Journal of Polymer Research (2020) 27: 38

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10965-020-2004-1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Biodegradable polymers: a cure for the planet, but a long way to go

Guang-Zhong Yin 1 & Xiao-Mei Yang 1

Received: 3 May 2019 / Accepted: 2 January 2020 / Published online: 22 January 2020
# The Polymer Society, Taipei 2020

Abstract
Nowadays, vigorously researching and developing biodegradable materials is an effective way to solve the problem of white
pollution. As far as we know, systematic research in environmental compatibility of biodegradable polymers has not been
reported. Furthermore, there are few tangible products in the relevant frontier fields that really benefit consumers. The research
and development of biodegradable materials still has a long way to go, which is mainly manifested in its low consumption
nowadays and the series of degradation effects all may adding burden to the current environment. Combined with the current
background, this work reviewed the general classification and the application of typical biodegradable polymers, providing
readers an intuitive and systematic understanding of biodegradable polymers. Moreover, we analyzed some shortcomings of the
recent research, and briefly proposed some development directions and solutions to the main existed problems, namely, cost
control, in-depth development of functions and applications, materials source extension, enhancement of environmental protec-
tion awareness and regulations, and systematical assessment of environmental compatibility of the biodegradable polymers.

Keywords Biodegradable polymers . Aliphatic polyesters . Natural macromolecules . Environmental protection . White pollution

Introduction after their end-of-life have not mirrored the current consump-
tion resulting in huge accumulation over the years that
Since the synthesis of the first synthetic polymer in the 1970s, compounded the disposal problem and adding on to the envi-
the polymer materials nearly have penetrated in every aspect ronmental challenge [4]. As reported, only 13% of all plastic is
of the national economy and people’s lives with its rich vari- currently recycled (12% by mechanical means and 1% by
ety, excellent performance, proper price and some other con- monomer recycling). The vast majority of plastic waste
venient applications. The polymer materials have become so (40%) finds its way into landfills, 25% is incinerated, while
widely used that global production is expected to exceed 500 another 22% is unmanaged dumps and rejected in recycling
million metric tons by 2050 [1]. Nowadays, discarded synthet- [5]. From above the data, it is found that the plastic pollution
ic polymeric materials such as ordinary plastic materials tend has become a bad phenomenon that occurred since the birth of
to accumulate rather than degrade in the environment due to the synthetic polymers. As shown in Fig. 1, each environmen-
their stability and high durability. The solid waste manage- tal pollution case is extremely shocking, and these phenomena
ment for plastic materials (e. g. food packaging bags, plastic will become increasing fierce if not controlled and solved in
containers and agricultural mulch) relies upon dumping in time. With the gradual progress of society, people are increas-
landfills and incineration [2]. These methods, however, are ingly aware of the importance of environmental protection,
not ecologically sustainable development because landfills and academic research on environmental issues has received
cause groundwater contamination and the burning of the more and more attention. Therefore, developing a large num-
waste materials resulting in hazardous gasses emissions [3]. ber of practical civil biodegradable polymer materials, and
In addition, recovery and recycling of the plastic materials designing new catalysts or polymerization methods to reduce
the application cost of biodegradable polymeric materials
Guang-Zhong Yin and Xiao-Mei Yang contributed equally to the work. should become one of the hotspots in academia. After all, in
most cases, consumers are not willing to pay more for a prod-
* Guang-Zhong Yin uct that is natural and/or biodegradable. As mentioned by
[email protected] Richard A. Gross [6], consumers have attached little or no
added value to the property of biodegradability, forcing indus-
1
China Textile Academy, Beijing 100025, China try to compete head-to-head on a cost performance basis with
38 Page 2 of 14 J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38

Fig. 1 Live presentation of white pollution (a) earth, (b) widespread use corridor” of the coastline, and (f) white pollution of the river-the earth’s
of agricultural mulch, (c) plastic waste that can be seen everywhere in the blood clots (Figures (without copyright statements) are are chose from
mountains and wilderness, (d) marine life trapped by plastic, (e) “white internet)

