Understanding Digital radiography

(Direct Radiography & Computed Radiography for Industrial

Radiography of Process Piping)

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

March 18th 2017 Pengerang

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Process Piping

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Process Piping

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

Babalal/ Charlie Chong
 Abstract
Developments in digital detector technologies have been taking place and
new digital technologies are available for clinical practice. This introduction is intended
to give a technical state-of-the-art overview about computed radiography (CR)
and digital radiography (DR) detectors.
CR systems use storage-phosphor image plates with a separate image readout
process and DR technology converts X-rays into electrical charges by means of a
readout process using TFT arrays with and without scintillator.
Digital detectors offer several advantages when compared to analogue detectors/
screen film systems. The knowledge about digital detector technology for use in plain
radiograph examinations is thus a fundamental topic to be acquired by industrial
radiographic professionals and
inspectors.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 DR
DR stands for Doctor?
DR stands for Digital Radiography?
DR stands for Direct Radiography?
DR stands for Digital Projection Radiography?

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 DR
DR stands for Doctor?
DR stands for Digital Radiography?
DR stands for Direct Radiography?
DR stands for Digital Projection Radiography?

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Classification of DR
Chart provides a systematic overview of various types of digital detectors. CCD =
charge-coupled device, FPD = flat-panel detector, TFT = thin-film transistor.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Why DR
 No silver based film or chemicals are required to process film.
 Reduced film storage costs because images can be stored digitally.
 Computed radiography often requires fewer retakes due to under- or over-exposure
which can result in lower overall dose to the patient, if you assume a moderate
amount of retakes. CR can require up to 30% less dose than film.
 Image acquisition is much faster - image previews can be available in less than 10
seconds.
 By adjusting image brightness and/or contrast, a wide range of thicknesses may be
examined in one exposure, unlike conventional film based radiography, which may
require a different exposure or multiple film speeds in one exposure to cover wide
thickness range in a component.
 Images can be enhanced digitally to aid in interpretation.
 Images can be stored on disk or transmitted for off-site review.
 Ever growing technology makes the CR more affordable than ever today. With
chemicals, dark room storage and staff to organize them, you could own a CR for
the same monthly cost while being environmentally conscious, depending upon the
size of the radiographic operation.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Why DR
By adjusting image brightness and/or contrast, a wide range of thicknesses may be
examined in one exposure, unlike conventional film based radiography, which may
require a different exposure or multiple film speeds in one exposure to cover wide
thickness range in a component. Images can be enhanced digitally to aid in
interpretation.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 The Advantages of DR over Film Radiography
 Lower Doses
• Smaller Safety perimeters
• Shorter plant shut-downs
• Smaller isotopes / longer lifetime
• Time efficiency for resources, plant shut down, higher throughput
 Easily availability digital images and data
 Data and images together on network – Easier and faster analysis
of defects
 Shorter exposure times ( 10-50 % D7 )
 Higher Dynamic Range – Less retakes by bad exposure, different
thicknesses in one shot …
 Reusable Phosphor plates & No chemicals, no darkroom

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 DIRECT RADIOGRPHY
DR irect

Direct Conversion
Indirect Conversion

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Direct Radiography or “D R” is an advancement of traditional
irect

Radiography. This technique utilizes DDAs (Digital Detector Arrays) instead of Film or
CR (Computed Radiography) in order to create an instant Image. The Radiation
reaches the DDA, which has passed through the object, converted by
(1)a Scintillator into visible light in indirect methods or
(2)a photon detector into photoelectric effects in direct methods and
then translated into a digital Image. The physics (Angles, Penetration, technique etc.)
remain similar and only mild changes are required to make the transition to Digital
Radiography.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Digital radiography is a form of X-ray imaging, where digital X-ray sensors are
used instead of traditional photographic film. Advantages include time efficiency
through bypassing chemical processing and the ability to digitally transfer and
enhance images. Also, less radiation can be used to produce an image of similar
contrast to conventional radiography.

Instead of X-ray film, digital radiography uses a digital image capture device. This
gives advantages of immediate image preview and availability; elimination of
costly film processing steps; a wider dynamic range, which makes it more
forgiving for over- and under-exposure; as well as the ability to apply special
image processing techniques that enhance overall display quality of the image.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Direct Radiography’s Flat Panel Detectors

Flat-panel structure

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Direct Radiography’s Flat Panel Detectors
Flat panel detector used in digital radiography. FPDs are further classified in two
main categories:
1.Indirect FPDs Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the most common material of
commercial FPDs. Combining a-Si detectors with a scintillator in the detector’s outer
layer, which is made from Caesium iodide (CsI) or Gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2O2S),
converts X-rays to light. Because of this conversion the a-Si detector is considered an
indirect imaging device. The light is channeled through the a-Si photodiode layer
where it is converted to a digital output signal. The digital signal is then read out by
thin film transistors (TFTs) or fiber-coupled CCDs. The image data file is sent to a
computer for display.

2.Direct FPDs. Amorphous selenium (a-Se) FPDs are known as “direct” detectors
because X-ray photons are converted directly into charge. The outer layer of the flat
panel in this design is typically a high-voltage bias electrode. X-ray photons create
electron-hole pairs in a-Se, and the transit of these electrons and holes depends on
the potential of the bias voltage charge. As the holes are replaced with electrons, the
resultant charge pattern in the selenium layer is read out by a TFT array, active matrix
array, electrometer probes or microplasma line addressing.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 1.Indirect FPDs Amorphous
silicon (a-Si)
is the most common material of commercial FPDs. Combining a-Si detectors with
a scintillator in the detector’s outer layer, which is made from Caesium iodide (CsI)
or Gadolinium oxysulfide (Gd2O2S), converts X-rays to light. Because of this
conversion the a-Si detector is considered an indirect imaging device. The light is
channeled through the a-Si photodiode layer where it is converted to a digital
output signal. The digital signal is then read out by thin film transistors (TFTs) or
fiber-coupled CCDs. The image data file is sent to a computer for display.
Note:
X ray → CsI/ Gd2O2S (light) → a-Si → TFT Array Keywords:
Scintillator
a-Si detector
- TFT
The best known application of thin-film transistors is in TFT LCDs, an implementation of LCD
technology. Transistors are embedded within the panel itself, reducing crosstalk between pixels
and improving image stability.

