100% found this document useful (1 vote)

552 views184 pages

PPE Reference Guide 05

fyi

Uploaded by

Anonymous I0JAds2SP

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

100% found this document useful (1 vote)

552 views184 pages

PPE Reference Guide 05

fyi

Uploaded by

Anonymous I0JAds2SP

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 184

Reference Guide for

Process Performance Engineers

Manufacturing Services Version Nov. 2005

Version Nov. 2005

Holcim Group Support Ltd

Manufacturing Services
Thermal Process Technology
Materials Technology
Mechanical Process Technology

2nd Edition
Nov , 2005

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 2

Contents General

Reference Guide for

Pages

Thermal Process Technology “Kiln Systems”…… 5 - 76

Reference Guide for

Material Technology……………………………………77 - 102

Reference Guide for

Mechanical Process Technology …………………. 103 - 177

Annexes

Conversion Tables ………………………………….178 - 180

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 3

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 4

Reference Guide for

“Kiln Systems”

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 5

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 6

Contents Kiln Systems

Holcim Performance Indicators ………………………………………. 8

Rotary Kiln………………………………………………………………… 10

Long Wet Kiln…………………………………………………………….. 14

Grate Cooler………………………………………………………………. 15

Planetary Cooler…………………………………………………………. 21

Suspension Preheater………………………………………………….. 24

Precalciner………………………………………………………………… 25

Main Burner ………………………………………………………………. 27

Chlorine Limit…………………………………………………………….. 31

Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance……………………………………… 32

AFR…………………………………………………………………………. 36

Petcoke…………………………………………………………………….. 46

Combustion Engineering……………………………………………….. 49

Gas Connversion, Density,Barometric Pressure and Leak Air Formulas.. 53

Process Fans……………………………………………………………… 55

Environment……………………………………………………………….. 57

Emission Concentration Conversions………………………………… 61

Bag Filter Calculation Formulas……………………………………….. 62

Diagramms and Tables…………………………………………………… 64

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 7

Holcim Performance Indicators

Gross availability index:
Actual Operating Time [h] ⋅ 100
Gross Availability Index [%] =
Calendar Time [h]
Calendar Time = actual operating time + idle time + other downtime

Net availability index:

(Actual Operating Time [h] + Idle Time [h]) ⋅ 100
Net Availabil ity Index [%] =
Calendar Time [h]
Idle Time = equipment is not operating but is in a condition for immediate start up
Other downtime = equipment is not operating and not in a condition for immediate start up
Calendar Time = actual operating time + idle time + other downtime

Production rate index:

Actual Production Rate [t/d] ⋅ 100
Production Rate Index [%] =
BDP [t/d]

BDP(Best demonstrated practice): The highest historical production rate (t/d) achieved during the
last 24 months before the budget phase.

Gross OEE:
OEE gross [%] = Gross Availabil ity Index [%] * Production Rate Index [%]

OEE = Overall Equipment Efficiency

Quality Index [%] = 1 (due to insignificant final product reject)

Net OEE :
OEEnet [%] = Net Availabil ity Index [%] * Production Rate Index [%]
OEE = Overall Equipment Efficiency
Quality Index [%] = 1 (due to insignificant final product reject)

Standard clinker capacity :

Standard clinker capacity (t/a) = BDP (t/d) * 85% * 365

Above definitions are based on the HARP (Holcim Accounting and Reporting Principles) Manual
Release 6.0. For the most current definition check the HARP Manual on
Holspace.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 8

Holcim Performance Indicators

Thermal Energy:

Thermal substitution rate (TSR):

Alternativ eThermal Energy Kiln System [ MJ]

TSR [%] = ⋅ 100%
Total Thermal Energy Kiln System [ MJ]

Thermal Economic Equivalent (TEE):

 Actual Cost of Thermal Energy ⋅ (1- TSR) 

TEE [%] = 1−  ⋅ 100%
 Actual Cost of Traditiona l Thermal Energy 
Above definitions are based on the HARP (Holcim Accounting and Reporting
Principles) Manual Release 6.0. For the most current definition check the HARP Manual on
Holspace.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 9

Rotary Kiln

Key Figures

Specific kiln volume load: < 2.2 t/d m3 SP kilns with ≥ 4 stages
< 5.5 t/d m3 Precalciner kilns
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by kiln volume inside refractory (m3)

Specific burning zone < 180 t/d m2 SP kilns with ≥ 4 stages

area load: < 350 t/d m2 Precalciner kilns
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by kiln cross section area at the burning zone
inside refractory (m2)

Specific thermal < 6 MW/m2

burning zone load:
Calculation: Total thermal energy input by the kiln burner (MW) divided by kiln cross
section area at the burning zone inside refractory (m2)

Gas velocity inside kiln: < 10 m/s at 5% O2 at kiln inlet

Calculation: Total gas volume flow at kiln inlet (actual m3/s) divided by the kiln cross section
area inside refractory (m2)

Material residence time 40 - 60 min SP kilns

in kiln: 25 - 35 min Precalciner kilns
Material filling degree 4–8% typical value
in kiln:
Calculation: Volume of material in kiln (m3) divided by the kiln volume inside refractory (m3)

Specific nosering > 0.33 m3/m s

cooling air:
Nosering cooling air pressure at nozzle inlet: > 20mbar
Calculation: Nosering cooling airflow (m3/s) divided by the circumferential distance of the
kiln shell (m)
Nozzles shall be arranged evenly around 360° of the kiln circumference.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 10

Rotary Kiln

Material Residence Time in Kiln

The retention time of the material in a dry rotary kiln can be determined with the
formula from Duda Cement Data Book:

1.77 ⋅ L ⋅ Θ
t = ⋅F
ν ⋅ (D − 2 ⋅ Lining) ⋅ rpm

T = Material residence time [min]

L = Length of kiln [m]
θ = Angle of repose of material [°], (here 35-40°)
ν = Slope of kiln in degrees [°], (normally 2-3°)
D = Kiln shell diameter [m]
Lining = Refractory thickness [m]
Rpm = Number of kiln revolutions per minute [rpm]
F = Factor, which equals 1, if the kiln has a constant diameter [-]

Material Residence Time in a Rotary Kiln with L/dinside lining = 16

200

180

160 3 % kiln slope

140 3.5 % kiln slope
Residence time [min]

120 4 % kiln slope

100

80
SP kilns
60
PC kilns
40

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Kiln speed [rpm]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 11

Rotary Kiln

Kiln Inclination Conversion

The kiln inclination can be indicated both in degrees and in percent. The following
formula can be used for conversion:

 Inclinatio n [%] 
Inclinatio n [°] = arctan  
 100 
Inclinatio n [%] = 100 ⋅ tan (Inclinatio n [°])

With: Inclinations in Degrees and in Percent and mathematical functions

arctan: Arc tangent, tan: Tangent

Kiln Inclination
Percent [%] 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00
Degrees [°] 1.15 1.43 1.72 2.00 2.29

Material Filling Degree in Kiln

Pr oduction ⋅ t
FD = K⋅
Vki ln ⋅ 24

FD = Filling degree [%]

K = 1.5 [(d*m3)/(t*min)]
Production = Clinker production [t/d]
Vkiln = Kiln volume inside refractory [m3]
T = Material residence time [min]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 12

Rotary Kiln

Required Kiln Drive Power to be Installed

The required kiln drive power to be installed is:

PMotor = (
n ⋅ L ⋅ 0.0237 ⋅ (D − 2 ⋅ Lining)
3
+ 5.79 ⋅ 10 −5 ⋅ D ⋅ (25 ⋅ D + 750 ) )

Pmotor = Kiln drive power [kW]

n = Maximum kiln speed to be installed [rpm]
L = Kiln length [m]
D = Kiln shell diameter [m]
Lining = Refractory thickness [m]

Note: For a kiln of not constant diameter, the above formula is

applied to each section and the results added up to the result
for the entire kiln.

Required Kiln Drive Power for L/D = 15

D=6m
Kiln drive power to be installed [kW]

2000 D = Shell diameter

1750 L/D referred to shell diameter

1500
D = 5.5 m
1250

1000
D=5m
750
D = 4.5 m
500
D=4m
250

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Installed kiln speed [rpm]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 13

Long Wet Kiln

Wet Kiln Chain Systems

Length of chain system: 6 – 10 x kiln diameter

Total chain weight: 9 – 12 % weight of daily for < 1000 t/d

11 – 20 % clinker production (t) for > 1000 t/d

Fraction of heat ~ 15 % of total chain weight

resistant chains:

Chain density: 5 – 15 m2/m3 (depending on zone, see “Cain Layout”

(specific surface) below)
Calculation: Surface area of chains (m2) divided by volume of chain section (m3)

Calculation Sheets and Information Available on HolSpace

https://web.holcim.com/PPE Platform/PPE Tools/Tools Thermal Process
Technology/Wet Kiln Tools

§ Chain System Data: Layout Assessment

Chain System Data

§ Chain System Material Balance Chain System

Material Balance

§ Recommended Chain Layout:

Recommended
Summary of “Guidelines Chain Layout” Chain Layout

§ Guidelines for Chain Layout on Long Wet Kilns

Guidelines Chain
Layout

§ Heat Balance Wet Kiln

Heat Balance Wet
Kiln

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 14

Grate Cooler
Key Figures
Specific grate area load: < 45 t/d m2
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total active grate surface area (m2).
Note: High grate area load increases the required specific aeration, especially after the
recuperation zone.
Specific grate width load: 1’000 - 1'500 t/d m
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by grate width (m)
Note: High grate width load results in high grate speed. Low values can result in clinker distribution
problems at cooler inlet.

Grate speed: 10 - 15 str/min

Typical grate speed in strokes / minute for traditional reciprocating grate coolers
(higher speed means higher grate wear)

Installed specific cooling > 2.0 Nm3/kg cli For new coolers
air volume requirement: > 2.3 Nm3/kg cli For old type coolers
Calculation: Installed cooling air volume (Nm3/h) divided by hourly clinker production (kg/h)

Specific cooling 1.7 – 1.9 Nm3/kg cli For modern coolers

air volume (operation): 2.0 – 2.3 Nm3/kg cli For old type coolers
Calculation: Cooling air volume (Nm3/h) divided by hourly clinker production (kg/h)
Note: If clinker end temperature is excessive or problematic, even higher values required.

Typical specific aeration: 1.3 – 1.8 m3/m2 s For fixed inlet section
(Operation), new coolers 0.8 – 1.4 m3/m2 s For recuperation area
0.4 – 1.0 m3/m2 s For aftercooling zone
Typical specific aeration: 1.5 – 3.0 m3/m2 s For inlet section
(Operation), old type coolers 0.8 – 1.4 m3/m2 s For recuperation area
0.4 – 1.0 m3/m2 s For aftercooling zone
Calculation: Actual cooling air flow (m3/s) per respective area of grate / compartment (m2).
Note: Low values are preferred with regard to heat exchange, but require a low specific cooler grate
area load.

Recuperation Efficiency: 70 – 75 % For modern coolers

(normalized) 55 – 70 % For old type coolers

Calculation: Actual recuperation efficiency normalized to 0.8 Nm3/kg clinker.

Note: Efficiency depends on the condition and design of the cooler, on clinker granulometry and
operating conditions.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 15

Grate Cooler
Tertiary air take off velocity < 5 m/s For new installations
(cooler roof extraction): < 6 m/s For existing installations
Calculation: Tertiary air volume at actual temperature (m3/s) divided by the cross section
area of the tertiary air duct (m2) at take off.

Waste air take off velocity: < 5 m/s For new installations
< 6 m/s For existing installations
Calculation: Waste air volume at actual temperature (m3/s) divided by the cross section
area of the waste air duct (m2) at take off.

Tunnel velocity (horizontal < 10 m/s

air velocity above the clinker bed
towards air extraction locations:
The tunnel velocity is the horizontal velocity of the air above the clinker bed. It is highest at the
location just before the air is extracted via kiln hood, tertiary air duct, waste air duct or middle air
duct. Exact calculation of the tunnel velocity is difficult. Rough estimations can be made using
cooling air distribution together with cooler drawings and an estimation of air temperature
at the respective location (actual m3/h divided by the cross section of the cooler housing inside
refractory above the clinker bed).

Cooler Recuperation Efficiency Assessment

100%

90%

80%
Cooler Efficiency [%]

70%

60%

50%

40%

30% Ideal (counter current)

Advanced
20%
Cross Current
10%

0%
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Recuperation
Recuperation airAir [Nm3/kg
[Nm3/kg cli] cli]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 16

Grate Cooler
Clinker Cooler Recuperation Efficiency

The Clinker Cooler Recuperation Efficiency characterizes the fraction of heat

from the hot clinker reintroduced to the kiln system via secondary and tertiary
air.
qSecondary + qTertiary A ir + qDust Out − qDust In
=
Air
qClinker Hot

: Recuperation Efficiency [%]

qSecondary Air : Specific Heat Secondary Air [kJ/kg clinker ]

qTertiary A ir : Specific Heat Tertiary Air [kJ/kg clinker ]

qDust Out : Specific Heat Clinker Dust at Secondary Air Temperatur e [kJ/kg clinker ]

qDust Out : Specific Heat Clinker Dust at Temperatur e of Clinker from the
Kiln (1450 °C) [kJ/kg clinker ]

qClinker Hot : Specific Heat Hot Clinker from the Kiln (1 kg) [kJ/kg clinker ]

Clinker Cooler Normalized Recuperation Efficiency

In order to be able to compare the performances of different coolers by one number,

the efficiency is normalized with regard to the amount of air recuperated of 0.8
Nm3/kg clinker (typical value for a modern kiln system).

0.744
0.8 ≅ ⋅
 v  v 
1− EXP− * 1+ 
 0.77  2.57 

0.8 : Normalized recuperation efficiency [%]

: Recuperation efficiency according to above formula [%]
v: Specific recuperation air flow [Nm3/kg clinker ]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 17

Grate Cooler
Grate Cooler Air Distribution
1) Old Cooler without Fixed Inlet
The recommended air profile shows a descending pattern from the cooler
inlet towards the cooler outlet
3 100
typical ranges of specific air load
90
Specific Air Load
2.5
Undergrate Pressure 80
Specific Air Load [m3/m2,s]

70
2

Pressure [mbar]
60

1.5 Recuperation Zone 50

40
Aftercooling Zone
1
30

20
0.5
10

0 0
Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 comp 4 Comp 5 Comp 6

2) Modern Cooler with Fixed Inlet

The recommended air profile shows a descending pattern from the cooler
inlet towards the cooler outlet
3 100
typical ranges of specific air load
90
2.5 Specific Air Load
Undergrate Pressure 80
Specific Air Load [m3/m2,s]]

70
2
Pressure [mbar]

1.5 Recuperation Zone 50

40
Aftercooling Zone
1
30

20
0.5
10

0 0
Fixed Inlet Comp 1 Comp 2 Comp 3 Comp 4 Comp 5

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 18

Grate Cooler

Clinker Temperature (for conventional / old coolers

without fixed inlet)
The achievable clinker temperature at the cooler exit with a given cooling air
volume VAir can be calculated as (Rule of Thumb):

TCli,out − TAmb  V 
= exp − Air 
TCli,in − TAmb  0.77 

TCli,out = Temperature of clinker at cooler outlet [°C]

TCli, in = Temperature of clinker at cooler inlet [°C], typically around 1400 °C for
grate coolers
TAmb = Ambient temperature [°C]
VAir = Specific cooling air [Nm3/kg cli]

Clinker End Temperature at Different

Cooling Air Flows:
300
Clinker End Temperature [°C above Ambient]

275

250

225 Ol
Gr d T
200 at yp
eC e(
M o o Lo w
175 od ler
er s Pre
n ss
150 Gr ur
at e
e Fa
125 Co n)
ol
er
100 s

50
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
Specific Cooling Air [Nm3/kg Clinker]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 19

Grate Cooler
Typical example of a grate cooler heat balance (modern cooler):

Cooling Air

Transport Efficiency of Grate Cooler

1
Production ⋅
Cooler Width ⋅ Bed Height
Transport =
1 1
ρCli ⋅ 24 ⋅ 3600 ⋅ Number of Strokes ⋅ ⋅ Stroke Length ⋅
60 1000

ηTransport = Transport efficiency of grate [%]

Production = Clinker production [t/d]
ρCli = Bulk density of clinker [t/m3], (set to 1.4 t/m3 as a standard)
Cooler Width = Width of grate [m]
Stroke Length = Length of grate stroke [mm] (e.g. 200 mm Polysius, 105 mm IKN)
Bed Height = Height of clinker bed on grate [m] (typically 0.4 - 0.7 m)
Grate Speed = Grate strokes per minute [str/min] (typically 10 -15 str/min)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 20

Planetary Cooler

Community of Practice (CoP)

available on Holspace

Platform for knowledge exchange

Link: https://web.holcim.com/copplcool/

Specific cooler surface load: < 2 t/m2 d

Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total surface area of all cooler tubes (m2)
Note: Use nominal tube length and diameter

Specific cross section load: < 75 t/m2 d

Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total cross section area of all cooler tubes (m2)
Note: Use nominal tube diameter

Specific volume load: < 4.4 t/m3 d

Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total volume of all cooler tubes (m2)
Note: Use nominal tube length and diameter

Air velocity through cooler tubes at < 4.5 m/s

cooler inlet (close to elbow):
Calculation: Secondary air volume (m3/s) at calculated secondary air temperature (°C) divided
by total inner (inside lining) cross section area of all cooler tubes (m2)

Velocity of air entering to kiln < 25 m/s

through inlet openings (at elbows):
Calculation: Secondary air volume (m3/s) at calculated secondary air temperature (°C) divided
by total open cross section area of all inlet openings in kiln (m2)

Recuperation Efficiency: 55 – 65 % For cooler tube only

(normalized) 60 – 70 % For cooler tube including kiln
internal cooling zone
Calculation: Actual recuperation efficiency normalized to 0.8 Nm3/kg clinker (equivalent to the
normalization for grate coolers).
Note: Efficiency depends on the condition and design of the cooler and its internals and on the
design of the kiln internal cooling zone.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 21

Planetary Cooler

Typical example of a planetary

cooler heat balance:

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 22

Suspension Preheater

Typical Indicators of a 5 Stage Preheater with Precalciner

TGas O2 Press
PC5 [°C] [%] [mbar]
305
320 3.6%
3.6 - 55
Stage 1 Gas

475
520 3.1%
3.1 - 43
Stage 2

625
660 2.6%
2.6 - 36
Stage 3 Meal

750
780 2.3%
2.3 - 29
Stage 4

860
880 2.0%
2.0 - 22
Stage 5

0 500 1000 °C 2.5%

2.5 - 5

Typical Indicators of a 4 Stage Preheater without Precalciner

TGas O2 Press
SP4 [°C] [%] [mbar]

350 3.4%
3.4 - 45
Stage 1

545
550 3.0%
3.0 - 31
Stage 2

690
710 2.6%
2.6 - 23
Stage 3

800
840 2.4%
2.4 - 16
Stage 4

0 500 1000 °C 2.5%

2.5 - 9

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 23

Suspension Preheater
Kiln inlet chamber gas velocity: < 25 m/s existing installations
< 21 m/s new installations
Calculation: Kiln gas at inlet conditions (m3/s) divided by cross section area at the narrowest
location of the kiln inlet chamber at the inclined inlet chute (m2)
Gas velocities in riser ducts and 10 - 15 m/s
cyclone dip tubes:
Calculation: Kiln gas at operating conditions (m3/s) divided by inner cross section area of
riser duct or dip tube (m2). Note: 10 m/s allowed only in case of perfectly working splash boxes

Preheater exit gas temperatures: 350 - 380 °C 4 stage SP

310 - 340 °C 5 stage SP
290 - 320 °C 6 stage SP
Typical exit gas temperatures for modern suspension preheater (SP) kilns. For precalcining
Systems (PC) exit temperatures are approx. 10°C higher.

Thermal energy consumption 3'200 - 3'500 4 stage SP or PC

[kJ/kg cli]: 3'100 - 3'400 5 stage SP or PC
3'000 - 3'300 6 stage SP or PC
Typical values for suspension preheater and precalciner kilns (without bypass)

Oxygen concentration at 2.5 - 3.5 % O2 (dry) Without AFR

preheater exit: 4.0 - 4.5 % O2 (dry) With AFR
For preheaters without airlift feeding

Oxygen concentration at kiln inlet: 2 - 3 % O2 (dry) Without AFR

up to 4.5 % O2 (dry) With AFR
For suspension preheater kilns, in case of secondary firing higher O2 values may be required.

Pressure drop across cyclone 9 - 14 mbar Top stage

stage: 7 - 10 mbar Lower stages

Typical pressure drop over 30 - 45 mbar 4 stage SP

preheater: 37 - 55 mbar 5 stage SP
44 - 65 mbar 6 stage SP
Pressure drop for preheater from inlet to bottom cyclone to outlet of top cyclone. Pressure
drop of kiln inlet and calciner NOT included.

Typical separation efficiency of top 90 – 93 % (new cyclones, and optimum

stage cyclone: conditions –95%)

Calculation: Dust loss weigh out relative to the material feed to the top stage.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 24

Precalciner
Gas residence time >3s Oil, lignite
in precalciner (inline): > 3.5 s Gas, bituminous coal
> 4.5 s Petcoke, anthracite
>5s Minimum requirement for new
installations (increased AFR
use)

Applicable for inline calciners. For offline calciners: 0.5 - 1 s less residence time required.

Calculation: Volume of precalciner inside lining until inlet of bottom stage cyclone (m3) divided
by gas volume flow through precalciner (m3/s) at the calciner exit temperature and pressure.
The gas volume at the calciner exit (including all the CO2 released in the calciner) is used.
This leads to a smaller retention time number (conservative calculation).