existing familiar products. Typically, in South Africa, plastic cleavage of ester group (-COO-), amide bonds (-CONH-) or
bag use is still widespread because of its convenient and low ether bonds (-O-). Herein, we mainly mentioned the most
cost despite intervention efforts based on levying taxes [7]. widely studied aliphatic polyesters and typical natural macro-
Although the Chinese government approved a ban on molecules. We will elaborate on the respective categories in
imported “recyclable” solid wastes in April 2017, China is the following. The chemical structures of selected biodegrad-
still the world’s largest plastic producer and consumer, pro- able polymers are listed in Fig. 2.
ducing 81.2 million tons in 2016 representing 29% of the
plastic (only thermoplastics and polyurethanes) production Aliphatic polyester Aliphatic polyesters, such as PCL, Poly(3-
worldwide [8, 9]. This work here will summarize some of hydroxybutyrate) [14], PLA and PHAs [15], and their corre-
the current research on biodegradable polymers through some sponding copolymers are of importance among biodegradable
conceptual statements, and to clarify the development status. materials. These polymers are potentially productive for ap-
More importantly, this study aims to point out the shortcom- plication as a degradable packaging material and in specific
ings in the development process and to investigate the possible areas, including medicine, pharmacology and agriculture [16].
development direction for the future field. Finally, it clarifies The application of polyester will be described in the next
some solutions to the existed practical problems. Beyond the section. It is reported that aliphatic can be hydrolyzed (such
design of new materials, this will require collaboration across as the hydrolysis of ester bonds and biological catalysis [17,
scientific and nonscientific disciplines as well as political and 18]) to obtain an oligomer and eventually monomer. The deg-
public to ensure success. radation rate is affected by the crystallinity, porosity of the
polymer and pH of the solution. Generally, low crystallinity
and high porosity both accelerate the degradation rate. [19]
Brief classification of biodegradable polymers Moreover, as a typical aliphatic polyester, PHA is also natural
macromolecule, because they can be produced directly from
Biodegradable polymer is a high molecular weight polymer renewable resources by microbes.
that degrades to low molecular weight compounds owing to
the action of micro- and/ or macroorganisms or enzymes. Natural macromolecules As the name implies, natural mac-
Polyester (e.g. Polycaprolactone (PCL) and Poly (lactide acid) romolecules are macromolecules that can be directly ex-
(PLA), et al.), amide-containing polymer, polyurethane and tracted from nature and/or produced by living organisms.
almost all the natural macromolecules have heteroatoms in Natural rubber, lignin and polysaccharides are the most
the main chain, which are potentially susceptible to hydrolytic widely studied natural macromolecules. Polysaccharides
J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38 Page 3 of 14 38

Fig. 2 Chemical structures of selected biodegradable polymers. (a) and woods) of some compounds; (c) some polyurethane and (d) amide-
Aliphatic polyesters (e.g. PHB, PLA, PGA, PCL, PBS and PHAs containing polymer (e.g. thermal polyaspartate (TPA) [6], protein (e.g.
(please note that PHB is a kind of PHAs)); (b) natural macromolecules human insulin (PDB Code: 3I40)) and typical polypeptide [13]). Notably,
(e.g. cellulose [10], chitin, chitosan, amylose, lignin [11, 12], and major protein is also a natural macromolecule
sources (e.g. cotton, crustacean shell, foods rich in starch (e. g. potatoes)

mainly include cellulose, chitin, chitosan, amylose, sodium such as biodegradable polyurethane (PU, Fig. 2c) [25, 26],
alginate etc. (It can be seen more examples of polysaccha- amide-containing polymer (Fig. 2d, e. g. polypeptide [27],
rides form reference [20]) Taking lignin as a typical exam- proteins [28], TPA) and so on. Interestingly, to date, poly
ple, Ashok et al. [21] reported a techno-economic feasibil- (vinyl alcohol) is the only polymer with exclusively carbon
ity of an sustainable and green process for the cost- atoms in the main chain that is regarded as biodegradable
effective and large-scale manufacturing of colloidal lignin polymer [6], which is currently used in textiles, paper and
particles. Commercially feasible products are receiving in- packaging industries as paper coatings, adhesives, and films.
creasing attention with cost-effective production of colloi- Polypeptide, DNA and protein are generally the research ob-
dal lignin particles. More recently, colloidal lignin has the jects in the field of life science and rarely involved in the
potential to replace for petroleum-based feedstock like environmental fields.
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), and can be used in attractive applica-
tions like phenol formaldehyde (PF) resins, foams, carbon
fillers, bactericides and composites [22]. The typical natu- Typical applications of biodegradable
ral macromolecule chemical structure and its main source polymers
are indicated in Fig. 2 (B). In addition, sodium alginate
([23, 24]) is a very important polysaccharides, which have The current market for bioplastics is characterized by a strong
widely used in hydrogel preparation and medical fields dynamic growth rate, with a global market value of several
(e.g. alginate fiber for hemostatic gauze). We believe that billions per year [29]. There are a multitude of applications of
with the deepening of research, each natural macromole- biodegradable polymer, ranging from food packaging to key-
cule will be greatly developed, including sources, extrac- boards in electronics, or interior parts for the automotive sec-
tion and purification routes, and based on its modification tor. A snapshot of the main fields of biodegradable materials
and product development, natural macromolecules will in- application is shown in Fig. 3. We will briefly describe the
deed benefit humans in many aspects. application of polyester, and then review the application of
natural macromolecules, to outline the application of biode-
Others In addition to the above important polyesters and poly- gradable polymers through the two typical types of biodegrad-
saccharides, there are other types of biodegradable polymers, able macromolecules.
38 Page 4 of 14 J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38