As of 2008, many color LCD TVs and monitors use this technology. TFT panels are frequently
used in digital radiography applications in general radiography. A TFT is used in both direct and
indirect capture[jargon] as a base for the image receptor in medical radiography.

AMOLED (active-matrix organic light-emitting diode) screens also contain a TFT layer.

The most beneficial aspect[neutrality is disputed] of TFT technology is its use of a separate
transistor for each pixel on the display. Because each transistor is small, the amount of charge
needed to control it is also small. This allows for very fast re-drawing of the display.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_transistor

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Indirect Conversion with a CCD.
A CCD is a light-sensitive sensor for recording images that consists of an integrated circuit containing an array
of linked or coupled capacitors. X-ray energy is converted into light by a scintillator such as Tl-doped cesium
iodide. The amount of light emitted is then recorded by the CCD, and the light is converted into electrical
charges. Because the detector area cannot be larger than the CCD chip, it is necessary to combine several
chips to create larger detector areas.
CCDs can be used for radiography as part of either a lens-coupled CCD system or a slot-scan CCD system. In
lens-coupled CCD systems, an array consisting of several CCD chips forms a detector area similar to that of a
flat-panel detector. Optical lenses are needed to reduce the area of the projected light to fit the CCD array (Fig
5a). One drawback of the lens system is a decrease in the number of photons reaching the CCD, resulting in a
lower signal-to-noise ratio and relatively low quantum efficiency.
Slot-scan CCD systems make use of a special x-ray tube with a tungsten anode. The patient is scanned with a
collimated fan-shaped beam, which is linked to a simultaneously moving CCD detector array having a matching
detector width (Fig 5b). The combination of a small collimated beam and a concordant detector reduces the
impact of scattered radiation in the image, since much of this radiation will escape without detection. In addition,
the relatively low quantum efficiency of slot-scan CCD systems, which is comparable to that of CR systems,
can be offset by the resulting lower image noise. The exposure time to the patient is about 20 msec, and the
readout process takes about 1.3 seconds. Because of the need for fixed installation, slot-scan CCD systems
are dedicated to chest radiography, mammography, or dental radiography.

Studies dealing with CCD-based digital general radiography are rare. Phantom studies have been conducted to
investigate slot-scan CCD systems and compare them with screen-film combinations and various digital
detectors. In all of these studies, CCD-based systems were comparable to flat-panel detectors in terms of
image quality and allowed slightly superior low-contrast visualization. Clinical studies performed with slot-scan
detectors are mainly concentrating on applications in mammography and digital dental radiography. The
performance of lens-coupled CCD systems is somewhat inferior to that of slot-scan systems because of their
technical principle, substantially lower quantum efficiency, and lower signal-to-noise ratio.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Fig 5. CCD-based indirect conversion DR system. (a) Drawing illustrates a lens-coupled CCD-based system.
The incident x-ray energy is converted into light by a scintillator. The emitted light has to be bundled by an
optical lens to fit the size of the CCD chip, which subsequently converts the light energy into electrical charges.
(b) Drawing illustrates a slot-scan CCD-based system. The patient is scanned with a fan-shaped beam of x-
rays. A simultaneously moving CCD detector of the same size collects the emitted light and converts the light
energy into electrical charges.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Fig 5a. CCD-based indirect conversion DR system. (a) Drawing illustrates a lens-coupled CCD-based system.
The incident x-ray energy is converted into light by a scintillator. The emitted light has to be bundled by an
optical lens to fit the size of the CCD chip, which subsequently converts the light energy into electrical charges.
(b) Drawing illustrates a slot-scan CCD-based system. The patient is scanned with a fan-shaped beam of x-
rays. A simultaneously moving CCD detector of the same size collects the emitted light and converts the light
energy into electrical charges.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Indirect Conversion with a Flat-Panel Detector.
Indirect conversion DR systems are “sandwich” constructions consisting of a (1) scintillator layer, (2) an
amorphous silicon photodiode circuitry layer, and (3) a TFT array.
When x-ray photons reach the scintillator, visible light proportional to the incident energy is emitted and then
recorded by an array of photodiodes and converted to electrical charges. These charges are then read out by a
TFT array similar to that of direct conversion DR systems (Fig 6).

Drawing illustrates an amorphous silicon–based indirect conversion DR system. X-ray energy is converted into
visible light in a scintillator layer. The emitted light is then converted into electrical charges by an array of
silicon-based photodiodes and read out by a TFT array.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 The scintillators usually consist of CsI or Gd2O2S. Gd2O2S crystals are cast into a binding material and are
unstructured scintillators having a structure similar to that of storage phosphors.
The advantage of CsI-based scintillators is that the crystals can be shaped into 5–10-μm-wide needles, which
can be arranged perpendicular to the surface of the detector. This structured array of scintillator needles
reduces the diffusion of light within the scintillator layer (5,39,40). As a result, thicker scintillator layers can be
used, thereby increasing the strength of the emitted light and leading to better optical properties and higher
quantum efficiency.
One further advantage of flat-panel detectors is their small size, which allows integration into existing bucky
tables or thorax stands. Because CsI-based flat-panel detectors are highly vulnerable to mechanical load
because of their fine structure, these systems cannot be used outside of fixed installations and therefore lack
mobility. Portable flat-panel detector systems make use of Gd2O2S-based scintillators, which are as resistant to
mechanical stress as are storage phosphors. Any defects that occur in the detector may cause a complete
breakdown of the imaging system, making contingency imaging devices necessary.
Image generation with flat-panel detectors is almost a real-time process, with a time lapse between exposure
and image display of less than 10 seconds. Consequently, these systems are highly productive, and more
patients can be examined in the same amount of time than with other radiographic devices.
Many clinical studies have shown indirect conversion flat-panel detectors to provide superior image quality.
Studies comparing indirect conversion flat-panel detectors with conventional screen-film combinations, storage-
phosphor image plates, or other digital detectors have verified that flat-panel detectors offer the best image
quality and low-contrast performance of all digital detectors and, so far, are superior to conventional screen-film
combinations.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Indirect FPDs Amorphous silicon

