English for Information Technology 3

Introduction
This edition of English for Information Technology 3 has been completely updated. It
provides students with the up-to-date knowledge, necessary skills as well as useful tips
about how write a curriculum vitae and cover letter, how to develop email writing and
technical writing as well as how to sharpen presentation skills and interviewing skills.
This book best serves third-year and last-year students in acquiring essential knowledge
and skills and preparing them for internship and jobs application after graduation.

- The contents of the book consists of the below chapters:

Chapter 1: How to write a Curriculum Vitae (CV)
Chapter 2: How to write a Cover Letter
Chapter 3: Presentation Skills
Chapter 4: Technical Writing
Chapter 5: Interviewing Skills
Chapter 6: Effective E-mail Communication
- Length of course: 32 hours (2 credits)

In the process of compiling the book, there will be inevitable shortcomings. We look
forward to receiving comments and feedbacks from colleagues.
Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Preparing a Curriculum Vitae (CV) .......................................................... 8

Lesson 1: Introduction and structure of a CV ................................................. 9

Lesson 2: What Personal Details should be included on your CV? ............. 12

1. The personal details that people generally reveal on their CVs fall into
two categories: .............................................................................. 12
2. Length of the Personal Details Section on a CV ................................ 13
3. Examples of Personal Details on CVs: ............................................... 14
Practice Write down your Personal Details on your CV. .................... 17

Lesson 3: Personal Profile Statement on a CV ............................................. 18

1. What is a personal profile statement? ................................................. 18
2. Personal Profile Statement: position on a CV .................................... 18
3. What are some things that I can include in my Personal Profile? ...... 19
4. How long should a Personal Profile Statement be? ............................ 19
5. Personal Profile statement examples .................................................. 19

Lesson 4: How to write your Education and Trainingon a CV..................... 25

1. What can be included in the Education and Training section of a CV25
2. Location of an Education and Training section on your CV .............. 26
3. CV examples of Education and Training section ............................... 26
Practice: Write down your Education and Training on your CV .......... 29

Lesson 5: CV Employment History .............................................................. 30

1. What included in the employment history section of a CV ................ 30
2. Ways to write an employment section of a CV .................................. 31
3. What NOT to include in an employment history section ................... 31
Practice: Write down your Employment history on your CV ............... 33

Lesson 6: How to write Achievements on a CV ........................................... 34

1. How an achievements section on your CV looks like ........................ 34
2. What your achievements tell about you.............................................. 35
3. The importance of including achievements in your CV ..................... 35
4. The position of your achievements section on your CV..................... 36
Practice: Write down your Achievement on your CV ........................... 38

Lesson 7: How to include skills on a CV...................................................... 39

1. What to include in this section of your CV ........................................ 39
Practice: Write down your skills on your CV........................................ 41

Lesson 8: Hobbies and interests on a CV ..................................................... 43

1. Benefits of including your hobbies and interests on your CV: ........... 43
2. Possible pitfalls to avoid when writing your hobbies on your CV ..... 44
3. Tailoring your interests to specific jobs.............................................. 45
Practice: Write down your Hobbies on your CV ................................... 46

Lesson 9: How to write References on a CV ................................................ 47

 1. Benefits of including references on your CV ..................................... 47
2. Who can be your references on your CV? .......................................... 47
Practice: Write down your References on your CV .............................. 50

Chapter 2: How to write a Cover letter ....................................................................... 52

Lesson 1: What is a Cover Letter? ................................................................ 53

1. What is a cover letter? ........................................................................ 53
2. The length of a Cover Letter............................................................... 54

Lesson 2: How to write a Cover Letter ......................................................... 55

1. Write a Cover Letter using a template ................................................ 55
2. How to write the content .................................................................... 56

Lesson 3: Top 10 Cover Letter Guidelines ................................................... 59

1. Fit your Cover Letter into a single A4 page ....................................... 59
2. Use an appropriate opening salutation................................................ 59
3. Don‘t beg. Please. ............................................................................... 59
4. Don‘t rewrite your CV – complement it! ........................................... 60
5. Follow a standard structure................................................................. 60
6. Show enthusiasm for working in that particular company ................. 60
7. Make your Cover Letter presentable .................................................. 60
8. Proof read your Cover Letter .............................................................. 61
9. Print on good quality paper ................................................................ 61
10. Finally, don‘t forget to sign your Cover Letter! ............................... 61

Chapter 3: Presentation Skills ...................................................................................... 64

Lesson 1: Preparation and planning .............................................................. 65

1. Essential preparation and planning checklist ...................................... 65
2. Other questions concerning physical aspects. .................................... 66

Lesson 2: Structure of an oral presentation................................................... 68

1. The beginning or the introduction ...................................................... 68

Lesson 3: Visuals .......................................................................................... 79

1. What are visuals? ................................................................................ 79
2. What media are used? ......................................................................... 79
3. What is the vocabulary of the equipment used? ................................. 79
4. What should you put on a visual? ....................................................... 79
5. Vocabulary of graphs/chart ................................................................ 79
6. Why use visuals? ................................................................................ 80
7. Text to put on a visual ........................................................................ 80
8. Size, layout, font (typeface) and size, colors. ..................................... 80
9. How many? ......................................................................................... 80
10. How should you present a visual in a presentation? ......................... 81

Lesson 4: Creating interest and establishing a relationship with the audience

................................................................................................................ 83
1. Rhetorical questions ........................................................................... 83
 2. Emphasizing/highlighting ................................................................... 84

Lesson 5: Body language .............................................................................. 85

1. What is body language? ...................................................................... 85
2. Why is it useful? ................................................................................. 85
3. Positive body language ....................................................................... 85
4. Negative body language ..................................................................... 86

Lesson 6: Voice and pronunciation .............................................................. 87

1. What is pronunciation? ....................................................................... 87
2. Voice................................................................................................... 88

Chapter 4: Technical Writing ...................................................................................... 90

Lesson 1: Getting Started .............................................................................. 91

1. Determine the Purpose and Use.......................................................... 91
2. Identify the Audience and What They Need....................................... 92
3. Determine the Level of Detail ............................................................ 93
4. Organize the Data ............................................................................... 93
5. When You Work with a Team............................................................. 93

Lesson 2: Your Role As a Writer .................................................................. 98

1. Employ Ethical Principles .................................................................. 98
2. Give Credit Where Due ...................................................................... 98
3. Summary............................................................................................. 99

Lesson 3: Style & Usage ............................................................................. 101

1. Elements of Style .............................................................................. 101
2. Wasted Words and Phrases to Avoid ............................................... 105
3. A-Z Reference .................................................................................. 107
4. Summary............................................................................................. 16

Lesson 4: Correspondence & Memoranda.................................................... 19

1. Correspondence .................................................................................. 19
2. Email................................................................................................... 20
3.Meeting Agendas and Meeting Minutes .............................................. 22
4. Memoranda ......................................................................................... 24
5. Summary............................................................................................. 26

Lesson 5: Reports & Studies ........................................................................... 1

1. Report Guidelines ................................................................................. 1
2. Summary............................................................................................... 9

Chapter 5: Interviewing Skills...................................................................................... 20

Lesson 1: Introduction to interviewing ......................................................... 21

1. Purpose of the Interview ..................................................................... 21
2. Interviewing skills Quiz...................................................................... 21
3. Types of interviews ............................................................................ 22
 Lesson 2: Before the interview ..................................................................... 27
1. Conducting Research ..................................................................... 27
2. Assessing Your Strengths and Skills ........................................... 28
3. Preparing Your Answers ............................................................... 28

Lesson 3: During the interview ..................................................................... 30

1. Verbal/Non-Verbal Communication .................................................. 30
2. Biggest Interviewing Mistakes ........................................................... 31

Lesson 4: After the interview........................................................................ 32

1. Thank You Letter Tips....................................................................... 32
2. Negotiating Salary ............................................................................. 33
3.Interviewing Dos & Don‘ts ................................................................. 33

Chapter 6: Effective E-mail Communication................................................................ 1

Lesson 1: How to write an effective Email..................................................... 2

1. Background........................................................................................... 2
2. When is e-mail the appropriate form of communication to use?.......... 2
3. When is e-mail NOT an appropriate form of communication to use? . 3
4. Who is your audience? ......................................................................... 3
5. Important components of an effective e-mail: ...................................... 4

Lesson 2: Email Phrase Bank ....................................................................... 10

1. Basics .................................................................................................. 10
2. Negotiating a project........................................................................... 12
3. Checking understanding ..................................................................... 12
4. Arrangements...................................................................................... 14
5. Writing Styles ....................................................................................... 4
6. Direct / Indirect ..................................................................................... 4
7. Complaints and Apologies .................................................................... 6
8. Personal ................................................................................................ 8
9. Reports ................................................................................................ 10

References....................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 1: Preparing a Curriculum Vitae (CV)

Objectives
After completing this chapter, students will get to know the basic components and the
importance of a CV and learn how to utilize the components to write a complete CV.
Moreover, this chapter provides them with useful tips for having an impressive CV.
Lesson 1: Introduction and structure of a CV

Discussion
Work in pairs or small groups. Discuss these questions.
Have you prepared a CV for a job interview?
Do you think when a CV should be used ?

Pair work Work in pairs and fill in the blanks with words in the box below:

1 Résumé 2 essential information 3 career 4 Curriculum Vitae

5 job applications 6 marketing document 6 "sell" 7 "one best way"

___________is an outline of a person's educational and professional history, usually

prepared for ____________. Another name for a CV is a__________. A CV is the most
flexible and convenient way to make applications. It conveys your personal details in
the way that presents you in the best possible light. A CV is a____________in which you
are marketing something: yourself! You need to_____________your skills, abilities,
qualifications and experience to employers. It can be used to make multiple applications
to employers in a specific career area. For this reason, many large graduate recruiters
will not accept CVs and instead use their own application form. An application form is
designed to bring out the________________and personal qualities that the employer
requires and does not allow you to gloss over your weaker points as a CV does. In
addition, the time needed to fill out these forms is seen as a reflection of your
commitment to the___________. There is no_____________to construct a CV; it is
your document and can be structured as you wish within the basic framework.

Discussion Work in pairs or small groups. Discuss these questions

Is the CV necessary for job interviews?
What information should a CV include?
This is an example of a CV:
Lesson 2: What Personal Details should be included on your
CV?
Discussion Work in pairs or small groups. Discuss what personal information should be
included in your CV?
Lesson‘s Content:
The Personal Details section has the priority over all other sections and is located
completely at the top of the CV. That is the first thing the reader will see.
Example: The following image shows the Personal Details section of Claude Akins:

1. The personal details that people generally reveal on their CVs fall into two categories:

Essential to Include in the Personal Details section

Name (in big, bold writing)
Address
Telephone number
Email address

Optional to include in the Personal Details section

Nationality
Date of Birth
Place of birth
Gender
Marital Status
Number of children
Photograph
Current salary
Driving license detail
Health status
So what should you include in your personal details section of your CV?
That is entirely up to YOU –there is no such thing as the perfect CV; it‘s your personal
sales brochure, so you decide ultimately how you want to present yourself.
Having said that, we are more than happy to help you make up your mind! Please look
through our other related articles which will help you in making the right decisions on
what to include in the Personal Details section on your CV.

