SECOND QUARTER

Lesson 1: Interpreting Geological Maps

FOR RAIN-INDUCED LANDSLIDE

PRONE AREAS, THERE ARE THREE
COLORS:
Yellow: low susceptibility-less likely to be experience landslide; Be prepared.
Green: moderately susceptible; be cautious.
Red: highly susceptible; Be alert and ready to evacuate.

FOR FLOOD-PRONE AREAS:

Pink: Low to moderately susceptible. Be cautious.
Violet: Highly susceptible; be alert and ready to evacuate.

Lesson 2: LANDSLIDES

 A landslide is a massive movement of rock, soil, and debris or earth material downwards along a
hill or slope due to the force of gravity.
It is the mass movement of rocks, debris, and soil down a slope of land.

How do landslides form?

In this illustration above, you notice (A) that the hill was held in place by its natural bonding. After
too much water in the earth, the bonding is broken up and the earth falls in (B) due to gravity.
Natural disasters such as floods, earth movements (earth trembles, earthquakes, and volcanic
activity) can also set off landslides as they all have the potential to break up earth material.

The possibility and scale of landslides usually depend on these conditions.

Slope:
Landslides and mudflows flow faster on steeper slopes and may be more destructive.
Water:
When more water accompanies landslides, they travel farther and faster. More water is even more
destructive as the pressure and power of its eroding force are more.
Earth movements:
Generally, hills and mountains stay in place if nothing bothers them. When earthquakes, tremors, and
volcanoes occur, they shake the land and disturb the boding of the bedrock. When this happens,
landslides are ripe.

Causes of landslides
Landslides occur in response to a variety of both natural and manmade triggering events, such as
earthquakes, heavy rainfall, volcanic activity, or road and building construction/human activities.

A. Natural causes of Landslides

1. Earthquakes: Seismic activities have always been a main cause of landslides throughout the
world. Any time plate tectonics move the soil that covers those moves with it. When earthquakes
occur on areas with steep slopes, many times the soil slips causing landslides. Furthermore, ashen
debris flows caused by earthquakes can also trigger mass movement of soil.
2. Heavy Rainfall: When sloped areas become completely saturated by heavy rainfall many times
landslides can occur. Without the aid of mechanical root support the soil simply runs off when it
contains too much water.

B. Human causes of Landslides

1. Clear Cutting: Method of timber harvesting which completely removes all old growth timber from
the area. This method is hazardous because it destroys the existing mechanical root structure in the
area.
2. Mining: Mining operations that use blasting techniques often cause other areas that are at the
risk of sliding to slide due to vibrations under the soil.  

The influence of gravity acting on weakened materials that make up a sloping area of land. While
some landslides occur slowly over time (e.g., land movement on the order of a few meters per
month), the most destructive ones happen suddenly after a triggering event such as heavy rainfall or
an earthquake.

Water can trigger landslides because it’s heavy and adds a lot of extra weight to the land. The extra
weight makes it more likely that slope materials (soil, rock, etc.) will succumb to the forces of gravity.
Excessive water is thought to be one of the most common triggers for landslides.

Wildfires: Plants help to stabilize the soil by holding it together like glue with their roots. When this
glue is removed, the soil loosens, and gravity acts upon it much more easily. The loss of vegetation
after a fire makes the razed land susceptible to slides.
Areas that are generally prone to landslide hazards
• On existing old landslides.
• On or at the base of slopes.
• In or at the base of minor drainage hollows.
• At the base or top of an old fill slope.
• At the base or top of a steep cut slope.
• Developed hillsides where leach field septic systems are used.

Types of Landslides
The types of landslides are usually differentiated by the nature of its movement and earth material
involved. Here are a few:

1. Slide

Slides may be translational or rotational. In a translational slide, the earth mass is largely in place
after it slides downhill on a plane preface. In a rotational slide, the movement of the earth material is
rotational in nature. It is also known as Slump.

2. Topple

In a topple, the earth mass rotates forward about a pivit. The result is usually a tilt without collapse.
It is usually cause by cracks or rfracture in the bedrocks. In a topple, the earth mass rotates forward
about a pivit. The result is usually a tilt without collapse. It is usually cause by cracks or rfracture in
the bedrocks. 
3. Fall

These are usually influenced by gravity after large rocks or boulders are detached from their parent
rock. They usually fall along steep slopes or cliffs.

4. Flow

Flows come in many types, such as Debris flow, Debris avalanche, Mudflow, Creep and Earth flow. 
Debris flow involves the rapid downhill movement of loose earth material usually with water. Debris
Avalanche is similar to Debris Flow but has a more rapid flow. In an earth flow, the earth material is
finer and is washed away leaving a depression bowl at the head. Mudslides are made up of fine silt,
sand and clay material saturated with water and flowing very rapidly. Creeps are slower in nature
and can be evident when electric poles and roads bend slightly.
Effects of landslides
No one can outrun an approaching landslide or mudflow. They are so fast and powerful that they
wipe out trees and rocks in their way. They cause massive destruction in many ways.