Fig. 3 Biodegradable materials-a snapshot of the main fields of applica- (Redrawn from reference [36], Copyright (2014) Elsevier) and (d) drug
tion. Polyesters can be widely used in (a) electronics, e. g. nanogenerator delivery (surgical suture, drug loading nanoparticles); and natural macro-
[30, 31], (b) environmental protection, e. g. fresh-keeping, packaging molecules (taking cellulose (e), lignin (f), chitin (g) as typical examples)
[32], oil-water separation (Adapted with permission from reference are widely used in lithium metal batteries, lignin sunscreen (Adapted with
[33], Copyright (2018) ACS) and agricultural mulch [34], (c) tissue en- permission from reference [37], Copyright (2018) ACS), biomass trans-
gineering (bone regeneration (Adapted with permission from reference formation (e.g. lignin derived phenolic compounds) [38], and carbon
[35], Copyright (2015) ACS) cartilage regeneration, e.g. artificial ear fiber, etc.

Aliphatic polyester conventional polyurethane (PU) foam to some extent. We fur-

ther believe PLA has the potential to replace traditional poly-
Replacement of traditional polymers for environmental pro- mers such as PP, Polystyrene (PS), and PE for various appli-
tection A large part of polyesters such as PCL and PLA are cations, especially in agricultural aspect (as reported above)
used in the field of environmental protection, e. g. food pack- [43].
aging, food fresh-keeping, biodegradable agricultural mulch
and so on. [39] Nowadays, BASF is working with Xinjiang Tissue engineering Aliphatic polyester materials are favored
province (China) to promote biodegradable agricultural mulch in the field of tissue engineering scaffolds because of their
applications. The experimental results showed that biodegrad- excellent biocompatibility [44]. The current research mainly
able films can not only ensure crop yield but also do not cause focuses on bone tissue engineering [45], vascular substitute
soil pollution compared with traditional PE agricultural [46], cartilage regeneration (artificial ears and tracheal tubes)
mulch. It is agreed that biodegradable agricultural mulch is a [36, 47] anti-adhesive materials [48], and artificial skin [49],
good alternative to solve agricultural white pollution to ordi- etc. There are two main forms for tissue engineering, namely
nary agricultural mulch. If it can be widely used, it will be a membrane and porous 3D scaffold. For the preparation of
revolution to control the white pollution of agriculture and membranes, such as anti-adhesive membrane, electrospinning
promote the development of Xinjiang’s agriculture by leaps techniques are generally employed [50]. For the preparation of
and bounds. Moreover, with the ever-increasing industrial oily 3D materials, the use of pore-foaming agent assisted
wastewater and frequent oil spill accidents, the treatment of porogenesis [51], phase separation [52] or emerging 3D print-
oily wastewater has become a worldwide problem [40]. More ing techniques [53] are widely reported. In recent years, the
recently, polyester materials with high porosity showed the research on the preparation of vascular scaffolds from degrad-
excellent properties of oil-water separation and great applica- able polymer materials has attracted the attention of many
tion prospect in the field due to its high porosity and strong researchers, because biodegradable polymer materials are a
hydrophobic properties [41, 42], which can replace the very promising vascular medical material. For example, Guo
J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38 Page 5 of 14 38

et al. [54] used electrospinning technology to prepare a series applications due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability,
of small-caliber vascular stent materials by regulating the ratio and low immunogenicity [65]. We only elaborate on a few
of PCL to PU. Moreover, Huang et al. [55] used important aspects and take some common polysaccharides
electrospinning to prepare P (LLA-CL) into artificial blood (e.g. cellulose, chitin and alginate) and lignin as examples to
vessels and loaded heparin to release it in dogs. outline the application of natural macromolecules.