2. Length of the Personal Details Section on a CV

As a rule of thumb: keep it short! Your CV can only be two pages long, so therefore it‘s a
good idea if you keep this personal details section brief on your CV.
To start with, you have to include all the essentials (name, address, telephone number,
email address) and you may – if you wish so – also include one or two optional pieces of
information.

A word of warning: Keep your CV and personal details professional!

Discussion Consider the following two email addresses:

[email protected]
[email protected]
What is wrong with these two email addresses?
Answer:
There are three things wrong with them, they are:
Unprofessional
Unprofessional
Oh yeah, before I forget: UNPROFESSIONAL!
Please ensure that you use an appropriate email address on your CV. It may not make
your chances of getting an interview but it sure can destroy your chances if you get it
wrong.
3. Examples of Personal Details on CVs:
Practice Write down your Personal Details on your CV.
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Lesson 3: Personal Profile Statement on a CV
Discussion What are Personal Qualities and skills that you can include in your Personal
Profile?

Lesson‘s content:
1. What is a personal profile statement?
A personal profile statement is a vital part of your CV and it is a short statement outlining
your personal characteristics. It tells the reader what kind of a person you are, the
attributes and qualities that you possess and the experience you have.

Be bold, be confident and talk about yourself in a positive way.

Your personal profile is not the place to be humble; it is your chance to be noticed and tell
the potential employer exactly who you ‗really‘ are and what you can do for them.
But please, do not make the mistake of going ‗over the top‘ and give the impression to the
prospective employer that you‘re either arrogant or simply too good to be true!
An excellent personal profile statement must be:
Relevant
Short and to the point!
Only contain positive information
2. Personal Profile Statement: position on a CV
Based upon experience and recent research, it doesn‘t really matter where this statement
is located as long as the statement is present somewhere on the CV in a logical way.
Ideally, it should be placed just below your personal details:
3. What are some things that I can include in my Personal Profile?
You can mention anything from the following categories when writing a Personal Profile:
Personal Qualities
Self-motivated
Creative
Adaptable
An eye for detail
Skills
Management skills
Communication skills
Problem-solving skills
Design skills
Experience
2 years in management…
Excellent track record…
Extensive background…
Wide experience in…
4. How long should a Personal Profile Statement be?
There are no set rules about the length of a Personal Profile but we would suggest you
keep it within the 40/70-words boundary; that means no longer than five lines.
5. Personal Profile statement examples
Personal profile example 1 – Business management
I have a clear, logical mind with a practical approach to problem solving and a drive to
see things through to completion. I have a great eye for detail. I am eager to learn, I enjoy
overcoming challenges, and I have a genuine interest in Business Management.
Personal profile example 2 – IT
I am an open-minded individual with a proven track record in designing websites and
creating databases. I have strong technical skills as well as excellent interpersonal skills. I
am eager to be challenged in order to grow and improve my communication and
professional IT skills gained through previous experiences in the IT sector.
Personal profile example 3 – Project Manager
I am an energetic, ambitious person who has developed a mature and responsible
approach to any task that I undertake, or situation that I am presented with. As a graduate
with three years‘ of experience in management, I am excellent in working with others to
achieve a certain objective on time and with excellence.
Personal profile example 4 – Project Leader
I am an open-minded, friendly and resourceful project leader with a sound and optimistic
outlook on all things in life. I possess an excellent ability to motivate others, coupled with
the ability to communicate comfortably at all levels, therefore ensuring an excellent
working environment for all members of the team to perform at their bests.
Practice: Write down your Personal Profile Statement on your CV

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Lesson 4: How to write your Education and Trainingon a CV
Lesson‘s content:
The summary of your educational background and training is one of the most important
parts of your CV. It informs the reader, in brief, the education and training you have
received to date, starting from the most recent.

1. What can be included in the Education and Training section of a CV

Education and training can include:
Academic results, degrees, diplomas and certificates
Technical and professional qualifications
Work and vocational training received
Tip: leave out irrelevant details from your CV’s Education section
Always remember to keep your sections in your CV short, clear and to the point. This also
applies to your educational background; if you have been educated to a Master‘s Degree
level it would be ridiculous to list down your GCSEs in the following manner:
English: A
Math: B
Science: A*
Geography: A
Business: C
ICT: B
History: B
Art: A
As you can see, it takes up a lot of precious space.
Instead, you could write: GPA: 3.65
Or alternatively, you could simply write down your College, Degree, and Master‘s
Degree details and completely omit even mentioning GCSEs or where you have been to
school. This is entirely understandable when having reached an undergraduate or
postgraduate level.

2. Location of an Education and Training section on your CV

The education and training section of your CV should usually come straight after your
work experience and employment. The exceptions to this rule would be…
When having extremely impressive academic qualifications or training
When you‘ve just graduated with little experience but with many years of education
When applying for a job that specially requires educational excellence.
In the above mentioned cases, it would be fine to move the education and training section
of your CV just before your Work Experience and Employment section.
Tip: don’t assume the reader will understand your qualifications!
For instance, look at the following terms describing courses and qualifications:
SCQF
GCSE
A-Level
NQ
HND
HNC
GNVQ
BTEC
Chances are, you might recognize some of them but you might have never heard of the
others.
Will the reader understand all the academic terms and abbreviations you use? If in doubt,
expand on these terms by using the full title rather than a simple abbreviation and also
approximately state at what level they were taken.

3. CV examples of Education and Training section

There are a number of different ways in which you can present your education and
qualifications on a CV. Please find below the THREE examples that we have created to
give you some interesting layouts:
CV Education and Training section: example 1
BSc Economic Computing Sheffield University 2009 – 2012
Degree Classification: 2:1 Honours.
BTEC National Diploma in ICT Woodbourne College 2007 – 2009
Grade: Distinction Merit
BTEC First Diploma in ICT Woodbourne College 2006 – 2007
Grade: Distinction*
CV Education and Training section: example 2
2009-2012 South England College
Higher National Diploma (HND) in History
3 A-Levels: History, Geography and English
2003-2009 Strafford High School
2-week training in Personal Safety (including in First Aid)
10 GCSEs at grades A*–C
CV Education and Training section: example 3
2001 Professional Diploma in IT Institute of Computer Science
1998 Certified Diploma in ICT Charted Association
1997 BSc Hons Degree in IT (1:1) Oxford University
BTEC National Certificate in
1994 – 1996 Hanford College
ICT
Practice: Write down your Education and Training on your CV
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Lesson 5: CV Employment History
Lesson‘s Content:
The Employment History (or career history, work experience) section of a CV is
a crucial part of any CV and as its name suggests: it is all about your employment history
and the jobs that you have previously worked in.
Your employment history should tell the potential employer in a quick glance…
What work you have done
Where you‘ve done it, and
When you have done it
Example of an Employment history section of a CV

1. What included in the employment history section of a CV

The employment section can contain details of any type of jobs that you‘ve held:
Permanent/temporary jobs
Full-time/part-time jobs
Saturday jobs
Summer jobs
Voluntary jobs
Industrial placements and internships
2. Ways to write an employment section of a CV
Take a piece of paper and list down all the jobs you‘ve had to date
Sort all your jobs in chronological order (i.e. most recent jobs first)
For each of the jobs that you have listed down you should also write down:
The name of the company you have worked in
The dates (from-to)
Your job title
Your main responsibilities (and achievements, if applicable)
I have had so many jobs before, how do I fit everything on my CV?
Once you have listed all your jobs that you have done so far in your career, some of you
might come to realize that they are more than just a handful of permanent or full-time jobs
that you can list down on your CV.
In this case, you may want to skip the less-significant jobs from the following categories:

Once you have done that you simply add a single line stating:
1983 – 1995 Various jobs Engineering and Retail (sectors)
Discussion Work in pair and discuss this question:
What to do if you have no work experience?
Answer:
If you‘ve got absolutely no work experience then we recommend you to do some
voluntary work before you apply for paid-jobs. This will save you a lot of time and effort
in the long-run.

3. What NOT to include in an employment history section

Contact and personal details of your previous employers
Give a job description rather than what you‘ve actually done/achieved
Include too many irrelevant jobs
Use of jargon and technical terms many readers will not understand
Practice: Write down your Employment history on your CV
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Lesson 6: How to write Achievements on a CV
Lesson‘s Content:
A list of achievements on your CV is an excellent way of making your CV stand out from
the rest of the CVs. You, as an employee, will only be valuable to the employer and the
company for the activities and actions that you achieve.
Many job seekers fall into the trap of listing down all their job duties and
responsibilities while forgetting to mention what they have actually achieved!

It is your achievements that matter the most as opposed to responsibilities, and here is
why: anybody can be assigned responsibilities – even the good delivery boy from around
the corner – but how many individuals can actually say that they have
accomplished significant achievements in their lives or careers?
Not many. So you should!

1. How an achievements section on your CV looks like

The following is a sample of how an achievements section looks like:

Examples of achievements to put on your CV

It is amazing how many times we have heard people say…
„But I haven‟t really achieved anything….‟
Of course you have, you just don‘t realize it (yet)!
Achievements do not have to be necessarily significant to be important enough to include
on your CV. ANY achievement that portrays you in a positive light is worthy of being
included on your CV.
Achievements can be many, many, many things; here are just some ideas to help you:
Awards won
Promotions
Trained/Educated others
Completed important projects on time and within budget
Increased sales figures (by such-and-such %)
Saved time by coming up with efficient methods and tools
Qualifications gained
Good results in examinations and tests
Elected to do or lead something/someone (committees, charities, etc.)
Leader/captain/manager in some club or organization
Long term without absence from work
Anticipated in organization of fun fairs, open days, etc.
If you are still an individual who thinks that you haven‘t achieved anything, then please
contact us and let us know, so that we can help you in another way (if possible).
For the remainder 99% of our readers: please continue reading about the importance of
achievements and what they tell prospective employers about you!

2. What your achievements tell about you

There is a well-known saying; that ―if you want to predict someone‘s future, look at his
past.‖
An employer will look at your achievements on your CV and say to themselves: ―Look,
here is an individual who has achieved such-and-such goals for their previous employer; I
bet they are more than capable to do the same for us!‖

3. The importance of including achievements in your CV

What happens if you do not include your achievements on your CV? Or just simply list all
your duties? Well, do you want the good news or the bad news first?
The good news is that the world is not going to come to an end because of it (probably)…
The bad news is that you are seriously undermining your chances of getting an interview!
According to an interesting research conducted by the authors of ― Brilliant CV: What
employers want to see & how to say it”, the applicants with achievement-focused CVs
are THREE TIMES more likely to be shortlisted for an interview compared to applicants
with duties -focused CVs!

Be relevant and prioritize your achievements!

It doesn‘t really take a career expert to know that stating; ―I have won a dance award at
my local Ballet club”, on your CV is not a very good idea when applying for a position as
a Bodyguard to a member of the Royal Family.
Whenever you decide to include a certain achievement in your CV, ask yourself:
Is this achievement relevant to the job I am applying for?
What does this achievement say about me? Is it something positive?
Have I got any other achievement which is more deserving of being mentioned instead of
this?
If some your achievements are irrelevant to the job you‘re applying for you should simply
omit them. Do not fill up valuable space from your CV with unrelated or unimportant
information.