Caesium iodide (CsI) or Gadolinium

oxysulfide (Gd2O2S)

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://www.slac.stanford.edu/econf/C0604032/talks/SNIC_Roos.pdf

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://4nsi.com/assets/files/trc-pdfs/2009/Dr.%20Fahrad%20Ghelmansarai.pdf
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://4nsi.com/assets/files/trc-pdfs/2009/Dr.%20Fahrad%20Ghelmansarai.pdf
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://4nsi.com/assets/files/trc-pdfs/2009/Dr.%20Fahrad%20Ghelmansarai.pdf
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://4nsi.com/assets/files/trc-pdfs/2009/Dr.%20Fahrad%20Ghelmansarai.pdf
 Cesium iodide
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pocketdentistry.com/6-direct-digital-imaging/
Babalal/ Charlie Chong https://www.slideshare.net/islamkotb/medical-x-ray-image-sensors-1
 GdO2S2 amorphous structure Cesium Iodide CsI columnar structure

Electron microscope images of scintillators used in indirect conversion of

x-rays; a) GdO2S2 amorphous structure; b) CsI columnar structure. The
amorphous structure of the GdO2S2 and columnar structure of the CsI can
be clearly seen. (Courtesy of Varian X-ray Products).
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pocketdentistry.com/6-direct-digital-imaging/
 Examples of indirect conversions using a scintillator and a thin film transistor
(TFT) array; a) GdO2S2 scintillator; b) columnar CsI scintillator.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pocketdentistry.com/6-direct-digital-imaging/

 Examples of indirect conversions using a scintillator and a thin film transistor
(TFT) array; a) GdO2S2 scintillator; b) columnar CsI scintillator.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pocketdentistry.com/6-direct-digital-imaging/

 Cross-section of an indirect TFT detector using CsI structured phosphor
shows the conversion of X-rays first into light, traveling through the structured
phosphor to a photodiode etched on the TFT array, and the creation of a
proportional charge stored in the local capacitor
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pocketdentistry.com/6-direct-digital-imaging/
 a-Si flat panel with read-out electronics

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 a-Si detector after housing

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 Main properties of scintillators influencing in imaging system performance are:

a) Conversion Efficiency X-ray quantum efficiency Light conversion per X-ray photon
b) MTF / spatial resolution
c) Light output spectrum
d) Light decay / after glow

CsI:Tl and Gd2o2S:Tb (Gadox) are mainly used in the FPDs.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 2.Direct FPDs. Amorphous
selenium (a-Se)
FPDs are known as “direct” detectors because X-ray photons are converted
directly into charge. The outer layer of the flat panel in this design is typically a
high-voltage bias electrode. X-ray photons create electron-hole pairs in a-Se, and
the transit of these electrons and holes depends on the potential of the bias
voltage charge. As the holes are replaced with electrons, the resultant charge
pattern in the selenium layer is read out by a TFT array, active matrix array,
electrometer probes or microplasma line addressing.

Note:
X ray → a-Se (Charge) → TFT Array

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Figure 4. Amorphous selenium–based direct conversion DR systems. (a) Drawing illustrates a selenium drum–based
system. A rotating selenium-dotted drum with a positive electrical surface charge is exposed to x-rays. Alteration of the
charge pattern of the drum surface is proportional to the incident x-rays. The charge pattern is then converted into a digital
image by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. (b) Drawing illustrates a selenium-based flat-panel detector system. Incident
x-ray energy is directly converted into electrical charges within the fixed photo-conductor layer and read out by a linked TFT
array beneath the detective layer.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Direct Conversion.
Direct conversion requires a photoconductor that converts x-ray photons into electrical charges by setting
electrons free. Typical photoconductor materials include amorphous selenium, lead iodide, lead oxide, thallium
bromide, and gadolinium compounds. The most commonly used element is selenium.
All of these elements have a high intrinsic spatial resolution. As a result, the pixel size, matrix, and spatial
resolution of direct conversion detectors are not limited by the detector material itself, but only by the recording
and readout devices used.
Selenium-based direct conversion DR systems are equipped with either a selenium drum or a flat-panel
detector. In the former case, a rotating selenium-dotted drum, which has a positive electrical surface charge, is
exposed to x-rays. During exposure, a charge pattern proportional to that of the incident x-rays is generated on
the drum surface and is recorded during rotation by an analog-to-digital converter (Fig 4a).
Amorphous selenium–based direct conversion
DR systems. (a) Drawing illustrates a selenium
drum–based system. A rotating selenium-dotted
drum with a positive electrical surface charge is
exposed to x-rays. Alteration of the charge
pattern of the drum surface is proportional to the
incident x-rays. The charge pattern is then
converted into a digital image by an analog-to-
digital (A/D) converter. (b) Drawing illustrates a
selenium-based flat-panel detector system.
Incident x-ray energy is directly converted into
electrical charges within the fixed photo-
conductor layer and read out by a linked TFT
array beneath the detective layer.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Several clinical studies have confirmed that selenium drum detectors provide good image quality that is
superior to that provided by screen-film or CR systems. However, because of their mechanical design, selenium
drum detectors are dedicated thorax stand systems with no mobility at all.
A newer generation of direct conversion DR systems make use of selenium-based flat-panel detectors. These
detectors make use of a layer of selenium with a corresponding underlying array of thin-film transistors (TFTs).
The principle of converting x-rays into electrical charges is similar to that with the selenium drum, except that
the charge pattern is recorded by the TFT array, which accumulates and stores the energy of the electrons (Fig
4b).