1. Loss of lives
Landslides and mudslides kill between 25 and 50 people every year in the USA alone. Globally, it is
believed that the number of deaths is highly underestimated.
In total, 2,620 fatal landslides were recorded worldwide during the 2004 and 2010 period of the
study, causing a total of 32,322 recorded fatalities.
2. Destruction of property

The landslide travelled about 14 miles, wiping away highway bridges, buildings, and roads. It is
known that the amount of debris in this avalanche can fill 250 million dump trucks.

3. Economic costs
Landslides bring huge costs to communities and cities affected, by clean up and rebuilding destroyed
infrastructure.

4. Destruction of natural environment

Debris flows usually uproot trees and wipe out vegetation and wildlife in its path.

Before, during and after landslides

A general understanding of landslides, the conditions in which they occur, and how they actually
happen is the first step to ensuring that you and your family are safer from the danger they present. 

1. Before a landslide or mudslide

Be aware of your environment. If you travel or are on vacation somewhere, look around and make
sure you understand where the threat may be. Look out for slopes and tricky landscapes. Contact
your local authorities and tell them about your observations.
When you drive around hills or mountains, keep your eyes and ears open for signs of debris falling.
Plan communications with your family so that you know where they are and what you will do in an
event of a landslide. Have an emergency kit in a safe and reliable place. Talk to neighbours and
discuss an escape plan. If possible, evacuate before it happens.
2. During a landslide
Landslides and mudslides happen very fast and there may be very little time to act. Move away
quickly from the path of the mudflow or landslide to another location. Do not try to stay close and
take photographs. Landslide debris move from uphill to downhill, therefore, avoid low-lying areas or
valleys. If there is a way to sound an alarm, do so.
Listen and look out for signs of further flows in that area, as the flowing debris often knock against
surrounding slopes and sets off new flows.

3. After a landslide
Stay away from the location until the emergency workers and the experts confirm that it is safe to go
back. Look out for loose wires, broken utility lines, and hanging objects, as they may be hazards.
Report them to your rescue officials. Get in touch with emergency officials or listen to the radio or TV
on what to do.

Lesson 3: SINKHOLES

A sinkhole, also known as a cenote, is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of
collapse of the surface layer. Cenotes are underground caves in which the roof collapses exposing
the underground cave water surface.

How Do Sinkholes Form?

Sinkholes are most common in what geologists call, Karst Terrain.

KARST TERRAIN
These are areas of land with water-soluble bedrock, such as gypsum and limestone. Eventually, the
bedrock can’t support the surface anymore and it abruptly collapses inwards. How does this all
happen?

Sinkholes can be natural or man-made.

Natural sinkholes occur due to erosion or underground water. They start developing long time
before it actually appears. The ground beneath our feet is not as much of a solid structure as we
think it is. The ground is made from dirt, along with many rocks and minerals. There is water
continually seeping in between the mud, rocks and minerals, as it makes its way down to the ground
water reservoirs.
As this happens, the water slowly erodes the rocks and minerals. Sometimes the flow of water
increases to a point when it washes away the underground structure of the land. And when the
structure becomes too weak to support the surface of the earth, it collapses and opens up a hole.
This is how sinkholes are formed.

Humans are also responsible for the formation of sinkholes. Activities like drilling, mining,
construction, broken water or drain pipes, improperly compacted soil after excavation work or even
heavy traffic can result in small to large sinkholes. Water from broken pipe can penetrate through
mud and rocks and erode the ground underneath and cause sinkholes. Sometimes, heavy weight on
soft soil can result in collapse of ground, resulting in a sinkhole. Sinkholes can also form when the
land surface is changed.
Areas that have bedrock made of limestone, salt deposits or carbonate rock are most susceptible to
erosion and the formation of such holes. These rocks tend to erode as acidic water passes through
them. When rainwater passes through decaying plant debris, it tend to become more acidic.  Over a
period of years, overlying sediments collapse and a sinkhole develops. Sometimes the holes are
small, measuring a few feet wide and ten to fifteen feet deep. Others can be hundreds of miles wide
and deep. However, all of them can be dangerous for those that get caught in them. There are three
major kinds of sinkholes. Their formation is determined by the same geological processes, barring a
few differences.