4. The position of your achievements section on your CV

Your achievements section should be just before the education section and just after the
career objective/summary. The following is the ideal location of the achievements section
on a typical CV with a standard layout:
Personal details
Career objective/summary
Achievements
Education
Employment
Hobbies and interests
References
Practice: Write down your Achievement on your CV
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Lesson 7: How to include skills on a CV

Lesson‘s Content:
A very important section of your CV should be your skills section. The skills section of
your CV should briefly state your abilities, key attributes and key achievements.
It is also sometimes referred to as the ―Skills and Achievements‖ section.

1. What to include in this section of your CV

Below are some of the examples of what could be listed as Skills on a CV:
IT Skills:
Examples:
- Excellent with Microsoft Office
- Professional typing rate of 70 wpm (words per minute)
The majority of current city jobs require you to be competent at using a computer. IT
skills on your CV will reassure the employers of that.
Languages
Examples:
Fluent in four languages: English, French, Danish and Russian.
English/German interpreter for three years
The benefit of mentioning the number of languages you know is that it demonstrates to
the potential employer that you are a learner and that you can easily deal with people from
different backgrounds and cultures.
Important note: if you are from an English-background and live in an English-speaking
country, do not list down your language(s) as follows:
Fluent in English.
This will make you look a little bit silly.
In this scenario, employers usually assume you can speak fluent English… right?
Driving license
Example:
 - Full clean driving license
Listing your driving license can be important because it shows that you are skilful (after
all, driving is a skill) and that you won‘t have problems with work-related travels.
More examples…
The following are some important personal skills/qualities that you can mention in the
Skills Section of your CV:
Communication – being able to listen/talk to people in a constructive manner
Interpersonal – The way you relate and interact with others
Numerical – being able to handle numbers, math, estimations, etc.
Analytical – being able to give meaning to data, analyze information
Problem-solving – being able to offer solutions to problems
Teamwork – being able to work with other people to achieve a common goal
Leadership – being able to take responsibility, lead/mentor others, etc.
Organization – being able to meet deadlines, plan and schedule tasks, etc.
IT Skills on a CV
Practice: Write down your skills on your CV
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Lesson 8: Hobbies and interests on a CV
Lesson‘s Content:
Let‘s be frank. A CV is a highly professional business document and it is NO place to talk
about your hobbies or your personal interests… right?!
Well, not exactly.
Employers love knowing about the applicant‘s hobbies and interests. Here is why:
Prospective employers invest in people; they hire and work with human beings, not
robots. It is because of this that employers look for every clue in their prospective
employees to find out about their true skills and competencies. What better way is there to
achieve this than by looking at their hobbies and interests…?

Little ford et al. In their book Career Skills (2004, pg.14/15) state under ―other interests‖:
―You should include hobbies and other interests, especially if they involve social and
community activities. These activities are important – cover membership of societies,
sports clubs/teams, etc. All these activities and the extent of your involvement give the
recruiter clues about the real you and your interests.‖

1. Benefits of including your hobbies and interests on your CV:

It will give the recruiter a fuller and more complete picture of you
Sporting interests indicate that you are fit and healthy
Involvement in the community indicates good interpersonal skills
Outside interests tell the employer that you can have a good time as well
They form a great basis for discussion at the interview stage
Examples of hobbies and what they say about YOU:
Computing: Good with technology
Swimming: Keeps fit and healthy
Excellent problem-solving
Puzzles:
skills
Football/Soccer: Team work skills
Chess: Intelligent, strategist
Socializing with Team player (rather than
friends: loner)
Highly competitive,
Squash:
motivated
Martin Yate, a best-selling careers author, outlines three broad categories of sports to
include on your CV in his book The Ultimate CV Book (Pg.35):
• Team sports (baseball, basketball, football, etc.)
• Determination activities (running, swimming, cycling, climbing, etc.)
• Brain activities (chess, etc.)

2. Possible pitfalls to avoid when writing your hobbies on your CV

Avoid falling victim to stereotypes: listing down heavy metal as your favorite music
genre will not exactly sound like music to the ears of all potential employers.
Keep clear of exposing your political or religious affiliations: admitting that you‘re an
active member of the local church‘ may harm your CV, especially when the potential
employer reading your CV is a strict atheist. Volunteered on a number of Labor election
campaigns‘ is not a very good idea, either.
Avoid mentioning risky or time-consuming hobbies: it is in the employer‘s best
interests to have you healthy, fit and able to work; therefore, we advise against writing
regular rock climbing in the Himalayas‘ as a hobby.
Irrelevant hobbies: how will Stamp and Coin Collecting as a hobby help you to get a
job as an Administrative Engineering Manager? On the other hand (or should we say on
the other… stamp), stamp collecting would be a very valuable hobby to mention when
applying for a job as a Stamp Appraiser.
Senior level CVs: senior level individuals such as managers and executives
should never have the hobbies and interests section on their CVs. Their interests and
hobbies should be clear from their achievements and experiences.
Including too many hobbies: Usually, if you include more than just two or three hobbies
on your CV, the employer is likely to wonder Gosh, when will this person have any time
to do some work?!‘
The following is a sample of a CV‘s Hobbies section with too many hobbies:

Lying: Having seen a TV program once (when you were twelve!) doesn‘t count as a
hobby. You will be asked and scrutinized about your hobbies and interests at the
interview stage. Save yourself the embarrassment and do not lie about your hobbies.
Weird interests: witchcraft and frog dissections should not be hobbies for anyone let
alone mentioning it on your CV! Yes, believe it or not, people have actually used these
hobbies‘ on their CVs…
Ask yourself: how do these interests add value to my application? Try to highlight your
ability to interact, help and/or communicate with others.

3. Tailoring your interests to specific jobs

Different activities can be interpreted differently depending on the job you are applying
for.
For instance, playing computer games as a hobby may sometimes portray you as a self-
absorbed individual living in their own little (cyber) world.
However, the same hobby can give tremendous weight to your CV if you apply for a job
as a video game developer, graphics designer or as a shop assistant at your local games
shop!
The rule of thumb is only to include activities that contribute and strengthen the
application. If you cannot draw this valid connection then do not include those activities.
Practice: Write down your Hobbies on your CV
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Lesson 9: How to write References on a CV
The References section on your CV is a vital part which cannot be entirely omitted. Your
references should be two people who know you well and have worked with you in one
way or another and who can vouch for you to the prospective employer.
The following image shows a good example of how a References section on your CV
should look like:

1. Benefits of including references on your CV

Your reference may be a respectable and well-known person which would impress the
reader;
It makes life easier for the employers; they can instantly ‗check you out‘;
It fills up the empty space and makes your CV look complete and finished;
It gives your CV a little more ‗weight‘; that you are confident and that you have nothing
to hide.

2. Who can be your references on your CV?

One of your references should be your current or previous employer, the second referee
can be any person who knows you well. They can be yours:
Previous employer
Current employer
Manager
Supervisor
Teacher / Tutor / Lecturer
Coach
Member of clergy
The following are some good attributes that your references should have:
Clear and well-spoken
Friendly and engaging
Authoritative and professional
Remember:
Your references can also tell a lot about you: if they are shy, mumbling and impatient
they will inevitable give a wrong vibe about you to prospective employers.
Family members as referees
―My mom knows me really well, can she be my referee?‖
She could be, but that means that you‘ll probably never make it to the interview stage!
Having family members as your references introduces a ‗conflict of interest‘ (bias) into
the situation and is consequently not very well received by the recruiters.
How to write references on your CV
For each of your referees include the following details:
Full name
Title/position
(Work) Address
Telephone number
Email address
Important guidelines to follow…
Always give the job title of the referees, otherwise they can just be your mates or any
Tom from around the corner!
Always ask permission of your references before you write them on your CV
Do not disclose personal telephone numbers, use your referees‘ work telephone number
Always try your best to use your most recent employer as a reference, otherwise an
employer may wonder ‗why didn‘t he include his recent employer as a reference? What
has he got to hide?‘
Example of a BAD CV Reference
The following image shows a BAD example of the References section of a CV:

Can YOU spot the mistakes?

Think about it for a moment, and then compare your findings with the answers below…
Mistakes:
The applicant didn‘t include the full name of the referee
The applicant didn‘t include the job-title of the referee
The address is long-winded and badly presented
‗Tel‘ should be ‗Mob‘.
Personal telephone number and email address are given (assuming it was done without
permission)!
Arguments AGAINST including references on your CV:

It has become a common practice amongst jobseekers to include two references on their
CVs. In fact, some Career Experts have gone so far to declare that references on a CV
are a must!
With all due respect to the other Career Experts, I am afraid that we have to disagree with
them on this particular matter. References on a CV are not a necessity.
Yes, it is true that having references on your CV can have some advantages. But (and this
is a very big but) the disadvantages are far greater than its advantages.
References at this early stage of the application process are irrelevant
It takes up valuable space which can be used for other more useful things
It could raise more questions if you cannot include your current/previous Employer
References can be provided upon request, hence; ‗Available upon request.‘
It can take up a lot of time to find references, ask their personal details and ask for their
permission to use their details on your CV, etc.
Following on from this, we strongly advice against putting references on CVs when:
The applicant needs more space to include all their information, omitting the references
can free up valuable space to put in the information
You‘ve been fired, dismissed, or made redundant by your most recent employer
You do not have two very good references (who are eloquent, well-spoken and
professional)
If you do not fall under any of the above mentioned categories, there is nothing wrong
with including your references on your CV and is, in fact, a probably good idea to do so.

Homework:
Write a complete CV to apply for a job (It can be software engineer, Software Tester,
Team Leader…) to a software company.
Practice: Write down your References on your CV
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Chapter 2: How to write a Cover letter
Objectives
In this chapter, students will be provided with basic concept, structure, rules and tips of
writing an outstanding cover letter and its importance in job application.
Lesson 1: What is a Cover Letter?
Lesson‘s content:
1. What is a cover letter?
A cover letter (also known as a covering letter) is a short introduction letter
accompanying your CV. The purpose of a cover letter is to introduce you as a viable
candidate for the job position on offer.
Cover letters do not have a specific format but the following shows a cover letter of a
standard format:

The aim of a cover letter is for:

 Inform the employer about which job position you are applying for
 Outline some of your key strengths and abilities
 Address the needs of the employer/company
  Encourage the employer to read your CV and arrange an interview for you

2. The length of a Cover Letter

The length of a cover letter should never – NEVER – go over one side of A4!
Some job seekers make the fatal mistake of handing over a lengthy cover letter.
These cover letters are (in almost all cases) never read; they do not give a good first
impression and, as a consequence, the CV accompanying this cover letter will not be even
looked at.
Always bear in mind the KISS principle: keep it short, stupid!
Is it really necessary to send a Cover Letter with my CV?
Absolutely… cover letters are a must-have in the job seeking process.
A CV without a Cover Letter is like a valuable business suit without a tie!
For a moment… just imagine that YOU are an employer and that you have a
number of job positions available for filling.
The next day, you receive dozens of CVs on your desk, but not a single cover
letter.
Will these CVs look a bit ‗empty‘ or ‗naked‘ to you? You bet they will! That is
where a cover letter comes in: it will inform the employer exactly who you are, what
position you are applying for, how you found out about the job and what you can offer for
the company.
CVs and Cover Letters go hand in hand, both are essential to securing an
interview.
Lesson 2: How to write a Cover Letter
Lesson‘s content:
1. Write a Cover Letter using a template
Writing any business or career letters require some guidelines and cannot be
written completely free of these guidelines. For your convenience, we have outlined these
guidelines in our Cover Letter template which is freely available for download and
personal use.
The following is a preview of the Cover Letter template:

Most of the details are pretty straight forward:

 Name
  Address
 Contact details
 Date
 Company name
 Company address
 Opening greeting
 Subject of the cover letter (job position applying for)

2. How to write the content

But then comes the ‗hardest‘ part of a cover letter: THE CONTENT!
Many applicants‘ minds at this stage go either blank or drift away completely.
Common thoughts at this stage of a Cover Letter are…
‗Oh NO…‘
‗Now what…?!‘
‗How shall I START the letter?‘
‗Hmmmmm, I wonder what‘s on TV tonight?‘
‗I give up, let‘s go to the fridge and get something to eat!‘
This is a sad fact. But it shouldn‘t be this way.
The only reason why many applicants struggle with the cover letter is because they aren‘t
exactly sure of the guidelines of writing the content or body of a cover letter.