One advantage of these systems is greater clinical usefulness, since the detectors can be mounted on thorax
stands and bucky tables. To date, there have been only a few clinical studies conducted with selenium-based
flat-panel detectors. However, these studies indicate that the image quality provided by selenium-based flat-
panel detectors is equivalent to that provided by other flat-panel detectors and selenium drum detectors.
Another promising clinical application of selenium-based flat-panel detectors is in the field of mammography
(33).

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Direct FPDs. Amorphous selenium (a-Se)

Typical photoconductor materials include amorphous

selenium, lead iodide, lead oxide, thallium bromide,
and gadolinium compounds. The most commonly
used element is selenium.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://www.slac.stanford.edu/econf/C0604032/talks/SNIC_Roos.pdf

 Direct FPDs. Amorphous selenium (a-Se)

Amorphous selenium–based direct conversion DR systems. (a) Drawing illustrates a selenium drum–based
system. A rotating selenium-dotted drum with a positive electrical surface charge is exposed to x-rays. Alteration of
the charge pattern of the drum surface is proportional to the incident x-rays. The charge pattern is then converted
into a digital image by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter. (b) Drawing illustrates a selenium-based flat-panel
detector system. Incident x-ray energy is directly converted into electrical charges within the fixed photo-conductor
layer and read out by a linked TFT array beneath the detective layer.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Indirect a-Si FPD construction was needed due to inefficient absorption of
x-rays by silicon. But some materials like Selenium have much better
stopping power. Se also has photo-conductive properties. This resulted in
construction of Direct type FPD.

• On absorption of x-ray energy, a-Se produces charge pairs.

• No separate scintillator is required.
• With a bias voltage, electron and holes travel to respective electrodes.
• TFT structure is similar to indirect type and
• storage capacitor for each pixel is provided.
• Lateral spread of light is absent for a-Se FPD (there is no scintillator). The
resolution is determined by pixel geometry.
• Se has a limited stopping power and therefore it mainly used for low
energy X-ray (up to about 100 – 150 kV).
• At higher X-ray energy, Se layer thickness would become impractically
thick. Hence, alternative materials like CdTe, HgI2 and PbI2 are being
explored as they have better stopping power.

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 Direct Conversion
With direct exposure sensors there is no scintillator. Instead, the
x-rays are directly converted to a charge in the material through
the photoelectric effect. This occurs in both aSi and aSe,
although the conversion is not very efficient in the former.
Currently, the material of choice for direct conversion is aSe.
X-ray exposure produces a charge (positive and negative) in the
selenium, the size of which is proportional to the quantity of x-
rays incident upon it. By placing a high voltage (kilovoltage)
across the aSe, these charges can be moved to the surface to
produce an electric current. This current is stored in a matrix of
discrete capacitors that can then be read.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://www.slac.stanford.edu/econf/C0604032/talks/SNIC_Roos.pdf

 Direct FPDs. Amorphous selenium (a-Se)

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Babalal/ Charlie Chong https://www.dovepress.com/energy-resolved-x-ray-detectors-the-future-of-diagnostic-imaging-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RMI
Babalal/ Charlie Chong https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/chapter-3-projection-radiography-i/deck/6202111
 Computed Radiography
CR

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Computed Radiography
Cassette Based Computed Radiography utilizes a reusable plate high-density
line-scan solid state detector with photostimulable phosphor in place of the film.
After X-ray exposure the plate (sheet) is placed in a special scanner where the
latent formed image is retrieved point by point and digitized, using laser light
scanning. The digitized images are stored and displayed on the computer screen.
This method is halfway between old film-based technology and current direct
digital imaging technology. It is similar to the film process because it involves the
same image support handling but differs in that the chemical development
process is replaced by scanning. This is not much faster than film processing and
the resolution and sensitivity performances are contested. PSP has been
described as having an advantage of fitting within any pre-existing equipment
without modification because it replaces the existing film; however, it includes
extra costs for the scanner and replacement of scratched plates.

Note:
CR = Computed Radiography = Cassette Radiography

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 The high-density line-scan solid state detector is composed of a photostimulable
barium fluorobromide doped with europium (BaFBr:Eu) or caesium bromide
(CsBr) phosphor. The phosphor detector records the X-ray energy during
exposure and is scanned by a laser diode to excite the stored energy which is
released and read out by a digital image capture array of a CCD.

photostimulable
phosphor

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 Drawing illustrates a CR system based on storage-phosphor image plates. Image generation is
separated into two steps. First, the image plate (IP) is exposed to x-ray energy, part of which is
stored within the detective layer of the plate. Second, the image plate is scanned with a laser
beam, so that the stored energy is set free and light is emitted. An array of photomultipliers
collects the light, which is converted into electrical charges by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Note: Computed radiography (CR) uses very similar equipment to conventional radiography
except that in place of a film to create the image, an imaging plate (IP) made of photostimulable
phosphor is used. The imaging plate is housed in a special cassette and placed under the body
part or object to be examined and the x-ray exposure is made. Hence, instead of taking an
exposed film into a darkroom for developing in chemical tanks or an automatic film processor, the
imaging plate is run through a special laser scanner, or CR reader, that reads and digitizes the
image. The digital image can then be viewed and enhanced using software that has functions
very similar to other conventional digital image-processing software, such as contrast, brightness,
filtration and zoom.

