim Sp. gr. of mercuryProperties of Fluids 27 Density 3.6 x 1000 kg/m?, (a) Capillary rise for water (0 = 0°) 4. 4x 00725 pxgXxd 1000x981x25x10" = 0118 m= 1.18 em. Ans. ‘Using equation (1.20), we get t= (b) For mercury Angle of contact between mercury and glass tube, @ = 130° Using equation (1.21), we get h= 49.0080 ___4%0.52 x cos 130° _ pxgxd 1361000 x981x25x10 004 m =~ 0.4 em. Ans. ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 Nim and 0.51 Nim respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130°. Take density of water «at 20°C as equal 10 998 kg/m. Solution. Given Dia. of tube, d=4mm=4x 10m The capillary effect (c.., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as 40 c0s6 he pxexd Where = surface tension in N/m 0 = angle of contact, and p = density ( Capillary effect for water 6 = 0.073575 Nim, 8= 0° = 998 kg/m? at 20°C jw SX00T3575 x 605 0° 908 981w 4 ¥ 10 (ii Capillary effect for mereury =051 Nim, @= 130° and p=sp. gr. x 1000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? = 4051008130" 13600 x 9814 x10 “The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Problem 1.30 The capillary rise in the glass tube is not 10 exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its ainimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 Nim. Solution. Given : Capillary vise, = 0.2. mm = 0.2.x 10° m Surface tension, 5 = 0.0725 Nim 51x 10 m= 7.81 mm. Ans. = 2.46 x 10° m= 2.46 mm, Ans.28 Fluid Mechanics Let dia. of tube ‘The angle @ for water Density (p) for water = 1000 kg/m* Using equation (1.20), we get — 48 or o.2x 19 = —4%90725_ pxaxd 1000 x 981 xd 40075 SX OOT __ = 0.148 m= 148 em. Ans, 1000% 981% 2x10" ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8 em, Problem 1.31 Find ou she minimum size of glass sube dat cun be used 1 measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 Nim. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, = 2.0 mm = 2.0 10 m Surface tension, 6 = 0.073575 Nim Let dia. of tube a ‘The angle @ for water -0 ‘The density for water, p= 1000 ke/m* Using equation (1.20), we get 40 oe 99x 19-8 = 4X 0073575 pxgxd 1000x981 xd 4 x 0073575 A XOOTS TS __ = 0.015 m= LS em, Ans. 1000 9812 x 10" ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 em. Problem 1.32 An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r-p.m. Calculate the power last in oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of oil film is 1.0 mm. Solution. Given : Viscosity, H=5 poise = 2 205N vm? 10 Dia. of shaft, D=05m Speed of shaft, N= 200 rpm, Sleeve length, L= 100 mm= 100 x 10° m= 0.1 m ‘Thickness of oil film, f= 1.0mm=1x 10% m RDN _ x05x 200 60 Tangential velocity of shaft, «= 5.235 mis Using the relation,Properties of Fluids 29 where, du'= Change of velocity = u ~ 0 = u = 5.235 mis dy = Change of distance = ¢= 1 x 10° m 05x5235 1x10 This is the shear stress on the shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area = 26175 x Rx 0.5 x 0.1 = 410.95 N Torque on the shaft, Tr Power* lost = Tx o Watts = Tx 2=%. w Cy 74 222200 150 w= 2S. Ane > 1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION ‘A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous escaping of die molecules Uhrough the free liquid surface. Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours. Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil ‘even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Now considera flowing liquid in a system. Ifthe pressure at any point inthis flowing liquid becomes. ‘equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise (0 high impact pressure, The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these ‘vapour bubbles ia a region of higher piessute. When ihe vapour bubbles vollapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation, 287 yyw. The angular velocity @ = 22%. 0,000 0 * Power in case of SI. Unit = 7 0 of 27 Wants orFluid Mechanics. 10. a 2 The shear stress is proportional tothe velocity gradient 4. Mathematically, t= p |. Kinematic viscosity vis given by v= 3. For isothermal process, 2 Pp Bulk modulus of elasticity is given as K HIGHLIGHTS |. The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. Its also equal to, w=pxe, . Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density, du dy a in . Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively To convert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should he divided by 98.1 and to convert poise into SI units, the poise should be divided by 10. SI unit of viscosity is Ns/m* or Pas, where Nim? = Pa= Pascal Fora peti sution fata 2 = er ker kg MY 287 ke °K. ma o ‘where R = gas constant and for air = 29.3. » Tonstant whereas for adiabatic process, @ Compressibility isthe reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity or Surface tension is expressed in N/m or dynefem. The relation between surface tension (@) and difference pressure (») between the inside and outside o a Hguid drop is given a p = 4% Fora soap bubble, p= 8% For a liquid jet, por avid jo, p= 29 Copa oa of igus given by n= 49880 ‘The value of for water taken equal to 2ero and for mercury equal to EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS. Define the following fluid properties Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of a fluid Differentiate between : (?) Liquids and gases, (i) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (i) Specific weight and specific volume of a uid What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity ? State their units of ‘measurements,Properties of Fluids 31 1. . (a) Distinguish between ideal fluids and real fluids. Explain the importance of compressibility in fuid 13. 