TYPICAL ACTIVITIES THAT CAN LEAD TO SINKHOLES

• Decline of water levels - drought, groundwater pumping (wells, quarries, mines)
• Disturbance of the soil - digging through soil layers, soil removal, drilling
• Point-source of water - leaking water/sewer pipes, injection of water
• Concentration of water flow - stormwater drains, swales, etc.
• Water impoundments - basins, ponds, dams
• Heavy loads on the surface - structures, equipment
• Vibration - traffic, blasting

Signs of an Impending Sinkhole

• Fresh cracks in the foundations of houses and buildings
• Cracks in interior walls
• Cracks in the ground outside
• Depressions in the ground
• Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
• Doors or windows become difficult to open or close
• Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground

TYPES OF SINKHOLES
1. Solution sinkholes

Solution sinkholes occur where there is little soil or vegetation over the soluble rock. Aggressive
solution occurs where flow is focused in pre-existing openings in the rock , such as along joints,
fractures, and bedding planes, or in the zone of water – table fluctuations where the ground water is
in contact with the atmosphere. They typically develop gradually.

2. Cover Subsidence sinkholes

Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments are permeable
and contain sand.

3. Cover Collapse sinkholes 

Cover-collapse sinkholes tend to develop abruptly and cause catastrophic damages. They occur
where the covering sediments contain significant amounts of clay.

Effects of Sinkholes
The effects of a sinkhole vary depending on where and how it was formed. Natural sinkholes can
form on land and in the ocean as well. When they are formed on land, they can change the general
topography of the area and divert streams of underground water. If they form suddenly in areas
with heavy population, they can cause a lot of damage to human life and property. Some holes are
formed due to the leak in underground storm drains and sewer systems. When they collapse, the
damage can be seen for many miles due to the repairs that become necessary.
They can be dangerous to the foundations of the building. Toxic chemicals beneath the earth can
come up and may pollute the groundwater. Sinkholes occur commonly in Florida as the state has
many underground voids and drainage systems carved from the carbonate rocks.

Natural sinkholes cannot be prevented, as they are bound to occur. However, the ones caused
due to human negligence can be prevented in time. Practices such as maintaining the
underground systems and plumbing are the best to make sure that a sudden deep hole does
not appear in the middle of a city!
Lesson 2: Hydrometeorologic Hazards

Hydrometeorology is the study of the atmospheric and terrestrial phases of the hydrological cycle
with emphasis on the interrelationship between them. It deals with the transfer of water and energy
between land surface and the lower atmosphere.

Hydrometeorology is centred on weather patterns interacting between the earth’s surface and
lower atmosphere. It is how the weather and water flow and energy work together to create distinct
weather conditions such as tropical depressions, etc. Hydrometeorology deals with energy affecting
water movement and even the lack of water in other areas, and the resulting hydrometeorological
hazards with its impact on people depending on their level of vulnerability.

BAROMETER – weather instrument that measures the strength of atmospheric pressure.

Different Hydrometeorologic Hazards
1. TYPHOON

A typhoon is a severe weather disturbance characterized by strong winds and heavy rains which
revolve around a central low pressure area.

Located along the typhoon belt (Western North Pacific Basin) where 66% of tropical cyclones enter
or originate
Tropical cyclone is a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over
the tropical waters. Tropical cyclones rotate in a counterclockwise direction in the northern
hemisphere (conversely, clockwise in the southern hemisphere). The term tropical cyclone
encompasses tropical depressions, tropical storms, typhoons and hurricanes.

Three (3) Types of Tropical Cyclones

Tropical depression – wind speed up to 62kph
This refers to a low-pressure area forming over warm seas and oceans, and made up of
merging thunderstorms. This happens when Warm moist air continually rises and condenses,
deriving energy from the warm sea or ocean.

Tropical storm – wind speed ranging from 63-118kph

This weather system takes on a more definite circular form as the winds rotate around a
center.

Typhoon – wind speed greater than 118kph

In this category, the “eye” of the typhoon is formed, referring to the relatively calm area at the
center surrounded by the spinning wind. This is seen in satellite images as a small, circular-
cloud free spot at the center of the typhoon. The “eye” is absent in tropical depression and
tropical storm. Every year, an average of 19 tropical cyclones enters the Philippines Area of
Responsibility (PAR), and about half (9-10) make landfall in the Philippines. In the Western
Pacific Ocean, tropical cyclones can form in any month of the year.
Strong winds
Strong winds which cover a much larger area during tropical cyclones, cause the most obvious
damage. Strong winds are brought by tropical cyclones. Wind speed depends on the strength of the
cyclone. In the Philippines, tropical cyclone Yolanda (international name Haiyan) the strongest
typhoon to make landfall and fourth strongest typhoon ever recorded according to the Joint Typhoon
Wanring Center in Hawaii, had wind speed of 314 kilometers pe hour.
2. STORM SURGE

A storm surge is a localized unusual increase of sea water level beyond the predicted astronomical
tide level primarily due to intense winds and lowered atmospheric pressure during the passage of an
intense tropical cyclone from the sea to the land.