Gas velocity at > 25 m/s without solid AFR in PC

calciner orifice: 35-50 m/s with solid AFR in PC (depending
on particle size of AFR)

Note: At normal fuel split calciner / kiln. Sufficient gas velocity to prevent falling through of meal
and solid fuels (e.g. AFR) to kiln inlet.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 25

Precalciner

Apparent decarbonation of 92 - 96 % For PC systems

the hotmeal: 30 - 60 % With secondary firing
10 - 40 % For PH systems

 LOIhot meal ⋅ (100 − LOIfeed ) 

Apparent decarbonation hot meal = 1 −  ⋅ 100
 LOIfeed ⋅ (100 − LOIhot meal 
)

or (transformation of formula above):

LOI feed − LOIhotmeal
Apparent decarbonat ion hotmeal = { }⋅ 100
LOI feed ⋅ (1 − LOIhotmeal / 100)

LOIfeed: Loss on ignition of kiln feed (%)

LOIhot meal: Loss on ignition of hot meal (%)
Note: With high dust cycles at kiln inlet the measured apparent decarbonation degree can be much
higher than the true decarbonation degree.

Because of always present dust cycles between kiln / kiln inlet / kiln riser / bottom
cyclone, the hot meal sample contains a certain amount of dust which was already
in the kiln calcining zone and is higher or even fully calcined.

This means: The higher the dust concentration near the kiln inlet resp. the dust
cycle, the higher the apparent calcination degree.

Apparent and true Calc.

100

80
Apparent alc. Degree [%]

60
1.0
50

40 0.5

30
0.2
20

10 0.0

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
True Calc. Degree [%]
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 26
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Main Burner (Multi-channel Burner without Gas)

Burner Key Figures
§ Specific burner impulsion*: 9 – 11 N/MW existing burners
10 – 11 N/MW design for new burners
* excluding transport air and fuel mass flow (exception gas burner)

§ Primary air fan pressure:

with fan 200 – 350 mbar existing burners
300 – 350 mbar design for new burners
with blower 350 – 1000 mbar existing and new burners

§ Resulting primary air percentage (result of above figures; main criteria impulsion):
with fan 12 – 18 %* existing burners
13 – 15 %* design for new burners
with blower 8 – 14 %* existing burners
9 – 14 %* design for new burners
* percentage of minimum combustion air

§ Location of AFR injection: Burner centre

§ Burner Alignment: Parallel to kiln axis, in centre of kiln cross-section

§ Burner Position: Position burner tip between +1.5m inwards and –1.0m outwards
of rotary kiln; depends on kiln-L/D and temperature profile;
Note: Planetary coolers need longer internal cooling zone.
Retracting the burner may damage / block the inlet openings.
Usually burner position planetary coolers: >2m inside.

“Burner Check” calculation spreadsheet à HolSpace

Procedure for Specifying a New Burner

Step 1: Definition of ‘Design Thermal Power’ of burner:
- Design Thermal Power = BDP * Real heat cons. * Real main burner fuel ratio
Step 2: - Burner thermal power = Design thermal power + aprox. 10% reserve

Step3: Selection of primary air fan size:

Calculation of desired impulsion using “Burner Check” spreadsheet

Specification: Cleary specify in tender documents and supplier discussions:

- Design thermal Power [MW]
- Primary air fan flow rate [m3/h at defined inlet conditions T and p]
- Primary air fan pressure [mbar] + 10% reserve
- Plant altitude
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 27
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Main Burner (Multi-channel Burner without Gas)

Fuel Load, Transport Velocity and Injection Velocity
Solid fuel load in 5 - 7 kg/m3 air Peat / brown coal, coal
transport duct: 3 - 5 kg/m3 air Petcoke
1.5 - 2 kg/m3 air Anthracite
1 - 5 kg/m3 air Solid AFR
Calculation: Feed rate of solid fuel [kg/s] divided by the transport air flow rate [m3/s]
Transport velocity of solid 32 - 35 m/s Optimum range
conventional fuels in the
transport duct: 28 - 35 m/s Acceptable
Calculation: Volume flow of transport air [m3/s] divided by the cross sectional
area of the transport duct [m2]
Solid fuel injection velocity 35 - 40 m/s Peat / brown coal
at burner tip: ~ 30 m/s Coal
20 - 25 m/s Petcoke
20 - 25 m/s Anthracite
30 - 45 m/s Solid AFR
Calculation: Volume of transport air [m3/s] at burner tip (pressure of kiln hood and
T= 50°C) divided by the area of the solid fuel injection channel at the burner tip.

Transport Line for Pulverized Coal / Petcoke to the Burner

• Length: as short as possible max 80 m
• Only horizontal and vertical section (no inclining or declining sections)
• Elbow design: Diversion pots preferred over bends
(first bend after dosing no pot)
• Performance check: Pressure fluctuation near burner < +/- 10% of average
Coal and Petcoke Fineness
Required grinding fineness of %R 90 µm 0.5 * (% volatiles)
coal (rule of thumb): %R 200 µm 2 %
Example: Coal with 35 % volatiles results in %R 90 µm of 0.5 * 35 % = 17.5 %R 90 µm

Required grinding fineness of %R 90 µm 5 %

petcoke (rule of thumb): %R 200 µm 1 %

Required grinding fineness of %R 90 µm (Coal fraction) * 0.5 * (%

coal / petcoke mixture volatiles) + (petcoke fraction) * 5 %
(rule of thumb): %R 200 µm 1 %
Example: 60 % coal, 40 % petcoke (mass fraction); coal with 20 % volatiles.
%R 90 µm upper limit is 0.6 * 0.5 * 20 % + 0.4 * 5 % = 8.0 %

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 28

Main Burner (Multi-channel Burner without Gas)

Burner Adjustments
§ Measurements to assess the effect of burner adjustments:
Changes and effects should be documented systematically.
Check-list for kiln parameters: “Combustion Check” à HolSpace
Parameters: Kiln shell temperature profile, hot meal SO3 and LOI, clinker quality (CaOfree,
SO3 in cli, Microscopy), O2/CO/NOx at kiln inlet, granulometry of clinker, color of broken
clinker cores, Magotteaux test for reducing conditions, back-end temperature, ID-fan
RPM/damper-position, etc.

§ Timeframe:
Wait at least 3 days after each change for stabilization of coating in kiln

§ Impact of burner position on kiln:

Retraction of burner*: - Shortening of flame
- Increase risk of snowman formation
- Risk of increase of nose ring temperature
Pushing burner into the kiln: - Lengthening of flame
- Risk of increase of back-end temperature
* Note: Planetary cooler kilns need longer internal cooling zone

§ Alignment of burner position:

Alignment of burner in kiln axis by means of a laser (kiln stopped and cold):
LASER Burner . Kiln

1st transparent 2nd target

§Air channel adjustment: target
Goal: Hot, short and compact flame, with 10 – 11 N/MW. No impingement of the flame on
refractory and material bed

§ Axial Air: Effect: Ensures mixing of fuel with secondary air. More Axial air/ Higher
Pressure will improve mixing à shorter flame
Guideline: Start optimization with channel at position 0, then open first this
channel
• Radial Air: Effect: More radial air will widen and shorten the flame. Too wide flame with
different fuels (high and low reactive) will create 2 flames and
elongate total flame length also a bad effect on refractory can be
observed.
• Central Air: Effect: Stabilization of flame, cooling of central channel and avoiding of
build up formation on burner tip
• Fuel injection velocities:
Effect: Defines ignition distance of fuel; black plume of 30 – 40 cm is
desirable to avoid damage of the burner tip
Guideline: see separate table for injection velocities
• Fuel Fineness:
Effect: Ensure burnout of solid fuel before the clinker bed; definition of
ignition distance
Guideline: see separate table with fineness guidelines

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 29

Main Burner (Multi-channel Burner without Gas)

Main Burner Calculation Formulas
Thermal Power from kiln production and Heat Consumption:
Production ⋅ q
Pthermal = ⋅ %Main firing
24 ⋅ 3600
Pthermal = Thermal burner power [MW]
Production = Clinker production [t/d]
q = Specific heat consumption [kJ/kgcli]
%Main firing = Percentage of heat at main burner

Note: ‘Design Thermal Power’ for new burner = BDP * Real Heat Consumption *
Real Burning Zone Fuel Ratio + approx. 10% Reserve
Thermal Power from Fuels (alternative calculation):
n

∑ (M
Fuel = 1
Fuel ⋅ NCVFuel )
Pthermal =
3600
Pthermal = Thermal burner power [MW]
Mfuel = Fuel mass flow [t/h or Nm3/h], for the fuels 1 to n
NCVFuel = Net calorific value of the fuel [kJ/kg fuel or kJ/Nm3 fuel] for fuels 1 to n
Specific Burner Impulsion:
∑ (m ⋅ v )i i
G = i
Pthermal
G = Specific impulsion [N/MW]
mi = Mass flow of air flow i [kg/s]
vi = Velocity of air flow i [m/s] calculated with Bernoulli equation (see below)
Pthermal = Thermal burner power [MW]

2 ⋅ p tip ,i (only approximation)

vi ≈ (NOT for coal or AF channels)
ρ
vi = Velocity at burner tip [m/s]
Ptip,i = Pressure at burner tip = aprox. pressure before burner -5% [Pa]
ρ = Air density at burner tip at 50 °C [kg/m3] (see below)
kg PA 273.15 K
= 1.29 ⋅ ⋅
m 3 1013 mbar T A + 273.15 K
PA = Pressure in kiln hood + Ambient Pressure [mbar]
TA = defined: 50 °C [K]

Approximation of Burner Impulsion: PA ⋅ v

G = Specific axial impulsion [N/MW]
G ≈
300
PA = Primary air ratio [%]
v = Velocity of primary air calculated with Bernoulli equation [m/s]
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 30
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Chlorine Limit
Kiln Cl extraction method Maximum Remarks
system relevant
Cl input
[g Cl/ t cli]
Any kiln without Cl-extraction 300
system (“closed loop”)
4/5 stage discarding filter dust 300- 400 dep. on available
SP during direct operation time for direct op.
2 stage SP same as above 450 same as above
LEPOL discarding intermediate 600
grate dust
SP 5-10 % Bypass ~ 100 *% applicable for
Bypass 5-10% bypass
Long discarding max. kiln 5000 unusual, needs
wet/dry dust (unlimited CKD) extra CKD outlet

Consequences of exceeding the Cl Limit

Kiln system Short term [hours] Long term Impact on HCl emission
consequences consequences
Suspension preheater blockages corrosion, none
preheater / à production loss refractory (without bypass)
precalciner damage
Grate high pressure drop in corrosion medium
preheater nodule bed à prod. loss

Long wet / ring formation / material HCl emission and risk of

long dry kiln blockage dioxin / furan formation

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 31

Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance

Normal balance boundary for simplicity of sampling

7 Dust discarded (e.g. added to cement) Emissions: SO2, HCl 8

A 6b Filter dust reused in kiln not returned

via kiln feed
Filter dust returned via kiln feed 6a

External cycle
Internal cycle
Kiln feed as fed!
(Raw meal and
direct

dust !) 1
Alte rnative fue ls Coal Oil
operation

compound
operation
Homogenizing
Silo

direct
Fuels 3 operation

ev. Dust inputs

Bypass dust or 5
intermediate grate dust (LEPOL)
removed from system
Clinker Balance Boundary
Advantage: - reflects instant situation of kiln system
- low cost, material samples and analysis are part of the daily routine
- chlorine concentrations in dust flows well above detection level
Disadvantage: - external dust cycle needs to be quantified
- dust flow and composition only known during direct operation
- SO3 and Cl emissions at preheater exit (top stage) not directly measured
Excel tool available on CoP AFR Application on kiln à Library à Tools

Alternative balance boundary Fuels

Emissions: SO2, HCl

Ex ternal cycle

B Internal cycle

Alternativ e fuels Coal Oil direct

operation

compound
operation
Raw
Homogenizing
S ilo
Materials
Dust direct
operation
(pure;
discarded before mill !)
(e.g. added
to cement)

Clinker Balance Boundary

Alternative balance boundary for a chlorine and sulfur balance, bulk materials would have to be sampled and analyzed.
Advantage: - Raw material properties are not influenced by kiln dust
- Calculation of relevant input is simple
Disadvantage: - Representative sampling and sample preparation of the raw materials
(before the mill à un-ground) is difficult
- Internal storage effects (large silos) are not considered . The actual kiln input is
not always the average input (e.g.: Cl, Tl)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 32

Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance

Evaluation of Alk/SO3/Cl-Balance
Example of Evaluation Page “Alk/SO3/Cl-Balance” calculation
spreadsheet à HolSpace

Main Results Alk/SO3/Cl -Balance

1. “Relevant” Cl-Input:
Takes into consideration the higher Cl-input limit when extraction Cl (e.g. by removing
filer dust).
Calculation: "Relevant" Cl-input = Total inputs - Dust reused – Emission
Limits: see “Cl Limits”

2. “Calculated Cl in clinker:
No kiln can sustain an output >300g/tcli on a constant basis.
Calculation: "Calculated" Cl in clinker = Total inputs - Dust reused – Emission
- Dust removed - bypass dust
Limits: see “Cl Limits”

3. Actual Sulfur in Clinker:

The maximum input of sulfur is limited due to process reasons. The limit depends on
the kiln type.
Limits: see “Petcoke Rules”

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 33

Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance

Main results (cont.)
4. Alkali / Sulfur - Ratio:
Balance of sulfur and alkalis
Calculation:
K O Na O Cl
2 + 2 −
Alk − Cl 94 62 71
=
SO SO
3 3
80
Calculation based on clinker concentrations [%]

Limits: Conservative approach and limits for ideal condition (“challenging limits”): see
“Petcoke Rules”

5. Sulfur Volatility:
The volatility expresses the amount of sulfur circulation vs. sulfur in clinker.
Calculation:  SO Cli 
 3
(100 − LOICli ) 
Volatility ϕ = 1 − 
 SO 3 HM 
 (100 − LOIHM ) 

SO 3 Cli
Simplified formula for LOI~ <2%: Volatility ϕ = 1 −
SO 3 HM

SO3 cli = SO3 in clinker [%]

SO3 HM = SO3 in Hot meal [%]
LOI Cli / HM = Loss on ignition in clinker / hot meal [%]

Limits: Volatility Criteria

< 0.7 ok
> 0.7 combustion problem
> 0.9 serious combustion problem
% Cl

6. Hot Meal:
Applicable to SP and PC kilns only.
2.0 Fre
Limits: according to graph que
nt blo
Zon cka
e ges
1.4 of in
cre
asin
ge ncr
1.0 usta
ti on
0.8 pro
blem
No e s
ncru
statio
ns

% SO3
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
2.5 3.75

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 34

Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance

Common Pitfall Alk/SO3/Cl-Balance: Filter Dust
(Preheater and Precalciner Kilns only)
How to determine the different filter dust quantities ("Filter dust removed" and 'Filter
dust returned via kiln feed"):
1) The "Dust removed from kiln" is the amount of dust sent to the cement mills.
Calculation: Total dust quantity used in cement divided by kiln running hours.
Example:
In case of 16'000 t/a of dust used in the cement mill and 7'800 h kiln running time 'the
amount of "Dust removed from kiln" is = 16'000 / 7'800 = 2.1 t/h
2) The "Dust returned via kiln feed" = "Total amount of dust" - "Dust removed
from kiln“

The "Total amount of dust" leaving the preheater is:

a) Determination by weighing:
Weighing of the dust from the kiln filter during direct operation (raw mill stopped).
Before starting the weighing, the mill should be stopped at least for 1 hour. Weighing
time should be at least 2 hours.

b) Determination by estimation:
The normal range of separation efficiency of the top cyclones is 90 - 93 % (based on
feed).
Example:
At 100 t/h of kiln feed and a top cyclone efficiency of 93%, the "Total amount of
dust" leaving the preheater is 7 t/h.
The "Dust returned via kiln feed" = 7 t/h - 2.1 t/h = 4.9 t/h

Plausibility Checks Alk/SO3/Cl-Balance

(Preheater and Precalciner Kilns only)

1) Comparison of Cl-input with Cl-hot meal: Cl in hot meal = approx. Cl-input * 50

If these 2 values are not in the same range (e.g. 200 vs. 400), the calculated Cl input
is not plausible and Cl values in the filter dust and the kiln feed need to be checked.
2) Efficiency of top cyclone stage:
The usual rang of separation efficiency of the top cyclone stage is 90 - 93 % (based
on feed). If the efficiency is out of the usual range, check the amount of filter dust
(quantity of returned and removed dust).

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 35

AFR

Resources of AFR Know-How

Community of Practice (CoP):

AFR Application
on kiln
“Maximize the benefits of AFR use”
Link:
https://web.holcim.com/copafrkiln/
Examples:
- Impact of AFR on refractory
- Technical AFR Manual for liquids
- AFR Assessment in Brazil
- Conference archive Turntable AFR
- Standard measurement tools kilns

AFR Gateway:
Pi Pyramid)
“Pi the group wide tool for
effective AFR-BD implementation”
Link:
https://web.holcim.com/AFR/AFR
Pyramid.nsf
Examples:
- Waste profile database
- AFR Quality control manual
- AFR Policy

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 36

© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers
These maximum substitution rates reflect the maximum combustion limit for a certain AFR type.
Other limitations such as the maximum Cl-input have to be considered separately.

37
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

AFR

AFR Impact Calculation

Impact factors of AFR according to LGF Study (Low Grade Fuel):

Impact on heat
consumption Impact on kiln capacity (tons lost)

Influence SP/PC
Unit All kilns Unit Grate PH Long wet
factor kiln
t cli
Water GJ/t H2O 2.15* 2.0 1.6 0.8
/t H2O
t cli
Ash GJ/t ash 1.1 0.26 0.22 0.11
/t ash
Additiona
l transp. t cli
GJ/kNm3 1 (0.7)** 0.24 0.2 0.07
air (false /kNm3
air)
Oxygen % q per % cap
1.8 5.7*** 5*** 4.4***
level % O2 per %O2

Note: For proper application of above factors consult definitions/explanations in the LGF study
SP: Suspension Preheater, PC: Precalciner Kiln
* When H2O included in NCV calculation of fuel, when injecting pure water 4.6 GJ/tH2O
** 0.7 GJ/kNm3 applies for Wet kilns only
*** Oxygen increase after last addition of fuel, for more details see LGF study

“LGF Impacts” calculation spreadsheet à HolSpace

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 38

AFR
Homogeneity of AFR
The required homogeneity of each AFR stream to the kiln depends on the
following factors:
NCV
1. Fluctuation of the calorific value in the AFR - short term [minutes]
2. Fluctuation of the mass flow of the AFR into the kiln,
given by the quality of the AFR dosing system - short term [minutes] Feedrate
3. Substitution rate
The combined influence of the first two factors produces the fluctuation of the
heat input into the kiln by the AFR.
The fluctuation of the total heat input into the kiln has to be kept below a certain
level to avoid negative impacts on production capacity.

Homogeneity rule (to avoid negative impacts on kiln capacity):

Fluctuation of Heat Input [%] * Substitution Rate [%] < 100%

Fluctuation of Heat Input [%] =

= Fluctuation of Heat Value [%] + Fluctuation of Mass Flow [%]

Note: This formula does not apply for whole tires and other slow burning lump fuels

Example of homogeneity rule:

Maximum TSR without impacting production rate if the heat value is fluctuating between
12 - 13 MJ/kg (= 63%) and the fluctuation of mass flow is between 2.0 - 2.1 t/h (= 63%):
à Fluctuation of heat input = 3% + 3% = 6%
à Maximum substitution rate without impact = 100% / 6% = 13% TSR

Consequences of exceeding the limit:

If the fluctuations are higher (homogeneity rule), the impact on kiln performance
becomes sensible (loss of kiln capacity).
Example of impacts when exceeding the limit (homogeneity rule):
Impacts on kiln performance when using 30% TSR of an AFR with 10% fluctuation of
NCV (e.g. 18 - 22 MJ/kg) and 10% dosing fluctuation (e.g. 3.8 - 4.2 t/h):

Impacts
à Requires +1% O2 to compensate fluctuation (to avoid CO) resulting in:
à Impact on heat consumption = +1.8% fuel consumption
à Impact on kiln production = -6% kiln capacity (dry SP-kiln)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 39

AFR
Heavy Metals

Holcim has no official limits or guidelines for HM in AFR.

The following table gives some “Reasonable Limits / Guidelines”:
Metals Hg Tl Cd Be Cr As Sb Sn Co Pb Ni Cu V
Limits / guidelines
[mg/kg] [ppm] 5 50 50 50 250 400 500 500 500 800 1000 1000 1000

As a general guideline, the level of HM in clinker should not be increased

significantly by the use of AFR.