Cover letter: paragraph by paragraph

Paragraph 1: This paragraph is the introductory paragraph of your letter. It should
state the reason why you are writing this letter. For example, the first paragraph
usually starts off with:
‗I was really excited when I saw your IT Admin vacancy on our University‘s
Career website…‘
‗It was a real pleasure to have met you today regarding….‘
‗I was recently made aware by one of your colleagues, Dr. James Clacks, that the
position….‘ etc.
Paragraph 2: This paragraph is the part of the cover letter that should convince
the reader that you are a viable candidate for the job. Make mention of your
relevant strengths, skills and abilities that can be useful for the job.
Paragraph 3: The third paragraph should further state a little bit about yourself
and, more importantly, why you are interested in working with this particular
company.
 Final paragraph: The final paragraph is your closing statement and is usually a
polite call for action and that you are looking forward meeting the employer.
‗Please find attached my CV. Should you have any questions please do not hesitate
to contact me. I‘m looking forward to meeting you!‘

An example of a completed cover letter

You should by now – I hope – have a pretty good idea of how to write a cover letter.
In order to assist you in writing your perfect cover letter, CvPlaza also provides Cover
Letter examples which are a valuable source in giving a good idea of how a Cover Letter
should be.
The following is a preview of how an excellent Cover Letter should look like:
Lesson 3: Top 10 Cover Letter Guidelines
Lesson‘s content:

1. Fit your Cover Letter into a single A4 page

The absolute maximum length of your Cover Letter should be a page; not a single
line more.
―But, why?‖ I hear you ask. Glad you asked; it should be as short as possible
because your Cover Letter will be merely one of the dozens or hundreds of others that
employers need to look through.
Furthermore, lengthy letters to employers is the same as saying:
―I didn‘t have time to write a short letter, so I wrote a long one instead.‖
Tips:
 Be straight to the point
 Keep it brief
 Keep it relevant

2. Use an appropriate opening salutation

Opening salutations such as ―Dear Sir/Madam‖ or the dreaded ―To Whom It
May Concern‖ are not ideal opening salutations for your Cover Letter, to put it gently…
What you want is something a little bit more powerful: always address a specific
person in particular, rather than use a generic opening salutation.
Don‘t know who you‘re sending the email to? Take the initiative to find out!
Alternatively, you may want to address the employer by their job position: ―Dear
Manager‖, ―Dear Hiring Manager‖ or ―Dear HR Manager.‖

3. Don‘t beg. Please.

Coming over as weak, needy and/or desperate can eliminate your chances of
getting an interview faster than you can say ―Rejected!‖
 The impression that you want to give is one of self-respect, self-worth and
confidence.
It is them that need you. Not the opposite.
You can apply for thousands of others jobs and contribute positively to thousands
of other organizations. It is, ultimately, their loss if they do not hire you.
THIS is the attitude that you want to convey respectfully (not arrogantly) on your Cover
Letter.

4. Don‘t rewrite your CV – complement it!

Many job seekers are strangely under the impression that somehow the Cover
Letter is a summary of their CVs.
This is not the case.
Your Cover Letter should complement the content of your CV. These two
documents go hand-in-hand and the less overlap of content there is, the better. This,
however, does not mean that you cannot refer to one or two major achievements
mentioned on your CV.

5. Follow a standard structure

A Cover Letter should have the following standard structure:
Paragraph one: The reason why you are writing this letter
Paragraph two: Why you are the right candidate for the job
Paragraph three: Why you are interested in working in that particular company
Paragraph four: Closure and a polite call for action
Stick to this structure as much as possible, since employers have the previous experience
to quickly extract relevant information that is presented in this format.

6. Show enthusiasm for working in that particular company

Use the third paragraph of your Cover Letter to mention the reasons why you
would want to work in that particular company and what contribution you could make to
its success.
―The reason why I am particular interested to work at WPC is because it offers a
highly competitive salary‖ is, unfortunately, not going to be a good enough reason.

7. Make your Cover Letter presentable

One of the most important challenges of writing a Cover Letter is to keep the
document neat and tidy. This means that information should be easily scanned and
understood.
 Tips:
 Make appropriate use of white space
 Don‘t squeeze to much information into the single page
 Keep the paragraph spacing/indentation consistent

8. Proof read your Cover Letter

Proofreading for grammar and spelling mistakes is crucial.
Tips:
 Check your Cover Letter for spelling or grammar mistakes
 Double check
 Quadruple check
 Let someone else, besides Microsoft Word, proof read your Cover Letter!

9. Print on good quality paper

If you‘re not sending your Cover Letter electronically then you might want to
consider printing your CV on good quality paper.
―Good quality paper?! I thought all the printing papers were the same!‖
In fact, the quality or weight of printing paper is expressed in grams per square
meter (gsm). Normal photocopying paper is only 75 to 80gsm, which is not exactly what
we‘re after.
The ideal weight, which is not too light or too thick like a cardboard, is 100gsm.

10. Finally, don‘t forget to sign your Cover Letter!

IT Administrator Cover Letter Sample

John Wilson
37 Erman Street
Writtle
079 1715 7100
[email protected]
29/02/2012
Solution Bridge
38 Hexham Road
Inveruglass
PH21 8EP
Dear Mr. Robert Quinn,
Re: IT Administrator (Job ID: #1731)
It was a real pleasure to have met you today regarding the IT Administrator job vacancy.
As a result of my great passion for IT, I achieved a 1st Class (Hons) Degree in Computer
Science from Aston University and an MSc in Information Systems Management from
the University of Birmingham. I have also previously worked for more than three years as
an IT Technician and then as an IT Systems Support Officer; this has perfectly prepared
me to further my career in IT and become a competent IT Administrator.
I am particularly excited about joining Solution Bridge because of its high reputation as
an excellent IT organization with a keen drive for innovation and technical advancement.
Please find attached my CV. I would appreciate the opportunity to meet with you to
discuss my candidacy for the position advertised. Thank you for your time and
consideration.
Yours sincerely,
John Wilson.
 Homework:
Write a complete Cover Letter to apply for a job (It can be software engineer, Software
Tester, Team Leader…) to a software company.
Chapter 3: Presentation Skills
Objectives
Chapter 3 will teach students about what to prepare for a presentation and their
importance. Furthermore, useful tips and golden rules are to be introduced to sharpen
their presentation skills.
Lesson 1: Preparation and planning
1. Essential preparation and planning checklist

This is a checklist of the essential elements to consider in preparing and planning

an oral presentation. Use it yourself by filling in the boxes on the right under ―My Ideas‖.

QUESTIONS TO ASK EXAMPLES MY IDEAS

YOURSELF
1. What is the aim?

recommendations

2. What is my title? The new Mokia 2001

How to reduce production
costs
The INT Chess Club
3. Who am I speaking to?
the audience of my
product/ report/speech?
Are these people the
decision makers?

the subject?
How does this change my
 approach?
What sort of questions
will They ask me? What are
the answers?
What aspects will they be
interested in?
4. What are the main points I 1, 2, 3; first, second, third;
want to make? point a, point b, point c
5. What do I want the We must invite them:
audience to do after listening
to my presentation? To accept my findings
To join the club
To give me a job

2. Other questions concerning physical aspects.

- Who is the audience?
- How many people will there be in the audience?
- Check beforehand, if you can, the place where you are going to make your presentation.
- Where will it take place?
- How big is the room?
- What equipment is there in the room? What equipment do I need?
- Does the equipment work?
- Are you going to need a black or whiteboard?
- Have you got chalk and / or a felt tip pen?
- Do you need an overhead projector or a screen?
- Are they in place? Is there a podium? Where are you going to put your notes /papers
/transparencies?
- Do you need an adapter or extension lead?
- Can the information be seen?
- Can you present the information and not get in the way?
- Do you need a pointer?
- Will you need to dim the lights or draw the curtains?
- Are you going to need handouts or any other documents? How many? Do they present a
good image of you and your company?

When?
- What time of day is it? What day is it? Will the audience be more or less receptive when
listening?

How long?
- In relation to what the audience knows or time constraints, what can I eliminate if
necessary?

Other
- Am I dressed appropriately? Shoes polished? Are my hands and fingernails clean?

Experienced presenters are able to improvise and adapt to changing circumstances

but you may have only one chance to present your information, so be prepared.
Lesson 2: Structure of an oral presentation
A good oral presentation is well structured; this makes it easier for the listener to
follow.
Basically there are three parts to a typical presentation: the beginning, the middle
and the end (or introduction, body and conclusion). We are going to look at each part in
turn and present the language needed to express both the structure and the content.

1. The beginning or the introduction

The beginning of a presentation is the most important part. It is when you establish
a rapport with the audience and when you have its attention.

Right. Well. OK. Erm. Let's begin.

Good. Fine. Great. Can we start?
Shall we start? Let's get the ball rolling.
Let's get down to business.

a. Get the audience's attention and signal the beginning.

In English-speaking countries it is not uncommon for the speaker to begin with a
joke, an anecdote, a statement made to surprise or provoke in order to gain the audience's
attention, to make people want to listen, to feel relaxed and even to introduce the subject.
This may or may not be appropriate in your country; you are probably the best judge.
Certainly humor is difficult to convey and would not be appropriate in all contexts.

A good technique is to try to get your audience involved in your talk either by
asking direct or rhetorical questions. Ask for a show of hands for example, in response to
a question or, present information in such a way that the audience can identify with it.
You can give an anecdote, unusual or surprising facts, or an illustration from real life
could be employed here.
b. Greet audience.

Hello Ladies and gentlemen.

Good morning Members of the jury.
Good afternoon esteemed guests
Good evening members of the board
Fellow colleagues Mr. Chairman/Chairwoman
Thank you for your kind introduction

It is Important to greet the audience by saying something like:

c. Introduce oneself, (name, position, and company)

Do this not only to give important information so people can identify you but also
to establish your authority on the subject and to allow the audience to see your point of
view on the subject (you are a student, researcher, responsible for, director of, neophyte,
layman).
Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen, let me introduce myself.
Good morning everyone, I'd like to start by introducing myself.
My name is...