Storm Surge – refers to the rising waters above normal water level in coastal area, caused by lower
pressure weather systems, such as tropical cyclones. Rising waters come in the form of large waves
and may be several meters high. It is different from tsunamis, which are large waves caused by
earthquake or the movement of tectonic plates underwater.

How do tropical cyclones or typhoons make the waters rise into big waves which crash
into the shore?
 In the deep ocean, strong wind circulation around the eye if tropical cyclones blows on the ocean
surface producing big waves which is known as Storm surge. For people living along the coast, storm
surges are one of the major threats to life and property.

Heavy Rains

Heavy rains, unlike strong winds and storm surges, actually occur in tropical cyclones of lower
intensity. Flooding is worse during tropical depressions and tropical storms.

3. FLOODING
Flooding is the abnormal rise of water level in rivers, coastal areas, plains, and in highly urbanized
centers which may be a result of natural phenomena, human activities, or both.

Flooding refers to the large amount of water covering a land area that is often dry. Flooding is the
result of water overflowing from natural bodies of water, such as rivers of lakes, or from man-made
structures, such as dams and reservoirs, due to the high amount of rainfall. Tropical cyclones often
bring rain when it makes landfall, which leads to flooding as the high amount of rainfall makes the
rivers swell due to the resulting high volume of water. It can also increase the water level in dams to
exceed its spilling level. Floods cause the most fatalities and property damage affecting hundreds of
millions of people annually worldwide. Aside from drowning, electrocution due to power lines hitting
the water, and getting hit by heavy debris during flooding causing deaths, floods can disrupt water
purification and sewage systems and cause toxic wastes sites to overflow. The overflow of toxic
waste sites increases the probability that the people within the flooded area will be exposed to flood-
related diseases. Malaria, leptospirosis, and fungal infections are the health risks people face because
of excessive and frequent flooding in urban areas and communities near river banks.
4. FLASHLOOD

A flash flood is a rapid, short-lived, and violent arrival of a large volume of water which can be
caused by intense localized rainfall on land that is saturated or unable to absorb water.
Heavy rains and sudden release of water from damns can cause flashfloods. This can turn small
streams into raging rivers because of the sudden rush of water from an elevated area moving to
natural river channels as the water travels downstream. Meanwhile, urban flooding are often caused
by flashfloods because the prevalence of asphalt and cement or concrete surfaces prevent soil
absorption of water, allowing the floodwaters to accumulate. Flashfloods have historically occured in
urban Metro Manila. For example, during Typhoon Ondoy, the sudden rise of the floodwaters in many
areas took residents by surprise, leaving them with little time to bring their possessions to higher
ground.

5. THUNDERSTORM

Thunder – acoustic effect of sudden expansion of air caused by the heat released during a lightning
strtike.
A thunderstorm is a violent, transient type of weather disturbance associated with tall
cumulonimbus clouds accompanied by lightning, thunder, and intense rainfall.

A thunderstorm is identified by cumulonimbus clouds and the presence of lightning and thunder.
Similar to tropical cyclones but without the high windspeed, thunderstorm result from the rise of
warm air, forming cumulonimbus clouds which then lead to precipitation in the form of water.
6. EL NIÑO
El Nino is a prolonged unusual warming of sea surface temperatures in the central equatorial Pacific
and the eastern equatorial Pacific allowing enhanced rainfall in the eastern Pacific and reduced
rainfall in the western Pacific.

The Philippines is one of the countries which suffer from El Nino phenomenon, commonly known in
our country as a period of prolonged drought or “tagtuyot”. El Nino occurs every 3 to 5 years on
average, for several months. This refers to the warming of the sea temperature in the Pacific Ocean,
with temperature rising around 0.5 degrees Celsius higher than the average.

In the Philippines, an El Nino can bring about dry spells or droughts, weaker monsoon activity,
delayed beginning and premature end of the rainy season, and weaker and fewer tropical cyclones.

This intense heat affects nearby islands and masses, which has a huge impact on the water supply
for crops, food security, and energy generation. As a result, there is water insecurity, less food
production, and insufficient energy to meet demand, with large economic implications for countries
such as the Philippines. Often, Northern Philippines bears the brunt of an El Nino event. During the El
Nino period in 2010, the Cordillera Region and provinces of Isabela, La Union, Ifugao, Kalinga,
Apayao, Mountain Province and Abra did not experience rain for more than 4 months, which led to
the loss of more than 45000 hectares of rice crops. This resulted in some farmers planting onions
instead, which only needs to be watered once a week, compared to the more frequent irrigation
required by rice crops.