Common ranges of HM in clinker:

“Holcim Heavy Metal Database” (Holspace)

Definition of local HM limits:

HM balance followed by PRECI-software modeling to predict HM impacts on
clinker, dust and emission (Holspace)

Most important and critical elements:

• Mercury (Hg): Volatile (emission)
• Thallium (Tl): Volatile (enrichment in the outer dust cycle)
• Cadmium (Cd): Volatile (enrichment in the outer dust cycle)
• Chromium (Cr): Cr VI in cement (health problems handling wet / fresh concrete)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 40

Water Supply PS

Drainage
N2
Foam

Gas Pendulum DN 50

O2
M M

O2
L
L

LAH

LA H
TAH TAH
IR IR

Breathing
Hole

TAH TAH

TAH TAH
Unloading
Standard Solution for Liquid AFR

Filter
Unloading
Feeding Feeding

PI
Pump
DN 100 Filter Pump
FS

FS
DN 50

PSA
Flow
P
PI

IR IR Meter
FS

P SA

1,5%

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

To final treatment

RECEPTION STORAGE FEEDING

41
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

AFR
Liquid AFR Installation
Filter screen selection: The smallest filter screen depends on the smallest cross
section in the liquid system (generally injection nozzle)

- Screen = 1/3 of injection nozzle‘s smallest cross section

- Basket filter size > 30 l

Flow velocity in pipeline: Recommended velocity to prevent sedimentation and excessive

pressure loss in the pipeline

min required speed

particle density pipe diameter viscosity
Installation for liquid with
*) **) ***)
density 0.9 t/m3
m/s t/m3 mm mm2/s
Solvent / waste water 2.5 7.7 50 1.5 - 10
Used oil 0.4 7.7 50 10 - 400
*) speed ~ (density particle - density liquid) / density liquid) ^ 0.5
**) speed ~ diameter ^ 0.5
***) speed ~ viscosity

Pump selection:

- Unloading pump: Centrifugal pump with open wheel,

capacity > 30 m3h
- Dosing pump for solvents: Double diaphragm pumps with
PTFE diaphragms
- Dosing pump for other: - Eccentric screw pole pump
- Peristaltic pump

Twin fluid nozzle for atomizing:

- Liquid pressure at nozzle: 2 – 5 bar

- Compressed air at nozzle: 3 – 6 bar
0.08 – 0.12 kg air/kg liquid

Safety – Liquids
For liquids with flash point < 55°C, special safety
installations are required

Further details can be found in the TAM (Technical AFR Manual for liquids)
available on HolSpace: CoP AFR Application on Kiln

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 42

AFR
Standard Solution for Solid AFR
Main burner firing

storage hall

bridge crane

mechanical transport to
burner platform

weigh feeder rotary

Fe valve
Alternative Solution
pneumatic rupture disk
truck discharge filter
blower burner
rotary VFD
screen

extraction:
- rotating screw VFD

safety
discharge

weigh feeder

Precalciner / secondary firing

storage hall

Precalciner or Secondary Firing

bridge crane

double or
triple flap
with safety
shut-off gate

weigh
feed hopper feeder
with activated
bottom

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 43

AFR
Extraction system for solids

< 2000m3 < 300m3

Planetary screw extraction for flat bottom Push floor hopper with extraction screw,
silos, particle size suitable for main firing particle size < 50 mm

< 300m3
Feed Hopper
with Moving Floor

For organic materials only, medium

abrasiveness, max density ≈ 1 t/m3
Push floor hopper with counter rotating
stripping roll, particle size < 200 mm

< 20m3 <60m3

<60m3

Apron conveyor with counter rotating “Samson” feeder with counter rotating
stripping roll, particle size < 200 mm stripping roll, particle size < 200 mm

Screen selection guideline

-Rotary screen: - Granular sticky material, no long strips
- Screening < 25mm possible
-Disk screen: - Fluffy material, no long strips
- Screening > 25mm
-Finger vibrating - Granular sticky material mixed with long strips
screen: - Screening > 25mm
-Oscillating / vibrating - Granular non-sticky material, no long strips
screen: - Screening < 25mm possible

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 44

AFR
Rotary valve selection guideline

-Blow through preferred for sticky material à standard solution

1.5-times bigger than design volumetric flow rate, paddle wheel
compartment volume according to transport pipe diameter
-Drop-through only for very abrasive material,
3-times bigger than design volumetric flow rate
-Flexible paddle sealing
-Pressurized air bearing sealing protection
-Speed < 0.4 m/s (VFD recommended for adjustment of AFR density
-Inlet cross section > 0.1 m2
-Pressure shock resistant 10 bar

Flap valve selection guideline

-Actuated double or triple flap

-Minimum open cross-section:
-particle size nominal < 50 mm: 500 x 500 mm
-particle size nominal < 200 mm: 800 x 800 mm
-whole tyres: 1'400 x 600 mm
-Automatic safety shut off gate for flap valve, wattless closed
-Heat resistant materials to the prevailing temperature
Safety - Solids

-Grounding
-Speed mechanical equipment < 1m/s (mechanical sparks)
-Bearings outside of the material (e.g. screw conveyor)
-Automatic safety shut off gate for flap valve, wattless closed
-Fire detector and sprinkler system

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 45

Petcoke Rules (1/3)

Petcoke Rules HGRS / MS / TPT / update 30.6.05/DP

What is different to coal ?

Compared to normal coal, petcoke requires special attention in following areas:

Raw coal blending Uniform blending with raw coal (if petcoke < 100%)

Coal mill Requires higher fineness (due to less volatiles)

Affects mill capacity (different grindability and higher fineness required)

Kiln Low ash and high CV

Low reactive fuel, ignition delayed
High sulfur causing more plugging (kiln inlet/preheater)
Stable and controlled kiln process to minimize sulfur cycles

Clinker quality More SO3 in clinker (better early strength development, reduced gypsum addition)

What are the rules?

Alkali / sulfur For a first "conservative" approach, go for following total inputs (1)
SO3 inputs < 1.5 % (clinker basis)
Molar A/S > 0.8

The following limits for the minimum Alk/SO3 ratio and maximum sulfur input per kiln type have
been defined based on best practices within Holcim according to the ATR 2004 data:
Kiln System Min. Alk/SO3- Max. Sulfur
ratio [-] input [%SO3
in cli]

WL – Long Wet Kilns 0.8 1.0

DL – Long Dry Kilns 0.8 1.2
DG – Grate Preheater Kilns 0.8 1.0
SP – Suspension Preheater Kilns 0.5 1.7
PC – Precalciner Kilns 0.4 2.0

Petcoke supply Choose quality that fits into the given restrictions for sulfur input and grinding
capacity. Choosing a good quality (<5% S and >55HGI) is not necessarily the
optimum cost option (2)

Raw coal / petcoke preparation Controlled mixing from two feed hoppers

Coal mill Recommended fineness for 100 % petcoke

- R 90 u = typically 5%
- R 200 u =1%
Determine mill output by trial (Hardgrove can be misleading, greasing effect)
Coal / petcoke mixture (rule of thumb):
- R90u mix < % coal * 0.5 * %volatiles coal + % petcoke * 5%
- R200u mix < 1%

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 46

Petcoke Rules (2/3)

Kiln feed Uniformity Short term kiln feed fluctuations, hourly samples
LSF STD < 1.2 (3)
SR STD < 0.04
AR STD < 0.04

Burnability Good burnability helps (if there is a low cost possibility to improve it) (4)
Assessment methods:
- Holcim Burnability Model (by HGRS / MS / MT)
- Combinability Temperature CT (simple tool):
CT = 436+21*(acid I R90u)+10*LS+3*R150u+32*AR -250*F -20*SO4
- acid I R90u = +90u Acid insoluble residue in raw meal
- LS = Clinker LSF (without SO3 correction)
- R150u = in raw meal
- AR = clinker alumina ratio
- F, SO3 = in clinker
Guidevalue: For 100% high sulfur petcoke firing CT < 1450°C (max. 1500°C)

Dosing Short term quantity fluctuations (10 sec) < 1 %

Fine coal dosing Short term fluctuations (10 sec) < 1 %

Fluctuations in CV < 1% (coal/petcoke)
Pressure fluctuations in transport duct, at burner < 10%
Conveying duct < 80 m, velocity 28 -35 m/s
Diverting pots instead of bends recommended

Kiln Burner & flame Use high momentum burner (new burner 10-11N/MW; existing burner 9-11N/MW) for
compact and short flame. For a given burner/PA-fan (with limited operating range):
Adjust burner for most compact and shortest flame (i.e. max prim. air quantity and
pressure, max. radial air, retract burner). In particular :
Retracting burner tip on grate cooler kilns can have a strong positive impact (5)
Burner orientation : in kiln axis
Petcoke injection velocity 20 -25 m/s

Cooler Stable and high secondary air temperature for stable ignition (cooler optimisation)

O2/CO Gas analysis at kiln inlet mandatory (ILC)

Kiln inlet O2 = 2 ..3 %, CO < 0.1%
(in case of ILC precalciners higher O2 up to 4 - 5% is possible;
but disadvantage: lower flame temperature, higher kiln inlet temperature)

Monitoring Monitor free lime (litre weight)

Monitor shell temperature profile (flame shape)

Clinker granulometry As a consequence of more SO3, clinker tends to be finer (impact on grate cooler)
If necessary adjust clinker SR/AR to alleviate effects of fine clinker

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 47

Petcoke Rules (3/3)

Precalciner Hot flame core for stable ignition ("Hot Spot")
Combustion in pure air better than in kiln gas (ILC, precombustion chamber)

Ret. time Gas retention time preferably > 3.5 sec (if not available: higher petcoke fineness)

Burn out After precalc.: O2 = 2..3 %, CO < 0.1 % (after PH 1% higher O2 due to FA)
Check hot meal for combustibles (sparkling)

Dust curtain Dust curtain kiln inlet: <20-30% meal from 2nd lowest stage to kiln inlet (splash box!)
If no precalciner : Dust curtain in riser duct by lowering meal entry points

Hot meal analysis Adequate frequency, usually once per shift (LOI, SO3, K2O)
SO3 < 5 % (if chlorine < 0.5%)

Bypass An existing bypass alleviates the sulfur cycles, but installation of a new bypass
can hardly be justified by petcoke. Fight SO3 cycles by enhanced prehater cleaning.

Prehater cleaning Add poking possibilities and air cannons (can be up to 60) where coatings occur.
Removing of heavy blockages can also be done with CARDOX blasting on demand.
Special attention to calciner orifice (restriction), if restricted by coating the problem
will be self-accelerating rapidly due to lack of O2.

Recommended : use anti coating Si-C refractories in the riser duct

How to proceed? Stepwise increments of petcoke use, based on process and quality data
Depending on results further stretch the preliminary limits for S03 input and A/S ratio.
Know your process !

Notes

(1) "Conservative" is relative, it depends : On SP/precalciner kiln SO3 inputs of up to 2.5% and A/S down to 0.4 have
also been achieved by a more aggressive approach. However certain factors act against high sulfur incorporation :
lump fuel (AFR) which reaches the material bed, long kilns or grate preheater kilns.

(2) Burning high grade petcoke ( <5%S, HG>55) as recommended in the past would be easier but the market for
such qualities will stagnate (higher prices) in future. A more aggressive approach towards petcoke 6/7% S and 40
HGI is needed for higher cost savings.

(3) General target for LSF STD of opt. kilns. However if not achieved some plants can still incorporate much sulphur
(Example ML: STD=4.4 BUT 1.34 % SO3 in cli !)

(4) Mineralizers (F) would help to incorporate SO3. However mineralizers were so far applied at simultaneous LSF
increase to improve clinker quality. Experience at constant LSF is rare. (FLS Mineralisation, tests SG)

(5) Example CH : retracted burner -1.1 m outside kiln which made an increase of SO3 in clinker from 0.6% to 1.3%
SO3 possible. Disadvantage of retracting burner: hot kiln outlet, snowman in cooler

Community of Practice (CoP) Petcoke

Link: https://web.holcim.com/petcoke/

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 48

Combustion Engineering
When doing calculations on cement kilns it is usual to work with specific
quantities referred to 1 kg of clinker. Therefore the fuel consumption is
expressed as q in MJ/kg cli and the kiln gas volume is expressed as
VKiln gas in Nm3/kg cli.

The minimum amount of air required for stoichiometric combustion is:

Minimum air required for stoichiometric combustion of the fuels

Amin ≈ 0.26 Nm3/MJ

The cement kiln exhaust gas results from the following sources:

Gas from stoichiometric combustion of the fuels

Vmin, wet ≈ 0.28 Nm3/MJ (for most fuels)
Vmin, dry ≈ 0.25 Nm3/MJ (for most fuels)

Gas from water content in raw meal / slurry

For dry kiln systems only (dry kiln feed):

H2Ovapor 0.01 Nm3/kg cli

For wet and semi-dry kiln systems (wet feed slurry, granules or cake):

 kg feed dry material   % feed moisture 

H2O vapor = 1.24 ⋅   ⋅   ; Nm3 /kg cli
 kg cli   100% − % feed moisture 

Gas from CO2 from raw meal

CO2 ≈ 0.27 Nm3/kg cli

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 49

Combustion Engineering
Excess air

 %O2,dry 
Excess air = GasCombustion & Raw meal ⋅  
 21% − %O2,dry 
 

 Nm3 
Units in formula above :  

 kg cli 

Kiln Exhaust Gas Volume (Dry Kilns)

Using the above data the stoichiometric kiln exhaust gas volume
VStoichiometric kiln gas can be calculated for kilns with dry kiln feed:

VStoichiome tric kilngas, dry = (0.27 + 0.25 ⋅ q)

VStoichiometric kilngas, wet = (0.28 + 0.28 ⋅ q)

The relation between wet and dry gas volume is as follows

VN ,dry
VN, wet =
(100 - W% )

W% = Percentage of water vapour in the gas volumen

Therefore the kiln exhaust gas volume VKiln gas, wet with excess air at
the actual measured O2 concentration (for kilns with dry kiln feed
only):

 %O 2, dry 
VKilngas, wet = (0.28 + 0.28 ⋅ q) + (0.27 + 0.25 ⋅ q) ⋅  

 21% − %O 2, dry 
 Nm 3   MJ 
Units in formulas above : V in   , q in  
 kg cli   kg cli 
The formula above for VKiln gas,wet also is used to calculate the amount of false air
in the kiln exhaust gas system by measuring oxygen concentrations at different
locations in the exhaust gas system.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 50

Combustion Engineering

Gas Volume at Kiln Inlet

To calculate the gas volume at the kiln inlet (VKiln inlet gas, wet), the true calcination
degree (%decarb) of the hot meal has to be considered, because the CO2 already
released in the preheater and precalciner does not pass the kiln inlet section.
When determining the calcination degree by analyzing a hot meal sample the
measured (apparent) calcination degree is higher than the degree of pure "fresh"
hot meal, because the hot meal sample always contains a certain amount of
clinker dust which was already in the kiln calcining zone (dust cycles).

Further to calculate VKiln inlet gas, wet the heat input from secondary or calciner firing
(%PC) has to be subtracted, as the off-gas released from this fuel portion does not
pass the kiln inlet:
 %decarb   %PC 
VKi ln inlet gas,wet = 0.27 ⋅  1 −  +
0.28 ⋅ q ⋅  1 −  +
 100   100 
  %decarb   %PC   % O2,dry 

+ 0.27 ⋅  1 −  + 0.25 ⋅ q ⋅  1 −  ⋅ 
  100   100   21 % − % O 
2 ,dry 

 Nm 3   MJ 
Units in formula above : VKi ln inlet gas ,wet in  
 , q in  
 kg cli   kg cli 
Secondary Air and Air to Kiln
The total air volume VAir to kiln added to the kiln (primary, secondary, transport and
false air) is calculated from the minimum air for combustion Amin (0.26 Nm3/MJ)
and the O2 concentration in the kiln inlet (measured inside the kiln, without false
air from kiln inlet seal).

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 51

Combustion Engineering

 %PC 
VAir to ki ln = 0.26 ⋅ q ⋅  1 −  +
 100 
  %decarb   %PC    %O2,ddry 

+ 0.27 ⋅  1 −  + 0.25 ⋅ q ⋅  1 −  ⋅ 
  100   100   21 % − %O 
2 ,dry 

 Nm 3   MJ 
Units in formula above : VAir to ki ln in  
 , q in  
 kg cli   kg cli 
For the calculation of the secondary air volume, the primary, transport and false
air need to be subtracted from the total air volume added to the kiln (see above).
VSecondary Air = VAir to kiln − VPrimary Ai r − VTransport Air − VFalse Air

 Nm 3 
Units in formula above: VSecondary Air in  

 kg cli 

Tertiary Air

The tertiary air volume can be calculated as the stoichiometric

combustion air for the combustion in the precalciner according to the following
formula:

v Tertiary Air = v Combustion Calciner + vExcess After Calciner − vExcess Air Kiln −

− vPrimary Ai r Calciner − v TransportA irCalciner − vFalse Air Kiln Inlet

 Nm3 
Units in formula above: VTertiary Air in  

 kg cli 
 %PCfuel 
v CombustionCaliciner = 
0.26 ⋅ q ⋅ 
 100 
 %O2,PC,dry 
vExcess After Calciner = {0.27 + 0.25 ⋅ q} ⋅  
 21% − %O2,PC,dry 
 
  %decarb   %PCfuel   %O2,dry,KI 

vExcess Air Kiln = 0.27 ⋅  1 −  + 0.25 ⋅ q ⋅  1 −  ⋅
  100   100    21% − %O 
2,dry,KI 
3
vFalse Air Kiln Inlet : approx. between 0.02 - 0.05 Nm /kg clinker (estimation)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 52

Gas Conversion, Density, Barometric Pressure

and Leak Air Formulas

Gas Conversion between Actual and Normal

The formula below is used to convert volumes of ideal gases from normal
conditions (0 °C, 1'013 mbar) to the volumes Vact at actual gas conditions (T, p) in
the process.
 1'013 mbar   T (°C) + 273 °C 
Vact = Vnorm ⋅   ⋅  
 xp (mbar)   273 °C 
p x = pmeasuremen t , relative + p ambient
Pmeasured,relative = measured pressured
Pambient = ambient pressured
 m3   Nm 3 
Units in formula above : Vact in  
 , Vnorm in  

 s   s 

Density of Air

 273 °C   p x (mbar) 
act = norm ⋅ 
  ⋅  
 T ( °C) + 273 °C   1'013 mbar 

p x = pmeasuremen t , relative + p ambient

Pmeasured,relative = measured pressured
Pambient = ambient pressured
ρnorm = Air density at normal conditions (=1.29 kg/Nm3)

Barometric Pressure
The average barometric pressure p at a plant altitude (above sea level) can be
calculated using the following approximation formula.
5.25
 Altitude (m) 
p = 1'013 ⋅  1 − 
 44 '300 

Units in formula above : p in (mbar ) , Altitude in (m)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 53

Gas Conversion, Density, Barometric Pressure

and Leak Air Formulas
Air Inleakage through Holes and Apertures
Air leakage through apertures (e.g. kiln inlet seal, kiln hood) can be calculated
with the Bernoulli equation:
0.75 ⋅ A
VLeakage,N ≈ ⋅ 2 ⋅ ∆p ⋅ ρ Air
ρ Air ,N
For ambient conditions of around 20°C and 1 bar (air density of 1.19 kg/m3) the
above formula can be simplified as:

VLeakage, N = 0.90 ⋅ A ⋅ p
VLeakage,N = Leakage air [Nm3/s dry]
A = Open area of aperture [m2]
ρAir,N = Air density at normal conditions (=1.29 kg/Nm3)
ρAir = Air density at aperture ≈ Air density at ambient condition [kg/m3]
∆p = Pressure difference over aperture [Pa]

Air inleakage

5000
400 cm2 200 cm2
4500

4000
Air inleakage [Nm3/h]

3500 Leaking kiln

inlet seal
3000
100 cm2
2500

2000 Open instrument

hole in top stage
1500
50 cm2
1000
20 cm2
500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Pressure difference [mbar]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 54

Process Fans

Electrical Power Requirement for Fan

The required electrical power can be calculated as:

V ⋅ ∆p ⋅ 10 −3
P =
η

P = Power requirement for fan (kW)

V = Quantity of gas delivered (m3/s)
∆p: =Total increase of pressure in fan (Pa)
η = Fan efficiency according to fan curve (%)

Total Pressure Increase (Rough Estimation)

The total pressure increase p of a fan can be calculated as:

0,6 ⋅ γ ⋅ n 2 ⋅ d2 ⋅ π 2
P =
3600

p = Pressure increase (Pa)

γ = Gas density (kg/m3)
n = Fan speed (rpm)
d = Impeller diameter (m)
π = 3.14159

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 55

Process Fans

Influence of Fan Speed on Volume-flow, Static Pressure and

Power Consumption

The volume flow depends on the fan speed as:

n2
V2 = ⋅ V1
n1
V1, V2 = Quantity of gas at speed 1 and speed 2 (m3/s)
n1, n2 = Fan speed 1 and fan speed 2 (rpm)

The static pressure depends on the fan speed as:

2
 n2 
p st ,2 =   ⋅ p st ,1
 n1 
pst,1, pst,2 = Static pressure at speed 1 and speed 2 (mbar)
n1, n2 = Fan speed 1 and fan speed 2 (rpm)

The electrical power requirement depends on the fan speed as:

3
 n2 
P2 =   ⋅ P1
 n1 

P1, P2 = Power requirement at speed 1 and speed 2 (mbar)

n1, n2 = Fan speed 1 and fan speed 2 (rpm)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 56

Environment

Water Dew Point

The water dew point temperature in a gas stream can be calculated as

 
 
 336 .48 
TDP =  − 179 
 5.3362 − 17 .045 + ln %W ⋅ p  
  100 1000  
 

TDP = dew point temperature (°C)

%W = gas humidity (Vol %)
p = static pressure (mbar)

Acid Dew Point

The acid dew point temperature for SO2 / SO3 in a gas stream can be
calculated as:

 1000 
TAcid =  − 273 
 1.7842 + 0.0269 ⋅ L W − 0.1029 ⋅ L S + 0.0329 ⋅ L W ⋅ L S 

TAcid = Acid dew point temperature (°C)

LW (
= log %W ⋅ p stat ⋅ 10 −5 )
where: %W = water content (Vol-%)
pstat = static pressure in duct (mbar)
 Conc SO3 
LS = log  ⋅ p stat ⋅ 10 −9 
 
 N,SO3 
where: ConcSO3 = Sulfur trioxide concentration in gas (mg/Nm3 dry)

ρN,SO3 = Normalized gas density of SO3 (= 3.57 kg/Nm3 dry)

= approx. 1-3% from measured SO2

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 57

Environment

Cooling Water Injection for Gas Cooling

The required amount of cooling water for gas cooling can be estimated as
(Rule of thumb):

MW = 0.6 ⋅ VN,wet ⋅ ∆T

MW = Amount of cooling water (g/h)

VN,wet = Wet gas volume at normal conditions (Nm3/h)
∆T = Inlet minus outlet gas temperature (°C)

Air Inleakage in Process Filters from Temperature Reading

If the temperature at inlet and outlet of the process is known the air inleakage
can be calculated with a heat balance (dust in process gas is neglected).