I am a student at the INT

I am a doctoral candidate,
I am X. Y. from 3 Com. I'm the manager of…
I am a researcher from … I've been working on the subject now for X years...
I've had wide experience in the field of...

Good morning, my name is Lawrence Couderc. I am a student at the INT and I

would like to talk to you today about some of my findings in a study I did on…

Sometimes, especially when invited to speak, the host introduces the guest, gives
the same information as above and then gives the floor to the guest speaker.

I am very pleased and proud to introduce …who is…. He/she is known for…
Now I'll turn the floor over to today's speaker. (To take the floor, to have the floor,
to give the floor to someone.)

d. Give title and introduce subject

 What exactly are you going to speak about? Situate the subject in time and place,
in relation to the audience and/or its importance. Give a rough idea or a working
definition of the subject.

I plan to speak about...

Today I'm going to talk about...
The subject of my presentation is...
The theme of my talk is...
I've been asked to give you an overview of...

Cultural aspects may be important here; scientists want to demonstrate their work
and findings while managers and humanities people want to share ideas and reflections
with their audience. It may be the result of a desire to persuade and convince. It may be
comparison of two or more products, plans or proposals.

Why are you going to speak about it?

I have chosen to speak about this because...
I was asked to speak about X because...

Have you set any limits on the scope of your talk? What won't you speak about?
It may be very useful to eliminate certain areas before you start so as to avoid confusion
or deviation from your main task. It also protects you from criticism later for not covering
certain aspects or issues.

Have you estimated the time it will take? It is useful to give the listeners some idea
of how long you will speak so as to maintain their attention better.
I will not speak about...
I have limited my speech to
My talk will last about 15 minutes
I will speak for 15 minutes.
You may want to give acknowledgements here too. If you have been sponsored,
supported or encouraged by a particular firm, organization, professor, etc. you may want
to recognize their contribution. Your research and paper may have been the work of a
collaborative effort and you should acknowledge this too giving the names of all the
participants.
 At some point you should ask a question or somehow try to determine the attitude
and knowledge of the audience. How do they feel about the subject? You will then have
to modify the contents, as you never know exactly what to expect.
Have you ever heard of...?
You may already know…
I feel sure that some of you…
Every day you encounter...

To get the audience's attention and perhaps to find out where they are you could
introduce the subject by saying:
Have you ever heard of/seen X?
You've probably seen countless times...
You may have wondered...

e. Give your objectives (purpose, aim, goals)

The main purpose of an informative speech is to have the audience understand and
remember a certain amount of information. You should therefore have two purposes: a
general purpose and a specific one. The former is to inform: to give an overview, to
present, to summarize, to outline; to discuss the current situation or to explain how to do
something or how something is done. The latter is what you want the audience to take
away with them after listening to you, what you want them to do, what they should
remember.

My purpose in doing this paper is to give you a solid background on the

subject of oral presentation skills so that in the future, at the INT or elsewhere, you
can deliver a successful speech in front of a group.
What I would like to do today is to explain
to illustrate...
to give you the essential background information on...
to outline...
to have a look at...
What I want my listeners to get out of my speech is...
If there is one thing I'd like to get across to you today it is that…

Once you have established your specific objectives you may go on to formulate your
content.
f. Announce your outline.
You want to keep the outline simple so 2 or 3 main points are usually enough.
Concerning grammar the headings of the outline should be of the same grammatical form.

I have broken my speech down/up into X parts.

I have divided my presentation (up) into Y parts.

In the first part I give a few basic definitions.

In the next section I will explain
In part three, I am going to show...
In the last part I would like/want to give a practical example...

g. Questions and comments from the audience.

You should also let the audience know at some point in the introduction when and
whether they may ask questions.

I'd ask you to save your questions for the end.

There will be plenty of time at the end of my speech for a discussion.
You may interrupt me at any moment to ask questions or make comments.
Please stop me if you don't understand anything I say but could you keep any
specific questions until after I've finished.

h. Make a transition between the introduction and the body.

You should refer to your transparency or outline.

Now let us turn to point one.

Let us now move on to the second part, which is, as I said earlier….

If you are giving a technical presentation a glossary might be useful and avoid
unnecessary interruptions. Always explain abbreviations and say acronyms giving
their full name when you first mention them and be especially careful with the
pronunciation.
2. The middle or the body

a. Content.
What information should you give in your speech? All your information should
support your purpose. In most cases you will have to limit the content, as time is usually
precious!

b. Quantity
How much information should you give? Enough to clearly develop your ideas.
Don‘t forget to illustrate through examples.

c. Sequencing your ideas.

Here are a few possibilities for organizing your ideas: logical; chronological
order; from general to specific; from known to unknown; from accepted to controversial;
cause/effect; problem/solution. Whatever sequencing you choose, the headings should be
all of the same grammatical form.

d. Keeping the audience's attention

The beginning and the end or the first and last parts of a talk are what listeners will
remember best. Think of ways you can keep the audience's attention throughout the rest
of the speech.

e. Signposting or signaling where you are.

Just as when you are driving along a road that you don't know very well, you
depend on signs to guide you, you need to guide the listener by using expressions to tell
him/her where you are going. That is to say, first announce what you are going to say
(give an example, reformulate etc.) and then say what you want to say. This is very like
verbal punctuation. Indicate when you have finished one point and then go on to the next
one. It is redundant in text but very useful in oral presentations. Experienced presenters
will also clearly pause, change their stance and the pitch of their voice as they move from
one part of a presentation to another.

Listing information
Lists are often a necessary evil. Vary your language whenever possible and avoid
reading directly.
There are three things we have to consider: one, two, and three
A, B, C.
 Now let us look at the first aspect which is...
First of all…
In the first place…

Linking ideas, sections/making transitions

Indicate the end of one section and the beginning of the next.
That's all I would like to say about... (Subject of part A) and now let us turn to....
Now that we've seen... let us turn to…

Outlining options.
If there are alternative ways of looking at a topic or proposal, outline them to show
you are familiar with the different ways of dealing with a situation.
There seem to be two possible ways of dealing with this...
We've looked at this from the point of view of the manufacturer but what about if
we were to...
A number of options present themselves at this point....
If what you are dealing with demands a comparison of strengths and weaknesses indicate
clearly the different aspects and underline the points you feel are important or secondary.
What exactly are the benefits?
On the plus side we can add...
This is not the only weakness of the plan...
We cannot ignore the problems that such an action would create...
We do not need to concern ourselves with…
Of lesser interest are…

To be clear and concrete. Use examples, rephrasing, summaries etc.:

To give an example: To refer to what you have
Now let's take an example. said
An example of this can be found... previously:
To illustrate this… As I have already said
Let's see this through an example. earlier...
For example, As we saw in part one...
For instance, To repeat what I've said
e.g. already…
To rephrase: To refer to what you will
Let me rephrase that, say:
In other words We will see this a little later
Another way of saying the same on.
thing is This will be the subject of
That is to say part 3.
i.e. We will go into more detail
on that later.
For now, suffice to say...
To summarize: To refer to what an
To summarize expert says:
To sum up, I quote the words of ...
Let me summarize by saying In the words of…
So that concludes my overview According to...
In conclusion Here I'd like to quote…
Briefly said As Mr. X says in his book...
In short, There is a famous quotation
What I've tried to show in this part... that goes...
To recap what we've seen so far...
To emphasize To refer to common
What is very significant is... knowledge:
What is important to remember...? As you all may well know...
I'd like to emphasize the fact that... It is generally accepted that...
I’d like to stress the importance of... As you are probably aware
to highlight... (of)...
to underline...
What I tried to bring out...
What we need to focus on...

3. The end or conclusion

The end of a talk should never come as a surprise to an audience; it needs special
consideration.
a. Content
The end or the conclusion of your talk should include four parts: a brief reminder
of what you tried to show in your speech and how you tried to do so, a short conclusion,
thanks to the audience for listening, and an invitation to ask questions, make comments or
open a discussion.
 At the end you should briefly summarize your speech in a few lines to make sure
the audience has retained the main points. Alternatives are: to state the point of the
speech; give the essential message to retain; list the main points and what you want the
audience to remember; review informally or indirectly by using a quote, a comparison or
example.

Then you should give some kind of conclusion. That is to say you should give a
message that logically comes out of the ideas developed in your speech. This could be a
commentary, the lessons learned, some recommendations, or the next steps. You could
also make a call to action; the audience should have to do something.

Thirdly, thank the audience for being there.

Finally, ask for questions and comments or invite a discussion. If you choose the
former, you put yourself in a superior position compared to the audience and should be
considered as an expert. You will need to be very prepared intellectually and
psychologically to transfer control to the audience and be able to answer any questions.
However, in the case of the latter, you put yourself more or less on equal terms with the
audience and do not have to be the expert with all the answers! The audience may have
some clear ideas or some practical knowledge about the subject themselves!

Naturally you need to signpost the end of your talk. This may take the form of a
recapitulation of the main points.
I'd like to summarize/sum up
At this stage I would like to run through/over the main points...
So, as we have seen today....
As I have tried to explain this morning BT finds itself in....
Or there may be recommendations or proposals that you wish to make;
As a result we suggest that…
In the light of what we have seen today I suggest that...
My first proposal is...

Above all when you conclude do not do it abruptly or as if surprised to get to the
end of your talk.
In conclusion I would like to say that...
My final comments concern...
I would like to finish by reminding everyone that...
 You may at this point wish to distribute a vocabulary list or more detailed
information that you wish to make available.
I've prepared a slim folder of the proposals...
In the sheets that are now being distributed you will find a breakdown of the...
And finally you may well have to deal with questions.
I'd be happy to answer any questions....
If there are any questions please feel free to ask.
Thank you very much for your attention and if there are any suggestions or
comments.

b. Dealing with difficult questions

* Make sure you understand the question.

- Ask a question to see if you understand

- Repeat the question in your own words to check that you have understood.
- If not, ask the questioner to repeat

* In answering:

- Delay the answer (ask for time and/or repeat the question)
- Just a minute please. What is a...?
- How can I put it?
- I'm glad you asked that question.
- That's a good question/point/remark.
- Can I answer that question later?
- Admit that you are not responsible.
- I saw that in the work of…
- I agree but give an alternative point of view
- I agree with you but there is another way of looking at it.

SUMMARY
To give a successful presentation and at the same time a good image of yourself or
your firm, careful preparation and organization are required. You need to take into
consideration who you are speaking to, when, where, and why, as all of these details will
have an impact on your structure and content. A well-structured speech with a step-by-
step approach is one that is easy to follow. Besides structure, it is also necessary to be
relatively repetitive. A good 'rule' is announce what you are going to say, say it and
finally, say what you've said.

Be careful with the figures. Pronunciation (proper names, cognates, and numbers)
and presentation are important, practice beforehand! This is equally important for the key
words of your presentation. It is particularly annoying for the audience to hear the same
word mispronounced repeatedly.