4. 16. 17. - The velocity distribution for flow over a fat plate is given by w= > |. Explain the terms : (i) Dynamic viscosity, and (ii) Kinematic viscosity. Give their dimensions . State the Newton’s law of viscosity and give examples of its application. 5 Enunciate Newton's law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion, What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air? 1. Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids What do you understand by terms: (7) Isothermal process, (i) Adiabatic process, and (iif) Universal-gas constant. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility or a perfect gas undergoing isothermal compression is + white for a perfect gas undergoing isentropic compression is P “P ee ee ee eee eee tut exces out pst gen p= 4 Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain an expression for capillary rise ofa liquid flow. (0) Derine the terms : density, specific volume, specific gravity, vacuum pressure, compressible and incompressible fluids. (RGP. Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal $ 2002) Define and explain Newton’s law of viscosity Convert 1 kg/s-m dynamic viscosity in poise ‘Why does the viscosity of a gas increases withthe increase in temperature while that of aliquid decreases ‘with increase in temperature ? (a) How does viscosity of a fluid vary with temperature ? (b) Cite examples where surface tension effects play a prominent role. (.N.T.U., Hyderabad $ 2002) (0 Develop the expression for the relation between gauge pressure P inside a droplet of liquid and the surface tension, (G Explain the following Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids, vapour pressure, and compressibility (RGPL., Bhopal § 2001) (8) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS |. One litre of erude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity. Ans. 9600 Nim’, 978.6 kg/m’, 0.978] Fy — where u is the point velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 9 em. Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise (Nagpur University) [Ans. 0.839 Nim") }- A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate. moves at 50 cnvs and requires a force of 1.471 Nin? to ‘maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates in the poise. [Ans. 7.357 x 10] 1. Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used for lubrication in the Clearance between a 10 em diameter shaft and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.0 mm and shaft rotates at 200 rpm. [Ans. 125.56 N/m] Iwo plates are placed ata distance of 0.19 mm apart. he lower plate is ixed while the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m’ is pulled at 0.3 nvs, Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, ifthe Mluid separating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise [Ans. 300 N, 89.8 W] ‘Anil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.9 mx 0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20°. The weight of the sqare ix 309-4 N and it slides down the plane with a uniform velocity of 0.2 mvs. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil. [Ans. 12.42 poise]Fluid Mechanics 10. nL. 12. 1B. rs 17. 18. 19. 20, a. 2. Ina stream of glycerine in motion, - Find the kinematle viscosity of an oll having density 980 kg/m when ata certain point inthe ol 4 certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per se per mete. ‘The mass density of Muid is 1268.4 kg per cubic metre and kinematic viscosity i 630 x 10~ square metee per second. Calculate the shear stress a the point. [Ans. 0.2 Nin’) the shear mt stress is 025 Nin? and velsty gradient is 0.31 [amoomsin rsa sets ). Determine the specific gravity ofa fluid having viscosity 0.07 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.042 stokes. Ans. 1.667] the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 2.0. [Ans. 11.99 poise] If the velocity distribution ofa fluid over plate is given by w= (3/4) y— ¥2, where wis the velocity in metre per second ata distance of y metres above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 metre. Take dynamic viscosity ofthe fuid as 8.5 x 10° kg-seeém™ [Ans. 3825 % 10° kgtim’] ‘An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft is (0.5 m and it rotates at 200 rp.m. Calculate the power lost in the ol fora sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of the oll ftm is 1.0 mm. ans. 2.13 kW] Deter 2 ‘The velocity distribution over a plate is given by w= 5 y—y* in which w is the velocity in m/sec at a distance of y m