In

this 8th module, we are discussing two mysterious components of the Universe,
which are Dark Ma=er and Dark Energy.

In this 3rd video we review dark energy.

ABer following this video you will know:
•  How we known about this new form of omnipresent energy, and why its existence
is sGll a ma=er of debate;
•  And what are the main properGes of dark energy.

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•  To understand the signs of presence for dark energy, we must revisit the
expansion mechanism of the Universe.
•  In the late 1920s, Hubble observed that the line spectra of distant galaxies are red-
shiBed. This is because of the Doppler effect associated with their recessional
velocity v. The wavelength λ’ observed on Earth is offset with respect to λ, the
wavelength in the rest frame of the emi=er.
•  The redshi3 parameter is z = Δλ /λ.
•  Using the redshiB to measure the velocity v, and the magnitude as an esGmator of
the distance r to the emi=er, one empirically observes Hubble’s law, v = H r.
Recessional velociGes are proporGonal to distance, with a coefficient called the
Hubble constant, H.

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•  Hubble’s law corresponds to a uniform expansion of all distances, including all
wavelengths, by a factor R(t) where r0 is the current scale at t = t0. Without loss
of generality we can normalize any distance to r0 = 1, R then becomes a generic
distance scale.
•  The Hubble constant is given by the relaGve rate of change in R, R-dot/R.
•  Contrary to its name, H is not constant because of the decelera:ng effect of
gravity on the expansion of the Universe, and the accelera:ng effect of dark
energy.
•  Today we find H0 ≈ 70 (km/s/Mpc) with an accuracy of a few %, although the
various methods for determining the "constant” give somewhat different results,
as shown in the plot on the right.
•  One expresses large astronomical distances in parsec; 1 pc = 30.86×1012 km is
defined as the distance at which the mean radius of the Earth orbit around the
Sun subtends an angle of one arc second.

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•  The evoluGon of the Universe is dominated by the acGon of gravity since early in its history.
•  It follows the soluGon of equaGons describing general rela:vity. For a homogeneous and
isotropic distribuGon of ma=er at large scales, it is described by the Friedmann equa:on.
•  The first term containing Newton's constant GN and the mass (or energy) density ρ of ma=er,
describes the decelera:ng ac:on of gravity. The constants K and Λ determine the asympto:c
evolu:on.
•  The cosmological constant Λ potenGally corresponds to an energy associated with the vacuum,
the so-called Dark Energy. For now, we neglect this term, although it may dominate the
evoluGon of the Universe today.
•  If you are interested in the mo:va:on behind such an equaGon, we recommend the small
calculaGon in video 8.3a.
•  The constant K corresponds to an intrinsic curvature of space generated by its total energy.
There are three cases:
•  K = -1 corresponds to a total posiGve energy. This case describes a so-called open
Universe that extends to infinity, with R-dot è 1 for large R. In this case the curvature
term, -K/R2 is posiGve.
•  K = + 1 corresponds to a negaGve total energy, a closed Universe with negaGve
curvature, which extends to a maximum radius and then shrinks.
•  K = 0 is the special case of a so-called flat Universe, where the kineGc and potenGal
energies are equal, the total energy and the curvature are zero. The rate of expansion
tends towards R-dot è 0 on the long term.
•  An inventory of the contents of the Universe today shows a density remarkably similar to the
density corresponding to K = 0. So we neglect this term.

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•  IntegraGng the Friedmann equaGon for the special case K = Λ = 0 and in non-
relaGvisGc approximaGon, a simplified expansion equa:on is obtained.
•  From today’s value of Hubble’s constant we can derive t0, the age of the
Universe, which corresponds to 9.4 Gy. This is well below the age of the oldest
objects we know about, which varies between 11 and 14 Gy.
•  Obviously a negaGve K and/or a posiGve value of the cosmological constant Λ
would lead to an increased t0 predicGon by the Friedmann equaGon.
•  But since K = 0, we need a substanGal amount of Dark Energy to obtain a
reasonable age predicGon.