In addition to careful preparation - good structure and vocabulary – and

organization, a message passes in other ways. According to experts 55% of the message is
non-verbal. Using images (visuals); body language and voice are extremely important and
will be examined in the following sections.
Lesson 3: Visuals
1. What are visuals?
Graphs Charts
Maps Photos
Drawings Images
Models video/film
Objects

2. What media are used?

 Transparencies/slides
 Power Point © Slides
 Video projection/projector
 Handouts

It is often a good idea to give out a paper copy, called a handout, an outline, a glossary of
key words, sources, any other visuals you plan to use, so people can take them away, not
waste time in taking notes on key concepts.

3. What is the vocabulary of the equipment used?

paperboard

Eraser

4. What should you put on a visual?

5. Vocabulary of graphs/chart

curve, line) pie)

6. Why use visuals?

verbal form
(E.g. statistics)

ng your back to the audience when writing on a board

7. Text to put on a visual

consistently but not to the detriment of a table or image.

sentences are not to be used, unless a quote is given, give round figures

8. Size, layout, font (typeface) and size, colors.

- A4

onts: Ariel, Helvetica, Times New Roman, Futura, Optima, Verdana, New Century,
Schoolbook and Courier. Some companies impose a particular style.
- maybe 20 or more depending on the size of the room you will be speaking
in. A good idea is to use different sizes for different types of text: i.e. 20 for main
headings, 16 for subheadings, 14 for other text.
bold face, italics, underlining, reverse(white on black) or
shading to highlight.
(unless you are just showing text).

9. How many?
One every two minutes is sufficient. To show too many slides is worse than none at all.
General and miscellaneous tips.

 Have the slides ready and in order.

 Check to see if the OHP is plugged in, in working order and in focus.
 Test the visual to see if people at the back of the room can see it.
 Stand to the side of the screen and face the audience.
 Mask to reveal only what you want the audience to see.
 Use a pointer or a pen to draw attention to a specific point.
 Visuals should be adjusted to the audience.
 Visuals should supplement the spoken message.
 Large enough for everyone to see. (Good idea to give out a paper copy, i.e. a
handout, not at the same time though, as the audience may not look at you)
 Don't display too much information, too many colors or typefaces.
 Does the layout work?
 Are there any spelling mistakes or grammatical errors? Remember they are going
to be in plain view all the time of your visual.

10. How should you present a visual in a presentation?

It is not sufficient just to put up a transparency on the screen and expect the
audience to turn its attention to it, to understand it and make the link with what you are
saying. (See Giving Presentations Unit. 4) We would suggest the following strategy:

It is important to prepare your audience for what they are going to see. This keeps
the audience on their toes and gives you the opportunity to position your visual correctly.
Let's look at the current distribution of the market, as you can see...
I'm going to show you now the most recent figures available...
My next slide concerns the method by which...

Remember to draw the attention of the audience to the points that you wish to
highlight but avoid redundancy by describing everything that is in the visual!
As you can see....
The first line of figures is the most revealing...
Notice/observe how the increase has had an effect on the...
What is important here is the way that...

You can also try to rephrase your point to give it emphasis, giving the audience
time to absorb the information.
In other words the number of employees has a direct effect on the...
Or to look at it in another way every time you...
That is to say no matter what technique is used, the results remain
Lesson 4: Creating interest and establishing a relationship
with the audience
Do not assume the audience will be interested in what you have to say. Even if
they are, minds wander and get distracted. From the very beginning you need to create
interest and continue doing so throughout your speech. You need to put everything on
your side to promote knowledge acquisition. In informing an audience you have to adjust
to what people think, to constraints, maintain a dialogue (and not a monologue) and use
attractive supporting materials.
How can you do this?
 Arouse listeners' interest from the beginning. In the introduction show how your
subject or what you are going to say affects or may affect their lives. In other
words, make it personal.
 Other techniques are:
o Give an unusual fact or statistic.
o Use words like you, we, us, ours.
o Illustrate with a real life story or anecdote.
o Ask the audience to do something. "Raise your hands if you know."
o Ask the audience direct or rhetorical questions. (See below)
 Other tips:
o Be brief and clear in giving the subject and purpose.
o The speaker‘s attitude is important - knowledge, personality, openness. Be
lively and enthusiastic.
o Use a variety of media sources.

1. Rhetorical questions

What is a rhetorical question? A question that you ask without expecting it to be

answered. Why use such a question? In using such a question the speaker appears to be
having a dialogue with the listeners. It also should catch their attention.

Have you ever seen/heard/experienced...?

How can we explain this?
What does that mean?
What can be done about that?
What does this imply for you, as a consumer?
2. Emphasizing/highlighting
which is important.
The important thing to remember is...
The essential element is...

.
We experimented with the concept over a period of three years.

.
We did see a noticeable difference.

What I'd like to show today is the difference between the two products.
Good it may be, easy it isn't.

As I've said before...

Let me repeat

you become more fluent and confident.

This method is clearer, cheaper and more consistent.
Quality is not something that affects the bottom line, it is the bottom line.
Lesson 5: Body language
The golden rule is "Be natural and relax!"

1. What is body language?

Eye contact, facial expressions, posture, movements, gestures.

2. Why is it useful?
It is a natural part of communication:
 To clarify meaning; it is very visual
 To vent nervousness
 To maintain interest
 To emphasize and regulate

Below are just a few examples of both positive and negative body language:

3. Positive body language

 Eye contact to keep audiences' attention (Asian audience might feel aggressed.)
 Facial expressions should be natural and friendly. Don't forget to smile.
 Raise eyebrows to show surprise
 Open eyes wide
 Squint your eyes
 Knit your eyebrows to show consternation or puzzlement

– stand straight but relaxed (do not slouch or lean)

ment - to indicate a change of focus, keep the audience's attention

Move forward to emphasize
Move to one side to indicate a transition

Up and down head motion or other movements to indicate importance

Pen or pointer to indicate a part, a place (on a transparency).
Shrug of the shoulders to indicate "I don't know!"
Hands - back and forth = two possibilities, more or less
Arm - movement back, forth
4. Negative body language
 Loss of eye contact: looking at notes, looking at screen, at the board, at the
 Floor
 Don't stare, or look blankly into people's eyes
 Swaying back and forth like a pendulum
 Back turned to the audience
 Nervous ticks
 Hands in pockets
Lesson 6: Voice and pronunciation

Correct pronunciation is important if one is to be understood correctly. Incorrect

pronunciation is perhaps the first cause of communication breakdown. If the listener is not
accustomed to the speaker‘s native language, he/she will not understand a mispronounced
word. Mispronunciation also tires the listener‘s ear and he/she will perhaps even stop
trying to understand the speaker if it becomes too difficult.

1. What is pronunciation?
There are two important aspects of pronunciation of individual words, word stress
and the individual sounds themselves called "phonemes". A suggestion: make sure you
know how to correctly pronounce at least the key technical words or words that you
repeat over and over again in your speech.

Just as in the case of individual words in English a particular syllable receives

stress, so do particular words in a sentence. Sentence stress concerns stressing particular
words in a sentence usually at regular intervals. English speakers stress words that are
important for meaning such as: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, negatives,
demonstratives and interrogatives. Unstressed ones include articles, auxiliary verbs,
prepositions, and conjunctions.

Linking - (as in French) between a consonant and the following vowel and
grouping words into thought groups - needs to be practiced. In the area of pronunciation,
the basic problems of French speakers are:

Word and sentence stress - not all syllables in a word or in a sentence are stressed
equally.
In unstressed syllables the vowel often becomes shorter (schwa: e.g. man in
German).
Long English sounds are much longer than corresponding French sounds and the
short sounds of English are shorter than French short sounds.
The voice is used to indicate meaning, and intonation is higher or more glided in
English.
2. Voice
The voice, or more precisely the qualities of the voice, should be used to its/their fullest.
Qualities include loudness, speed (fast or slow), variety, pitch (high or low), silent
moments or pauses. The voice is important:

sounding monotonous and putting the audience

 Homework:
Prepare a presentation about an Information Technology Topic. You have 5 minutes to
present about your presentation in the next lesson.
Chapter 4: Technical Writing
Objectives
After completing this chapter:
Students will learn about the structure of a technical documents, the required vocabulary
in a technical documents and last but not least, they will be provided with rules and tips
for a better technical writing skills.
Lesson 1: Getting Started
Writing well requires more than good grammar. To create a useful document, you
need to express the purpose of the document and identify the audience for it. This lesson is
designed to help you plan and complete writing projects as simple as a memo or as
complex as a software manual. It covers how to:
Define the purpose of the document and the key information it needs to convey
Define the audience and their level of technical understanding
Determine the level of detail necessary for the document
Organize the data
Work with a team of authors
Meet deadlines
It provides a checklist and examples in the final pages of the chapter.

1. Determine the Purpose and Use

Establishing the purpose of a document is the first step in creating any written
material. Determine what you want the readers to know or do when they have finished
reading. This is often called task analysis.
Be specific with your objectives. Ask yourself: ―Why does the reader need this
information, and what do they need to do with it?‖ Answering this question generally
provides a detailed objective that makes the document meaningful. For example, the
objective ―to describe course improvements‖ is too general. The objective ―to describe
ways to make the curriculum of Technical Communication 1 more valuable to the novice
technical writer‖ is a specific objective that helps define the information required.
Writing the objective precisely, in terms of what and why, helps organize the material. As
a test of whether you have adequately formulated your objective, try to make it
measurable. For example: ―This document provides the information required for this
audience to make appropriate decisions on specific course topics, exercises, and reference
materials.‖
Once defined, the objective guides each step of the process of gathering and
organizing information, writing, summarizing, and completing the document. Refer to it to
determine what to include and what to leave out. Test the document against the objective
to ensure each section supports the overall purpose.
2. Identify the Audience and What They Need
A key to good writing is understanding the audience. The document must be
directed at specific readers, and take into account their level of technical knowledge, the
amount of detail they want, and their level of interest in the subject. This is often called
user or needs analysis. Design the document to meet the needs of its specific readers in
terms of subject matter, vocabulary, level of detail, and writing style. In general, assume
that the audience is less familiar with the subject than you are.
For example, if the document is to be read only by engineers, use appropriate
scientific vocabulary and detailed supporting data. If it is a tool for executive decisions,
present data in lay terms, with clear supporting graphics.
Some documents are designed for multiple audiences. In this case, sections may focus on
one type of audience. For example, write recommendations, executive summaries, and
abstracts for those who need to understand the general implications of a project. Target
appendices containing tables, graphs, and raw data to specialists who wish to examine or
use such supporting data. You can include a glossary to assist readers unfamiliar with
specific terminology.
It may help to make a checklist of the members of the audience and what
information they need. For work at a public water utility, for example, the audience
typically includes any or all of the following:
 Public: Needs to be informed to understand pros and cons and impacts and costs to
make decisions on initiatives or other policy issues
 District Board: Needs to understand impacts and costs, schedules, effects, long-
term obligations and policy issues.
 District Management: Needs to understand costs, schedules, effects, and long-
term obligations as a basis for intermediate decision making
 Project Team: Needs to understand scientific detail, supporting data, functions,
constraints, considerations, and sensitive issues
 Regulatory Agency: Needs to understand jurisdictional limits, impacts, and
mitigation
 Maintenance and Operations: Needs to understand design functions, access,
operations, and maintenance guideline

These groups represent many readers. It helps to write for a single, typical member of a
group. A list of characteristics (experience, training, education, etc.) of that reader can also
help determine how to present the information.
3. Determine the Level of Detail
The objective and the intended audience also dictate the level of detail required.
This defines the scope of the document, what supporting information to include, what
research is required, and what subject matter experts must contribute.
Determining what to leave out is as important as deciding what to include. Lay
readers should not be overwhelmed by detailed research findings; rather, these should be
clearly cited and summarized. Include charts and graphs if they support the objectives.
Although you may have acquired a great deal of useful data in preparation to write the
document, discard data that does not directly apply to the audience and purpose of the
document.