VLeakage ,N c  T − TLoss − TGas,out 

=  p ,Gas ,wet  ⋅  Gas,in 

VGas ,wet ,N  c  TGas ,out − TAir
 p ,Air   

VLeakage,N = Leakage air (Nm3/h dry)

VGas,wet,N = Gas flow at filter inlet (Nm3/h wet)
TGas,in, TGas,out = Filter inlet- and outlet temperatures (°C)
TLoss = Assumed temperature (heat) loss over filter surface (°C)
TAir = Temperature of inleakage air ≈ Ambient temperature (°C)

For air leakage estimation a cp ratio (process gas/air) of 1.1 can be used and the
temperature of the inleakage air can be approximated with the ambient
temperature resulting in:

VLeakage ,N  TGas ,in − TLoss − TGas ,out 

= 1.1⋅  

VGas ,wet ,N  TGas ,out − TAmb 
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 58
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Environment

Air Inleakage in Process Filters from Oxygen Measurement

Inleakage air can be calculated with an oxygen balance over the filter.

(VGas,in,dry,N ⋅ O 2,in ) ( ) ( )
+ VLeakage ,N ⋅ 21 = VGas,in,dry,N + VLeakage ,N ⋅ O 2,out

Rearranging above formula leads to:

VLeakage,N O 2,out − O 2,in

=
VGas,in,dry,N 21 − O 2,out

VLeakage,N = Leakage air (Nm3/h dry)

VGas,in,wet,N = Gas flow at filter inlet (Nm3/h dry)
O2,in and O2,out = Inlet- and outlet oxygen content [Vol-% dry]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 59

Environment

wet à dry
−1 c(dry): dry concentration mg/Nm3
 w 
c(dry ) = c( wet )×1 −  c(wet): wet concentration mg/Nm3
 100  w: water content of gas Vol%

oxygen reference x% à 10%

 21−10
C10 = Cx ×  C10: concentration mg/Nm3 @ 10% Oxygen
 21− x  Cx: concentration mg/Nm3 @ X% Oxygen

ppm à mg/Nm3
 kg 
MW 
kmol
MW: molecular weight
 mg 
c  3  = f • c [ppm] with f= (see periodic table)
 Nm   Nm3  Nà Norm conditions:
22.41   0°C, 1013 mbar
 kmol

H He
1.01
1
Periodic Table 4.00
2
Li
6.94
Be
9.01
of Elements B C N O F Ne
10.82 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl A
22.99 24.32 26.98 28.09 30.98 32.07 35.46 39.94
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.95 52.01 54.94 55.85 58.94 58.71 63.54 65.38 69.72 72.60 74.91 78.96 79.92 83.80
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.48 87.63 88.92 91.22 92.91 95.95 99.00 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.6 175.0 178.5 181.0 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 210.0 (210) (222)
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Lw Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
(223) 226.1 (260) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272)
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.3 145.0 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.4
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
227.0 232.1 231.0 238.1 237.0 242.0 243.0 245.0 249.0 249.0 255.0 255.0 256.0 253.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

For further explanations and emission plausibility checks see EMR Manual
and Guidelines, Edition 2005.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 60

Emission Concentration Conversions

Conversion:
Measured Compound
compound in c in ppm x f expressed in
ppm = c in mg/Nm3 wet*
mg/Nm3

Conversion:
? ** 
c ( dry ) = c ( wet )×1 −
w 
 100 

−1

Compound O2 correction: Compound

expressed in
( 21− y ) expressed in
mg/Nm3 dry c ( y ) = c ( eff )×
( 21− O 2 dry (eff )) mg/Nm3 dry
@ y % O2

c Concentration
w Water content of gas (Vol %)
* Wet according to measurement principle (in situ, hot extractive, etc)
** If measured on dry bases
Examples Factor f
for normal conditions of
0oC and 1013mbar

NOx emissions normally indicated as

mg NO2/Nm3 dry, even though at the
stack 95 -98% of the NOx is in form of
NO (à use f=2.05).

VOC emissions are usually expressed

as carbon (mgC/Nm3)
(table: propane calibration à f=1.61)

See next page for the calculation of the

factor f

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 61

Bag Filter Calculation Formulas

1. Air-to-cloth ratio

Vact
A /C =
A bags,net

A/C air-to-cloth ratio (specific filter load) [m/min]

A/C < 1.0 m/min no problems expected i.e. design criteria for
new process filters in normal operation

A/C > 1.2 m/min increased differential pressure expected e.g.

for process filter in upset conditions up to 1.5
m/min allowed

A/C > 1.5 m/min inefficient cleaning expected

Vact gas volume at actual conditions [Am3/min]

Abags,net active bag area (not counting shut compartments) [m2]

= n • π • dbag • Lbag

n number of bags (active)

dbag bag diameter

Lbag bag length

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 62

Bag Filter Calculation Formulas

2. Differential Pressure

ψ
 v 
∆p ≈ ∆p0 ⋅  F 
v 
 F,0 

∆p bag filter differential pressure (across tube sheet) e.g. for

increased flow in future operation [mbar]

∆p < 8.0 mbar probably overcleaning and low bag life

∆p > 12.0 mbar probably high A/C-ratios, high dust load

or old bags

∆p > 20.0 mbar cleaning is inefficient, bags can

collapse

∆p0 reference diff. pressure e.g. today operation [mbar]

vF air-to-cloth ratio (specific filter load) e.g. due to increased flow in

future operation [m/min]

vF,0 reference air-to-cloth ratio e.g. today operation [m/min]

Ψ differential pressure exponent e.g. of today's bags or new bags

in future [-]

ψ < 1.2 new bags, high permeability

ψ > 1.6 old bags, low permeability

ψ > 2.0 can velocity problem

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 63

Diagrams and Tables

Sensible Heat cp
The following specific heats are average values between the temperature T and the
reference temperature of 20°C. So the calculation of the sensible heat difference
between two temperatures is as follows:

( )
H(200 °C - 100 °C) = m ⋅ c p, avg (at 200 °C) ⋅ (200 °C − 20 °C ) − c p, avg (at 100 °C) ⋅ (100 °C − 20 °C )

Average Sensible Heat cp of Solids [kJ/kg °C]

1.50
Ref. 20°C
1.40 MgCO 3

1.30
°C]K]

MgO
[kJ/kg

Kaolin
1.20
[kJ/kg

SiO2
CaCO 3
Raw Meal
value

1.10
value

Metakaolin Clinker
cpcp

1.00
RM
CaO
0.90

0.80

0.70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature [°C]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 64

Diagrams and Tables

Sensible Heat cp
Average Sensible Heat cp of Gases [kJ/Nm3 °C]

2.4
Ref. 20°C
2.3

2.2
SO
2

2.1
CO
2
2.0
kJ / kG °C

vap.
1.9 H 2O
[kJ/Nm3

t kiln
r cemen
1.8 Range fo ses at ~ 3%
ga
exhaust
°C]

1.7
λ= 1
1.6 b u sti on gas at
Com ) O2
example
(typical
Air (≅ CO
1.5 )

1.4
N2
1.3

1.2
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900

Temperature [°C]

Average Sensible Heat cp of Fuels [kJ/Nm3 K]

2.7

2.5
g/l g/l
0.8k 0.9k

OIL
2.3
g/l
1.0k
2.1
°C

1.9
kJ / kG°C]
[kJ/kg

1.7

latiles
COAL
1.5
40% Vo 30%
1.3
20%
10%
1.1 0%

0.9

0.7
0 50 100 150 200

Temperature [°C]
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 65
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Diagrams and Tables

Cyclone Preheater
Effect of Number of Stages
Control Parameter units 4 è 5 stages 5 è 6 stages
Heat consumption kJ/kg cli -80 -50
Exhaust gas temp °C -40 -20
Exhaus gas flow Nm3/kg cli -0.03 -0.015
SP exit pressure mbar + 5 to 8 + 5 to 8
Drying capacity in raw mill % H2O -1.5 -1.0

Effect of Reduced Separation Efficiency

Specific heat consumption

60
Increase heat consumption [kJ/kg Cli]

50
stage 1, base: 93.5 %
40 stage 2, base: 83 %
stage 3, base: 77 %
30 stage 4, base: 72 %

0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
-10

-20
Change of separation efficiency of respectiv e stage [% sep. eff.]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 66

Diagrams and Tables

Cyclone Preheater
Effect of false air on preheater outlet temperature
Location of leak
12
10
PC5
Temp. difference at preheater outlet [°C]

8 stage 4

6
stage 5
4
2 stage 3
0
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-4
-6 stage 2
-8
-10 stage 1
-12
Additional false air to respectiv e stage [% false air]

Effect of false air on preheater outlet temperature

Location of
15 leak stage 4
Temp. difference at preheater outlet [°C]

10
SP4
5 stage 3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

-5
stage 2
-10
stage 1
-15
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 67

Diagrams and Tables

Cyclone Preheater

Effect of false air in SP on heat consumption

80
Location of leak
Increase heat cons. kiln [kJ/kg Cli]

60 PC5 stage 5

50 stage 4

40
stage 3
30

20 stage 2

10 stage 1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

Effect of false air in SP on heat consumption

100
Location of
Increase heat consumption kiln [kJ/kg Cli]

90
leak
80 SP4 stage 4
70

50 stage 3

30 stage 2

20
stage 1
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 68

Diagrams and Tables

Cyclone Preheater
Effect of false air in SP on clinker production
Effect of false air in SP on production

5.0%

0.0%

-5.0%

PC5 PC St 5
D Production [%]

Stage 1
-10.0%
Stage 2
-15.0%
Stage 3
-20.0%

-25.0%
Stage 4
-30.0%

-35.0%
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
D False air [% FA]

Effect of false air in SP on clinker production

Effect of false air in SP on production

10.0%
5.0%
0.0%
-5.0%
D Production [%]

-10.0%
-15.0%
SP4 Stage 1

Stage 2

-20.0%
Stage 3
-25.0%
-30.0%
Stage 4
-35.0%
-40.0%
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
D False air [% FA]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 69

Diagrams and Tables

Precalciner
Effect of Excess Air after PC

Impact of O2 < or > 2.0% at PC outlet

250

200
D Heat consumption [kJ/kg}
D SP exit temperature [°C]

150

100

0
-2 0 2 4 6

-50
% O2 from 2%

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 70

Diagrams and Tables

Grate Cooler
Effect of Clinker Properties on Cooler Efficiency
Effect of lite rw e ight on
Effe ct of clinker granulome try on
clinke r ex it te mperature
clinker ex it tem pe ra ture
35 120

30
100

Temperature increase [°C]

25
80
20
60
15
40
10

20
5

0 0
1050 1070 1090 1110 1130 1150 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Lite rw eight [g/l] Increa se of sta tistical a ve ra ge gra in size [mm]

(Information by courtesy of Claudius

Peters)
Effect of Low Clinker Bed on Temperatures

Clinker and air temperatures along the cooler grate

T secondary + tertiary air

1300 @ bed height 800 mm

T secondary + tertiary air

1100 @ bed height 200 mm
Temperature [°C]

900

700 T waste air @ bed height

T Cli @ bed height 200 mm
500 200 mm

T Cli @ bed height

300 800 mm

100 T waste air @ bed height 800 mm

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Cooler Grate [0: Inlet, 1: Outlet]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 71

Diagrams and Tables

Grate Cooler

Effect of Low Clinker Bed on Cooler Efficiency

74
Recuperation efficiency [%]

64
Practical
range
62

60
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Bed height [m]

Effect of Cooler Efficiency on Heat Consumption

3250
System heat consumption [kJ/kg cli]

3200

3150

3100

3050

3000

2950
62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76
Cooler [%]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 72

Diagrams and Tables

Grate Cooler

Tertiary Air (TA) Extraction from Kiln Hood vs. Cooler Roof
(typical example, modern cooler)

Secondary air
temperature (TA cooler
roof extraction)
Secondary air and TA
temperature (TA kiln hood
extraction)
TA temperature
(cooler roof
extraction)

0 0.5
1

Note: As for precalciner kilns with tertiary air suitable for burning of petcoke
and AFR both high secondary air and tertiary air temperature are important,
the TA extraction is preferred from the kiln hood for new projects.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 73

Diagrams and Tables

Clinker Granulometry
Common Pitfall:
Sampling is critical - no sampling from the top of the conveyor (sample not
representative because of segregation).
Good sampling points: Transfer points or chutes.

Guideline for quick check (sieve residue on 1mm):

• Normal clinker: Residue 1mm = 10 – 15%
• Fine / very fine clinker: Residue 1mm > 25%

Guideline for differentiation between fine and coarse clinker:

100

90 dust only

80
fine, dusty
70

normal, some dust

60
Passing [%]

50 coarse, little dust

40
very coarse, no dust
30

0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Grain s ize [m m ]

Note: This graph has been revised 1.11.2005

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 74

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 75

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 76

Reference Guide for

“Material Technology”

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 77

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 78

Contents Material Technology

Moduli and Quality Parameter……………………………………. 80

Holcim Burnability Test……………………………………………. 84

Basic Raw Material Mineralogy………………………………….. 85

Clinker Liquid Phase & Coating Behavior……………………… 86

Clinker Minerals…………………………………………………….. 87

SCORE Quality Indicators………………………………………… 90

Uniformity……………………………………………………………. 91

Effect of composition of clinker/cement on

paste and mortar properties……………………………………….92

Physics……………………………………………………………….. 93

Statistics……………………………………………………………… 94

Own Formulas and Notes…………………………………………100

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 79

Moduli and Quality Parameter

Lime Saturation (LS)

CaO*100
LS =
2.8*SiO2+ 1.18*Al2O3+ 0.65*Fe2O3

Modified for 100(CaO+0.75MgO)

LS =
MgO conent < 2.0% 2.8*SiO2 +1.18*Al2O 3+0.65*Fe2O 3

Modified for 100(CaO+1.5MgO)

LS =
MgO conent > 2.0% 2.8*SiO2 +1.18*Al2O 3+0.65*Fe2O 3

Silica Ratio (SR)

SiO2
SR =
Al2O3+ Fe2O3

Alumina Ratio (AR)

Al2O3
AR =
Fe2O3

Total Alkali (total %)

% Na2O - equivalent = Na2O + 0.658 * K 2O for "Low Alkali" cement 0.60 %

Molar alkali/sulfur ratio

K2O Na 2O CI
+ −
Alkali / sulfur = 94 62 70
Usual 0.80 - 1.20
SO3
80

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 80

Moduli and Quality Parameter

Molar alkali/CI ratio

K 2O Na2O
+
Alkali = 94 62
Cl
70

Degree of precalcination

 P2 (100 - P1) 
% precalcination = 1 -  • 100
 P1 (100 - P2) 

P1 = L.o.i. of raw meal

P2 = L.o.i. of hot meal

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 81

Moduli and Quality Parameter

Alkalis and SO3 in Holcim Clinker (ATR 2002, Main clinker )

1.60

1.40

Alkalis Excess
1.20

1.00
% Na2O eq.

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20
Sulfur Excess

0.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60

% SO3
Red line represents molar Alkalis / Sulfur ratio = 1

Typical Moduli of Industrial Clinker

Average
ATR2002
LS 94 - 98 95.9
SR 2.35 - 2.75 2.55
AR 1.4 - 1.8 1.65

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 82

Moduli and Quality Parameter

LS and SR Moduli in Holcim Clinker (data acc. ATR 2004)

AR and SR Moduli in Holcim Clinker (data acc. ATR 2004

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 83

Holcim Burnability Test

o
The test is based on the isothermal burning for 15 min. at 1400 C of raw meal nodules
Itallows the determination of the relative inlfuence of the various material parameter to be
acertained, free from the influence of process technological disturbances

Evaluation % Free Lime

Very Good 0-2
Good 2-4
Moderate 4-6
Poor 6-8
Very Poor >8

Physio - Chemical Burnability Model

This model allows the calculation of the CaO-free content as expected to result from the burnability
test - provided that the lime saturation (LS), the silica ratio (SR), the persentage of coarse calcite (Cc)
lager than 90mm, and quartz (Q) lager than 32mm have been previously determined - according to the
formula :

CaO-free = 0.56 Q>32mm + 0.17 Cc>90mm + 0.36 LS + 0.80 SR - 33.89

Example for Physio - Chemical Burnability Model

Raw Meal Burnability
test Quartz > 32 um Calcite > 90 um LS + SR
10

Very Poor 2002 Kiln Feed 2003 Kiln Feed

9 (91'479/U) (92'530/M)
LS = 96.88 LS = 95.67
8 SR = 3.11 SR = 2.85
AR = 1.81 AR = 1.79
R90µm = 13.8% R90µm = 12.7%
7 Poor
% free lime

5 Moderate

3 Good

1 Very Good

Rating 2002 Test 2002 Model 2003 Test 2003 Model

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 84

Basic Raw Material Mineralogy

Classification of Raw Mix Components:

% CaCO3 Clay Designation Petrographic Design

95 - 100 High-grade Limestone Limestone, Marble, Chalk,
Coral Limestone
85 -95 Limestone Lime Sand, Shell Deposit
75 - 85 Marly Limestone Marly Limestone
65 - 75 25 - 35 Calcareous Marl Calcareous Marl
35 - 65 35 - 65 Marl Marl
25 - 35 65 - 75 Clayey Marl Clayey Marl
15 - 25 75 - 85 Marly Clay Clay, Loess
5 - 15 85 - 95 Clay Claystone, Mudstone
0-5 95 - 100 High Grade Clay Siltstone, Shale

Mineral Composition of Raw Mixes:

Carbonates: Calcite CaCO3
Aragonite CaCO3 (polymorph to Calcite)
Dolomite CaMg(CO2)3
Magnesite MgCO3
Siderite FeCO3 (MgCO3 and FeCO3 have the same structure)
Silicates: Quartz SiO2
Feldspars e.g. (K,Na)AlSi3O8
Micas e.g. K2Al4[Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4
Clay Minerals e.g. Al4[Si4O10](OH)8
Amphiboles e.g. Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2
Pyroxenes e.g. Ca2[SiO6]
Olivines e.g. (Mg,Fe)2[SiO4]
Oxide Hematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Hydroxides Gibbsite Al(OH)3
Goethite FeOOH
Sulfides Pyrite FeS2
Sulphates Gypsum CaSO 4*2 H2O
Anhydrite CaSO 4

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 85

Clinker Liquid Phase & Coating Behavior

Liquid Phase (LP)

1 338 °C AR < 1.38 LP = 8.5Al2O3 -5.22Fe2 O3+MgO+K2 O+Na2O

AR > 1.38 LP = 6.1*Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+Na2O

1 400 °C MgO < 2 % LP = 2.95Al2O3+2.2Fe2O3+MgO+K2 O+Na2O

1 450 °C MgO < 2 % LP = 3.0Al2O3 +2.25Fe2O3+MgO+K2 O+Na2O

Calculated according to Lea & Parker (on clinker basis)

Correlation of Quantity of Liquid Phase with Silica Ratio

(Data from Holcim industrial clinkers, Product Handbook)
35.0

33.0

31.0
Liquid Phase 1400 °C

29.0

27.0

25.0

23.0

21.0

19.0

17.0

15.0
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Silica Ratio
Coating

Coating Behaviour
AR
thick coating clinker very thin coating
ball or sinter ring dusty clinker
- 1.9 formation (plenty of (little of viscous melt
viscous melt phase) phase)
NORMAL
- 1.6
COATING

thin coating thin coating

- 1.3 refractories attack
(plenty of fluid melt (little of fluid melt phase)
phase)
2.2 2.5 2.8 SR

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 86

Clinker Minerals

AR > 0.64
C3S = 4.07*CaO-7.60*SiO2-6.72*Al 2O3-1.43*Fe 2O3
C2S = 2.87*SiO2 - 0.75*C3S (or = 8.60*SiO2+5.07*Al2O3+1.08*Fe2O3-3.07 CaO)
C3A = 2.65*Al2O3-1.69*Fe2O3

C4AF = 3.04*Fe 2O3

Corrections: CaO = CaOtot - CaOfree for clinker

CaO = CaOtot - 0.7 SO3 for OPC (acc. ASTM)

Usual: 45< C3S < 65 10 < C2S < 30

5 < C3A < 15 5 < C4AF < 12

"Alite" C3S Contributes most to compressive strength, particular early strength

"Belite" C2S Contributes to late strength

"Aluminate" C3A Impacts setting time - to be regulated by gypsum, Increases heat

of hydration, impairs resistance to sulfate attck

"Ferrite" C4AF Little effect

Correlation between the main clinker Minerals and the main moduli
Correlation with Lime Saturation Correlation with Silica Ratio

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 87

Clinker Minerals
Correlation with Alumina Ratio

Compressive strength development of main clinker minerals

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 88

Clinker Minerals

Quasi Quantitative Variation of Minerals with Temperature

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 89

SCORE Quality Indicators

§ Coefficient of Variation of Raw Meal Residue [%]

- R90µm per raw mill and per raw meal type
- CoV R90µm on individual samples over 1 month

§ Standard Deviation of Lime Saturation of Kiln Feed [%]

- LS (per kiln and per kiln feed type)
- σ LS on individual samples over 1 month

§ Off-Spec. Clinker [%]

- One or more criteria and acceptance limits to be defined
by plant (e.g. % CaO-free, %C3S, % Na2O-Eq.)
- Off-spec. Clinker (t) / clinker produced (t) x 100 over 1 month
(to be reported independent on whether it is stored separately or not)

§ Coefficient of Variation of Cement Residue [%]

- R45µm per cement mill and per cement type
- CoV R45µm on individual samples over 1 month

§ Average Cement Mortatr Strength [Mpa]

- Average compressive strength (2 or 3 and 28 days)
over 1 month, per cement type, taken at mills
- Maximum and minimum acceptance limits to defined by the plant

§ Coefficient of Variation of 28 d Cement Mortar Strength [%]

- CoV 28 d strength, over one month, per cement type
- Samples from cement grinding

§ Compliance to manufacturing Quality Requirements [%]

- Percentage of selected quality indicators for kiln feed, clinker and cement
that meet plant or company internal requirements
# Average cement mortatr strength for 2 or 3 and 28 days
# CoV of 28 d cement mortar strength
# Standard deviation LS of kiln feed
# Off-spec clinker

§ Compliance to Final Product Quality requirements [%]

- Percentage of cement samples tested that meet all market relevant quality
criteria as defined by company and applicable cement standards
- A list of quality criteria and specifications have to be established for each
product by Marketing, sales and Plant

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 90

Uniformity

Uniformity Indicator Clinker

Performance indicator
Weight-% off-specification clinker

Target: < 3 %

Off-spec. clinker is clinker not meeting quality specifications due to

the burning process: focus in the Clinker Burning sector
inappropriate kiln feed composition

Off-spec. clinker may or may not be stored separately

Uniformity Indicators Cement

Performance indicators for final product quality

Coefficient of variation of 28 d mortar strength

For cement ex mill, typically on daily samples

Target: C.o.V. ≤ 3 %

Impacts of Cement Uniformity

Example from MPR:
Type I-II versus Type III
6000

2 MPa ≈ 300 Blaine

Type III
5000
Blaine

Type I
4000

3000
35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53

28 days Strength [MPa]

Conservative estimation: 300 Blaine ≈ 5.2 kWh/t

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 91

Uniformity

Uniform Kiln Feed Quality: A Key to Excellent Kiln Performance

Daily (hourly over one day): Monthly (daily over one month):
strong impact on kiln performance strong impact on product quality

Daily Monthly
Hourly samples Daily values over
over 24 h one month
LS σ < 1.2 < 1.0
Kiln feed
AR σ < 0.04 < 0.03
& clinker
SR σ < 0.04 < 0.03
Raw meal
LS σ < 3.6 < 1.0
(tentative)

Effect of composition of clinker/cement on

paste and mortar properties
Strength
Clinker Water requi. Set. Time
early final

C3 S
C2 S
C3 A acc.