Drug delivery The aliphatic polyester is a hydrophobic poly- Cellulose The science of cellulose started in 1837 with the
mer, and PLA is exemplified here as a typical example. The discovery by Anselme Payen of the existence of a fibrous
application of PLA in drug delivery is mainly characterized by substance present in all plants [66]. In 1995, Favier et al. re-
the synthesis of a new series of block polymers, as a biocom- ported the first attempt to reinforce a polymer with cellulose
patible hydrophobic segment, and finally the preparation of whiskers [67]. Since then, nanocellulose materials have been
micelles or polymer microspheres [56], for the purpose of mixed or dispersed in a variety of polymer matrices and used
drug loading finally. For example, Liu et al. ([57] synthesized for different applications, e. g. electrospun bio-nanocomposite
PLA-PCL containing four-arm block copolymer, and the scaffold for bone tissue by nanocellulose reinforcing maleic
resulting micelles have good stability, excellent drug loading anhydride grafted PLA [50]. The solubility and processability
and pH-sensitive controllable release performance. In addi- of celluloses remain challenging due to their structural hetero-
tion, there are also blended drugs (e. g. benzoxaborole drugs) geneity and dense networks of inter- and intra-molecular inter-
in polymers in the PLA matrix, which are a new class of actions. Fortunately, ionic liquids, regarded as green solvents,
antibacterial, antiviral and antiparasitic drugs. [58] PCL surgi- have been increasingly appreciated for their unparalleled pow-
cal sutures and other loaded drugs to achieve hemostasis, bac- er for cellulose processing [68]. By the dissolution of celluloses
teriostatic and other effects, which is also an example of a in ionic liquids, various materials including sponges [69],
typical drug-loaded medical material application. nanoparticles, and aerogels [70]. As shown in Fig. 4a, the
cellulose nanofibrils aerogels have been successfully fabricat-
Electronics The rapid development of flexible and portable ed from rice straw cellulose. Typically, the aerogels also exhibit
electronics will revolutionize people’s lives [59, 60]. For in- extraordinary absorption of over 200 times toward saline solu-
stance, wearable electronics and smart sensors attract growing tion, far exceeding acrylic-based superabsorbent. In addition,
interest for their specific attempt in health monitoring [61], after decades of development, cellulose has successfully de-
wireless communication [62], and smart packaging [63]. rived the general direction of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC)
However, as with other environmentally-friendly areas, the [71], regenerated cellulose fiber (Lyocell), carboxymethylcel-
fast upgrading of electronics also will bring a serious problem, lulose (CMC) and nitrocellulose (NC). As shown in Fig. 4b,
that is, the electronic waste, which will result in a waste of with the purpose of promoting its redispersibility in water, the
money and cause pollution to environment. Hence, flexible strategy of triazole end-grafting performed on CNC was pro-
devices entirely built with biodegradable and nontoxic mate- posed, exhibiting the significant improvement on the
rials receive growing attention. As it is reported, transparent redispersion and stability of nanocrystals in the aqueous sus-
cellulose nanopaper and PLA electret were used to construct a pension attributed to synergistic effect of steric stabilization
biodegradable and transparent paper-based electret and electrostatic repulsion. The end-modified CNC was then
nanogenerator. The nanogenerator could be assembled with introduced into a natural rubber (NR) matrix to fabricate the
paper products to form a self-powered smart packaging sys- composites with reactive compatibility from a thiol-ene click
tem without impairing the appearance, due to the high trans- reaction. Ascribed to the formation of covalent linkage be-
parency and desirable output performance [64]. We believe tween nanofillers and matrix together with the architecture of
that eco-friendly electronics with low cost, high flexibility, the rigid percolating network, the mechanical properties of
and light weight may be an appropriate solution to address obtained composites were remarkably advanced. In addition,
the above issue. CMC and NC have achieved remarkable results and applica-
tions in lots of directions, such as Podophyllotoxin-CMC con-
Natural macromolecules jugates [72], chitosan/CMC polyelectrolyte complex hydrogel
[73], CMC-based polymeric nanoparticles for efficient anti-
In general, natural macromolecules themselves can be used as cancer drug codelivery [74], and NC membranes to support
a powerful biomass source for other compounds. They can be DNA for electrical characterization [75].
put into production due to their excellent performance and be
used as functional modifiers in the modification of other poly- Chitin Chitin shares structural similarity to cellulose, which is
mers. It is gradually developing towards high-tech fields such considered as the second most abundant biopolymer after cel-
as smart manufacturing, environmental protection and elec- lulose [76]. Chitin possesses attractive properties, such as bio-
tronics. Biopolymers are particularly suitable for biomedical compatibility, biodegradability, and the ability to promote
38 Page 6 of 14 J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38