4. Organize the Data

Next, organize the data to support the objective and the audience. This is a good
idea for any document to ensure that you cover all the essential points, but a critical step
for complex ones. Develop an outline that lists the topics to cover, the audience for that
topic, key points for the topic, and the data required to support these points.
Make sure that the data in the document directly supports the logical flow of the
information. It should enhance the key points in the document, not overwhelm them. Put
supporting data, including background information, complex tables, or study results, in an
appendix. Other source material that is available to readers may be referenced, but should
not be included in the document itself. Chapters 3 and 5 discuss these points in detail.
For a complex document with multiple authors, identify who has responsibility for
each particular content area. Use the outline to estimate the time required to gather the
data, write, edit, and publish the document, as well as to assess potential problems. The
outline is a useful tool for strategizing how to troubleshoot problems before they occur.

5. When You Work with a Team

When a document is a group effort, first identify the primary contributors and their
roles. Then, let each team member know the level of detail required, the audience, and the
deadlines. Provide each contributor the outline of the entire document, so that everyone
knows how their section fits into the whole. Use this writing guide as a sample of what
you expect to receive in terms of writing style. Appendix A of this manual acts as a
rudimentary style guide that lists key terminology and standard acronyms. You can add to
this with terms or conventions appropriate to the specific document.
Have each contributor commit to completing the draft material within the expected
timeframe. Since team members often have other responsibilities and busy schedules,
follow up with each author to ensure that the commitment is being met and whether any
problems have occurred.
For documents with multiple authors, a project editor can greatly enhance the final
product. The editor‘s role is to ensure a single, coherent writing style, eliminate
redundancies or contradictions, and maintain consistent use of terminology.
6. Deadlines
Starting with the outline, deadlines should be clear, and team members should
commit to them in writing. Managing the development of a complex document is a project
management task that requires frequent contact with all contributors. One missed deadline
can cause an avalanche of missed deadlines. Therefore, it is important to be aware of
potential problems before they occur. If possible, it is always best to plan for some leeway
in the schedule so that late contributions do not affect the quality of the project.
Remember to allow adequate time for the project editor as well as for production.
As a rule of thumb, an experienced editor can copyedit approximately five pages of highly
technical information an hour, up to ten pages of well-written generic information.
Tools such as Microsoft Project are helpful for monitoring progress, but there is no
substitute for hands-on management, including frequent communication with all team
members.
7. Summary
The key to creating a meaningful document is understanding both the purpose the
document serves and the audience who will read it. With a thorough understanding of
these two guiding principles, the required level of detail becomes clear. Next, develop an
outline of what the document should include. For a simple memo, this may be one or two
key points directed to the target audience. For complex documents with multiple
contributors, it includes topic outlines, deadlines, and individual responsibilities for each
section of the document. A project editor can greatly enhance the continuity and
readability of documents with multiple authors. The process of developing a complex
document is a management task that requires having clear expectations, commitments, and
ongoing communication. Plan for each step, and leave time for editing and production. In
all cases, test the final document against the original purpose and the requirements of the
identified audience.
 Checklist 1—Getting Started

Purpose & objective

What is the essential information? Why do people need to know?
How is the information relevant?
7.1 Rule: Convey to the audience what you want them to know or do
when they have finished reading.

Audience—the readers to whom this document is directed Who specifically needs

this information?
What terminology are they familiar with? What are their skills and preferences?
7.2 Rule: Present information to the audience‘s level of knowledge.

Data
What information logically supports the key points in the document? Does it
enhance the presentation, not detract from it?
Is it necessary for the audience‘s understanding of the topic?
Rule: Only include data that supports the information you want to present.

To determine that you‘re writing for the correct audience, ask:

Have I clearly defined the individuals who should read this document? Have I told
them what the document will help them do?
Have I used words they can understand?

Examples of Purpose and Audience Definition

 Instead of “The purpose of this report is to present the results and
recommendations of the Study to the District.‖
 Problem: The study, the specific audience, or what the audience should do with the
report has not been defined.
 Use ―This study is an overview of the factors that affect the structural integrity of
Oz Water District (District). It provides data and recommendations to assist
District Engineers and Project Mangers in recommending channel repair and
replacement work along the Oz and Munchkin Creek alignments and estimating
the associated costs.‖
 Solution: Defines both the audience and the objective.
 Instead of ―This Feasibility Study summarizes current operational practices
(including typical annual quantities and disposal costs, outlined in Table 1-1),
presents problems involved with current practices, and evaluates solid material
management alternatives.
 Problem: There is no description of the audience or what they should be able to do
after reading the document. Mentioning a detailed table in the summary statement
is distracting.
 Use ―This Feasibility Study summarizes existing practices and future alternatives
for solid waste management in the Oz Water District. It presents a detailed
overview of these practices and alternatives to provide a basis for decision making
for District Engineers, board members, and other interested parties.‖
 Solution: Defines both the audience and the objective.
 Instead of ―This Implementation Plan provides overall strategic guidance to staff
to ensure that flood protection improvements along the Oz Rive are consistent with
the US Army Corps of Engineers requirements and the District‘s Clean Safe
Creeks Program‘s Commitments.‖
Lesson 2: Your Role As a Writer
Technical Writing requires objective analysis and clear presentation.
Whatever the topic, it is imperative to act professionally and ethically in all dealings with
the specific audience, the public and government agencies. Because what you write is
usually work for hire, either for a company or a government entity, it is important to stay
within the guidelines of the funding organization in your writing. Write from your opinion
as a representative of that entity.

When you respond in writing to colleagues, customers, management, or the public,

the correspondence becomes part of the corporate or public record, so it is critical that
written communication is clear and accurate.

Make sure your letters and emails express your or your company‘s position
without criticizing or offending the recipient. The correspondence should stay within the
bounds of the topic, the area of requested feedback, and the Company‘s policies.

1. Employ Ethical Principles

The Handbook of Technical Writing lists five ethical principles to adhere to when
writing1:
 Avoid language that attempts to evade responsibility.
 Avoid language that could possibly mislead readers.
 Do not de-emphasize or suppress important information.
 Do not emphasize misleading or incorrect information.
 Treat others fairly and respectfully.
Both the National Society of Professional Engineers and the American Society of
Civil Engineers have codes of conduct. One of these guidelines that pertain to technical
writing is as follows:
Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements, or
testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports,
statements, or testimony.
Accuracy of technical information is the responsibility of the writer. Make sure you
have the information you need to write accurate reports and procedures.

2. Give Credit Where Due

It is unethical to use information or ideas that are not your own without crediting
them. Information obtained from the research of a colleague is as important as
information you found in a published book. Make sure to add a footnote giving the
colleague or the book credit. Microsoft Word has an Insert Footnote feature for adding
footnotes.
Complete and consistent documentation of your sources of information can:
 Help your readers locate the information and do follow-up research
 Help you support your position, recommendations, or conclusions
 Help you avoid plagiarism
Use footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographies to acknowledge where you found
particular bits of information. For example, in many reports, a background section tells
the history of the project but doesn‘t mention where the information came from. In some
cases, the information derives from another report or document within the same
organization. It is not plagiarism to use something from another document in another
document written for the same organization, but it does not help the reader find more
information. If you are quoting a substantial amount of material, you need to obtain
reprint permission from the publisher. If you are paraphrasing, simply credit the source.
This not only acknowledges the contributor, but also lends credibility to your
presentation.
3. Summary
For all technical writing, professional conduct and high ethical standards are important to
maintaining credibility. Although it is sometimes difficult, your responsibility as a writer
is to stay neutral and objective whenever possible. Stay within the scope of the project
and avoid stating personal opinions or making biased statements in company or public
documents. The following checklist provides a series of questions to review as part of
developing written communication. Their function is to ensure that information is
appropriate and in line with corporate and government expectations.
Checklist 2—Ethics

 Language clearly states who is responsible for what.

 Correctly represents all data
 Avoids language that could possibly mislead readers.
 Provides correct emphasis based on the data.
 Treats the views of others fairly and professionally.
 Clearly cites all sources used to write the report.
 Each alternative is presented in a clear and unbiased manner.
 All recommendations and conclusions are supported by facts presented in the report.
 All judgments, recommendations, or comments are within the scope of the project or
the organization‘s policies.
 Acknowledged and received permission to use copyrighted information used in the
report.
 All the material is pertinent to this project.
 Document is checked for comments that might be misconstrued or cause conflict
for the funding organization.
Lesson 3: Style & Usage
This chapter presents some basic rules of good business writing. It discusses the
components of good writing style, and demonstrates common mistakes and offers
improved examples. The chapter includes the following:
 Common elements of good writing
 Phrases to avoid
 A short, alphabetical list of often-misused words and phrases, and examples of
correct usage
An editing checklist appears on the final page.
1. Elements of Style
The famous writing handbook, The Elements of Style, by Strunk and White
provides a definitive reference to the rules of good writing. Other important texts to refer
to for style and usage information are The Chicago Manual of Style and the Handbook of
Technical Writing. This section cannot cover all the topics in these excellent references.
Instead, it presents some important rules for good basic communication.
a. Present Tense, Active Voice
You may have noticed that in this manual most sentences are in the present tense.
We don‘t say you will do this, rather, you do this. Use ―will‖ and ―shall‖ when you want
to denote something in the future; otherwise, use present tense.
For example:
Instead of ―The material about the business application will demonstrate…‖
Use ―The material about the business application demonstrates…‖

Instead of ―After reading this material, the board will determine appropriate
actions…‖
Use ―After reading this material, the board can determine appropriate actions…‖
In addition, minimize the use of gerunds (verbs ending in ―ing‖). These tend to be
vague.