above the plate. Determine the shear sitess at y= 0, 0.1 and 0.2 m, Take w= 6 poise. [Ans. 0.4, 0.028 and 0.159 Nim?) In question 13, find the distance in metres above the plate, at which the shear stress is zero. [Ans. 0.333 m] . The velocity profile ofa viscous fluid over a plate is parabolic with vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 env Calculate the velocity gradiont and shear strese at distances of 0, $ and 1S em from the plat, given the viscosity of the fluid = 6 poise. (Ans. 12, 7.18 Nim’; 9/5, 5.385 Nim* ;3/s, 1.795 Ném*] - The weight of a gas is given as 17.658 Nim’ at 30°C and at an absolute pressure of 29.43 Nicm*. Deter- ‘A cylinder of 0.9 m? in volume contains air at O°C and 39.24 Niem? absolute pressure. The air is ‘compressed 10 0.45 m'. Find (i) the pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process, (Ans, (i) 78,48 Nécm’, (ii) 103.5 N/m’, 140°C] ‘Calculate the pressure exerted by 4 kg mass of nitrogen gas ata temperature of 15°C if the volume is 0.35 nv. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. [Ans. 97.8 Nice] ‘The pressure ofa liquid is increased from 60 Nicm to 100 Nlem and volume decreases by 0.2 per cent Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity. [Ans.2 x 10" Niem"] Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of @ uid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of (0.009 m? at 70 Nrew pressure toa volume of 0.0085 mat 270 Nien pressure. [Ans. 3.6 x 10° Nicm] ‘The surface tension of water in contact wih air at 20°C is given as 0.0716 Nim. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.0147 Niem? greater than the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water [Ans. 1.94 mm] Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 30 mm dlameter When the Inside pressure Is 1,962 N/m’ above atmosphere {[Ans. 0.00735 Nm] }- The surface tension of water in contact with ar is given as 0.0725 Nim. The pressure outside the droplet of water af iameter 002 mm is amospheic (1022S) alee the presse within the dope ot water. (Ans. 11.77 Nlem*]Properties of Fluids 33 24, 25. 26. a7. 28, 2, 30, 3h 32. Calculate the capillary rise ina glass tube of 3.0 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water, and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions for mercury and water as 0.0725 Nim and 0.52 Ném respectively in contact with air. Specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6. [Ans. 0.965 em, 0.3275 em} ‘The capillary rise in the glass tube used for meacuring water level isnot o exceed 0.5 mm. Determine ‘minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.07112 Nim. [Ans. 5.8 em] {SI Units). One live of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specie weight, density and specifi gravity. [Ans. 9600 N/m’; 979.6 kfm ; 0.9786] (SI Units) piston 796 mm diameter and 200 mm long works in a cylinder of 800 mm diameter. Ifthe annular space is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 5 ep (centi-poise), calculate the speed of descent ‘of the piston in vertical position, The weight of the piston and axial load are 9.81 N. [Ans. 7.84 ms] (SI Units), Find the capillary rise of water in a tube 0.03 em diameter. The surface tension of water is, 0.0735 Nim, [Ans. 9.99 em] Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of two lites ofa liquid which weight 15 N. Ans. 7500 Nim’, 764.5 kg/m’, 0.768] A 150 mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 151 mm. ‘Both the cylinders are of 250 mim height. The space between the cylinders is filled with aliquid of viscos- ity 10 poise. Determine the torgue required to rotate the inner eylinder at 100 rpm. (Ans. 13:87 Nm] AA shalt of diameter 120 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 122 mm ata speed of 360 rpm. ‘The space between the shaft and the bearing is filled with a lubricating oil of viscosity 6 poise. Find the ‘power absorbed in oil if the length of bearing is 100 mm. [Ans. 115.73 W] A shaft of diameter 100 mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter 102 mm at a space of 360 rpm, The apace between the shaft and bearing ie filled witha lubricating oil of viecosity 5 poise. The length of the bearing is 200 mm, Find the power absorbed in the lubricating oil. (Ans. 111.58 W] Assuming that the bulk modulus of elasticity of water is 2.07 x 10° kN/m? at standard atmospheric conditions, determine the increase of pressure necessary to produce 1% reduction in volume at the same temperature, é = 1 [Hint. K = 2.07 x 10 at i KNin? SI = 7g = 00 Increase in pressure () A square plate of size 1 mx I mand weighing 350 N slides down an inclined plane with a uniform velocity ‘of 1,5 mi. The inclined plane is laid on a slope of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal and has an ol film of 1 mm. thickness. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil [NT.U, Hyderabad, 8 2002) 5 _BC 2” AB |AB? + BC? =i +s?=13 34.615 (itn. 4, im,w SU N,u > mvs tan 8 ‘Component of weight along the plane = W x sin @ A where sin 0 = BC. Now Om wa 1.5 ve and dy-= 1 mim = 1 310°? m 134615 1107 = 0.897 poise 1S a