Computed radiography (CR) is often distinguished from Direct Radiography (DR). CR and DR
have many similarities. Both CR and DR use a medium to capture x-ray energy and both produce
a digital image that can be enhanced for soft copy diagnosis or further review. Both CR and DR
can also present an image within seconds of exposure. CR generally involves the use of a
cassette that houses the imaging plate similar to traditional film-screen systems, whereas DR
typically captures the image directly onto a flat panel detector without the use of a cassette.
Image processing or enhancement can be applied on DR images as well as CR images due to
the digital format of each. There are many different types of DR detectors in use in medicine and
industry. Each type has its own merits and distinctions and may be applied to certain imaging
requirements based on these attributes

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 CR systems make use of image plates having a detective layer of photostimulable crystals that
contain different halogenides such as bromide, chlorine, or iodine (e.g. BaFBr:Eu2+). The phosphor crystals are
usually cast into plates into resin material in an unstructured way (unstructured scintillators). Image plates
replace the conventional films in the cassette.
The exposure process with storage-phosphor image plates is illustrated in Figure 3. During exposure, x-ray
energy is absorbed and temporarily stored by these crystals by bringing electrons to higher energy levels. In
this way, x-ray energy can be stored for several hours, depending on the specific physical properties of the
phosphor crystals used. However, the readout process should start immediately after exposure because the
amount of stored energy decreases over time.
The readout process is a separate step that follows exposure of the image plate (Fig 3). When the detective
layer is scanned pixel by pixel with a high-energy laser beam of a specific wave length (flying-spot scanner),
stored energy is set free as emitted light having a wave length different from that of the laser beam. This light is
collected by photodiodes and converted digitally into an image. The whole readout process for a 14 × 17-inch
image plate takes about 30–40 seconds. Thus, a maximum workload of 90–120 image plates per hour is
theoretically possible.
The advantages of storage-phosphor systems include a wide dynamic range, which leads to reduced rates of
failed x-ray exposure. Because CR systems are cassette based, they can easily be integrated into existing
radiographic devices, are highly mobile, and are easy to use for bedside examinations and immobile patients,
making these systems flexible in routine clinical use. Furthermore, if a single image plate shows defects, it can
easily be replaced by the radiographer with no need for specialized equipment or service personnel.
Spatial resolution with storage-phosphor image plates is usually lower than that with conventional screen-film
combinations. However, several studies have shown that the diagnostic value of storage-phosphor radiography
is at least equivalent to that of screen-film radiography. Still, compared with more modern digital detectors (eg,
flat-panel detectors), storage-phosphor plates tend to be inferior in terms of image quality and diagnostic value,
depending on the developmental stage of the storage-phosphor system being investigated.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

 Drawing illustrates a CR
system based on storage-
phosphor image plates.
Image generation is
separated into two steps.
First, the image plate (IP) is
exposed to x-ray energy, part
of which is stored within the
detective layer of the plate.
Second, the image plate is
scanned with a laser beam,
so that the stored energy is
set free and light is emitted.
An array of photomultipliers
collects the light, which is
converted into electrical
charges by an analog-to-
digital (A/D) converter.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

Babalal/ Charlie Chong
Babalal/ Charlie Chong http://www.acutech.gr/media/pdf/Succesful%20conversion%20from%20film%20to%20CR.pdf
 Taxonomy of digital radiography technologies

TFT Array TFT Array

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Three components of digital detectors

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 D R Versus CR irect

DR stands for Direct Radiography?

CR stands for Computed Radiography?

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Computed Radiography and Digital Radiography: A Comparison

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Computed Radiography and Digital Radiography: A Comparison
Computed Radiography (CR)
The Pros
 CR costs significantly less than DR in every aspect. From equipment, install, and ongoing servicing.
 CR units are compatible with many different X-Ray devices; they are quite versatile in that they’re able to
convert many analog units.
 CR’s can render an image digitally in less than a minute, and once it is done, storage is simple and space
efficient.
 Least labor intensive of X-Ray conversions.
The Cons
 Much slower than DR.
 Compared with more modern digital detectors (e.g. flat-panel detectors), storage-phosphor plates tend to be
inferior in terms of image quality and diagnostic value, depending on the developmental stage of the
storage-phosphor system being investigated

Digital Radiography (DR)

The Pros
 Digital is replacing analog at an exponentially fast rate, and eventually, it will be harder for those with analog
systems to find parts and to find people that are trained to use them.
 If you replace your analog with DR, you most likely won’t even need to remodel your X-Ray space.
 DR’s can render an image in about 5 seconds.
 New systems sometimes come with software that is far more advanced than analog.
The Cons
 Far more expensive than CR.
 Labor intensive, meaning that install can take up to four days to complete.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Fluoroscopy, CR & DR
CR and DR should not be confused with fluoroscopy, where there is a continuous
beam of radiation, and the images appear on the screen like on a TV. This is the
system many people are familiar with, where the image of the article being x-rayed is
viewed in real time on a monitor or display. Fluorosopes until recently have used a
device called an image intensifier to enhance the analog output of the real time x-ray
image from a fluorescent screen, viewing the output with a video or CCD camera and
digitally enhancing the video to reduce the noise inherent in the system; the latest
fluroscopes now use flat detectors read at up to 60 frames per second to yield a real-
time image via a dedicated imaging computer.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 Digital Radiography
Quality Control

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 Quality Controls -Light scatter within the II reduces contrast in the image. Shown is an image of a
radio-opaque lead disk and a substantial signal underneath, as illustrated by the digital horizontal profile values
plotted across the image through the center of the disk. Ideally, the signal would be at zero, while in the figure a
value of about 60 occurs. This has a deleterious impact on image contrast and quantitative accuracy. Vignetting
is also illustrated; it is the fall-off of light intensity at the periphery of the image relative to the center, caused by
light scatter loss at the edge of the image

Vignetting

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 Geometric Effects

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 Geometric Effects

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 Geometrical Distortion
Comparison of geometrical distortion and brightness non- uniformity between a 12
inch image intensifier and 8 inch flat panel detector.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

 More Reading
Flat-panel detectors: how much better are they?
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2663651/