C4AF
K2 O
Na2O
SO3 ret.

P2O5 ret.

Gypsum

Fineness acc.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 92

Physics

Electromagnetic spectrum
Radio waves: 0.3 - 1 • 103 m Dualism:

Micro waves: 1 • 10-3 - 0.3 m Wave: ,h

2
m, mv
-7 -3
Infra red: 7.8 • 10 - 1 • 10 m Particle:
2
Visible light: 3.8 • 10-7 - 7.8 • 10-7 m

3800 - 7800 Å
-10 -7
Ultra violet: 6 • 10 - 3.8 • 10 m

X-rays: 6 • 10-12 - 6 • 10-10 m 1 Å = 10-10 m

Radiation

Emax = eV = hν; νmax = c

min

eV = h•c ; h•c =
min = const. = 12.39 ; h•c = const
min eV V kV e
E = energy; e = unite charge of an electron; kV = tension; h = Planck's const.;
ν = frequency; c = light velocity; = wave length

Moseley' law 1 = K(Z - δ ); K, δ = const.; Z = atomic numbers

√

Bragg's law CB + BD = n •
CB = BD = d • sin θ
n• = 2d • sin θ

Resolution: R = B-A •100

Normal operation conditions for XRF: 40 kV/50 mA

Count statistical error: ε= 100 N = t • cps

√N

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 93

Statistics (1)
Frequency table
Class Center value Number of Relativ e Cumulativ e
samples frequency frequency
(MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
18.75 21.25 20.0 1 1.1 1.1
21.25 23.75 22.5 4 4.5 5.6
23.75 26.25 25.0 6 6.7 12.4
26.25 28.75 27.5 9 10.1 22.5
28.75 31.25 30.0 10 11.2 33.7
31.25 33.75 32.5 19 21.3 55.1
33.75 36.25 35.0 16 18.0 73.0
36.25 38.75 37.5 11 12.4 85.4
38.75 41.25 40.0 7 7.9 93.3
41.25 43.75 42.5 2 2.2 95.5
43.75 46.25 45.0 3 3.4 98.9
46.25 48.75 47.5 0 0.0 98.9
48.75 51.25 50.0 1 1.1 100.0

Total 89 100.0

Histogram
20

18
Frequency (number of samples)

0
20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0 47.5 50.0
Class (center value) (Mpa)

Cumulative frequency curve

100.0

90.0

80.0
Cumulative frequency (%)

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0 47.5 50.0
Center value (MPa)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 94

Statistics (2)
Measure of location
x1 + x2 + x3 + ...xn
Mean x= = 33.2
Median, minimum and maximum
n
i 1 ... 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 ... 89
xi 20.9 ... 32.5 32.8 32.8 33.0 33.3 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 ... 48.9

minimum median maximum

Mean vs. median

60
Median = 2700
50
Number of persons (%)

Mean = 4280
30

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 <
Income (Money units)

Measure of variability
Standard deviation
n

∑ ( x − x)
Significance of standard 2
deviation i
s= i =1
= 5.6
n −1

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 95

Statistics (3)
Significance of standard deviation

Coefficient of variation
s
C.o.V . = × 100% = 16.7%
x
Range
range = maximum − minimum = 28 . 0

Criteria for normal distribution

Definition Example
1 mean ≈ median 33.2 ≈ 33.3
2 Coefficient of variation < 30 % 16.7 % < 30 %
3 Kurtosis: p = 3 ± 14.7/ √n p = 2.96
4 Skewness: p = 0 ± 7.35/ √n p = 0.18

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 96

Kurtosis
14.7
normal : p = 3 ±
n
p=
∑ ( x − x)
i
4

pointed : p > 3 +
14.7
s x4 (n − 1) n
14.7
tailed / flat : p < 3 −
n

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 97

Statistics (4)
Skewness

p=
∑ x − x)
i
3

s 3x (n − 1)
7.35
normal : p = 0 ±
n
7.35
positive : p <
n
7.35
negative : p >
n

Standardised normal distribution (Z)

Significance of Z

Example:
Current level and variability of cement mortar strength: Mean: x = 33.2
Standard deviation: s = 5.6
Questions:
How many samples are below the target of 28 MPa?
Which is the target for the mean, that must be set that 95% of the samples are above target?

One-sided Z-test (Z ⇒ P) Z = (x - µ) / s = (28.0 – 33.2) / 5.6 = - 0.93

Z-Table (one sided, positive) ⇒ P (Z = 0.93) P (0.93) = 0.8238

Conclusion: 17.6% of the samples are < 28 MPa.

One-sided Z-test (P ⇒ Z) Z (P = 0.95) = 1.64
Z-Table (one sided, positive) ⇒ Z = -1.64 µ = x - s × Z = 28.0 - 5.6 × (-1.64) = 37.2 MPa
Conclusion: The target for the mean should be 37.2 MPa.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 98

Statistics (5)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 99

Own Formulas and Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 100

Own Formulas and Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 101

Own Formulas and Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 102

Reference Guide for

“Mechanical Process Technology”

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 103

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 104

Contents Mechanical Process Technology

Grinding Technology
KPI’s…………………………………………………………………………. 106
Feed…………………………………………………………………………. 107
Audits……………………………………………………………………….. 109
Drying……………………………………………………………………….. 111
Grinding : Tube Mills……………………………………………………. 116
Vertical Roller Mill ………………………………………….. 122
Roller Press………………………………………………….. 127
Separators……………………………………………………. 130

Ventilation and Cooling………………………………………………….. 137

Raw Grinding Systems…………………………………………………… 145
Cement Grinding Systems………………………………………………. 147

Transport and Dedusting

Nuisance Dust Collection………………………………………………… 148
Belt Conveyor………………………………………………………………. 155

Material Preparation
Crushing…………………………………………………………………….. 164
Handling……………………………………………………………………. .166
Homogenizing……………………………………………………………… 170
Preblending…………………………………………………………………. 175

Own Formulas and Notes…………………………………………… 176

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 105

Grinding Technology – KPI’s

Mill Net availability index:

(Actual Operating Time [h ] + Idle Time [h ]) ⋅ 100

Net Availabil ity Index [% ] =
Calendar Time [h]
Net Availabil ity Index [% ] ≥ 90% (guide value)

Idle Time = equipment is not operating but is in a condition for immediate start up
Other downtime = equipment is not operating and not in a condition for immediate start up
Calendar Time = actual operating time + idle time + other downtime

Mill Production rate index:

Actual Production Rate [t/d] ⋅ 100
Production Rate Index [%] =
BDP [t/d]
Production Rate Index [%] ≥ 95% (guide value)
Best Demonstrated Practice (BDP) Mill is the highest historical production rate measured in
tons/hour, achieved during the last 24 months before the budget phase.
The Best Demonstrated Practice (BDP) is an equipment specific value. It is elaborated for each
product type individually.

Net OEE :
OEE net [%] = (Net Availabil ity Index ⋅ Production Rate Index ⋅ Quality Index) / 100
OEE net [%] ≥ 85% (guide value)
OEE = Overall Equipment Efficiency
Quality Index [%] = 1 (due to insignificant final product reject)
MTBF
Actual Operating Time [h]
Mean Time Between Failure [h] =
Failures [# ]
Mean Time Between Failure [h] > 250 h (guide value)
Note: Shutdowns to change material and/or product type are not to be considered failures
A Raw Mill shutdown due to a kiln failure should not be considered as failure for the raw mill

Standard grinding capacity :

Standard Grinding Capacity[t/a] = BDP [t/d] x 0.85 x 365 [d]

Above definitions are based on the HARP (Holcim Accounting and Reporting Principles) Manual
Release 5.1 from 2005. For the most current definition check the HARP Manual on
Holspace.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 106

Grinding Technology – FEED

Grindability / Tube Mill Laboratory Mill HGRS

Grindability of slag (gbfs) and OPC à Grindability tests @ motor shaft

Industrial Mill : IM OC : IM = LM
Laboratory Mill : LM CC : 1st Genration Separator IM = 0,95 x LM
3rd Generation Separator IM = 0,85 x LM
Vertical mill: IM = 0.45 – 0.55 x LM

Grindability of raw material à Grindability tests @ motor shaft

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 107

Grinding Technology – FEED

PSD (Particle Size Distribution): Rosin-Rammler-Sperling

 100 
Ln [Ln   ] = n ⋅ [Ln(d) − Ln(d' )]
 R d 
Rd - % of residue on the d[um] sieve
d’ – particle size for which there is 36.8 % cumulated residue
n – slope of the PSD linear correlation straight line

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 108

Grinding Technology – AUDITS

A level Audit
Fineness – Blaine Conversion for Tube Mills
 Blaine 2 − Blaine 
 1
⋅k 
kWh/t 2 = kWh/t 1 ⋅e  1000 

k = 0.49 for ordinary Portland cement

k = 0.43 for slag
k = 0.4 for limestone

Fineness – Residue Conversion for Tube Mills

 2 − log 10 ( R 2 ) 
kWh / t 2 = kWh / t 1 ⋅  
 2 − log 10 ( R 1 ) 
R1 and R2 – only residues on 45 um and 90 um from ball mills

Fineness corrections for additives

Additive Fineness difference

• 1 % Limestone 70 cm2/g Blaine

• 1 % Gypsum 100 cm2/g Blaine 1)

• 1 % Fly Ash 50 cm2/g Blaine

• 1 % Pozzolana 50 cm2/g Blaine

1) Can be applied if gypsum content is > 5 %

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 109

Grinding Technology – AUDITS

B level audit – Longitudinal sieving results

0.5 1m 1m 1m 0.5 0.5 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 0.5

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Material level
1st Chamber 2nd Chamber

>> 50 [mm] bad

~ 50 [mm] good

< 50 [mm] bad

Residues

Guide values – valid for 3000 Blaine and no pre-grinder

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 110

M Radiation/Convection M

HEAT INPUT HEAT OUTPUT

Material
Moisture (water)
Material
Grinding heat Evaporation heat
Drying gases Exhaust gases
- kiln exhaust Radiation/Convection
- hot gas generator Residual Moisture
- cooler exhaust air (Dust)
Recirculating gases
OUTPUT
Fresh air

Dust (kiln, cooler)

INPUT

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

- False air Radiation/Convection - Dryer
- Drying/grinding system - Balance border
- Separator
- etc.

111
Version Nov. 2005
The necessary energy of a drying gas is expressed by
Q = required energy [kJ/h]
Q = V ⋅ t ⋅ cp V = gas flow rate [Nm3/h]
t = gas temperature [°C]
cp=spec.gas heat [kJ/Nm3 ⋅ °C]
and has to be found through a heat balance

Analysis : Moisture content Wet basis (weight %)

G wet moist material (feed) (t/h)

G dry dryed material (product) (t/h)

%m % m in initial moisture (%)

% m in H2O
residual moisture (%)

m evaporated moisture (t/h)

% m out
100% 100%
G moist solids solids G dry

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

100 - % m in
Product G dry = G wet (t/h)
100 - % m out

G wet G dry Evaporated % m in - % m out

= G wet (t/h)

112
moisture m 100 - % m out
Drying
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

Grinding Technology - DRYING

Type of Feed Size Drying Specific Max
Dryer (mm) capacity load Temp.
(% H2O) (kg H2O / m3h)* (°C)
Drum dryer
200 - 300 < 25 < 150 < 1200
(rotary)

Dispersion
20 - 30 < 15 < 200 < 850
dryer
Rapid dryer < 500
< 20 < 200 < 800
(soft material)
Dryer - < 25 (air < 500 (air
< 150 (depends
crusher swept with swept with < 800
on crusher size)
flash dryer) flash dryer)
Flash dryer ~ < 20 (function
of terminal < 35 < 500 < 900
velocity)
Tube mill
without < 30 <5 < 150 < 450
drying comp.
Tube mill EDM: 25 – 30 EDM: < 6 EDM
with drying
Air-swept: Air-swept: Air-swept: Air-swept:
compartment
25 – 30 < 15 < 200 < 450
integrated CDM: 30 – 50 CDM: < 15
Tube mill
with drying EDM: 25 – 30
compartment EDM: ~ 10 EDM < 300 EDM < 600
CDM: 30 – 50
overhang

Vertical roller
mill 80 - 100 < 20 - < 450

* m3 of free volume inside the dryer

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 113
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Grinding Technology - DRYING

False Air Calculation

NOTE: Air in leakages through holes and apertures can be calculated with the
Bernoulli formula given in the Thermal Process Technology part - page 22

Dew Point Calculation

Acid dew pointcan be calculated with the formula given in the Thermal Process
Technology part - page 31

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 114

Dew Point Calculation – Temperatures Table

τ τ k
pw

70 343,15 31155,73

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 115

Grinding Technology – GRINDING TUBE MILLS

Filling degree f in function of free height h above grinding media charge
h
Di
h
D
i

0,75

Di = Mill diameter
0,70 inside mill
liners

0,65

0,60 filling degree [%]

20 25 30 35

Factor c - depending on filling degree and ball size

0,26

0,25 big balls ( >40mm∅)

0,24
factor c [-]

0,23

small balls
0,22 (cylpebs)
(<40mm ∅ )

0,21

0,20
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
filling degree f [%]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 116

Grinding Technology – GRINDING TUBE MILLS

Power transmission chain

η3
P3
P4 =
η3 ~ 0.99
η2
P2
P3 =
η1
P1
P2 =
GEAR

η2 ~ 0.96
η1 ~ 0.96
P1

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 117

Grinding Technology – GRINDING TUBE MILLS

Power calculations

For rough calculation of the main mill dimensions the mentioned formulas:

π f n crit =
42.3 k
Q=
2
⋅ Di ⋅ L u ⋅ ⋅ n= ⋅ ncrit
4 100 Q
Di 100

P1 = c ⋅ Q ⋅ D i ⋅ n
can be combined to one formula:

π 2 f 42.3 k
P1 = c ⋅ Q ⋅ Di ⋅ n = c ⋅ ⋅ Di ⋅ L u ⋅ ⋅γQ ⋅ ⋅
4 100 Di 100

P1 = 33.22 ⋅ 10 −4 ⋅ c ⋅ L u ⋅ f ⋅ γ Q ⋅ k ⋅ D i
2.5

Lu
Introducing the length to diameter ratio λ = yields the following
Di
equation:

P1 = 33.22 ⋅ 10 −4 ⋅ c ⋅ λ ⋅ f ⋅ γ Q ⋅ k ⋅ Di
3.5
[kW ]

P1= mill net driving power [kW] k = percentage of critical speed [%]

c = power consumption factor [-] f = filling degree [%]

Q = weight of grinding media charge [t] γQ = bulk weight of grinding media [t/m3]:

Lu = useful mill length [m] § 1st chamber: 4.4 – 4.5 [t/m3]

Di= internal mill diameter [m] § 2nd chamber: 4.6 – 4.7 [t/m3]

L = length to diameter ratio[-]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 118

Grinding Technology – GRINDING TUBE MILLS

REs1 Calculation

Definition

1st Chamber Actual Spec. El. Energy Cons. E

R Es1 = st = S1
1 Chamber Theoretica l Spec. El. Energy Cons. E ST

Calculation

Q1 Q2

L1 L2

P Q1 Pabs = mill motor absorbed power [kW]

ES1 = q ⋅ abs q=
Q1 + Q2
Q1 = weight of grinding media charge . 1st chamber [t]
t Q2 = weight of grinding media charge . 2nd chamber [t]

E ST = depends on the cement compositio n (see ex)

EST – Calculation example (using grindability guide values)
Required [kWh/t] kWh/t
@ counter % for 100% kWh/t Total
Clinker + Gypum 95 11 10.5
Limestone 5 6 0.3 Varying from
EST

Slag one cement

type to
Pozzolan another
Fly ash, dust
100 SUM 10.8

E > 1.2 à excess of grinding in the first chamber

R Es1 = S1
E ST < 1 à lack of grinding in the first chamber

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 119

Grinding Technology – GRINDING TUBE MILLS

Ball charges –1st Chamber

1.Compartment

Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [% ]

90 25.0 25.0
80 35.0 35.0
Standard 70 25.0 25.0
60 15.0 15.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 1667
Spec. media surface [m2 / t ] 10.2

1.Compartment

Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [% ]

90 40.0 40.0
Aggressive 80 30.0 30.0
70 20.0 20.0
60 10.0 10.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 1873
Spec. media surface [m2 / t ] 9.8

1.Compartment

Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [% ]

90 45.0 45.0
Very aggressive 80 30.0 30.0
70 25.0 25.0
60

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 2114
Spec. media surface [m2 / t ] 9.5

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 120

Grinding Technology – GRINDING TUBE MILLS

Ball charges - 2nd Chamber

2.Com partm ent

For: Ø Ball [m m] W eight [ t ] Percent [%]

50 4.5 8.0

OPC < 3000 cm2/g 40

30
5.6
13.4
10.0
24.0
25 16.2 29.0
20 16.2 29.0

Total 56.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 62

Spec. media surface [m2 / t] 29.4

2.Com partm ent

Ø Ball [m m] W eight [ t ] Percent [%]

50 10.0 10.0
40 10.0 10.0
30 16.0 16.0
OPC > 3200 cm2/g 25 16.0 16.0
20 21.0 21.0
17 27.0 27.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 41

Spec. media surface [m2 / t] 32.8

2.Com partm ent

Ø Ba ll [mm ] W eight [ t ] Pe rcent [%]

50
REs1>1.2 40 9.0 9.0
30 14.0 14.0
25 17.0 17.0
20 24.0 24.0
17 36.0 36.0

Tota l 100.0 100

Ave ra ge ball w e ight [g] 34

Spec. m e dia surfa ce [m2 / t] 36.1

2.Com partm ent

Ø Ba ll [mm ] W eight [ t ] Pe rcent [%]

50
40
30 12.9 12.9
25 19.7 19.7
20 26.8 26.8
17 40.6 40.6

Tota l 100.0 100

Ave ra ge ball w e ight [g] 31

Spec. m e dia surfa ce [m2 / t] 38.1

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 121

Grinding Technology – GRINDING VRM

Mill dimensioning - THROUGHPUT

Vertical Raw Mill

Ki ln BDP[t/d Clin ker ] ⋅ Raw Meal Factor [-] ⋅ ( 1 + Wear Facto r [%] )
Design Pr oduction R ate [t/h] = 100
24 [h] ⋅ OEEnet [%]

Wear factor = 10% OEEnet = 0.85 [%]

Vertical Coal Mill

Kiln BDP [t/d Clinker] ⋅ Specific ThermalEnergy [MJ / tClinker]⋅ ( 1+ )
Wear Factor [%]
Design ProductionRate [t/h] = 100
24 [h] ⋅ OEEnet [%] ⋅ NCV [MJ / tcoal]

OEEnet = Net Original Equipment Efficiency > 85%

NCV = Net Calorific Value (coal) [MJ/tCoal]
Wear factor = 10%

Vertical Cement Mill

Average Cement Production [t/h] ⋅ Seasonalit y factor [%] ⋅ ( 1 + )

Wear Factor
Design Production Rate [t/h] = 100
Production Rate Index [%] ⋅ Net Availabil ity Index [%]

⋅ 100 [%]
Max monthly production
Seasonality factor =
Monthly average

Production Rate Index >90%

Net Availability Index > 95%
Wear factor = 10%

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 122

Grinding Technology – GRINDING VRM

Mill dimensioning – *POWER (eg Raw Mill)

Spec El Energy Cons. = Guarantee value from grindability test

DM
Motor shaft power at
P4 coupling (P2) P1
PMotor out = PGear in
P Measured Mechanical table
P power at coupling
(P4)
mill to gear (P1) η1 = 0,97
PGear out = PMill in
η 2 = 0,97
η3 = 0,99
Rated power
at terminal box
PMotor in (P3)

η3 η2 η1

P4 P3 P2 P1

P1 P2 P3
P2 = P3 = P4 =
η1 η2 η3

P2 = power at motor shaft

Es = specific electrical energy consumption @ motor shaft (e.g. from grindability test)

Specific Electrical Energy Consumption @ counters [kWh/t]

E s [kWh/t] =
1.04

P2 [kW] = Design Production Rate[t/h] ⋅ E s [kWh/t] ⋅ Grindabili ty Factor (1.1)

* - applies for cement vertical mills – with the exception that the daily
cement production is calculated on the base of peak month demand

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 123

Grinding Technology – GRINDING VRM

Mill dimensions – Definitions & Guide values

Mill throughput : is proportional to DM 2.5 for given conditions and mill type.