Fig. 4 a photograph of a cellulose based aerogel on top of a dandelion, nanocrystals in water and reactive compatibility of end modified
and the sequential snapshots of removing a layer of Sudan IV dyed nanocrystals and natural rubber. Adapted with permission from reference
decane on top of water (Adapted with permission from reference [70], [71], Copyright (2018) ACS)
Copyright (2014) RSC); and (b) the dispersion of end-modified cellulose

tissue regrowth [77]. This biopolymer and its derivatives have Lignin Lignin is one of the three essential components from
been applied in the medical area, lithium metal batteries [76], wood and one of the most abundant biopolymers next to cellu-
enzyme immobilization [78], cardiac surgery [79], water treat- lose and chitin [80]. The chemical structure of lignin is complex
ment (e. g. water purification [80] and oil-in-water emulsion and shown in Fig. 2b. It is referred as a three-dimensional amor-
separation [81], and biomass transformations (for example, α- phous polymer consisting of phenylpropane units based on the
Chitin can converse into oligomers of N-Acetyl-D-glucos- three monolignols as coniferyl, sinapyl, and p-coumaryl alco-
amine) [82]. More importantly, after partial or complete hol. Lignin can be used as an important source of other com-
deacetylation of chitin, chitosan is produced, which has-NH2 pounds, namely, depolymerization of lignin to generate novel
functionality [65]. Chitosan possesses many important prop- chemicals [11], e. g. acetophenones and phenolic compounds
erties including low toxicity, high adsorption capacity, film [38, 92]. Lignin can be also directly applied to the modification
forming ability, and bacteriostatic action. Therefore, blends of polymers by blending, and used also as a reactive component
of chitosan with synthetic polymers can be used in food pack- in various resins and polymers [93]. Furthermore, lignin fibers
aging [83], and can find unique applications in biology and were successfully spun from the fractionated solvated lignin
biomedical field such as drug carriers, [84, 85] scaffolds for precursor by dry-spinning. Subsequently, the lignin fibers could
tissue repair [86, 87] and so on. Notably, it can be further be rapidly stabilized and carbonized to produce carbon fibers
chemically modified by other functional compounds or be a [94]. More recently, it is reported that lignin has broad-spectrum
modifier for some other polymers. For example, chitosan de- UV-blocking and synergistic properties. Therefore, the light-
rivatives were successfully synthesized by aldehyde-amine colored lignin was used as an additive in the preparation of
condensation with aldehydes, and were then used to enhance lignin-based sunscreen [37, 95].
the fire retardancy of thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) to-
gether with ammonium polyphosphate [88]. (see Fig. 5a).
Perspectives
Alginate Alginate is a linear copolymer of α-1, 4-D-
mannuronate (M) and α-1, 4-L-guluronate (G) repeating mo- The amount of rural packaging and ordinary agricultural
nomeric units. Alginate has many industrial uses in food in- mulch is tremendously huge. The farmers’ awareness of envi-
dustry, textile printing industry, paper industry, wound dress- ronmental protection is weak, resulting in serious white pol-
ings and drug formulation due to its biocompatibility, relative- lution of rivers, mountains and lakes. In the urban, disposable
ly low price, and abundance. Gelation of alginate may happen packaging for take-away food and express delivery, network
by the interaction between carboxylate groups and divalent or shopping, leading to the production of large-scale transporta-
trivalent metal ion in aqueous solution, forming strong, rigid tion garbage, which brings large domestic waste and disposal
and ordered structures, the hydrogels [90]. For a typical ex- costs and environmental burden to the city. The 73rd UN
ample, the Calcium alginate structure were introduced in the General Assembly recently held a special meeting to discuss
hydrogel system (Fig. 5(b)), ensuring that the gel can be the global issue of working together to reduce plastic waste.
stretched to 17 times its initial length [89]. In addition, the Participants believed that they should change consumption
Sodium alginate is soluble in water, forming very viscous habits, reduce plastic waste, and increase the recyclability of
solutions or jellies which depend on their physical properties. plastics globally and provide more effective plastic waste
Due to its water solubility, sodium alginate is a desirable can- treatment solutions. (https://www.un.org/pga/73/playitout/)
didate for aqueous processing, and alginate fibers have been (https://ec.europa.eu/commission/news/opening-73rd-united-
produced through wet-spinning process [91]. nations-general-assembly-2018-sep-25_nl).
J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38 Page 7 of 14 38

Fig. 5 a Synthesis routes of chitosan derivatives and digital photographs calcium alginate enhanced gel containing the notch was stretched to 17
of residual char after Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) tests (Adapted with times its initial length and schematics of the hydrogel. Redrawn from
permission from reference [88], Copyright (2017) Elsevier). b The reference [89]. Copyright (2012) Nature Publishing Group