Best Practices in Digital Radiography

https://www.asrt.org/docs/default-source/publications/whitepapers/asrt12_bstpracdigradwhp_final.pdf

Advances in Digital Radiography: Physical Principles and System Overview

http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/rg.273065075

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

Chapter 2
Digital Radiography Detectors:
A Technical Overview

Abstract Developments in digital detector technologies have been taking place and
new digital technologies are available for clinical practice. This chapter is intended
to give a technical state-of-the-art overview about computed radiography (CR)
and digital radiography (DR) detectors. CR systems use storage-phosphor image
plates with a separate image readout process and DR technology converts X-rays
into electrical charges by means of a readout process using TFT arrays. Digital
detectors offer several advantages when compared to analogue detectors. The
knowledge about digital detector technology for use in plain radiograph exami-
nations is thus a fundamental topic to be acquired by radiology professionals and
students. In this chapter an overview of digital radiography systems (both CR
and DR) currently available for clinical practice is provided.

Keywords Computed radiography • Digital radiography • Detectors • Storage-

phosphor image plates • Image readout process • Electrical charges • X-ray • Read-
out process • TFT arrays • Analogue detector • Plain radiograph • Clinical practice

Introduction

Several digital systems are currently available for the acquisition of projection
radiographs. Digital radiography systems have been replacing traditional analogue
or screen–film (SF) systems over the last three decades. The transition from an SF
environment to a new digital environment should be considered as a complex
process. Technical factors concerning image acquisition, management of patient
dose, and diagnostic image quality are some issues that could influence this process.
In a transition process from SF to digital, patient radiation doses could increase
40–103% [1]. When compared to SF, digital technology could increase patient
radiation doses due to the wide dynamic range they have. However, the dynamic
range is useful because it contributes for a better clinical image quality when
compared to traditional SF systems [2]. This is an important difference among

L. Lança and A. Silva, Digital Imaging Systems for Plain Radiography, 9

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5067-2_2, # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
10 2 Digital Radiography Detectors: A Technical Overview

analogical and digital technologies. The risk of overexposure with no adverse effect
on image quality could be present. Digital imaging systems could facilitate over- or
underexposure that influences a patient’s dose. Overexposure could provide good-
quality images, but may cause unnecessary patient dose. Although several
advantages over SF systems are identified, considerable variations in image quality
and effective dose can be achieved among different digital detectors [3].
According to Busch [4] the choice of the radiographic technique, the radiation
dose delivered to the patient, and the diagnostic quality of radiographic image are
three core aspects of the imaging process aiming the management of patient dose
and image quality. This is a challenge for radiographers because clinical advantages
and limitations of digital technologies for projection radiography are also depen-
dent on the radiographer’s options for a particular patient examination.
The knowledge about digital detector technology for use in plain radiograph
examinations is thus a fundamental issue to be acquired by radiology professionals
and students. Several literature reviews concerning digital radiology detectors have
been provided by some authors [5–11]. In this chapter an overview of computed
radiography (CR) and digital radiography (DR) currently available for clinical
practice is provided.

Overview of Computed Radiography and Digital

Radiography Detectors

Developments in digital detector technologies have been taking place and new
digital technologies are available for clinical practice. Table 2.1 shows a timetable
of developments in digital technologies since the early 1980s.
The first digital radiography system using the basic principle of the conversion of
the X-ray energy into digital signals utilizing scanning laser stimulated lumines-
cence (SLSL) was developed by Fuji (Tokyo, Japan) and introduced in the market in
the beginning of the 1980s [12]. In the mid-1980s, the storage phosphor systems

Table 2.1 Timetable of developments in digital technologies

Year Digital technology availability
1980 Computed radiography (CR), storage phosphors
1987 Amorphous selenium-based image plates
1990 Charge-coupled device (CCD) slot-scan direct radiography (DR)
1994 Selenium drum DR
1995 Amorphous silicon–cesium iodide (scintillator) flat-panel detector
Selenium-based flat-panel detector
1997 Gadolinium-based (scintillator) flat-panel detector
2001 Gadolinium-based (scintillator) portable flat-panel detector
2001 Dynamic flat-panel detector fluoroscopy–digital subtraction angiography
2006 Digital tomosynthesis
2009 Wireless DR (flat-panel detector)
Overview of Computed Radiography and Digital Radiography Detectors 11

Digital x-ray
Technologies

CR DR
Computed Digital Digital x-ray
Radiography Radiography Technologies

Conversion Indirect Indirect Direct Direct Indirect

process conversion conversion conversion conversion conversion

Storage Storage
Scintillator Photoconductor Photoconductor Scintillator
Detector Phosphors phosphor
properties CsI a:Se a:Se CsI 2+
BaFBr:Eu2+ BaFBr:Eu

Fig. 2.1 Taxonomy of digital radiography technologies

became a new clinical application as a new imaging method for exposures at the wall
stand, the Bucky table, and bedside imaging. The high technical requirements and
financial costs, associated with limited image quality and difficult handling—with-
out a reduction of examination time—delayed the transfer of storage phosphor
systems into routine clinical use, which started to increase at the beginning of the
1990s [4]. Today the storage-phosphor radiography systems or CR systems play a
fundamental role in the field of digital projection radiography. Other important
innovation was the development of flat-panel detectors in the middle of 1995.
Flat-panel detectors were initially developed to be integrated detectors in the
radiology equipment, but more recently they are available as nonintegrated detectors
and working as a wireless or a non-wireless technology.
Digital systems are traditionally split into two broadly defined categories [10, 11]:
computed radiography and digital radiography. Although this taxonomy is commonly
accepted other classifications are described [13]: direct digital radiography and indirect
digital radiography technologies (including CR). In this case the detector classification
is related with the conversion process of X-ray energy to electric charge. Figure 2.1
shows a schematic figure that includes a comparative diagram of the taxonomy of
digital radiography technologies, the conversion process, and the detector properties.
Other taxonomic option is to give a classification according to the integration of
the digital detector within the radiology equipment: in this case integrated and
nonintegrated detectors terminology could be used.
Despite the taxonomy that is used the major difference among digital technology
systems related with X-ray detection and readout process. Concerning CR systems
they use storage-phosphor image plates with a separate image readout process, which
means an indirect conversion process; DR technology converts X-rays into electrical
charges by means of a direct readout process using thin-film transistor (TFT) arrays.
12 2 Digital Radiography Detectors: A Technical Overview