Specific roller pressure k: is defined by division of the total roller press force F by the
projected roller section DR x WR. Each mill type has its operating range. The achieved
spec. roller pressure is related to the operating conditions.

Roller pressure force F: consists of the proper roller weight G and the exerted force by
the hydraulic pressure device F2. Force F1 applies for rocker arm type mills, where the
force from the hydraulic cylinder has to be converted to F2 with the lever arm ratio.

Table speed n: is a function of DM for a constant centrifugal force of the material on the
grinding table. Typical speed constant c are given for each supplier. In certain cases,
lower speeds are used for fine and dry feed materials.

Gas speeds: The mill has to be sized to meet the required speed ranges:

• Nozzle ring: ≥ 30 [m/s], higher speeds can be adjusted by covering nozzles

• Mill casing: 4.5 - 7 [m/s] for vertical transport

• Separator: 4.5 - 6 [m/s] through the cage rotor (gross area)

Dust load: The gas flow rate must be selected to achieve a dust load of 500 - 600 [g/m3]
raw meal at the mill outlet. The never exceed value for the separator and dust collector is
750 [g/m3].

Separator speed: should be adjustable in the range of 10 - 25 [m/s] periferical cage

rotor speed for raw mills (10 – 35 [m/s] for slag and cement grinding)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 124

Absorbed mill power at table (net) à P abs : M (t/h) Mill throughput

n q (kWh/t) Spec. energy consumption
P abs = i u k DR WR DM π (kW) 2
60 P abs (kW) Mill power, absorbed
Specific roller pressure k: i (-) Number of rollers
Mill calculations

F 2 u (-) Friction factor

k = (kN/m ) 3 2
DR WR k (kN/m ) Spec. roller pressure

Roller press force F: D (m) Diameter

DT (m) - table
F = F2 + GR (kN) 4 DN (m) - nominal
DM (m) - grinding track
Table speed n :
c DR (m) - roller
-1
n = (min ) 5
DM WR (m) Roller width
F (kN) Roller press force

© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
WR WR
WR F1 (kN) Mech. force at hydr. piston rod
F2 (kN) Mech. force at roller
DR DR GR (kN) Roller weigth
F c (-) Speed constant (supplier specific)
F DR
-1
F n (min ) Speed of grinding table

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

v (m/s) any velocity
Grinding Technology – GRINDING VRM

DM DM DM

µ Raw Material 0,09 [-]

Coal 0,11 [-]

k max. 800[kN/m2]

125
Version Nov. 2005
Spec. Air Load for Vertical Raw Mills (mill exit) for Raw Material, coal and pozzolana
Holcim Standard
3.0

2.8 Spec. Air Flow:

2.6
Air Load =( kWh/tmill * 0.15) + 0.75 [m3 /kg ]
2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8

Spec. Air Load [m 3/kg] prod.

1.4

1.2

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

1.0
Grinding Technology – GRINDING VRM

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Spec. Energy Mill Motor [kWh/t] abs

Note: For cement applications à Specific Air Load ~ 3.2 m3/kg @ mill outlet

126
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

Grinding Technology – ROLLER PRESS

ρ0

α
F

β
d

vu
p

ρG
W

D s

Symbol Designation Unit

M Press throughput [t/h]

G Product [t/h]

D Roller diameter [m/m]

w Roller width
[m/m]
(Slab width = Roller widht)

s Slab thickness [m/m]

vu Circumferential speed [m/s]
ρG Density slab [t/m3]
ρ0 Density feed [t/m3]

F Press force [k/N]

d Diameter hydr. cylinder [m/m]

z Number hydr. cylinders [-]

p Hydr. pressure [b]

K Spec. press force [kN/m2]
L Spec. surface load [N/mm2]
P Abs. motor power [kW]

E Spec. energy consumption [kWh/t]

α Nip angle [°]
β Attack angle [°]

u Circulation factor [-]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 127

Grinding Technology – ROLLER PRESS

Press throughput
ρ GClinker 2.4 – 2.5 [t/m3]

& = w ⋅ s ⋅ vu ⋅ G ⋅ 3,6
M [t/h] ρ GRaw Material 2.3 – 2.4 [t/m3]

1000 ρ GSlag 2.2 – 2.3 [t/m3]

ρ G = density of slab
Press force
2
 d  100
F =  ⋅ ⋅z⋅p⋅ [kN]
 1000  4

Absorbed motor power at counter β Clinker 2.3 – 2.85 [°]

2 ⋅F ⋅ ⋅ vu β Raw Material 2.85– 4.0 [°]

P= rad
[kW]
β Slag 1.7 – 2.3 [°]
β = attack angle
= Efficiency gear and motor

Specific press force

F ⋅ 10 6 [kN/m2] K ≤ 6000 kN/m2
K=
D⋅w

Specific surface load

α Clinker
F ⋅ 103
6.9 – 9.2 [°]
L=
[N/mm2]
α Raw Material 9.2– 12.6 [°]
D
w ⋅ ⋅ rad α Slag 5.7 – 7.5 [°]
2
α = nip angle

Specific energy consumption

P
E= & [kWh/t] E Cliinker 2.5 – 3 [kWh/t]
M
E Raw Material 2.0 – 2.5 [kWh/t]

P ⋅u E Slag ~ 3 [kWh/t]
Ec = & [kWh/t]
M
Ec= Closed circuit (with separator or/and slab recirculation)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 128

Grinding Technology – ROLLER PRESS

Roller Presses – Guide Values

unstable Operation

pre-grinding with slab re-circulation

Stable operation

Power range Throughput Specific press

force
Type
[kW] [t/h]
[kN/m2]

POLYSIUS
300 - 2500 90 – 700 ~ 6500
(POLYCOM)
(clinker)

KHD 150 - 4200 n.a. < 7000

FL SMIDTH -
503 - 3024 167 – 995 8000
Fuller
(clinker)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 129

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

Static Separators

Cyclone
Cyclone nominal diameter (rule of thumb)
4⋅V
d=
n⋅ ⋅ 2.6 ⋅ 3600
d [m] nominal diameter cyclone

V [m3/h] total airflow

n[-] number of cyclones

Operation - pressure drop around 10 - 15 mbar, dedusting efficiency 75 - 80 %

Grit Separator
Specific air load (feed): 500 - 1000 g/m3

d = 0.0127 ⋅ V
d [m] nominal diameter

V [m3/h] total airflow

Operation - pressure drop 10 - 15 mbar, dedusting efficiency 75 - 80 %

VS - Separator
Guide values for 1700 cm2/g product fineness in closed circuit with roller press:

specific air load ( feed) ~ 4 kg/m3

specific separator load ~ 6 m3/s per m2 projected open separating area

designation: VS-459 -> 4.59 m2 projected open separating area

Maximum Fineness 2000 – 2200 cm2/g

Pressure drop: 6 - 15 mbar

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 130

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

Dynamic Separators

1st Generation - Classifiers with counter-blades and internal fan

Cement Fineness Specific separator load

[cm2/g] [t/h.m2]

~2500 2.2 - 3.6

~4500 1.0 - 1.5

finished product [t/h]

specific separator load =
nominal cross section area [m 2 ]

Fineness Range: 3000 – 6000 cm2/g

2nd Generation - Classifiers with counter-blades and external fan

Cement Fineness Specific separator load

[cm2/g] [t/h.m2]

2600 ~ 11

3000 ~8

finished product [t/h]

specific separator load =
nominal cross section area [m 2 ]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 131

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

3rd Generation - Rotor Type Separator

Feed A
(t/h)

Separating air amount

(m3/h)
Specific air loads

Feed
≤ 2,5 (kg/m3) Fines F
Air amount (t/h)

Fines
≤ 0,75 (kg/ m3)
Air amount

Rotor values
Coarse R (t/h)
Circumferential speed
vu ~ 5-35 (m/s) (for *cement) Air speed
vu ~ 25 (m/s) (for raw meal and coal) through D
Air speed through rotor rotor v (m/s)
v ~ 4 (m/s) (for *cement)
v ~ 5 (m/s) (for raw meal and coal)
Specific rotor load H
Fines (t/h)
= ~ 10-12 (t/hm2)
D (m) x x H (m)

Specific Rotor Circumferential

Load (t/hm2) speed vu (m/s)
*PC 3000 (cm2/g)
Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 132
© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Version Nov. 2005

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

Circulation Load
The circulating load in closed-circuit grinding is defined as the mass of the separator
feed A divided by the mass of the fine fraction F, or:
A
u= eq. (1)
F

The actual value of the circulating load depends on various factors, such as mill
design, grinding efficiency, product fineness etc., but as a guide the following
values can be given:
- Cement mill low fineness u = 1.5 to 2
high fineness u>2
- Raw mill u = 2 to 2.5

Calculation of Circulating Load

If no weighing equipment for separator feed or rejects is installed, u must be using
particle size analysis data and formula (a) & (b).

A =F+R (a ) A ⋅a = F ⋅ f +R ⋅r (b ) u=
A
(eq 1)
F

u=
(f - r )
(a - r ) eq. (2)

It is recommended to use the u-values calculated by this formula with caution, because
inevitable errors in the determination of the particle size distributions affect the result
considerably.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 133

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

Symbols

Description Mass Fineness Blaine

flow
[%] passing [cm2/g]
[t/h]

Mill feed M - -

Separator A a BA
feed

Fine fraction F f BF

Coarse R r BR
fraction
Definitions fineness

passing (%)

f
a
r
r

0
1 x 10 x x 100 1000
1 2
particle size ( um )

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 134

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

Classification (Tromp) Curve

The information given by the efficiency curve is not detailed enough because the
defined fractions 0 to x [um] are wide.
If we ask for the recovery of a feed size class with lower limit x1 and upper limit
x2 (x1 greater zero) into the coarse stream, we arrive at the Tromp value for the
coarse stream.

(R - ∆r ) ⋅ 100 [%]
∆r  1
u= tr = ⋅  1 −  ⋅ 100 [%]
(A - ∆ r )
or
∆a  u 
eq. (5) eq. (6)

If this ratio is obtained for a number of size classes and plotted against x, there results
the classification curve (Figure 1). It is also called the Tromp curve after the name of
the man to whom it is assigned.

Features of the Classification Curve

Cut Point
The cut point d50 corresponds to 50 % of the feed passing to the coarse stream as
seen in Figure 2 8next page). It is therefore that size which has equal probability of
passing to either coarse or fine streams.

By-Pass Effect

Ideally, the Tromp curve is asymptotic to the abscissae at ordinate values of zero and
unity.
In practice, it is often the case that the lower asymptote occurs at ordinate values a'
greater than zero (Figure 3), i.e.. a portion of each size fraction bypasses the classifying
action. Expressed in an other way, part of the feed reports to the coarse stream indepen-
dently of its particle size.
Experience has shown that the bypass parameter a' varies with classifier feed rate,
and hence it is difficult to describe a single Tromp curve which is representative of the
classifier.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 135

Grinding Technology - SEPARATORS

FIG. 1, 2 & 3 TROMP CURVES

Basic equations
r 1
tr= (1 - ) 100
a u

FIG. 1
% into fines % into coarses
0 (%) 100 (%)

fines coarses
63 (%) 37 (%)

100 (%) 0 (%)

0 x
particle size ( um )

FIG. 2 d
75
sharpness of cut k = d
25
1,00
0,75
cut point
0,50

0,25

d
0 d d 75
25 50
particle size ( um )

FIG. 3
bypass a'

a'
0 particle size ( um )

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 136

Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

Mill Ventilation Filter Fan

Static
separator
Air speed over ball charge
(for fan dimensioning)
OC v < 1.0 [m/s]
CC v < 1.5 [m/s]

Fresh t> τ + 30 [°C]

air

Tube mill

Free section of
inlet and diaphragms
v < 25 [m/s]

A false air rate of ∼15 [%] has to Ventilation rate

be considered between mill 1000 [m 3/h]
outlet and fan. This results f = 30 [%]
normally in air temperature of 5
incl. 15[%] false air
[°C] below cement temperature
100
at mill discharge. Higher
temperature differences point to
80 closed circuit
higher false air rates.
v < 1.5 [m/s]
The mill exhaust air temperature 60
must always be kept > 30 [°C]
40
above the dew point
temperature (t) to avoid open circuit
20 v < 1.0 [m/s]
condensation problems.
Excessive false air favors
condensation. 2 3 4 5
Mill diameter [m]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 137

0 [%] open
110 [°C]
Cooling in Separator

Separator 150[t/h] 85 [°C]

65'000 [m3/h]
fresh air
30 [°C]

80[°C] Bag filter

Mill feed: 80 [°C]
100 [t/h] Fan
75'800 [m3/h]

© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
95 [%] Clinker 130 [°C] Mill
5 [%] Gypsum 20 [°C]
50 [t/h] 80 [°C]
110 [°C] 50 [t/h] OPC
Product (example)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

Air 95 [°C]
Dust ladden air
Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

138
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

Water injection - systems

counter current no water

Product injection
1st 2nd Comp. temp. [°C]

130
counter
120
current
110
Air from
Air from co-current
blower 100
H2O blower H2O
co-current 90
(Double)
Rotary union 80
1st 2nd Comp.
Mill length

H2O 2nd Comp.

H2O 1st Comp.

Water injection - devices

detail A detail B
Mill Inlet Mill trunnion

Material feed

A
B Nozzle

Water Air Operating Pressures

detail C min 3
Water
Mill Outlet Air [bar] normal 4-6
max 9
Mill Water
Nozzle Air blower
D > 50
[mbar]
C
rotary seal rotary union
detail D Compressed
air ~5
[bar]

Material discharge
Air Water

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 139

© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Compressed air Index
14 1 Water tank
15
Air blower 2 Floater valve
3 Shut-off valve
16
1st 2nd Comp. 4 Filter
17 5 Water pump
13
Water injection - control

6 Contact pressure gauge

control 7 Pressure relieve valve

Water
12 loop
PI Mill 11 PI
setpoint 8 Pressure regulator
9 Flow control valve
FIC FIC
cement
10 10 Flow meter
temperature/
mill exhaust 11 Pressure gauge
9 M

1 14 Shut-off valve

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

15 Pressure regulator
3 4 M
Air

PIS 6 16 Solenoid valve

5
17 Check valve
Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

140
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

Heat balance Energy:
∑ Inputs = ∑ Outputs
Heat balance - system

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 141

Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

Heat balance example

Fig. 11
Cement grinding system
System: Tube mill with separator
Mill diameter 4.6 [m]
Mill length 15.5 [m]
Motor power 5000 [kW] abs.
Overall drive eff. 91 [%]
Operating data:
Production 180 [t/h] Pozzolana
cement
Composition clinker 71 [%]
gypsum 4 [%] 4 [%] H2 O

pozzolana 25 [%] 8 [%] H2 O

Clinker temperature 150 [°C]

Ambient temperature 20 [°C]
Water temperature 15 [°C]
Hot gas temperature 450 [°C]
Mill inlet temperature ∼200 [°C]
Mill discharge temp. (cement) 110 [°C]
Mill discharge temp. (gas) 105 [°C]
Finish product temperature 104 [°C]
3
Mill fan flow rate 33000 [Nm /h]

Index
G [t/h] mill production
u [-] circulation factor (feed/product)
t [°C] temperature
P abs. [kW] absorbed power (counter)
η [-] efficiency of drives
cp [kJ/kg] spec. heat value (related to reference temperature)
3
[kJ/Nm ]

W [l/h] water to be evaporated

index: in moisture in feed material (incl. water injected)
ev evaporated water
3
V [Nm /h] air/gas flow rate
g gas
index:
a fresh air
ex exhaust air
s fresh air separator
2
k [kJ/m °C h] radiation/convection factor
2
A [m ] radiation surface
q [kJ/kg H2 O] heat of evaporation

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 142

Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 143

Grinding Technology - VENTILATION & COOLING

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 144

© 2005 Holcim/Switzerland
Type of mill Drying Capacity Max. mill Max. mill Max. mill Energy Stickyness Maintenance
(%) H2O Feed size Gas speed Capacities Consumption of materials
(mm) (m/s) (t/h)
5 10 15 20

End-discharge mill 25-30 2 350 medium no simple

Center-discharge mill 30-50 2 350 high suited simple

Air-swept mill 25-30 6 350 medium suited simple

Raw Grinding Systems

Vertical roller mill 100 550 low suited specialized

Roller press 50 200 low no specialized

Hammer/Impact mill 200 100 medium no medium

Autogenous mill 300 400 high very suited simple

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers

Legend : Without drying compartment

With gases of max. 350 [°C ] (kiln exhaust gases)

With gases of more than 350 [°C ] (hot gas generator)

Higher drying capacities can be achieved with predrying facilities (e.g. flash drier etc.)

145
Version Nov. 2005
Version Nov. 2005

Raw Grinding Systems

Spec. Energy Tube Mills

(Holcim Plants 1991)
35

30
Spec. Energy (kWh/t)

15
Systems
10
Mills only
5

0
10 15 20 25 30

Raw meal fineness (% R 90µm)

Spec. Energy Roller Mills

30
Spec. Energy (kWh/t)

15
System
10
Mill + Fan
5
Mill motor
0
10 15 20 25 30

Raw meal fineness (% R 90µm)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 146

Cement Grinding Systems

Specific Energy Consumption

kWh/t

60
1
50
2
40 3
4
30

cm2/g

3000 3500 4000 4500

1 Tube mill open circuit

2 Tube mill closed circuit
3 Tube mill with pregrinding unit
4 Finish grinding system

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 147

Nuisance Dust Collection

Design Guidelines

Air-to-cloth ratio (A/C ratio)

1.2 m3/m2 x min for slag, coal and clinker dust

1.5 m3/m2 x min for limestone and cement dust

From experience, we know that the vertical upward vector of the gas flow velocity should
be lower than 1.0 in process dust collectors or maximum 1.3 m/s for auxiliary
dust collecting systems.

Amount of dust sources to vent

No more than six (6) to eight (8) dust sources to vent should be connected to one dust
collector.

Up- and downward sloping for dust-laden air shall have - to avoid dust accumulation –
a slope of 300 for limestone, slag, cement, and 450 for clinker (measured from vertical axis).

Fig. 1: duct-slope for limestone, slag, Fig. 2: duct-slope for

cement dedusting clinker dedusting

Ductwork in horizontal should be avoided!

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 148

Nuisance Dust Collection

Filter bag dimension

The filter bag dimension depends on the cleaning system efficiency and the geometrical
allocation of the filter bags. The diameter of the bags is usually between 120 and 160 mm.

The following bag lengths are recommended not to be exceeded:

new installation conversion

reverse air 11.0 m 11.0 m
low pressure pulse-jet 6.0 m 8.0 m
high pressure pulse-jet 4.5 m 6.0 m

Distance between the bags

The minimum distance between the bags should be 50 mm.

Number of bags per row

The maximum number of bags per row should not be more than 16 bags.

Filter cloth

The filter cloth specification and design data to be provided by the supplier have carefully be
checked by the consumer.
• For general application (dry gas) up to 1200 C (long time operation), needle felt fabric
made from high quality Polyester fibers are used.
• For an application in drying/grinding (humid gas) up to 1200 C (long time operation),
Polyacrylnitrile or similar fiber cloth is recommended.
• Application for temperatures above 1200 C, Polyamide (Nomex), Polyphenylene, Glass-fiber,
Teflon/graphite coated or similar.

Pulse cycle
The cleaning cycle for pulse-jet collectors should be designed, so that the pulse duration
produces a short, crisp pulse in order to create an effective shock wave in the bag. This
duration is generally set to fire for 0.10 to 0.15 second.

The frequency of pulse-jet cleaning is also vital to proper dust cake retention. This frequency
can vary from 7 to 30 seconds or more and is adjusted by means of a potentiometer on the
timer panel. The frequency should be adjusted, so that the differential pressure across the
collector ranges from 75 - 150 mm WG.

