Objectives:

• To understand the operation theory of a colpitts oscillator circuit.

• To design and implement the colpitts oscillator circuit and verify its input-output
characteristics using LM741 IC.
Theory:
We know from previous chapters that an amplifier senses a signal and reproduces it at the
output, perhaps with some gain. An oscillator, on the other hand, generates a signal, typically a
periodic one. For example, the clock in a microprocessor resembles a square wave (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: High-speed oscillator driving a microprocessor.

How can a circuit generate a periodic output without an input? We know that a negative-
feedback circuit can oscillate if Barkhausen’s criteria are met. That is, as shown in Fig. 2, we
have
Y H (s)
(s) = ,
X 1 + H (s)

Fig. 2: Feedback system for oscillation study.

which goes to infinity at a frequency of ω1 if H(s = jω1) = -1, or, equivalently, |H( jω1)| = 1 and
<H( jω1) = 180◦. We may therefore view an oscillator as a badly-designed feedback amplifier.
The key point here is that the signal traveling around the loop experiences so much phase shift
(i.e., delay) that, upon reaching the subtractor, it actually enhances X. With enough loop gain, the
circuit continues to amplify X indefinitely, generating an infinitely large output waveform from a
finite swing at X.

Fig. 3: (a) Phase shift around an oscillator loop, (b) alternative view.
It is important not to confuse the frequency-dependent 180° phase shift stipulated by Barkhausen
with the 180° phase shift necessary for negative feedback. As depicted in Fig. 3(a), the loop
contains one net signal inversion (the negative sign at the input of the adder) so as to ensure
negative feedback and another 180° of phase shift at ω1. In other words, the total phase shift
around the loop reaches 360◦ at ω1 [Fig. 3(b)].

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We must now answer two questions. First, where does X come from? (We just stated that
oscillators do not have an input.) In practice, X comes from the noise of the devices within the
loop. Transistors and resistors in the oscillator produce noise at all frequencies, providing the
“seed” for oscillation at ω1. Second, does the output amplitude really go to infinity? No, in
reality, saturation or nonlinear effects in the circuit limit the output swing. After all, if the supply
voltage is 1.5 V, it would be difficult to produce a swing greater than this amount. For example,
consider the conceptual arrangement shown in Fig. 4, where a common-source stage provides
amplification within H(s). As the output swing grows, at some point M1 enters the triode region
and its transconductance falls. Consequently, the loop gain decreases, eventually approaching the
barely acceptable value, unity.

Fig. 4: Feedback loop containing a common-source stage.

The Colpitts topology employs only one transistor and finds wide application in discrete design.
How can we construct an oscillator using only one transistor? Depicted in Fig. 13.21(a), the
Colpitts oscillator resembles a common-base topology whose output (the collector voltage) is fed
back to its input (the emitter node). Current source I1 defines the bias current of Q1, and Vb
ensures Q1 is in the forward active region. As with the cross-coupled oscillator, resistor Rp
models the loss of the inductor. This resistor can also model the input resistance of the
subsequent stage, e.g., rπ if the oscillator drives a simple common-emitter stage.

Fig. 5 (a) Colpitts oscillator, (b) open-loop equivalent of (a).

In order to analyze the Colpitts oscillator, we wish to break the feedback loop. Neglecting the
Early effect, we note that Q1 in Fig. 5(a) operates as an ideal voltage-dependent current source,
injecting its small-signal current into node Y. We therefore break the loop at the collector as
shown in Fig. 5(b), where an independent current source Itest is drawn from Y, and the current
returned by the transistor, Iret, is measured as the quantity of interest. The transfer function

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 ◦ and a magnitude of
Iret/Itest must exhibit a phase of 360 at least unity at the frequency of
oscillation.
We observe that Itest is divided between (L1s)||Rp = L1sRp/(L1s + Rp) and Z1, which is given by
1 1 1
=
Z1 + ||
C 1 s gm C 2 s
1 1
= + . ...(i )
C 1 s C 2 s + gm
That is, the current flowing through C1 is equal to
dVin Vout
C1 =− .
dt R1
arriving at

dVin
Vout = − R1C1 . ...(ii )
dt

Fig. 4: Frequency response of differentiator.

Equation (i) indicates that Vout/Vin approaches infinity as the input frequency goes to infinity. This is to be
expected: the capacitor impedance becomes very large at high frequencies, approaching an open circuit
and reducing the circuit to the open-loop op amp.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5: Comparison of (a) a differentiator with (b) RC circuit.
The ideal differentiator expressed by Eq. (ii) occurs because the right plate of C1 is pinned at zero.
It is instructive to compare the operation of the differentiator with that of its passive counterpart shown in
Fig. 5. In the ideal differentiator, the virtual ground node permits the input to change the voltage across C1
instantaneously. In the RC filter, on the other hand, node X is not “pinned,” thereby following the input
change at t = 0 and limiting the initial current in the circuit to V1/R1. If the decay time constant, R1C1, is
sufficiently small, the passive circuit can be viewed as an approximation of the ideal differentiator.
Let us now study the differentiator with a finite op amp gain. Equating the capacitor and resistor currents
in Fig. 3 gives

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 Vin − Vx Vx − Vout
=
1 R1
C 1s
Substituting –Vout/A0 for VX, we have
Vout − R1C1s
= .
Vin 1 + 1 + R1C1s
A0 A0
In contrast to the ideal differentiator, the circuit contains a pole at

A0 + 1
sp = − .
R1C1
Equipment and Materials Required:
i) Trainer Board
ii) Function Generator/Audio Generator
iii) Display Device/Oscilloscope
iv) Op amp (LM741 IC)
v) Resistors and capacitors
vi) Connecting wires

Experimental Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: Practical colpitts oscillator designed in experiment.

2. Apply DC power to the circuit. Observe the output frequency with the oscilloscope.
3. Using the frequency counter, measure the output frequency, fc = ...

Experimental Results:
i) Calculation
By Hand Calculation
dVin
Vout = − R1C1 .
dt
where Vin jumps from 0 to V1.

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By Measurement
Horizontally, I square = 2ns

For output voltage (Vout):

2 square = 2 x 2ns = 4ns
Time period, T = 4ns
Therefore, Oscillator frequency, f = 1/T = 1/4ns = 250 MHz.

ii) Waveform

(a) (b)

Fig. 7: Colpitts Oscillator output waveform.

Discussion:

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