Table 2.2 Three components of digital detectors

Capture
Detector technology element Coupling element Charge readout
Computed BaFBr:Eu2+ Photostimulated Photomultiplier
radiography luminescence tube; signal
(CR) (PSL) light-guide digitization
Direct Direct a-Se None TFT array
radiography conversion
(DR) Indirect CsI or Contact layer a-Si photodiode/
conversion Gd2O2S TFT array
TFT thin-film transistor liquid crystal display

Table 2.2 shows the differences among detector technology concerning three
components of digital detectors [14]: the capture element, the coupling element,
and the charge readout element.
CR technology uses an indirect conversion process using a two-stage technique.
X-rays are captured at a storage-phosphor screen (SPS) (e.g.: BaFBr:Eu2+) and then
a photodetector captures the light emitted from the SPS and converts the captured
luminescence into a corresponding digital image.
DR detectors can use either a direct or an indirect process for converting X-rays
into electric charges. These detectors use direct-readout by means of a TFT array
despite the conversion process of the X-ray beam. Direct-conversion detectors have
an X-ray photoconductor—such as amorphous selenium (a-Se)—that converts
directly at only one stage X-ray photons into electric charges.
Indirect-conversion systems use a two-stage technique for conversion. They have
a scintillator, such as cesium iodide (CsI) that converts X-rays into visible light at a
first stage. That light is then converted—at a second stage—into an electric charge
by means of an amorphous silicon photodiode array [15].
Despite the process of X-ray detection and readout digital detectors offer several
advantages when compared to SF systems. These include wide dynamic range,
adjustable image processing, better image quality, rapid image acquisition, and
image access at remote locations [16].

Computed Radiography

Computed radiography was the first available digital technology for projection
radiography. CR technology is based in SPS and its first clinical application by
Fuji took place at the early 1980s.
This technology uses a photostimulable detector replacing the traditional SF
cassettes. The storage-phosphor plates are exposed inside the cassettes with stan-
dard dimensions for typical plain radiography and no change of generator, X-ray
tube, and Bucky wall or table mounted system is necessary. CR technology allows
the radiographer to obtain plain radiography images like in a traditional SF system.
Overview of Computed Radiography and Digital Radiography Detectors 13

a X-ray photon b

c d
Photostimulated
luminescence (PSL)

Laser beam

Fig. 2.2 SPS exposure and PSL; SPS storage-phosphor screens, PSL photostimulated luminescence

The difference is how the latent image is created and how this image processing
is done. The basic CR imaging cycle has three steps [13]: (1) expose, (2) readout,
and (3) erase.
Inside the radiography cassette an image plate (IP)—or SPS—having a detective
layer of photostimulable crystals is available. The detective layer consists of a
family of phosphors BaFX:Eu2+ where X can be any of the halogens Cl, Br, or I (or
an arbitrary mixture of them) [17]. A typical SPS can store a latent image for a
considerable period of time. However, according to the American Association of
Physicists in Medicine [18], it will lose about 25% of the stored signal between
10 min and 8 h after an exposure resulting in the loss of energy through spontaneous
phosphorescence.
The phosphor crystals are usually cast into plates into resin material in an
unstructured way (unstructured scintillators) [10]. When the SPS is exposed to
the X-ray the energy of the incident radiation is absorbed and excites electrons
to high-energy levels (Fig. 2.2a, b). These excited electrons remain trapped at
unstable energy levels of the atom. The absorbed X-ray energy is stored in crystal
structure of the phosphor and a latent image is then created at these high-energy
states giving a spatial distribution of these electrons at the SP detector. This trapped
energy can be released if stimulated by additional light energy of the proper
wavelength by the process of photostimulated luminescence (PSL) (Fig. 2.2) [18].
After the X-ray exposure and the creation of the latent image, the SPS is scanned in
a separate CR reader device. The readout is a process that follows exposure of the
image plate and constitutes the second step of the CR imaging cycle. A red laser beam
14 2 Digital Radiography Detectors: A Technical Overview

Fig. 2.3 SPS scanning process; SPS storage-phosphor screens

scans the photostimulable screen stimulating the emission of blue light photons under
the excitation of the laser beam. When the detective layer of the IP is scanned pixel by
pixel with a high-energy laser beam of a specific wavelength, stored energy is set free
as emitted light having a wavelength different from that of the laser beam [10]. This
triggers the process of PSL resulting in the emission of blue light in an amount
proportional to the original X-ray [17] and setting free the excited electrons to their
lower energy level (Fig. 2.2c, d). This light is collected by photodiodes and converted
into electric charge while an analog-to-digital device converts it into a corresponding
digital image. Figure 2.3 shows the SPS scanning process.
Finally the third step of the basic CR imaging cycle is the residual signal erasure.
Residual latent image electrons are still trapped on higher energy levels after
readout. This energy is erased after the readout process using a high-intensity
white light source that flushes the traps without reintroducing electrons from the
ground energy level [18].