To ensure proper cleaning frequency, an automatic "cleaning-on-demand" system

utilizing a pressure switch gauge can be installed as shown in the following picture.
Good practice is to put the low set point at about 10 mbar and the set point high at 12.5 mbar.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 149

Nuisance Dust Collection

Dedusting Air Quantities
SIZE
MACHINE UNIT m3/h DETAILS / REMARKS
(mm)
A B C
BELT CONVEYORS
650 4250 2000
1500 1250
1750 1000 m3/h
A 850 5250 2500
2000 1750
2250 1000
1000 6500 3000
2500 2250
2750 1250
C B 1200 7750 3500
3000 2750
3250 1500
1400 8750 3500
4000 3750
3250 1500
1600 10'000 4000
4500 4250
3750 1750
APRON CONVEYORS A B C
800 6500 3500 2000 1000 m3/h
A 1000 7500 4000 2500 1000
1200 8750 4500 3000 1250
C B
1400 9750 5000 3500 1500
1600 10'000 5500 4000 1500
PIVOTING PAN APRON CONV. A B C
A 800 2500 9000 9000 m3/h
1000 3000 10'000 10'000
B C 1200 3500 11'000 11'000
1400 4000 12'000 12'000
BUCKET ELEVATORS CHAIN m 3 /h BELT m 3/h
A A B A B
400 1250 1000 2000 1000 m3/h
500 1500 1000 2250 1000
630 2000 1250 2500 1250
800 2500 1250 3000 1250
B 1000 3000 1500 3500 1500
1250 3500 1500 4500 1500
1600 4000 1500 6000 1500
TROUGH CHAIN AND 200 500
SCREW CONVEYORS 250 500
315 500
400 750
PER 10m LENGHT
500 750
630 1000
800 1000
1000 1250
AIR SLIDES 120
150% OF THE AIR BLOWER

CALSSIFING-SCREEN 50 PER t/h (OPEN)

VIBRATORY-SCREEN 450 PER m2 (CLOSED)

SWING-SCREEN 600 PER m2 (CLOSED)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 150

Nuisance Dust Collection

Dedusting Air Quantities
Guiding rates for plant engineering

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 151

Nuisance Dust Collection

Venting Hood Design

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 152

Nuisance Dust Collection

Duct Elbow, Joint and Branch Design

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 153

Nuisance Dust Collection

List of Calculation Sheets Available in HolSpace

https://web.holcim.com/PPE Platform/PPE Tools/ Transport and Dedusting
§ Filter List
4 Purpose: to check filtration surface, can velocity, A/C Ratio of existing dust collector

Filter List Template

§ Gas Velocity in the Ductwork

4 Purpose: to calculate ductwork diameter in order to keep the gas velocity constant

Gas velocity in the

ductwork

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 154

Belt Conveyor

Design Guidelines
Belt speed
In general the maximum belt speed shall not exceed 2.0 m/s.
Conveyors handling dry fine material (i.e. raw meal, cement) shall not exceed 1.25 m/s.
Belt speed for conveyors less than 50 meters in length shall not exceed 1.5 m/s.
Conveyors longer than 500 m (overland) can operate faster than 2.0 m/s.

Belt width

Belt width shall not be less than 800 mm, for special applications 650 mm belts may be used.
Packing plants 500 mm flat belts may be applicable.
The minimum belt width for reversible conveyors shall not be less than 800 mm.

Conveyor slopes, vertical radius

Slope:

Maximum Slope Raw Material Clinker Cement

General 16O 10O 6O 1)
At loading point 6O 2) 0O 0O
1) Consideration should be given to maximize the horizontal section after the last feed point thus allowing
the cement to properly de-aerate and prevent back-flushing on inclined section. Change from horizontal
only after a distance equivalent to 60 seconds belt travel from the feed point is desirable. Steeper
slopes can be accepted depending on the usage of grinding aids and/or material bed thickness on the
belt etc.

2) Steeper slopes may be acceptable depending upon the application.

Vertical (concave) curves to be designed to avoid lifting of the belt from the
idlers under any conditions (minimum radius 300 m).
curve
rtical
s of ve

Belt
trave
l
Radiu

Tangent point

C B

Angle "A"

Working point
Fig. 19: Example
D P E
vertical curve

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 155

Belt Conveyor

Idler design
Trough angle shall not be less than 30°

Carrier and return idler diameter shall be designed according to DIN (15207-1 / 22107) or CEMA
(Class C) or equivalent

Belt Idler Idler

width diamet length
er

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 156

Belt Conveyor
Pulley design

The Minimum Recommended Pulley Diameters

The Table shows the recommended minimum pulley diameters to limit the stress
in the conveyor belting as the belt passes around the pulleys

Fabric Conveyor Belts Steel Cord Belting

Belt Class Driving and Tail/take-up Low Tension Belt Rating High Tension Pulleys, Low Tension Pulleys, Snubs
Head /H.T. Bends Snubs & Bends Drive, Discharge, etc Tail, Take-up, etc
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

EP 160 200 140 140 ST 500 600 500 400

EP 200 350 250 250 ST 630 700 550 450

EP 250 400 250 250 ST 800 700 550 450

EP 315 400 250 250 ST 1000 700 550 450

EP 400 450 300 300 ST 1250 750 600 500

EP 500 500 350 330 ST 1600 1050 900 750

EP 630 540 400 350 ST 2000 1050 900 750

EP 800 650 450 410 ST 2500 1050 900 750

EP 1000 800 570 510 ST 3150 1200 900 750

EP 1250 1000 700 640 ST 4000 1350 1050 900

EP 1600 1250 1000 1000 ST 5000 1500 1200 1050

EP 2000 1400 1000 1000

Pulley lagging
All drive pulleys shall have rubber lagging.
Tail and take-up pulleys: rubber lined or spiral wrapped wing pulleys. Wing type pulleys
without spiral are not acceptable

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 157

Belt Conveyor
Table - Minimum Number of Plies Recommended for a Correct Load Support

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 158

Belt Conveyor
Table - Maximum Number of Plies Recommended for a Correct

Empty Belt Troughing

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 159

Belt Conveyor
Table - Guide for top and bottom cover thickness for fabric belts

Moderately Abrasive Materials: Abrasive Materials:

- Cement - Clinker, Slage

- Sand (smooth) - Limestone as quarried
- Limestone (crushed) - Hard Coal
- Wood Chips - Metallic ores
- Soft Coal, Clay

0mm to 25mm to Over 0mm to 25mm to Over

Lump Size
25mm 130mm 130mm 25mm 130mm 130mm

Top cover thickness

[mm] 1,6 - 4,0 2,5 - 5,0 3,2 - 6,3 2,5 - 6,3 3,2 - 8,0 5,0 - 10,0
(Range)

Top cover thickness

[mm] 2 3 4 4 5 6
(Recommended)

Bottom cover thickness [mm] 2 2 2 2 2 2

Table - Guide for top and bottom cover thickness for steel cord belts

Belt Designation Minimum Cover Belt Designation Minimum Cover

Thickness mm Thickness mm

Top Bottom Top Bottom

ST 500 5,0 5,0 ST 2000 6,0 6,0

ST 630 5,0 5,0 ST 2500 6,5 6,5

ST 800 5,0 5,0 ST 3150 6,5 6,5

ST 1000 5,0 5,0 ST 4000 8,0 8,0

ST 1250 5,0 5,0 ST 5000 9,0 9,0

ST 1600 6,0 6,0 ST 6300 10,0 10,0

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 160

Belt Conveyor
Troughing Transition Distance for Fabric Belt (Nylon, Polyester, Vinyilon)

Unit: m

Position of Pulley Face On same level as carrier 1/2 of depth of troughing

Troughing Angle 20° 30° 35° 45° 20° 30° 35° 45°
600 0.55 0.80 0.95 1.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
650 0.60 0.90 1.05 1.30 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.65
750 0.70 1.00 1.20 1.50 0.35 0.50 0.60 0.75
Belt Width

800 0.75 1.10 1.25 1.60 0.40 0.55 0.65 0.80

900 0.85 1.20 1.45 1.80 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.90
1000 0.95 1.35 1.60 2.00 0.45 0.70 0.80 1.00
1050 0.95 1.40 1.65 2.10 0.50 0.70 0.85 1.05
1200 1.10 1.60 1.90 2.40 0.55 0.80 0.95 1.20
1400 1.30 1.90 2.20 2.80 0.65 0.95 1.10 1.40
1600 1.45 2.15 2.55 3.20 0.75 1.10 1.25 1.60

Troughing Transition Distance for Steel Cord Belt

Unit: m

Position of Pulley Face On same level as carrier 1/2 of depth of troughing

Troughing Angle 20° 30° 35° 45° 20° 30° 35° 45°
600 1.10 1.65 1.90 2.40 0.55 0.80 0.95 1.20
650 1.20 1.75 2.05 2.60 0.60 0.90 1.05 1.30
750 1.40 2.05 2.40 3.00 0.70 1.00 1.20 1.50
Belt Width

800 1.50 2.15 2.55 3.20 0.75 1.10 1.25 1.60

900 1.65 2.45 2.85 3.65 0.85 1.20 1.45 1.80
1000 1.85 2.70 3.15 4.05 0.95 1.35 1.60 2.00
1050 1.95 2.85 3.35 4.25 1.00 1.45 1.65 2.10
1200 2.20 3.25 3.80 4.85 1.10 1.65 1.90 2.40
1400 2.55 3.80 4.45 5.65 1.30 1.90 2.20 2.80
1600 2.95 4.30 5.05 6.45 1.45 2.15 2.55 3.20

On same Level as Carrier 1/2 of Depth of Troughing

Fig. 18: Troughing Transition Distance

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 161

Belt Conveyor
Specific Weights and Properties of Materials

NOTE: The below listed properties of materials are to be used unless the client advises
otherwise. The figures can have a large deviation depending on the material source.

Material Specific weights Angle of

Angle of repose Friction
surcharge angle
A B C For size of For civil (For (discharge
silos & design conveyor angle)
For conveyor size For conveyor H.P. For material loads stockpiles
design and size of silos & on building size design)
stockpiles structures
3 3 3
[kg/m ] [lbs/ft3] [kg/m ] [lbs/ft3] [kg/m ] [lbs/ft3] [°] [°] [°] [°]
Cement (40% Puzzolan) 950 59 1300 81 1600 100 10 - 0-5 -
Cement (40% Slag) 950 59 1300 81 1600 100 10 - 0-5 -
Cement (Portland) 1000 62 1400 87 1600 100 10 20 0-5 20
Clay: Fine (dry) 1000 62 1200 75 1600 100 25 30 5 - 10 -
Clay: Loose (dry) 1600 100 1800 112 2000 125 40 - 25 - 30 -
Clay: Loose (wet) 1800 112 2000 125 2000 125 50 15 25 - 30 -
Clinker 1200 75 1400 87 1600 100 35 30 20 - 25 30
Coal: Anthracite (as
800 50 900 56 1000 62 40 30 25 - 30 30
received)
Coal: Bituminous 700 44 800 50 900 56 40 35 25 - 30 35
Coal: Pulverized/Meal 600 37 700 44 800 50 15 15 0-5 15
Gypsum (raw) 1280 80 1440 90 1600 100 40 35 25 - 30 -
Iron ore 2000 125 2400 150 2800 175 40 - 25 - 30 -
Kiln dust 600 37 800 50 1000 62 10 10 0-5 -
Limestone (crushed) 1400 87 1500 94 1700 106 40 35 25 - 30 35
Petcock (as received) 600 37 700 44 800 50 40 20 25 - 30 -
Petcock (meal) 400 25 550 34 750 47 - - - -
Puzzolan: course (wet) 1200 75 1360 85 1520 95 30 - 15 - 20 -
Puzzolan: ground (dry) 950 59 1200 75 1360 85 20 - 5 - 10 -
Pyrite (pellets) 2100 131 - - - - 35 - 20 - 25 -
Raw meal 900 56 1200 75 1500 94 15 15 0-5 15
Raw meal: blend. silo 900 56 1200 75 1500 94 15 15 0-5 15
Raw meal: cont. blend 900 56 1200 75 1500 94 15 15 0-5 15
Sand: dry (as received) 1400 87 1600 100 1680 105 40 35 25 - 30 35
Shale (crushed) 1300 81 1500 94 1680 105 40 35 25 - 30 35
Slag: blast furnace
1100 69 1200 75 1300 81 30 - 15 - 20 -
granular, (wet)
Slag: blast furnace,
900 56 1000 62 1200 75 20 - 5 - 10 -
ground, (dry)
Slag (pulverized 5600 Bl) 750 47 - - - - 15 - 0-5 -

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 162

Belt Conveyor

List of Calculation Sheets Available in HolSpace

https://web.holcim.com/PPE Platform/PPE Tools/ Transport and Dedusting
§ Belt Conveyor Transport Rate Calculation
4 Purpose:
- To provide a simple Excel spreadsheet for estimating conveyor capacities (but
not for calculating power requirements). The capacity is calculated by entering
basic parameters such as belt width, troughing angle, belt speed, material bulk
density, etc.
- To have a tool that makes it easy to check the proposals of suppliers and also to
check the capacities of installed belt conveyors

Belt conveyor
capacity

§ Belt Conveyor Discharge Point, Trajectory and Impulse

4 Purpose:
- To provide a simple Excel spreadsheet to perform calculations required in laying
out belt conveyor systems. The spreadsheet requires the input of basic
parameters such as belt inclination, pulley radius, and belt speed. It calculates
the distance and height at which a belt conveyor must be positioned to centralize
its discharge into another belt conveyor
- To provide a useful tool for designing transfer chutes

Belt conveyor
discharge

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 163

Material Preparation - Crushing

Crusher determination
Most suitable ö
Suitable õ
Not Suitable ÷
Material Conditions Material Crushing Ratio Material Material
Classification Abrasivity Moisture
Soft

Medium

Hard

1:5

1:15

1:30

1:50

Low

Medium

High

Dry

Moist

wet
Crusher Type

Single Toggle Jaw ö ö õ ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷

Double Toggle Jaw õ ö ö ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö ö ö ö õ ÷
Gyratory / Cone õ ö ö ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö ö ö ö õ ÷
Mineral Sizer ö õ ÷ ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö ö ö
Roll ö õ ÷ ö ÷ ÷ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö ö ö
Single Shaft ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
Hammer
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö ÷ ÷
Double Shaft ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö ö õ
Hammer
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
Single Shaft Impact ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷
Double Shaft ö ö ö ö ö ö õ ö õ ÷ ö ö ÷
Impact
With Grate ö ö õ ö ö ö ö ö õ ÷ ö õ ÷

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 164

Material Preparation - Crushing

Reduction
Crusher type Ratio
Application Operation

Primary 1 st. or 2 ndary. for very

Jaw
hard abrasive material Compression
5 to 1 with low moisture. Good for
-
inclusions of sticky material
Single Toggle 7 to 1 higher wear than 2-toggle
2 ndary
1 st. or 2 nd. for very
3 to 1 hard abrasive material Compression
- with low moisture.
Double Toggle 5 to 1 Capacity small.

Gyratory Primary - for very

5 to 1 hard, abrasive
Compression
- material with low
7 to 1 moisture
Gates System
Secondary - for
hard abrasive Compression
5 to 1
materials
Symons System

Secondary - for
hard abrasive Compression
5 to 1 materials with low
Hydrocone moisture

Mineral Sizer up to
1 st. or 2 ndary. Shear
Soft to hard Compression
Sticky, abrasive
5 to 1

Roller Soft materials

4 to 1 Shear, gravity
- impact &
6 to 1 compression
Single

1st. choice for

4 to 1
sticky materials with Shear, gravity
- inclusions of flints, impact &
6 to 1 pebbles etc compression
Double

Impact or Soft to medium hard

up to Impact
not for abrasive or
Hammer & attrition
sticky materials
50 to 1
Double Hammer H2O

Soft to medium hard

up to not for abrasive or Impact
sticky materials
50 to 1
H2O
Impact

Soft to medium hard

up to Impact &
not for abrasive or
attrition
sticky materials
50 to 1
H2O
Impact Hammer

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 165

Material Preparation - Handling

Bulk Density

b =
m solid + m voids m total
Vsolid + Vvoids
=
V total
t/m 3 [ ] b = bulk density (see table1)

Moisture
A common expression for a bulk solid’s moisture content is the percentage of water to wet solid:

m wet − mdry mH2O

Moisture content = × 100 [%H2O] = × 100 [%H2O]
m wet m wet

mwet = mass wet [kg] mdry = mass dry [kg] mH2O = mass water

Bulk solid granulometry

Descriptive term Particle Size Range Example
coarse (crushed) solid 5-300 mm limestone
granular solid 0.3 - 5 mm sand
coarse powder 100 - 300 µm separator grits
fine powder 10 - 100 µm cement
superfine powder 1 - 10 µm dust collector product
ultrafine powder < 1 µm paint pigments

The median particle x50 size is probably the most common term used for representing a
bulk solids average particle size. The other definitions for an equivalent diameter are the
mean volume diameter or the mean surface diameter.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 166

Material Preparation - Handling

Angle of response
Angle of repose Flow behavior
20 - 30 deg free flowing
30 - 38 deg easy flowing
38 - 45 deg fair flowing
45 - 55 deg cohesive
> 55 deg very cohesive

The angle of repose should not be abused as a quantitative guide in bin design.

Bin design
There are some general principles to be observed when designing bulk solid handling systems:

Rule 1: Storage and process feed functions should be separated whenever possible.
Rule 2: Feed bins should be designed for the lowest possible volume and not be abused for
additional storage capacity.
Rule 3: Feed bins should be designed for mass-flow on principle.

Example of different materials/liners for coal hopper

Type of Discharge Hopper Conical type Wedge type

Maximum Hopper Half Angles
§ mild steel deg 10 – 13 18 – 20
§ stainless steel deg 12 – 15 20 – 22
§ UHMW-PE deg 15 – 20 22 – 25

Bin Outlet Dimensions

§ shape circular/square slotted
§ minimum width required 1200 mm 700 mm
§ L / W ratio ≈ 2.5:1

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 167

Material Preparation - Handling

Extraction Bin Design for Coarse Material

Rule of thumb for coarse, easy flowing materials:

diameter

width
length

Slotted (rectangular) outlet:

- width of opening ~ (3 – 6) x max grain size
- length > 2 x width

Circular outlet:
- diameter ~ (6 – 10) x max. grain size

Design for cohesive and fine material only based on Shear testing.

Pennsylvania Test for abrasion determination

Abrasiveness Material Index

High Manganese ore 32946
Chert 9829
High Silica Limestone 4838
Cement Clinker 2206
Red Limestone 1452
Medium Hematite 620
Dolomite 417
Shale 345
Clay 25
Low Limestone 7

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 168

Material Preparation - Handling

Table 1 – Material Bulk Densities

Plant: Name: Project No.:
Product Data Country: Date: Edition 1.00
Copy for:
Physical Office:
Characteristics Barometric Pressure Ambient Temperature Relative Humidity Electrical Frequency
1000 [mmHg] 30 [°C] 70 [%] 60 [Hz]

Top size Bulk density Bulk density Bulk density Bulk density Design Angle of Hopper half Abrassive-
[mm] in pneumatic in in silos and in silos and moisture repose angle ness
Material conveyors mechanical stores (vol) stores (load) [%, WB] [ °] [ °] [Low /
[t/m3, DB] conveyors [t/m3, DB] [t/m3, DB] Medium /
[t/m3, DB] High]
High Grade Limestone 1.35 1.50 1.70 38.00 <20 M
Low Grade Limestone 1.35 1.50 1.70 38.00 <20 M
Shale 1.25 1.50 1.70 40.00 <10 M
Clay 1.40 1.60 1.80 0.00 M
Iron Ore 2.00 2.40 2.80 40.00 <20 H
Pyrite pellets 2.10 H
Sand 1.40 1.60 1.70 40.00 <20 H
Mix 1.35 1.50 1.70 38.00 <20 M
Raw Mill Feed 1.35 1.50 1.50 38.00 <20 M
Raw Meal/ Kiln Feed % R 0.09 mm 0.80 0.90 1.20 1.50 0.50 (15) L
Filter Dust 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0.00 (15) L
Bypass Dust

Clinker % R >25 mm 1.20 1.35 1.50 0.00 30.00 45.00 H

Off-Standard Clinker % R >25 mm 1.20 1.35 1.50 0.00 30.00 45.00 H
Natural Gypsum 1.30 1.45 1.60 40.00 <15 M
Synthetic Gypsum 0.80 0.90 0.00 L
gbf Slag raw 1.10 1.20 1.30 30.00 20.00 H
gbf Slag ground cm2/g 0.75 0.90 1.00 1.20 (10) H
Pozzolana raw 1.20 1.35 1.50 38.00 H
Pozzolana ground cm2/g 0.95 1.20 1.35 (15) H
Fly Ash cm2/g 0.75 0.90 1.20 1.60 (10) H
Cement Portland cm2/g 0.85 1.00 1.40 1.60 (10) H
Cement (40 % Slag) 0.95 1.30 1.60 (10) H
Cement (40 % Pozzolana) 0.95 1.30 1.60 (10) H

Coal (Anthracite) raw 0.80 0.90 1.00 40.00 <20 M

Coal (Bituminous) raw 0.70 0.80 0.90 40.00 <20 M
Coal pulverized 0.35 0.60 0.70 0.80 (15) M
Petcoke raw 0.60 0.70 0.80 38.00 20.00 M
Petcoke pulverized 0.30 0.40 0.55 0.75 0.50 (15) M

DB: Dry Base Tender Information L: Low

WB: Wet Base Project team decision M: Medium
Vol: For Volume Calculation HGRS/MS default value H: High
Load: For Load Calculation Determined in ??? laboratorium

Comments:

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 169

Material Preparation - Homogenizing

Uniformity targets
The targets used for MPR's are taken as given without any error correction:
Short term Long term
hourly samples over 24 h daily values over one month
s LSF < 1.2 < 1.0
Kiln feed
s SM
(or clinker) < 0.04 < 0.03
s AR
Raw meal after mill after mill
no Preblending s LSF < 4.0
< 1.0
with preblending s LSF < 3.0

Characteristic Stdv. s
CaCO3 % < 0.2
CaO % < 0.11 Table can be used to correlate the LSF target to other characteristics:
LSF % < 1.0 sLSF = 1% → sCaCO3 ~ 0.2% → sCaO ~ 0.11%
SiO2 % < 0.1
Al2O3 % < 0.07
Fe2O3 % < 0.04

To achieve the kiln feed uniformity targets the variation of the raw meal chemistry (after mill) is limited by:
Homogenizing silo sLSF < 10
Blending silo sLSF < 5

Location Procedure Type of homogenized fluctuations Blending factor

Selective quarrying Blending Long-term to middle-term fluctuations 5:1
Preblending Blending Middle-term to long-term fluctuations 5:1
Proportioning Blending Long-term to middle-term fluctuations 2:1
Grinding Mixing Short-term fluctuations 2:1
Homogenizing Mixing / Blending Short-term to middle-term fluctuations 10:1 - 5:1 M/B

Short-term fluctuations: min - hours

Middle-term fluctuations: 1 - 5 days
Long-term fluctuations: 5 - 7 days

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 170

Material Preparation - Homogenizing

Blending silos
Aerated homogenising silos
Aeration sequence normally 8 * 10 min for quadrant system. Might be shorter (even 3 min)
to avoid segregation. Airflow for active segments up to 3 m/min and inactive at least 0.5 m/min
based on total cross section.

