 focuses on a range of topics related to how people learn and interact with their environments.

 Learning is essential to our existence. Just like food nourishes our bodies, information and
continued learning nourishes our minds. It will change in your career, change in your personal
life, change in your community and organizations.
 which means human being in satisfying its motivation adopts and adjusts its behavior in order to
overcome abstracts or barriers

How Does Theory of Mind Develop?

 Paying Attention to Other People

According to psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen, attention is one of the first underlying precursors
to the development of a fully-fledged theory of mind.

to pay attention to (something/somebody): to look at, listen to, or think about something or
someone carefully; to concentrate. Example: ... Pay attention to the lesson.

 Intentionality

contributes to the development of the theory of mind and the understanding that others’
actions are goal-directed and arise out of unique beliefs and desires. Meaning To understand
that people act in a way that is motivated by their desires.

Ex. Toddlers as young as 2 years old exhibit an understanding of intentionality as do

chimpanzees and orangutans. To understand that people act in a way that is motivated by their
desires (for example, I am hungry so I will reach for that apple) is to understand that other
people have their own desires (she must be hungry).

 Imitation

Imitating others is a third building block of theory of mind. The ability to imitate others is to
recognizing that others have their own beliefs and desires. The child developing ability to mirror,
repeat, and practice the actions of others, either immediately or later.

For example, Mother Sing a songs repeatedly to her child, until the child starts singing back or
imitating gestures or actions. The child engages in imitation and may direct his or her eyes
towards that specific object or scene.

1.Diverse desires (“Understanding Wanting”) – It is a different people want different things and,
to get what they want, people act in different ways

2.Diverse beliefs (“Understanding Thinking”) – different people have different, but potentially
true, beliefs about the same thing.It is People’s actions are based on what they think is going to
happen.

3.Knowledge access (“Understanding that seeing leads to knowing”) – not seeing leads to not
knowing. If someone hasn’t seen something, they will need extra information to understand.
 4.False belief (“Understanding false beliefs”) – sometimes people believe things that are not
true, and they act according to their beliefs, not according to what is really true.

5.Hidden emotion (“Understanding hidden feelings”) – people can feel a different emotion from
the one they display

Smartiest false belief task

that indicates is that the child’s view of how minds work

children who pass the false belief test now understand that other people can have different
beliefs even mistaken beliefs some experts suggest that this test is further evidence of innate
brain circuits specialized for reading other people's minds.

Sally-Anne false belief task

3 years old doesn't think that other people have thoughts, desires, beliefs, knowledge.

so, she answers the question incorrectly. As children get older, it happens pretty quickly: four,
five or so, by age 4 and above children have the ability to attribute mental states to others

or it is called a theory of mind. It's called a theory because there's nothing about the other
person that shows that they're thinking. Thoughts are hidden, we don't see them. the only way
can imagine that thoughts are there and that they cause behavior. is if we have a theory about
the way that the worlds work. People have thoughts and thoughts cause them what to do. Of
course, humans the theory of mind just pervades all of our life we're forever making a
distinction between what people do and what they think we do.

Research studies most three-year-old seem unable to do this. Before age about four our
children do not use the other person's mental representations as independent entities, they do
not realize that individuals can act upon misrepresentation. But most four-year-old

get the answers to these questions correct

Problems with Theory of Mind

 Autism

Children who are diagnosed with autism, a spectrum disorder marked by challenges with social
skills, repetitive behaviors, and nonverbal communication, exhibit a deficit in theory of mind
capabilities. On the neurological side, children and adults with autism also show less activation
in brain regions, such as the medial prefrontal cortex and temporo-parietal junction, that are
associated with theory of mind

 Asperger’s

Asperger’s, a disorder marked by similar, though less severe symptoms than in ASD, also exhibit
a lessened ability to express theory of mind, illustrated by their impaired performance on
various theory of mind-related tasks
 Schizophrenia

a mental disorder characterized by a loss of touch with reality, also struggle with theory of mind.

schizophrenic people have reduced recruitment of the medial prefrontal cortex during false
belief tasks

 Depression

experience deficits in integrating contextual informational about other people

study revealed that both nonpsychotic and psychotic depressed individuals were significantly
impaired on tasks involving theory of mind social-perceptual and social-cognitive components.

Connectionism is the philosophy of Edward Thorndike, which says that learning is a product
between stimulus and response. A stimulus is something that causes a reaction, while a
response is the reaction to a stimulus. The connection between the two is called an S-R bond, or
stimulus-response bond.

(S-R Theory)

Puzzle box experiments:

on this way we achieve learning when we form association between stimulus and response.