7. LA NIÑA

La Nina involves prolonged unusual cooling of sea surface temperatures in central and eastern
equatorial Pacific that may last for 1-3 years. This phenomenon is known as the counterpart of El
Nino. It occurs when the sea surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean changes to lower than usual,
by three to five degrees Celsius. Similar to El Nino, the La Nina event occurs every three to 5 years
on average as well, with duration of 9 to 12 months. In the Philippines, La Nina makes the wet
season even wetter, and increases the chances of formation of tropical cyclones.

In the Philippines, La Nina causes near normal to above normal rainfall conditions, particularly over
the eastern sector of the country.
There is also an observed increase in the number of tropical cyclones that enter the Philippine Area of
Responsibility as tropical cyclone formation shift toward the western Pacific Ocean

Precautionary and Safety Measures for Hydrometeorological Hazards

TROPICAL CYCLONES
BEFORE DURING AFTER
• Coordinate with local community or • Regularly monitor official updates  Attend to injuries if needed.
barangay on safety plan during times of PAGASA or other reliable sources
of severe events on the tropical cyclone. • Apply first aid to minor cuts or
wounds
• Ensure that your house (or school) • Stay in a sturdy and stable shelter
can withstand strong winds and • Seek medical assistance at your
heavy rains. • Stay indoors and away from nearest clinic or hospital
windows or things that may topple
• Discuss with your family, friends, over. • Check your immediate vicinity
classmate about typhoon and other (house, school, surroundings) for any
weather disturbances, understand • Coordinate with the local damages that can pose a potential
weather forecasts and how to community on possible evacuation hazard to people around it.
minimize our risks measures (especially if you are in a
low-lying area)
• Recommend trimming and removal
of unstable trees, electric posts, or • Remain calm and take notice of
any infrastructure that could fall and your situation.
may cause damage or injury.

• Have a survival kit containing

battery-operated radio, flashlight,
emergency cooking equipment,
candles, matches and first aid kit.

• Participate actively in the school

drills on disaster response
THUNDERSTORMS
BEFORE DURING AFTER
• Learn about your area’s • Stay indoors and remain calm • Continue monitoring PAGASA or
thunderstorm risk by looking at past local radio / television stations for
events. These risks differ for different • Postpone all outdoor activities. weather updates
places and different months Regularly monitor official updates by
PAGASA or other reliable sources • Always observe safety measures on
• Discuss how you would know if a if you need to go outdoors.
thunderstorm may produce light, • Be on the lookout for falling debris
moderate, heavy or torrential rain as and flashfloods. If treat of lightning is • Stay away from storm-damaged
well as duration. eminent areas.

• Discuss the rainfall / thunderstorm • Turn off and unplug all electrical • Watch out for fallen tree branches,
warning system of PAGASA. and electronic devices trunks, electric lines, etc. and report
them to authorities.
• Recommend trimming and removal • refrain from using phones (mobile,
of unstable trees, electric posts, or landline) until the storm passes over. • Stay away from flood waters
any infrastructure that could fall and If no immediate shelter and threat of
may cause damage or injury. lightning is eminent: • It is possible to contract diseases
from flood water
• Ensure proper drainage in the • Stay low
surrounding by removing things that • Uneven ground, open drainage
may hinder proper drainage flow • Stay away from structures such as and/or sharp debris under floodwater
trees, electrical lines, towers, or can be potentially harmful
• Participate actively in the school fences.
drills on disaster response
• Water can conduct electricity,
refrain from swimming or being in
contact/submerged in bodies of
water.
 • Distance of thunderstorm cloud can
be estimated by counting the time
interval between seeing lightning and
hearing thunder. (1 second = 330m, 3
sec = 1 km).

• Remain indoors at least 30 minutes

after hearing the last thunder

FLOOD or FLASH FLOOD

BEFORE DURING AFTER
• Learn about your area’s flood risk • Unplug all electric and electronic • Report broken utility lines
by looking at past events. These risks devices (electricity, water, gas, etc.) to
differ for different places and appropriate agencies/ authorities.
different months • Listen continuously to official
updates on weather and flooding • Ensure that electrical appliances are
• Know the flood hazard map in your checked by a competent electrician
community. • Remain calm and be ready in case before switching them on.
evacuation is necessary.
• Learn from previous occurrences • Stay away from flood waters
how frequent, how high and how fast • Do not to attempt to cross flowing
flood can occur. streams unless they are assured that • It is possible to contract diseases
the water is below knee level. from flood water
• Take notice of rapidly rising water
and prepare plans for evacuation. • Avoid areas prone to flooding. • Uneven ground, open drainage
and/or sharp debris under floodwater
• Have a survival kit containing • Avoid swimming in swollen rivers. can be potentially harmful
battery-operated radio, flashlight,
emergency cooking equipment, • Make sure you only drink clean
candles, matches and first aid kit water