Digital Radiography

Digital radiography flat-panel systems with integrated readout mechanisms were

introduced in the market by the end of the 1990s [19]. Flat-panel systems, also
known as large-area X-ray detectors, integrate an X-ray-sensitive layer and an
electronic readable system based on TFT arrays. Detectors using a scintillator
layer and a light-sensitive TFT photodiode are called indirect-conversion TFT
detectors. Those using an X-ray-sensitive photoconductor layer and a TFT charge
collector are called direct-conversion TFT detectors [19]. The reference to amor-
phous silicon (a-Si), which is used in TFT arrays to record the electronic signal,
should not be confused with a-Se, the material used to capture X-ray energy in a
direct digital detector. The structure of a DR flat-panel system is shown in Fig. 2.4.
This electronic readable system allows an active readout process, also called
active matrix readout, in opposition to the storage phosphor systems where no
active readout elements are integrated within the detector. The entire readout
process is very fast, allowing further developments in digital real-time X-ray
detectors [19].
Large-Area Direct-Conversion Systems 15

TFT array
Photodiode or charge collector Collects charges from the upper
Converts x-rays to light layer
or to electric charges

Electronic control
Triggers the switching diodes

in

Switching diodes
Connects each pixel to readout device
out

Analog-to digital
Multiplexer conversion
Readout the electronic signal

Fig. 2.4 Flat-panel structure

TFT arrays (Fig. 2.5) are typically deposited onto a glass substrate in multiple
layers, with readout electronics at the lowest level, and charge collector arrays at
higher levels.
Depending on the type of detector being manufactured, charge collection
electrodes or light-sensing elements are deposited at the top layer of this “electronic
sandwich” [20].
The advantages of this design include compact size and immediate access to digital
images. The performance of DR systems greatly exceeds the performance of CR
systems, which have conversion efficiencies of 20–35%, and of screen–film systems
for chest radiography, which have nominal conversion efficiencies of 25% [20].
Wireless DR flat-panel systems have become commercially available by 2009.
Wireless DR systems are nonintegrated detectors that could be used to obtain
radiographs in a similar way to CR. With wireless DR detector it is mandatory to
use a wireless LAN for communications between the DR detector unit and the
workstation console. This way each performed radiograph is transferred at almost
real time from the cassette DR to the workstation. The DR cassette includes a built-
in battery to power supply and this allows the detector’s necessary autonomy to
obtain several radiographs and to transfer the obtained radiographs to the system for
further viewing.

Large-Area Direct-Conversion Systems

Large-area direct-conversion systems use a-Se as the semiconductor material

because of its X-ray absorption properties and extremely high intrinsic spatial
resolution [19, 20].
16 2 Digital Radiography Detectors: A Technical Overview

Analog-to digital
Out conversion

In

photodiode TFT switch

or +
charge collector TFT Array

Fig. 2.5 TFT array; TFT thin-film transistor

Before the flat panel is exposed to X-rays an electric field is applied across the
selenium layer. Then the X-ray exposure generates electrons and holes within the
a-Se layer: the absorbed X-ray photons are transformed into electric charges and
drawn directly to the charge-collecting electrodes due to the electric field. Those
charges—proportional to the incident X-ray beam—are generated and migrate
vertically to both surfaces of the selenium layer, without much lateral diffusion.
At the bottom of the a-Se layer, charges are drawn to the TFT charge collector,
where they are stored until readout. The charge collected at each storage capacitor
is amplified and quantified to a digital code value for the corresponding pixel.
During the readout, the charge of the capacitors of every row is conducted by the
transistors to the amplifiers.
Summary 17

Fig. 2.6 Schematic of an unstructured (left) and structured scintillator (right)

Large-Area Indirect-Conversion Systems

Large-area indirect-conversion systems use CsI or gadolinium oxisulphide

(Gd2O2S) as an X-ray detector. The scintillators and phosphors used in indirect-
conversion detectors can be either structured or unstructured (Fig. 2.6). Unstruc-
tured scintillators scatter a large amount of light and this reduces spatial resolution
[14]. Structured scintillators consist of phosphor material in a needlelike structure
(the needles being perpendicular to the screen surface). This increases the number
of X-ray photon interactions and reduces the lateral scattering of light photons [14].
When the scintillator layer is exposed to X-rays the beam is absorbed and
converted into fluorescent light. At a second stage that light is converted into an
electric charge by means of an a-Si photodiode array [15]. Indirect conversion
detectors are constructed by adding an a-Si photodiode circuitry and a scintillator as
the top layers of the TFT sandwich. These layers replace the X-ray semiconductor
layer used in a direct-conversion device [20]. The active area of the detector is
divided into an integrated array of image elements—the pixel—and each element
contains a photodiode and a TFT switch available for the readout process.
Recent developments for a novel pixel-structured scintillation screen with
nanocrystalline Gd2O3:Eu particle sizes for high-spatial-resolution X-ray imaging
detectors are being made for indirect X-ray imaging sensors with high sensitivity
and high spatial resolution [21, 22].

Summary

Different digital technologies are currently available for clinical practice in plain
radiography. CR and DR technologies constitute a remarkable improvement based
on detector technology developments. The specific properties and capabilities of a
digital detector influence the choice of the radiographic technique, the radiation dose
delivered to the patient, and the diagnostic quality of radiographic image. Although
SF and digital technology (CR and DR) coexist at the present time in many countries
the trends in the near future seem to point towards the digital technology.
18 2 Digital Radiography Detectors: A Technical Overview

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http://www.springer.com/978-1-4614-5066-5
 DR Images

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 DR Images

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 DR Images

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 CCD- Charged Coupled Device

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 Insulated Metal Pipe filled with Ammonia surrounded by Ice.

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Babalal/ Charlie Chong
Babalal/ Charlie Chong
 Aluminum Weld.

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 Reinforcement Concrete c/w Steel Bars.

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 Insulated Metal Pipe filled with Ammonia surrounded by Ice.

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 Step Wedges.

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 Honey Comb Structure.

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 Air Box Assembly.

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 Steel Valve.

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 Carbon Steel 272OD 6.3mm t.

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 Carbon Steel 25mm.

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 Aluminum Welds.

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 Aircraft Panel.

Babalal/ Charlie Chong

Babalal/ Charlie Chong