Segregation factor
The higher the segregation the more attention is given to kiln dust handling and
materials handling → segregation inside silo.

analysis of total sample: main elements → LSF

analysis of < 32 µm fraction : main elements → LSF

Sf = LSF<32µm / LSFtot OR Sf = LSF kiln dust / LSFkiln feed

range of not critical raw meals: 0.8 < Sf < 1.2 (LSF or SR using the same rules)

Based on the Sf the kiln dust handling concept is chosen. (example)

LSF Raw meal = 95.8%
LSF kiln dust = 110%
Sf = 110 / 95.8 = 1.15 (not critical)
Kiln dust = 0.1 kg/kg cl (LOI free)

In direct operation the clinker LSF is theoretically the same as the raw meal LSF when
all dust is immediately returned into the kiln feed. LSF raw meal = LSF clinker

In compound operation the clinker LSF is changed by the dust

by 0.1 * ( 100% - 95.8%) = 1.4% leading to (95.8 - 1.4%) = 94.4%

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 171

Material Preparation - Homogenizing

Testing procedure
Sampling frequency adapted to achieve the 30 samples
§ Only spot samples
§ Period for batch homogenizing silo: should contain 3 batches (e.g. 3 time 8h = 24 h again
every 30 min. one sample). Discharge of homogenising silo even up to every 5 min.
§ Period for continuous homogenizing silo: 24 h (e.g. every 30 min. one sample = 48 samples).
§ Discharge of silo (kiln feed) normally every 30 minutes

Minimum sample size

The minimum sample size depends on the granulation and uniformity. The formula given
is a simplification used within Holcim.

m = sample quantity [kg]

m = 0.1 * x 1.5 x = max grain size x 90 [mm]

Location X90 [mm] m [kg]

Example for sample size depending on material
after mill / raw meal 0.1 (0.1) In general the sample size for raw meal is about 100 g
before ball mill 30 16 and differs to the calculation because of the sampling error.
before roller mill 80 70

Number of samples / sample frequency

The minimum number of samples can be calculated depending the demanded accuracy:
Trust interval 95% → probability factor Zα = 2

2
Z 
2 n number of samples
 2 
1+ 0.5*   = 33
n ≈ 1+ 0.5*    0.25
Zα
ε
probability factor
accuracy (of the stdv)
 
The minimum number of samples is 30 to allow a failure of < 25% for the standard deviation.
The preferred number of even 50 samples is asked for performances test with suppliers mainly.

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 172

Material Preparation - Homogenizing

Standard deviation
The standard deviation can be rough estimated by dividing the differences of the min
and max values by 6. (Formula for stdv. given in chapter MT)

(x − x )
s ≈ max min
S – standard deviation
xmax – max. value

6 xmin – min.value

Outlier test acc. GRUBB’s

The outlier test is used to determine samples witch are outside our expectations (confidence
For reasons like sampling and analysis errors

(X- Xmin ) / s > G x – averrage

xmax – max. value
xmin – min.value

(Xmax )
- X / s>G
G - critical value acc. GRUBB’s

Critical Values for outlier test acc. GRUBB’s

G
n significance level
Alpha = 1%
20 2,884
22 2,934
24 2,984
26 3,028
28 3,065 n = number of samples
30 3,103
32 3,133
34 3,163
36 3,190
38 3,215
40 3,240

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 173

Material Preparation - Homogenizing

Error evaluation
The error determinations done by double sampling

2
π 1 
serr = 
4n ∑ di 
 s meas = stdv measured
s err = stdv error
s cor = stdv corrected
di = (x1a-x1b) differences
between the double
samples
scor = s2meas − serr
2
H = number of double
samples

Blending factor
The blending factor is the ratio of standard deviation before sin and after sout the
homogenizing process
Bf = sin/sout

Blending factor including error corrections

sin,corr s2in,measured − s2in, error

Bf = =
sout,corr sout,measured − s2 out,error

sin = standard deviation of the not homogenized raw material

sout = standard deviation of the homogenized raw material

LSF stdv s meas s err s cor Shown is the not significant influence of the
Raw meal 5.5 1 5.4 error due to sampling and analyzing based
Kiln feed 1.3 0.4 1.27 on LSF (San Miguel plant - continuous blending silo)

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 174

Material Preparation - Preblending

Preblending
Calculation of number of layers (target à 300)

Longitudinal Circular

vst w * h vst vst (Do− Di)2 * tan vst

n = A⋅ = * n = A⋅ = ⋅
qst 2 qst qst 16 qst

n = number of layers [- ] Do = outer diameter

w = width of pile [m] Di = inner diameter
h = high of pile [m] α = reclaimer inclination (typically 38°)
v st = stacker speed [m/min]
q st = stacker capacity [m3/min]

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 175

Own Formulas and Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 176

Own Formulas and Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 177

Unit Conversion Table

General Conversion

1 kg = 9.807 N; lt = 3.785 gal (US) = 4.546 gal (UK)

1 kg/cm2 = 0.09807 Mpa (N/mm2) = 14.22 psi (lb/in2)

1 kcal = 4.187 kJ = 3.969 BTU

Length

Column 1
Column 1 Column 2 Column 2
into Column 2 into Column 1
multiply by multiply by

0.304 foot, ft meter, m 3.28

2.54 inch, in centimeter, cm (10-2 m) 0.394

25.4 inch, in millimeter, mm (10-2 m) 3.94 x 10-2

1.609 mile, mi kilometer, km (10-3 m) 0.621

0.914 yard, yd meter, m 1.094

Area
Column 1
Column 2 into
into Column
Column 1 Column 2 Column 1
2 multiply by
multiply by

0.405 acre hectare, ha 2.47

4.05 x 10-3 acre square meter, m2 2.47 x 10-4

9.29 X 10-2 square foot, ft2 square meter, m2 10.76

square centimeter,
6.45 square inch, in2 0.153
cm2 (10-4 m)2

square millimeter,
645 square inch, in2 1.55 x 10-3
mm2 (10-6 m)2

square kilometer,
2.590 square mile, mi2 0.386
km2 (103 m)2

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 178

Unit Conversion Table

Volume
To convert To convert
Column 1 Column Column 2 Column 2 into
into Column Column 1
Acceptable Unit S1 Unit
2 multiply by multiply by

102.8 acre-inch cubic meter, m3 9.73 x 10-3

35.24 bushel (dry), bu liter, l (10-3 m3) 2.84 x 10-2

28.3 cubic foot, ft3 liter, l (10-3 m3) 3.53 x 10-2

2.83 x 10-2 cubic foot, ft3 cubic meter, m3 35.3

1.64 x 105 cubic Inch, in3 cubic meter, m3 6.10 x 104

3.78 gallon, gal liter, l (10-3 m3) 0.265

2.96 x 10-2 ounce (liquid), oz liter, l (10-3 m3) 33.78

1.82 pint (dry), pt liter, l (10-3 m3) 0.55

0.473 pint (liquid), pt liter, l (10-3 m3) 2.11

0.908 quart (dry), qt liter, l (10-3 m3) 1.101

0.946 quart (liquid), qt liter, l (10-3 m3) 1.057

Mass
Column 1 into Column 2
Column 2 into
Column 1 Column 2
multiply by Column 1
multiply by

hundredweight (short),
4.54 x 10-1 kilogram, kg 2.20 x 10-2
cwt

28.4 ounce (avdp), oz gram, g 3.52 x 10-2

454 pound, lb gram, g (10-3 kg) 2.20 x 10-3

0.454 pound, lb kilogram, kg 2.205

907 ton (2000 lb), ton kilogram, kg 1.10 x 10-3

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 179

Unit Conversion Table

Pressure
Column 1
into Column 2
Column 2 Column 1 Column 2 into
multiply Column 1
by multiply by

megapascal, MPa
0.101 atmosphere, atm 9.90
(106 Pa)

megapascal,
0.1 bar 10
MPa (106 Pa)

pound per square foot,

47.9 pascal, Pa 2.09 x 10-2
lb/ft3

pound per square inch,

6.90 x 103 pascal, Pa 1.45 x 10-4
lb/in3

pound per square inch,

6.90 kilopascal, kPa 0.145
lb/in3

Temperature
Column 1 into Column 2 into
Column 2 Column 1 Column 2
Column 1
multiply by multiply by

5/9 (°F - 32) Fahrenheit, °F Celsius, °C (9/5 °C) + 32

Energy
Column 1 Column 2
into Column Column 1 Column 2 into
2 multiply Column 1
by
multiply by

1.05 x 103 British thermal unit, Btu joule, J 9.52 x 10-4

4.19 calorie, cal joule, J 0.239

1.36 foot-pound, ft-lb joule, J 0.735

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 180

Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 181

Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 182

Notes

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 183

Holcim Group Support Ltd

Manufacturing Services
Thermal Process Technology
Materials Technology
Mechanical Process Technology

2nd Edition
Nov , 2005

Reference Guide for Process Performance Engineers 184

Physics Objective NCERT Xtract WWW - examSAKHA.in PDF
100% (4)
Physics Objective NCERT Xtract WWW - examSAKHA.in PDF
849 pages
Reference Guide For PPE - Edition 15 - January 2022
No ratings yet
Reference Guide For PPE - Edition 15 - January 2022
202 pages
Session 4 - Improving The Kiln Performance by Optimization of Porcess Parameters
100% (2)
Session 4 - Improving The Kiln Performance by Optimization of Porcess Parameters
57 pages
FLS Cooling of Clinker
100% (2)
FLS Cooling of Clinker
30 pages
Formulas Kiln
93% (14)
Formulas Kiln
53 pages
Holcim Guide For Process Engineers
100% (2)
Holcim Guide For Process Engineers
95 pages
04.04 Kiln Operations Guide Lines - ENG
67% (3)
04.04 Kiln Operations Guide Lines - ENG
23 pages
EXPERIMENT-6 - To Find, The Focal Length of A Convex Lens by Plotting Graphs Between U and V or
No ratings yet
EXPERIMENT-6 - To Find, The Focal Length of A Convex Lens by Plotting Graphs Between U and V or
4 pages
Formulas Kiln
50% (2)
Formulas Kiln
5 pages
Circulation of Inorganic Elements in Combustion of Alternative Fuels in Cement Plants
100% (3)
Circulation of Inorganic Elements in Combustion of Alternative Fuels in Cement Plants
85 pages
HYDROBORATION
No ratings yet
HYDROBORATION
15 pages
Precalciner Kilns Systems & Operation
100% (2)
Precalciner Kilns Systems & Operation
58 pages
Rules of Clinker Cooler
No ratings yet
Rules of Clinker Cooler
63 pages
Heat Consumption Index of Cement Pyro Line
No ratings yet
Heat Consumption Index of Cement Pyro Line
3 pages
The Bypass A Solution For Process: "In The Name of Allah, The Beneficent, The Merciful"
67% (3)
The Bypass A Solution For Process: "In The Name of Allah, The Beneficent, The Merciful"
40 pages
Lecture-4 - Efficiency Improvement in Cement Industries
No ratings yet
Lecture-4 - Efficiency Improvement in Cement Industries
38 pages
Peray, K. Cement Manufacturers Handbook PDF
No ratings yet
Peray, K. Cement Manufacturers Handbook PDF
394 pages
User Guide PDF
100% (1)
User Guide PDF
27 pages
Kiln Control and Operation
100% (1)
Kiln Control and Operation
36 pages
PNS 49 - Steel Bars For Concrete Reinforcement 2002
No ratings yet
PNS 49 - Steel Bars For Concrete Reinforcement 2002
19 pages
Kiln Formulas
No ratings yet
Kiln Formulas
53 pages
Alkali Bypass Maintencnce
100% (1)
Alkali Bypass Maintencnce
15 pages
Formulas Kiln
67% (3)
Formulas Kiln
53 pages
Ventilacion Molienda de Bolas
No ratings yet
Ventilacion Molienda de Bolas
26 pages
Everything You Need To Know About Kiln System Operations in Cement Manufacturing - INFINITY FOR CEMENT EQUIPMENT
No ratings yet
Everything You Need To Know About Kiln System Operations in Cement Manufacturing - INFINITY FOR CEMENT EQUIPMENT
40 pages
Burner 1
No ratings yet
Burner 1
12 pages
Whitehopleman Com Coating Rings Balls
No ratings yet
Whitehopleman Com Coating Rings Balls
11 pages
Opening PPE Course 2008
100% (1)
Opening PPE Course 2008
7 pages
VDZ - 2 - 4 - En-Raw Meal Homogenization Systems
100% (2)
VDZ - 2 - 4 - En-Raw Meal Homogenization Systems
16 pages
Kiln Audit Training Introduction
100% (1)
Kiln Audit Training Introduction
15 pages
Optimization of Kiln Plants: Activities and Technical Details
100% (1)
Optimization of Kiln Plants: Activities and Technical Details
10 pages
081 - TSP HUA400 20080305 Kiln Audit Dec07
100% (2)
081 - TSP HUA400 20080305 Kiln Audit Dec07
30 pages
Cooler Control
No ratings yet
Cooler Control
19 pages
International Cement Review, September 2002: Burning The Mix
100% (1)
International Cement Review, September 2002: Burning The Mix
5 pages
Rueddenklau Snowman Prevention
100% (2)
Rueddenklau Snowman Prevention
102 pages
004 - OPENMARK5000-Operation Manual-For CE-V2.01
No ratings yet
004 - OPENMARK5000-Operation Manual-For CE-V2.01
115 pages
043 Grinding PDF
No ratings yet
043 Grinding PDF
11 pages
Maintaining Stable Kiln Operation
No ratings yet
Maintaining Stable Kiln Operation
6 pages
Burning Presentation 2008
No ratings yet
Burning Presentation 2008
31 pages
Unit 1 Compressibility of Soil (Part 1)
No ratings yet
Unit 1 Compressibility of Soil (Part 1)
11 pages
Thermal & Chemical Kilb 2006
100% (1)
Thermal & Chemical Kilb 2006
40 pages
Clinker Cooler Golden Rules
No ratings yet
Clinker Cooler Golden Rules
55 pages
Click Here To Download Holcim, , Lafarge, Most Importnant Manuals, Most Important Excel
No ratings yet
Click Here To Download Holcim, , Lafarge, Most Importnant Manuals, Most Important Excel
26 pages
PPE Version 2005
No ratings yet
PPE Version 2005
184 pages
Fuel Cost Comaparaision
No ratings yet
Fuel Cost Comaparaision
8 pages
Kilns Khaled PDF
100% (1)
Kilns Khaled PDF
16 pages
Burning The Mix 1
No ratings yet
Burning The Mix 1
11 pages
Bestkiteboarding: Waroo Kite Manual
No ratings yet
Bestkiteboarding: Waroo Kite Manual
12 pages
CPB Sem2012 p14 Separator Case Studies
No ratings yet
CPB Sem2012 p14 Separator Case Studies
29 pages
Solar Refrigeration Using Peltier Module
No ratings yet
Solar Refrigeration Using Peltier Module
5 pages
Raw Material Preparation: Raw Meal Homogenization and Kiln Dust Management Pe Latam 2012
No ratings yet
Raw Material Preparation: Raw Meal Homogenization and Kiln Dust Management Pe Latam 2012
26 pages
V2 Materials Technology 2
No ratings yet
V2 Materials Technology 2
526 pages
Presentasi Build Up
100% (1)
Presentasi Build Up
13 pages
Volume 3 Burning Workshop
No ratings yet
Volume 3 Burning Workshop
59 pages
12 Principles of Animation - Lesson 3
No ratings yet
12 Principles of Animation - Lesson 3
37 pages
Alkali Bypass Installation PDF
No ratings yet
Alkali Bypass Installation PDF
24 pages
Dinesh Agrawal: Dry-Process
No ratings yet
Dinesh Agrawal: Dry-Process
19 pages
Typing Practce
100% (4)
Typing Practce
7 pages
Some Basic Concept of Chemistry 05 - Class Notes - Physical Chemistry by Amit Mahajan Sir OCR
No ratings yet
Some Basic Concept of Chemistry 05 - Class Notes - Physical Chemistry by Amit Mahajan Sir OCR
51 pages
04.04 Kiln Operations Guide Lines - ENG
No ratings yet
04.04 Kiln Operations Guide Lines - ENG
23 pages
Utilization of Fluff From Reception To Burner
No ratings yet
Utilization of Fluff From Reception To Burner
28 pages
SEW Motor Brake BMG
No ratings yet
SEW Motor Brake BMG
52 pages
Mechanism of Clinker Coating Formation Flame
No ratings yet
Mechanism of Clinker Coating Formation Flame
77 pages
C3 6KW Bodor en To Ro 2024-11-03 08-29-19
No ratings yet
C3 6KW Bodor en To Ro 2024-11-03 08-29-19
9 pages
Resolving Forces PEQ + MS
No ratings yet
Resolving Forces PEQ + MS
6 pages
Formulas of Killan
100% (1)
Formulas of Killan
4 pages
VRM OKoookuuiiiiljjjjyggyy
No ratings yet
VRM OKoookuuiiiiljjjjyggyy
8 pages
Huang D D 2014
No ratings yet
Huang D D 2014
193 pages
Chapter 8 - Failure
No ratings yet
Chapter 8 - Failure
6 pages
MW6 Microwave Sensor
No ratings yet
MW6 Microwave Sensor
2 pages
Dalmia Cement (B) Limited: Description Unit ALR DPM Kadapa Value
No ratings yet
Dalmia Cement (B) Limited: Description Unit ALR DPM Kadapa Value
10 pages
uploads1655275654DPP-6-Kinematics - Projectile Motion On Inclined Plane
No ratings yet
uploads1655275654DPP-6-Kinematics - Projectile Motion On Inclined Plane
3 pages
Analysis of Autogenous and Drying Shrinkage of Concrete
No ratings yet
Analysis of Autogenous and Drying Shrinkage of Concrete
171 pages
Bowmanville Cement Technology - Kiln Systems
No ratings yet
Bowmanville Cement Technology - Kiln Systems
16 pages
VDZ-Onlinecourse 6 7 en
No ratings yet
VDZ-Onlinecourse 6 7 en
22 pages
19 Jonathan Forinton ATEC
No ratings yet
19 Jonathan Forinton ATEC
33 pages
Cement Types and Their Selection For Road Stabilization - 10 Mar06
No ratings yet
Cement Types and Their Selection For Road Stabilization - 10 Mar06
13 pages
Hydraulic Parameters - Summary
No ratings yet
Hydraulic Parameters - Summary
7 pages
ARGeo C7 Successful Commissioning ID 46811
No ratings yet
ARGeo C7 Successful Commissioning ID 46811
12 pages
XFlow 2014 Validation Guide
No ratings yet
XFlow 2014 Validation Guide
4 pages
Cheat Sheet
No ratings yet
Cheat Sheet
10 pages
Speed Controller With One-Touch Fittings: In-Line Type
No ratings yet
Speed Controller With One-Touch Fittings: In-Line Type
8 pages
JEE Electric Charges and Fields Questions
No ratings yet
JEE Electric Charges and Fields Questions
4 pages
Quadcopter Design ESSTI
No ratings yet
Quadcopter Design ESSTI
23 pages
Terminal Velocity Lab
No ratings yet
Terminal Velocity Lab
5 pages
Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics Synthesized From Eggshell Powders Through A Solid State Reaction
No ratings yet
Calcium Phosphate Bioceramics Synthesized From Eggshell Powders Through A Solid State Reaction
7 pages
Vee Power: Solutions (PVT) LTD
No ratings yet
Vee Power: Solutions (PVT) LTD
4 pages
Thermal & Chemical - Kilb 2015
No ratings yet
Thermal & Chemical - Kilb 2015
37 pages
Generator Generatrice Generador
No ratings yet
Generator Generatrice Generador
1 page
VDZ-Onlinecourse 2 4 en
No ratings yet
VDZ-Onlinecourse 2 4 en
16 pages