• As the ground soak up more water • Stay away from flood waters as its
from continuous rains, possibility of possible to contract diseases from
flooding increases. flood water

• Participate actively in the school • Uneven ground, open drainage

drills on disaster response and/or sharp debris under floodwater
can be risky and potentially harmful

STORM SURGE
BEFORE DURING AFTER
• Learn about your area’s • Regularly monitor official storm • Check structural damage of your
vulnerability to storm surge by surge advisory/forecast updates of surroundings and make sure
looking at past events. If vulnerable, PAGASA structures are safe from collapsing.
recommend relocation to safer
grounds. • Remain calm and be ready in case • Check surroundings for electrical
of evacuation damage.
• Stay away from beaches / shore
during tropical cyclone passage. • Stay away from beaches / shore • Stay away from flood waters
and low-lying areas
• Identify evacuation routes leading • It is possible to contract diseases
to safe higher grounds. • Head towards inland away from from flood water
potential flow of water.
• Establish evacuation plans and • Uneven ground, open drainage
procedures. • Turn off power supply. and/or sharp debris under floodwater
can be potentially harmful
• Participate actively in the school • If caught in a storm surge, you are
drills on advised to hold on large structures • Clean all mud and debris.
disaster response like big trees.
Color code is as follows:
Red – heavy rain;
Yellow – light to moderate rain;
White – clouds;
Blue – clear sky.
Lesson 3: FIRE HAZARDS
PROS AND CONS: Positive and Negative Qualities of Fire
PROS:
 It gives warmth.
 It is used for cooking food.
 It is used in many industrial processes.
 It is used as a light source.
CONS:
 It causes injury or even death.
 It destroys important materials.
 It burns down houses or forests.

FIRE TRIANGLE

Fire is the perceptible phase of burning or combustion, which is the chemical reaction between
oxygen, fuel, and heat.
Causes of Fire
The BFP Operational Procedures Manual has list down the causes of fire as follows:
A. Faulty electrical wiring or connection
B. LPG-related
C. Neglected cooking or stove
D. Cigarette butt
E. Unattended open flame: torch or sulo
F. Unattended open flame: candle or gasera
G. Matchstick or lighter
H. Direct flame contact or static electricity
I. Neglected electrical appliances or devices
J. Electrical machineries
K. Chemicals
L. Incendiary device or ignited flammable liquid
M. Spontaneous combustion
N. Pyrotechnics
O. Bomb explosion
P. Lightning
Q. Others (forest fire, vehicular fire, etc.)
 Incendiary fire - arson or the criminal act of deliberately setting fire to property
Arson is a criminal offense.
• Pyrotechnics – the art of making or displaying fireworks
• Spontaneous combustion – ignition of organic matter without apparent cause, typically through
heat generated internally by rapid oxidation

There are 5 fire classes:

I. Class A – fuels are ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, plastic, or anything that
leaves ash.
II. Class B – fuels are flammable or combustible liquids like petroleum oil, gasoline, paint,
and flammable gasses such as propane and butane. Cooking oils and grease are NOT part
of class B fires.
III. Class C – fuels are energized electrical fires like motors, transformers, and appliances.
Once the power or source of electricity is removed, the fire becomes one of the other
classes of fire.
IV. Class D – fuels are combustible metals like potassium, sodium, aluminum, titanium, and
magnesium.
V. Class K – fuels are cooking oils, grease such as animal fat and vegetable fats.

Precautionary Measures and Proper Procedures to Fires

 For heat: make sure that materials that could easily warm up are not near sources of heat
(i.e. curtains near the kitchen stove; matches near electrical plugs)
 For fuel: recount the different types of fuel discussed in the classes of fire. Make sure that
these materials are organized and do not have any contact with other combustible materials.
 For oxygen: Presence of oxygen in air can’t be regulated. Ensure that the area in which you
will be starting your fires are well ventilated.