In our opinion during the short term, the issues cannot be of zeolites are essential to attain record lactide yields,
improved obviously. However, environmental protection is a outperforming those of the current multistep process by
necessary measure for people’s survival and development. avoiding both racemization and side-product formation, [96]
The research and application of biodegradable polymers men- which gives us a concrete direction to produce PLA with low-
tioned above is undoubtedly a very important element of this er cost than before. This integration of biotechnology and
initiative. The design of biodegradable polymers with envi- chemistry is an important strategy that will be critical to im-
ronmentally friendly and abundant raw materials, new mold- provements in many other chemical processes in future years.
ing technology and new application directions for developing In addition, blending into low-cost additives or functional
many existed degradable materials have become one of the modification auxiliaries can be used to reduce costs without
most closely studied research topics in the world. As we know, affecting material properties. For example, to reduce
biodegradable polymers have been researched for decades, manufacturing costs, PCL may be blended with starch [32,
and now they have formed a relatively mature system and 97]. Moreover, cost control can also include green chemical
development trend. However, there are still many bottleneck production processes, such as the exploration of new methods
problems in many aspects, and it is indeed a long way to go to of energy saving and emission reduction [21].
solve the problems completely. In the following, we will cat- At last but not the least, using process optimization and
egorize some key points, mainly focusing on the following recycling of materials can reduce environmental costs, which
five aspects, which runs through the whole life track of bio- are also effective ways to control costs. Guido Sonnemann et al.
degradable polymers as depicted in Fig. 6. [98] proposed to assess the environmental impacts of a prom-
ising new route for producing alkyl polyglycosides. After the
Cost control life cycle assessment (LCA), they find that the use of wheat
straw lowers the environmental impacts of alkyl polyglycosides
High cost restricts the application of polyester materials in compared to a reference scenario using corn starch. More re-
agriculture and large-scale food packaging to some extent. cently, the selective catalytic hydrogenolysis using a molecular
The most common food packaging and beverage bottling ma- ruthenium complex of a variety of the most abundant polyester
terials are mainly PET, and the agricultural mulch are mainly and polycarbonate polymers is presented, resulting in novel
PE and PP. Cost control is the primary way for biodegradable possibilities for efficient polymer recycling within a circular
polymers (especially for polyester) to replace conventional economy approach [99]. Notably, we believe that biodegrad-
polymers. The process can be divided into the cost reduction able materials may be not be more expensive than ordinary
of the monomer and the optimization of the polymerization films throughout the whole life cycle; with the large-scale pro-
method (e. g. energy consumption and processing simplify- motion and application of biodegradable agricultural mulch.
ing). In terms of the cost of polymerization, the development
of new synthetic processes or catalysts to reduce costs is a In-depth development of functions and applications
model of established precedents. Notably, Michiel Dusselier
et al. presented a direct zeolite-based catalytic process, which There are still lack of systematic and comprehensive applica-
converts lactic acid into lactide. The shape-selective properties tion cases. For example, the oil-water separation by polyesters
38 Page 8 of 14 J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38

Fig. 6 The life track of biodegradable polymers

based porous materials only stays at the stage of proposing Anyway, we have a good desire for the future of research on
concepts, and there was no systematic evaluation of its prac- environmentally friendly materials.
tical performance [52]. In the field of tissue engineering, most
of the researches are still in the laboratory stage, only a few Material source extension
cases have entered clinical trials and are being put into medical
use. Typically, the Absorb GT1™ biodegradable stent devel- Global polymer products are increasing at high speed, and the
oped by Abbott was just approved by the US FDA in 2017. production will rise to more than 200 million in near future
(https://www.un.org/pga/73/playitout/) At the time, Abbott’s [103]. Therefore, a large amount of non-renewable fossil fuel
pre-study results showed that Absorb GT1 was almost will be consumed, intensifying white pollution and accelerat-
completely absorbed in three years and was considered as ing environmental degradation. Developing clean and renew-
the fourth revolution in the history of human coronary inter- able new materials instead of fossil fuel is a green industry,
vention surgery. The degradation of PLA used in degradable which has been paid much attention in countries over the
stents takes 3.5 years, but now the clinically recommended world. In recent years, research on biomass-derived polymers
dual antiplatelet therapy is generally believed to be 12 months [104, 105] (polymerized from biomass small molecules) or
[100]. They are remarkably not matched. Herein, we can see biomass macromolecules (such as cellulose, sodium alginate,
although the product has already been reported, it still needs a chitosan, etc.) has been a hot research topic because they can
long way to go to achieve its true mass use. This requires us to achieve a good natural circulation of polymers in nature. For
deepen the existing research hotspots and promote the devel- example, Junming Xu et al. ([106]) investigated an effective
opment of degradable polymer materials in related fields, es- method that can produce a high value-added fuel additive
pecially in the field of tissue engineering scaffolds. (methyl levulinate) from lignocellulosic biomass for produc-
We believe that developing new features of existing mate- ing methyl levulinate via directional microwave-assisted
rials and maximizing their functions, and developing high liquefaction.
value-added products to maximize benefits will be an inevita- The major part of those chemicals that decomposed from
ble research trend, which requires a large amount of research traditional polymers accumulates in the environment and biota
inputs. Tissue engineering scaffolding materials have brought and pollutes soil and water. The key way to the above problem
good news to people with physical damage. Therefore, tissue is to find a suitable material possessing special properties,
engineering has also opened a new frontier application win- including environmental safety, chemical compatibility with
dow for the application of biodegradable polymers. There is a agricultural preparations, and controlled degradability without
need for research with high added value, for example, the use forming toxic products [14]. One solution is to decrease the
of new technologies for the polyester-based materials in smart cost of synthetic polyesters (e.g. PCL and PLA) and increase
electronics, biological tissue engineering scaffolds [101, 102] their utilization rate as mentioned above. To this end, the core
(such as PCL-based shape memory polymers and self-healing idea is to develop new methods for the preparation of existing
materials). These high-tech aspects are extremely promising. polymer products for cost reduction or function enhancement.
J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38 Page 9 of 14 38