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•  For K = 0 and a cosmological constant Λ ≠ 0, the Friedmann equaGon acquires
the last term. It corresponds to a constant energy density associated with the
vacuum itself.
•  This corresponding energy density adds to the ma=er density, as shown in the
2nd equaGon.
•  Considering the equaGon of state, we see that this energy exerts an internal
pressure on the expansion of the Universe, as shown by the 3rd equaGon. If Λ >
0, this pressure is negaGve and accelerates the expansion, opposing the
deceleraGng acGon of gravity.

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•  To understand how we measure the expansion velocity in the past, we must
remember that the photons reaching us from a large distance were issued in a
distant past. By observing the redshi3 of a characterisGc line, we can measure
the velocity of the emiJer in the past. And it can be compared to that of a
closer source, from photons emi=ed more recently.
•  For this we need an esGmate of the distance z, which is independent of redshiB.
The observed flux F of photons can be converted into the luminosity distance DL,
if the emi=ed luminosity L is known. The luminosity distance is related to the
astronomical magnitude m by the numerical conversion given here.

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•  For a non-relaGvisGc recessional velocity we have v ≈ z. For a constant Hubble
parameter we thus expect a relaGonship m(z) = a + b log10z between magnitude
m and redshi3 z.
•  Provided one can idenGfy a standard kind of source with constant emiJed
luminosity L, one can then find a sample of mi at sufficiently different zi and test
this proporGonality. Thermonuclear explosions of type Ia supernovae are such a
standard candle. Their brightness can be derived from the properGes of their
light curve, i.e. the photon flux over Gme.
•  Measurement results are shown here with the log of the redshiB, i.e. the
recessional velocity, as the ordinate and the magnitude as the abscissa.
•  It turns out that for large distances, the recessional velocity is always less than
what is expected from Λ = 0. The expansion of the universe is acceleraGng, it is
now faster than it was in the past.

•  For this discovery, Perlmu=er, Schmidt and Riess received the 2011 Physics
Nobel Prize.

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•  A word of cau:on is required here. The methodology providing evidence for
Dark Energy is conGnuously under scruGny.
•  In a recent paper, Subir Sarkar and collaborators have analyzed a larger sample
of sources. This plot shows the difference of the measurements to the “straight
line” in magnitude-redshiB relaGon shown previously. It is clear that the spread
of the data is comparable to, if not greater than, the expected effect of Dark
Energy, indicated by the blue line. No Dark Energy corresponds to the dashed
red line.
•  The authors conclude that a Universe without Dark Energy is improbable — of
the order of 0.3% — but not impossible.

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•  The Universe therefore probably consists of 26.8% Dark Ma=er and 68.3% Dark
Energy, totaling 95.1%. That leaves place for no more than 4.9% of ordinary
maJer.
•  The density of Dark Energy is very low, of the order of 6×10-27 kg/m3, such that
the solar system (up to the orbit of Pluto) contains only a negligible amount
compared to the mass of the Sun. But since its distribuGon is uniform, dark
energy dominates the evoluGon of the Universe at the cosmological scale.

•  Different forms of Dark Energy have been proposed:

•  For a more in-depth discussion of dark energy, see the arGcle by Ruth Durrer
cited on the bo=om.

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•  With this we have almost concluded our tour of subatomic physics.
•  If we compare to the reduc:onist program of parGcle physics — to understand
the complete Universe based on its microscopic properGes — we realize that we
have understood a lot about a small fracGon of what is there!
•  The many parameters of the Standard Model, the masses (or rather the Higgs
couplings!), coupling constants to forces, mixing angles etc. ought to be fixed by
a more profound layer of theory.
•  Unknown ingredients, Dark Ma=er on the side of ma=er, Dark Energy and
InflaGon on the side of forces, clearly indicate that much of the Universe remains
to be discovered.
•  And in addiGon, even how to integrate gravity into our microscopic model of the
Universe is far from clear.
•  This leaves enough work for future generaGons of physicists. And why not you?

•  In the last video of this module we interview professor Ruth Durrer about her
vision of Dark Energy.

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