PHASES OF FIRE
I. IGNITION – First stage: heat, oxygen, and fuel source combine and have a chemical reaction
(fire triangle is complete)
A. Also known as incipient
B. 2 types: Piloted ignition and auto ignition
C. Piloted ignition – fuel + oxygen + external heat source (spark)
D. Auto ignition – combustion by heat without spark or flame
E. Smoke and heat is produced.
F. Does not have high temperatures
G. Breathing is barely affected.
Incipient – This first stage begins when heat, oxygen and a fuel source combine and have a
chemical reaction resulting in fire.  This is also known as “ignition” and is usually represented by a
very small fire which often (and hopefully) goes out on its own, before the following stages are
reached.  Recognizing a fire in this stage provides your best chance at suppression or escape.
II. GROWTH – Expansion of fire, depletion of oxygen supply, and increase in temperature
A. Also known as free burning phase
B. Temperatures reach between 640° to 870°
C. Factors that affect the growth of fire: (1) fuel load, (2) fuel type, (3) orientation of fuel
relative to fire, (4) available oxygen, (5) ceiling height, (6) potential for thermal layering
D. Fire influences the environment and is influenced by the environment.
E. High levels of carbon monoxide.
F. Breathing becomes difficult.
G. Highly dangerous flashovers may occur anytime.
Growth – The growth stage is where the structures fire load and oxygen are used as fuel for the
fire. There are numerous factors affecting the growth stage including where the fire started, what
combustibles are near it, ceiling height and the potential for “thermal layering”.  It is during this
shortest of the 4 stages when a deadly “flashover” can occur; potentially trapping, injuring or killing
firefighters.
Flashover – rapid transition from the growth to fully developed stage; materials in room ignite all at
once; tongues of flame roll across ceiling; radiant heat affects materials in room, raising them to
ignition temperature
Fuel load – total amount of potential fuel for a fire in a given area
Ignition temperature – minimum temperature at which a substance burns
Thermal layering – tendency of gases to form into layers according to temperature (hottest gases
at the top layer, cooler gases form at the lower layers)

III. FULLY DEVELOPED – All fuels have been ignited and burning.
A. Hottest phase of a fire
B. Fire is now dependent on the amount of oxygen.
C. Spread of flammable gases within the area
D. Too much carbon monoxide is present
Fully Developed – When the growth stage has reached its max and all combustible materials have
been ignited, a fire is considered fully developed.  This is the hottest phase of a fire and the most
dangerous for anybody trapped within.

IV. DECAY – Fire starts to diminish as fuel and/or oxygen is consumed

A. Also known as smoldering phase
B. Usually the longest stage of a fire
C. Characterized by significant decrease in oxygen and fuel
D. Backdraft could potentially occur.

Decay – Usually the longest stage of a fire, the decay stage is characterized a significant decrease in
oxygen or fuel, putting an end to the fire.  Two common dangers during this stage are first – the
existence of non-flaming combustibles, which can potentially start a new fire if not fully
extinguished.  Second, there is the danger of a backdraft when oxygen is reintroduced to a volatile,
confined space.
Backdraft – phenomenon in which fire that has consumed all available oxygen suddenly explodes
when more oxygen is made available, usually because a door or window is opened
1. If inside a burning area
A. Once you hear the fire alarm, evacuate to a safe area right away.
B. If you see fires, pull fire alarms as you exit the area. Inform other people present in the
area of the fire that is occurring.
C. If the fire is still small and can be extinguished, use an appropriate fire extinguisher (recall
the different classes of fire). Usually, normal fire extinguishers do the job, but if unavailable,
buckets of water or damp cloths would do.
D. If the fire is already large and is rapidly spreading (growth phase), immediately find the
nearest exit and exit the area.
E. Touch doors first to check if they are warm before opening them. If they are warm, do not
attempt to open and proceed to a different route.
F. Use the stairs not elevators.
G. Close all windows and doors that you can reach as you exit.
H. If there is smoke, stay as low as possible. Also, try to cover your nose to prevent inhalation.
I. Once outside, move away from the exits and assemble in a safe area designated by the
evacuation plan of the area or by emergency response teams.
2. If outside a burning area
A. Do not attempt to go inside the burning area.
B. Immediately contact the nearest fire station and other emergency response numbers.
C. Listen and follow orders of the emergency response teams.
D. Organize/Participate in a bucket relay. Bucket relay is when people help the fire fighters by
passing buckets full of water either to try to extinguish the fire or to prevent the fire from
further spreading.
3. If you catch fire, do the “stop, drop, and roll” right away.
4. If you are unable to leave the area unscathed or you have suffered burns, immediately
attend to them depending on the degree of burn.

A fire preparedness plan is a document that details what one should do in case of fire. It
essentially tells people what to do in case of a fire incident in their homes.
LESSON: DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) refers to systematic efforts

• to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks
• to avoid (prevention) or
• to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the effects of hazards

DISASTER is a serious disruption in the functioning of a society, causing widespread human,

material or environmental losses which exceeds the ability of the affected society to cope within its’
own resources.

HAZARD is a phenomenon that poses threat to the people, structure or economic assets and which
may cause a disaster.

VULNERABILITY refers to characteristics and circumstances (physical, social, economic and

environmental factors) of a community, system or asset that makes it susceptible to the damaging
effects of hazard.