It is a learning process of any individual by doing a trial and error method over

one thing. It means that people can learn one things when they do it multiple

times until they can able to adapt it and they can respond accordingly
 LAW OF EFFECT

this law talks about the positive and negative response to the stimuli and based on this theory if
the response produces a satisfying effect it will more likely occur in that particular situation or
the stimuli but if the response produce a discomforting effect then it will become less likely to
occur again in that situation. As we turn back to the experiment, we will see that the cat has
impulsive action but this not satisfy his needs so he tried to change her action or behavior the
cat tried to claw all over the backs and then until such time he accidentally pulled the string and
finally he opened the door and by that he satisfied his need for example you really study your
lesson before the exam. When the exam came you get the higher score so the effect of reading
and studying your lesson before the exam is satisfying because you get the higher score because
of this it will give you an encouragement to study more for the next exam so that you probably
get a higher score again it is vice versa with the discomforting effect or negative effect. If you
didn't study your lesson before the exam you get the unsatisfying result but if you want to
satisfy or a satisfying result maybe you will change your action or your behavior maybe your
study very well so that for next exam you get the satisfying score you aiming

LAW OF READINESS

Law of Exercise

It states that exercise or practice reinforces learning and things most often repeated are best
remembered.

 2 types

 Law of Use: Learning are strengthened with practice.

  Law of Disuse: Learning are weakened when practice is discontinued.

Behaviorism

 this theory implies that the learner responds to environmental stimuli without his/her mental
state being a factor in the learner's behavior.

 Individuals learn to behave through conditioning

 Two types of conditioning

-Operant conditioning

-Classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

John B. Watson

 American psychologist

 Father of the Psychological school of behaviorism

 Influenced by Pavlov




B.F. Skinner

 In 1948, he joined the psychology department at Harvard University where he remained for the
rest of his life.

 He also invented the 'Skinner box', in which a rat learns to obtain food by pressing a lever.

 Famous for his research on operant conditioning and negative reinforcement.

 One of the first to discover operant behavior.

On Ivan Pavlov experiment Before conditioning

the dog start salivates when the dog saw a food. The food here is unconditioned stimulus
and the dog is response without prior learning or unconditioned response.

On second situation. the dog is not salivating or no conditioned response to a bell because there is
no food or unconditioned stimulus. The bell here is neutral stimulus because it does not evoke a response at first.

During conditioning
Combination of food and bell response to salivate the dog. Same response before conditioning,
the dog response without prior learning which is called unconditioned response. On this conditioning,
the repetitively conditioning makes the dog learn to associate between one stimulus to another stimulus
After conditioning,
the dog response conditionally to a bell without the food. On this situation, the dog already
know if the bell starts to sound there will be food and the dog start to salivate.
The introduction of white rats resulted of no response from a baby. The white rats here is neutral

Stimulus because does not evoke a response at first.

CLASSROOM APPLICATION
On this classroom situation. Before conditioning, the students are talking inside the classroom. When a teacher
entered and starts clapping his hands the students are left confused. So, there's no response from the teacher. The
 clapping of hands by the teacher is a neutral stimulus which the students here are no conditioned response. On the
next situation
the students are loud and noisy, the teacher told the students to be quiet so the students will only be quiet when they
are told to be quiet. On this situation the unconditioned stimulus is told by the teacher to be quiet which the student
response to be quiet. On the next situation, the teacher clapping the hands with telling the students to keep quiet.
During conditioning, the combination of clapping of hands and telling the students to be keep quiet is also a
combination of neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus resulted the students to keep quiet are unconditioned
response. When the conditioning are goes repeatedly in the class until the students learn how to keep quiet using
clapping of hands by the teacher. After several days of class. The students are kept quiet when a teacher started to
clap hands during class so the students are conditioned response to teachers clapping of hands as a conditioned
stimulus.

Operant conditioning
A rat in a Skinner’s box that was given positive reinforcement might receive a food pellet every time it pressed a lever and
should learn to press the lever more often.

A rat in a Skinner’s box that was given negative reinforcement might have an electric shock turned off if they press a lever, and
should also learn to press the lever more often.

A rat in Skinner’s box that had its heat turned off when it pressed the lever would be receiving punishment, and should learn to
avoid the lever.

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In
both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement
situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and
your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.

Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these
situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For example, if your child starts to
scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant
condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order
to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.

Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a
behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

VIDEO OPERANT CONDITIONING

On this example, I'm going to show how operant conditioning applied in the classroom.

First when the class started already and the teacher ask the student. She said: Last time we discuss about reproductive system
and I told you we will have a quiz. Isn't it? Whoever gets a 90 to 95 score in this quiz will be plus 5 in our next quiz. So, my
classmate very happy of that reward. On this situation this is example of positive reinforcement because it strengthened by the
addition of praise or a direct reward.

On the next situation. Teacher said: and whoever gets 96 and above will be exempted in our next exam So some of my
classmate and I are very happy about the reward. This example of negative reinforcement. Is happier than the first one,
because it is removal of an adverse stimulus which is rewarding to the person. MAs Masaya ako sa exempted kaysa plus 5.
On the 3rd scene, Teacher said it again: But whoever gets 75 and below, I will no longer give you a remedial class. The reaction
of my classmate is mixed. Some are worried and some of them are distress. This is positive punishment because defined as the
opposite of reinforcement designed to weaken a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the
behavior of the student

On the middle of the class, the teacher saw Andre playing android phone while she teaches and Andre was not listening at all.
So, the teacher confiscates the phone from Andre and return it after the class. So Andre was obey and started to listen the
lesson. On this situation This is example of negative punishment because a punishment by removal or occurs when a favorable
event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.