Another solution is to expand new sources of materials, which Japan used to be a country with very serious environmen-
includes mainly the discovery of new biomass-derived com- tal pollution. Since the 1970s, Japan has embarked on
pounds and the development of new material preparation stud- environmental protection, legislation, the introduction of
ies based on existing compounds. policies, the promotion of environmental technology in-
The research on biomass will help to solve the social prob- novation, and the strengthening of environmental aware-
lem of depletion of petrochemical resources. For example, all ness among the people, especially for the garbage classi-
the biomass cinnamic acid, succinic acid and glycerin can be fication. Nowadays, it has developed into a livable place
used to prepare fully biodegradable aliphatic polyesters [107]. with fresh air, beautiful scenery and pleasant surround-
Another promising approach is the chemical recycling ings. Japan’s effective measures and successful experi-
through depolymeration. The European Environmental ences in environmental governance and protection are
Agency is fostering research toward a “circular economy” well worth learning.
with effective recycling strategies as a core task [99]. For a
typical example, J. Robertson et al. initiated research in this Systematical assessment of environmental
direction and used homogeneous catalysts with molecular hy- compatibility of the biodegradable polymers
drogen for a catalytic depolymerization of polyesters to alco-
hol monomers [108]. The natural polymers are biodegraded by a range of catabolic
Notably, lots of recent works point out that the dynamic metabolisms catalyzed by series of enzymes. This catabolism
polymeric materials may be an effective way to truly “recy- produces both energy and building blocks for the biosynthesis
clable”. For examples, Eugene Y.-X. Chen et al. [109] report- of new materials. In the tissue engineering aspect, the long-
ed a polymer system based on γ-butyrolactone. (Fig. 7a) Such term safety that is like the effects on the tissues and cells after
trans-ring fusion renders the commonly considered as degradation, is the main factor restricting its clinical applica-
nonpolymerizable γ-butyrolactone ring readily polymerizable tion. Correspondingly, when polyester materials are used on a
at room temperature under solvent-free conditions to yield a large scale, the degradation products are also critical to envi-
high–molecular weight polymer. The polymer has enhanced ronmental pollution. Systematic research on the impact of
thermostability and can be repeatedly and quantitatively biodegradable materials on soil, water quality and ecology in
recycled back to its monomer by thermolysis or chemolysis. the later stages remains to be carried out and deepened.
In addition, Brett A. Helms et al. [110] showed Natural macromolecules can reach “zero-burden” to a certain
poly(diketoenamine)s that polymerized using dynamic cova- extent [21], while the degradation of aliphatic polyesters will
lent diketoenamine bonds. (Fig. 7b) The polymer allowed the certainly cause a relatively large environmental burden be-
recovery of monomers from common additives, even in mixed cause degradation of plastic polymers can lead to low molec-
waste streams. Typically, through simple strong acid treat- ular weight polymer fragments, like monomers and oligomers.
ment, the polymer can be decomposed into regenerated orig- A large part of the current work focuses on the development of
inal monomers to achieve recycling of the materials. All these highly sophisticated fields such as organizational engineering
works provide a good enlightenment for expanding the and smart materials. Generally, the amount of polymer re-
sources of environmentally friendly polymers. quired in these areas is far less than the demand for civil and
engineering applications. The application scale of degradable
Enhancement of environmental protection awareness materials, such as over-packaging and the depletion of waste
and regulations bags and old clothes that are increasingly enriched by people’s
material resources, may have a bad influence on nature in a
The use of agricultural mulch and the faint environmental long period.
awareness of farmers are bound to cause soil agglomera- The environmental impact of the materials is a very im-
tion and serious pollution. Many people seem to enjoy the portant guide to the design of materials. After large-scale use
convenience of plastic disposable shopping bags and dis- of biodegradable materials that are not biomass, it may cause
posable tableware, while ignoring the far-reaching nega- sudden changes in water quality, which may cause damage
tive effects that the material itself may have. As scientific to the ecology to some extent. This may also cause new
researchers, we need to intensify research on renewable environmental problems, such as alkali balance in water re-
plastics, and we have the responsibility to understand sources and soil. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the
science-related knowledge and awaken more people’s ob- degradation law of a specific material, the specific degrada-
jective understanding. For consumers, it is necessary to tion rate in a specific environment, and master the tolerance
spontaneously contribute to the relief of the earth’s pollu- of the natural environment to the material. We should effec-
tion. For national functional departments, research should tively study the relationship between usage and environmen-
be conducted to develop effective laws and regulations as tal tolerance, and prevent the environmental imbalance from
well as scientific garbage collection strategies. Notably, happening. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an effective
38 Page 10 of 14 J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38