CAPACITY refers to combination of strengths and resources (physical, social, economic and
environmental factors) available within a community, society or organization that can reduce the level
of risk or effects of disaster.
Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a process which is done before a disaster strikes and consists of
five steps:
• Risk Identification
• Risk Analysis
• Risk Prioritization
• Risk Treatment
• Monitoring and Evaluation

The risk identification stage identifies the hazard; potential threats based on experience and
record.
Risk analysis aims to establish the magnitude and the likelihood of occurrence of the event.
Risk prioritization analyzes and identifies priority subjects (hazards, areas, and elements at risk)
requiring treatment.
Risk treatment stage identifies the cause of the risks, identifies and evaluates treatment
strategies, and prepares and implement treatment plan.
Monitoring and evaluation oversees the implementation progress of the disaster risk management
process.

Examples of DRR activities which are done before a disaster:

• Building code revision and implementation
• Hazard and vulnerability analysis
• Zoning and land use management
• Public awareness and education
• Early warning systems including forecasting and dissemination of warnings

The entire array of activities aimed at reducing the severity of impact of the disaster-causing event
which are undertaken before, during, and after a disaster is referred to collectively as DISASTER
MANAGEMENT.

To maintain or control over disaster and emergency situation

To reduce or avoid losses
To reduce impact
To achieve rapid and durable recovery

Pre-event: Risk assessment

(Pre-disaster) Mitigation or prevention
Preparedness

Syn-event: Emergency response (rescue, evacuation, relief)

(Disaster)
Post-event: Recovery
(Pre-disaster) Rehabilitation
Reconstruction
EMERGENCY RESPONSE - Activities undertaken immediately during disaster occurrence
- the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first responders in the disaster area
(collaboration of government, non-government and humanitarian organizations/ agencies by
clear coordination of functions in responding to disasters)
REHABILITATION - The immediate repair or re-establishment of essential services
RECONSTRUCTION - The rebuilding of community services & facilities to a level of at least
equivalent to those existing before emergency
DEVELOPMENT - The relationship of the disaster related factors with the national development
planning
PREVENTION - A long-term measure which could prevent a disaster from occurring or preventing
its worst effects
MITIGATION - Measures to lessen the impact of disasters
PREPAREDNESS - Measures taken to be able to deal with threat when it occurs
 Ability to react before hazard occurrence
WARNING - Information given to the public when a threat has been identified and assessed, as
about to affect a particular area

ADAPTATION - The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected

climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

RESPONSE - The provision of emergency services and public assistance during or immediately after
a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic
subsistence needs of the people affected.

RECOVERY - The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and
living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors.

SURVIVAL KIT
The first 72 hours after a disaster is critical. Supply of water, food, electricity, communication lines
may not be available. In addition, access to public safety services, rescue, clinics or hospitals may not
be possible. Hence, individuals should be prepared to be self-reliant and be able to survive for at
least 3 days or 72 hours.

Basic emergency / disaster kit items are commonly found in households already like flashlight,
battery or crank operated radio. Food, water and blanket. The kit must be organized, easy to find
and easy to carry, and should be checked every 6 months to make sure the items are in good
condition. The following are the items essential in a disaster kit:

1. Water

WATER
• A person can survive without food intake for 5 days as long as there is water intake. Prepare clean
water in clean airtight containers for washing, drinking and cooking:
• 4 liters per person per day (1 liter for drinking and 3 liters for sanitation)

2. Food

FOOD
• Store only non-perishable food such as canned foods (easy-toopen), crackers, dried fruit, dry cereal
• Juice (canned, tetra-pack)
• Food should be sufficient for three days consumption of every family member.
• Disposable plates and utensils.
3. Tools

TOOLS
• Maps with indication of evacuation sites and routes
• Whistle
• Flashlight with extra batteries (or self-powered flashlight)
• List of Emergency numbers to call
• Multi-purpose knife
• Matches or lighter and candles
• AM radio transistor with extra batteries or self-powered
• Blankets
• Sleeping bag
A. Personal effects and hygiene kit
Extra Clothing (Short and long sleeved shirts, pants, jackets, socks, etc.)
• Undergarments
• Antibacterial soap
• Toothbrushes
• Toothpaste
• Comb/ hair brush
• Tissue paper

B. Important family documents and money

Keep these in a plastic envelope or any waterproof container
• Money should be in the form of cash and loose change (atm machines may not be
working)
• Prepaid cards
• List of important information (security insurance number, driver's license, passport
number, bank account details, insurance policy, etc.)
• Important documents: Birth certificates, passport, marriage contract, diploma, insurance
certificates, land titles, etc.

C. First aid kit

• Disposable Gloves
• Adhesive Strips
• Sterile medical tap
• Thermometer
• Adhesive Bandage
• First aid manual
• Pain reliever and antibiotics
• Anti-diarrhea medication
• Prescription medication (if needed)