Fig. 7 b Network PDKs (for example, PDK-6(TREN)) are synthesized processes. Redrawn from reference [110]. Copyright (2019) Nature
from polyamines (for example, tris(2-aminoethyl) amine, TREN) and Publishing Group a production of a plastic that can be recycled repeatedly
ditopic triketones (for example, TK-6), and are hydrolyzed in strong through chemical methods without loss of function. Redrawn from refer-
acid. Both triketone and TREN monomers can be recovered and re- ence [109], Copyright (2018) AAAS.
used in a closed-loop fashion using regenerative chemical

strategy for studying and evaluating the degradation rate and Concluding remarks
environmental compatibility of the biodegradable materials
[111, 112]. LCA is a well-established method described in As mentioned by Prof. Andy M. Booth, one of the main chal-
international standards (ISO 14040, ISO 14044). Those will lenges currently facing society is the lack of plastic materials
be followed in this project as far as possible, along with the that decompose rapidly and completely under natural environ-
International Reference Life Cycle Data System Handbook mental conditions, while maintaining their properties for
[113]. For any products, the socio-economic and environ- enough duration in consumer products. There currently does
mental impacts of the whole value chain should be measured not appear to be no global data available on the proportion of
through LCA using established European standards biodegradable plastics that are composted rather than entering
(ISO14040). For the LCA work, the Gabi Software will be general waste streams [115]. The goal of any research is to
usually used [114]. create products that satisfy customers and the planet. To this
J Polym Res (2020) 27: 38 Page 11 of 14 38

end, researchers consider using green processes to reduce 15. Li Z, Yang J, Loh XJ (2016) Polyhydroxyalkanoates: opening
doors for a sustainable future. NPG Asia Materials 8(4):e265–
costs and increase the use of biodegradable materials. Use
e265
the comprehensive LCA method to evaluate more research 16. Sun T, Li G, Ning T-Y, Zhang Z-M, Mi Q-H, Lal R (2018)
objects, to make people’s understanding systematic, and to Suitability of mulching with biodegradable film to moderate soil
carry out more directed research. Let more scientific re- temperature and moisture and to increase photosynthesis and yield
searchers lead the way, form more perfect environmental reg- in peanut. Agr Water Manage 208:214–223
17. Sriyapai P, Chansiri K, Sriyapai T (2018) Isolation and character-
ulations, strengthen everyone’s environmental awareness, and ization of polyester-based plastics-degrading Bacteria from com-
let more consumers participate in environmental protection. In post soils. Microbiology 87(2):290–300
short, all human beings need to work together to play the role 18. Sashiwa H, Fukuda R, Okura T, Sato S, Nakayama A (2018)
of the “destiny community” and protect the homeland on Microbial degradation behavior in seawater of polyester blends
containing poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate)
which we depend. At that time, biodegradable polymer can (PHBHHx). Mar drugs 16(1):34
be not only a real cure for the planet, but also a natural cycle in 19. Yin G, Zhang L, Zhou Z, Li Q (2016) Preparation and character-
the biological system. ization of cross-linked PCL porous membranes. J Polym Res
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