Instead of ―Advocate requesting State assistance when available.‖

Use ―Request State assistance when available.‖ This makes it clear that this is the
responsibility of this audience to make the request.
Present tense gives the writing energy. In the same way, active voice is direct and
demonstrates who is responsible for an action. Active voice takes the form of ―A does
B‖; passive voice takes the form of ―B is done.‖ Active voice avoids the ambiguity
inherent in passive voice. Passive voice deflects attention from who performs the specific
action. Phrases like ―It is anticipated that…‖ or ―circumstances dictate‖ are an implied
passive construction. Avoid these phrases.
In some cases, passive voice is acceptable. For example, in an extensive report
describing construction activity, the reader may not need to know exactly who is
excavating or drilling. In these cases, a phrase such as ―the ground will be excavated‖ is
acceptable.
However, generally, passive construction makes for clumsy prose.
For example:
Instead of ―It was determined that immediate action was required.‖
Use ―The committee requested immediate action.‖

b. Simple Sentences
In addition to clearly stating who does what, active voice helps you write simple,
declarative sentences. You can improve many complicated sentences by splitting
them into two simpler sentences, each expressing a clear idea. Read your document
and see whether you can clarify the information by breaking up convoluted sentences.
For example:
Instead of ―Generate realistic and timely cost estimates to minimize disruption of
construction activities, because funding availability may be a limiting factor.‖
Use ―Develop realistic cost estimates and construction timelines at the start of
each activity. Funds for overruns may not be available.‖

c. Gender Neutrality
No personal pronoun in English refers to both sexes. The he/she alternative is
awkward. When discussing general categories of people, try to rewrite the sentence in
the plural to avoid the issue of gender.
For example:
Instead of ―A programmer would see the flaw in this logic. He would correct it
immediately.‖
Use ―Programmers would see the flaw in this logic. They would correct it
immediately.‖
Use gender-neutral nouns and pronouns, such as chair instead of chairman, and
their, they, or them rather than he, she, her, or him.

d. Abbreviations and Acronyms

The first time you use an abbreviation or acronym in a document, spell it out,
even if you think your audience knows the term. The proper format is to spell out the full
word or phrase, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. For example: Massachusetts
Bay Transit Authority (MBTA). Thereafter, it is proper to use only the abbreviation
throughout the document. However, if sections of the document are designed to stand
alone, redefine the term the first time you use it in a section. It is always helpful to
include a glossary if your document includes many acronyms and abbreviations of
project-specific terms. See Appendix A for an example of a glossary.

e. Lists
Lists can save readers time by allowing them to see specific items, questions, or
directions at a glance. They also allow key ideas to stand out from the surrounding text.
Bulleted lists present a series of like items. Numeric lists denote sequential items or
items ranked in importance. Numbers also help readers refer to particular items, and are
thus useful when you wish to present strategies or choices that readers may want to
discuss.

Items in all lists should have parallel structure. Don‘t mix items that are actions
and start with a verb with items that are results and start with a noun. If one list item is a
complete sentence, all should be. Conversely, all items should be phrases if one is a
phrase. Sentences should have periods at the end; phrases should not. If the list has
multiple levels, each level should contain items that are alike in function. When indenting
in a list, each level should have at least two items.

A list catches one‘s eye because of the layout, but too many lists can overwhelm
readers, causing them to not know where to focus their attention. Use lists judiciously to
emphasize and clarify.

Tips for Using Lists

List only comparable items.
Use parallel structure throughout.
Use short sentences, phrases, or words.
Provide adequate transitions before and after lists.
Use bullets when rank or sequence is not important.
Do not overuse lists.

f. Sidebars
Sidebars are useful for drawing attention. They are usually brief—
used to from one sentence to a paragraph in length—set off with a box or
shading. You can use sidebars in a variety of situations. They may
to a contain a summary of key information that you want everyone to read,
specific point or a supporting fact that you want to emphasize. Sidebars are often used
in the text. to help readers scan for points of interest that they might otherwise
miss. Sidebars should be used sparingly, and they must relate to the text on the page on
which they appear.

g. Figures and Tables

Figures and tables can provide an instant understanding of complex information.
They must be accurate, meaningful, and described in the text. Whenever possible, keep
figures and tables in close proximity to the text that describes them so that the reader
doesn‘t have to flip back and forth between the figure or table and its description. Always
refer to the figure or table by number, not ―above‖ or ―below.‖

Number figures and tables in sequence. If your pagination is sequential through the
text, such as pages 1 to 204, number figures and tables sequentially. For example, if there
are 83 figures, label them Figure 1 through Figure 83. If there are 18 tables, label them
Table 1 through Table 18.

If the text is numbered by section (pages 1-1 to 1-34, pages 2-1 to 2-75, etc.),
number figures and tables with the section number first, followed by the number of the
figure. Thus, 10 figures in Section 4 of a document should be numbered Figure 4.1
through Figure 4.10. Five tables in the same section would be numbered Table 4.1
through Table 4.5.

Tables should have meaningful row and column labels. If you use an abbreviation,
explain its meaning in a footnote. For example, the general reader may not know what
―Per‖ or ―Amt‖ are in a column head unless these are properly defined in a footnote, a
key, or in the text of the report that describes the table.
h. Cross-references
When referring to chapters or sections that appear elsewhere in the document, use
a cross-reference to guide the reader to the location. Cross-references help the
reader know when more information about a topic is available. Use cross-references
throughout the text to refer to information that also relates to the current discussion. A
common format is (See <chapter>, <section>).

i. Footnotes and Endnotes

Notes cite the source of information or provide a brief explanation that
supports a specific statement but is not integral to the logical flow of the text.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of a page of text. Superscripts in the text match the
numbered footnotes, like this.2 Endnotes are numbered in the same way, but all the notes
appear together at the end of the chapter or document. In general, use endnotes when you
would otherwise have more than three footnotes on a given page, or if footnotes are very
lengthy.

j. Redundancy
Avoid using the same words twice in a sentence.
For example:
Instead of ―Other significant features of the program include expense reporting,
detailed payroll capture, time management modules, and benefit features.‖
Use ―Other significant features of the program include:
expense reporting
detailed payroll capture
time management modules
benefit itemization
tax itemization‖
Instead of ―Regulatory agencies have begun to regulate all corporate tax
requirements and payments.‖
Use ―Regulatory agencies are monitoring all corporate tax requirements and
payments.‖
k. Final Edit
To ensure a professional submission, leave time for a final review of your
document. In addition to the standard spelling and grammar checks, your final check
should include a review of key terms and acronyms to make sure they are spelled out and
defined when they first appear. Check that appropriate information appears on the cover,
including authors, date, and volume number if appropriate. Make sure that the page
numbers and section numbers for cross-references and entries in the table of contents and
index are accurate, since these can change over the course of putting together the
document.
Finally, include a signoff sheet for reviewer comments and the date these
comments are due. See the sample signoff sheet that appears with the checklist at the end
of this chapter.

2. Wasted Words and Phrases to Avoid

After you write a sentence, look it over and ask whether there are any words
you can cut without affecting the meaning. If so, start cutting, because the shorter
version is usually better. Avoid words and phrases that don‘t add meaning to a sentence.
Some words and phrases to avoid include:
 Actual, actually
 All of (replace with ―all‖)
  As it were
 As to whether (replace with ―whether‖)
 As you know
 At the present moment in time (replace with ―now‖)
 Basically
 Being that (replace with ―since‖)
 Completely
 Essentially
 Extremely
 In order to (replace with ―to‖)
 In terms of
 Irregardless (this is not a word; use ―regardless‖ or ―irrespective‖ instead)
 It can be seen that
 It has been indicated that
 It is anticipated that
 It is imperative that
 It is interesting that
 It is significant that
 It should be noted that
 It should be remembered that
 Moreover
 Necessitate (replace with ―require‖)
 Quite
 Totally
 Utilize, utilization (replace with ―use‖)
 Very
 A few more phrases to avoid follow, along with suggestions for improvement.
Capable
The phrase is capable of ——ing can usually be changed to an active verb with can ——.
Equally as
Something can be equally important, or it can be as important, but it cannot be equally as
important.
The fact that
Usually unnecessary. You can often drop the fact and use only that alone. For example:
Instead of ―I‘m surprised by the fact that the report is incomplete.‖
Use ―I‘m surprised that the report is incomplete.‖
On a —— basis
Usually unnecessary. For example, replace ―on a daily basis‖ with ―daily.‖
So as to
The word to alone works fine.

3. A-Z Reference
The following is an alphabetical listing of common words or phrases and punctuation that
writers often misuse.
A or An
Use an in place of a when it precedes a vowel sound, not just a vowel. This confuses
people most often with acronyms and other abbreviations. Often, writers think it‘s wrong
to use ―an‖ in front of an abbreviation (like MRI) because ―an‖ only goes before vowels.
However, the sound determines which article to use. It‘s ―an MRI,‖ assuming you
pronounce it ―em are eye.‖
Affect versus Effect
Affect is usually a verb; effect is usually a noun. For example, ―The committee‘s decision
affects pending legislation. The effect of the decision is to delay these bills.‖ The adjective
for effect is effective, as in ―the committee‘s work is effective.‖ Effect as a verb
means ―to bring about‖ or ―to accomplish,‖ as in ―to effect a change.‖

Affect as a noun means the general emotional tone of a person. Affective as an adjective
means ―relating to or arousing an emotional reaction.‖ These terms are generally used in
psychological documents.
Alternate, Alternative
Alternate (as an adjective or verb) means to go back and forth between two things, as in
alternate Mondays (that is, every other Monday), or ―we alternate between meeting here
and in Sacramento.‖ Alternative means a different way of doing things. ―One alternative
is a dam, another is a series of levees.‖
Among versus Between
Follow this simple rule: Use between for two things, among for more than two.

And/Or
And/or is sometimes necessary in legal documents, but just clutters other writing. One
word or the other is usually sufficient.
Assure, Ensure, Insure
Ensure means ―to make certain.‖ For example, ―the legislation ensures public access to
the coast.‖ This is generally the word you want in reports or business communications.
Insure is a specific word meaning to set aside resources in case of a loss: ―We insure our
car against accidents.‖ Assure means to provide verbal reassurance to someone. Never use
assure in the sense of ―Assure that the wording is correct‖; the correct word in this phrase
is ensure or make sure. You can only assure somebody that it‘s correct. To avoid
confusion, ―make sure‖ or ―be sure‖ are often good alternative phrases. To avoid
confusion, ―make sure‖ or ―be sure‖ are often good alternative phrases.

Colon
A colon marks a pause for explanation, expansion, enumeration, or elaboration.
Use a colon to introduce a list: item one, item two, and item three. Use it to provide
corroborating evidence for a statement that precedes the colon or to provide an example.

Compound Words as Adjectives

When you combine two words to describe a noun, use a hyphen between them if
the description comes before the noun. If it comes after the noun, don‘t use a hyphen. For
example: ―The report is well written‖; ―They were excited by the well-written report.‖
 For a thorough explanation on when and when not to hyphenate words, refer to
The Chicago Manual of Style.

Comprise versus Compose

Comprise means ―contain‖ or ―include.‖ Compose means ―constitute; to form by
putting together.‖ The difference between comprise and compose is that parts compose
the whole, while the whole comprises the parts. For example, ―The book comprises 24
chapters.‖ ―Knowledgeable engineers compose the committee.‖ Avoid comprised of (one
way to remember is you wouldn‘t use ―include of‖).

Dash
A dash is an informal way of marking a parenthetical statement—or a diversion
from the main thought—in the midst of a sentence. Avoid using dashes in formal writing;
use parentheses or restructure the sentence.

Different
The word different is often redundant, as in several different options or many
different participants. Several options and many participants have the same meaning.

E.g. versus i.e.

The abbreviation e.g. is for the Latin exempli gratia, which means ―for example.‖
I.e. is short for the Latin id est, which means ―that is.‖ A comma should follow (and
precede, if appropriate) both abbreviations. Because these terms are often confused, it‘s
often clearer to use the words for example or that is instead of these abbreviations.

Every
Every requires a singular verb and singular pronouns. Do not write ―Every one of
the papers have been graded‖; use ―Every one of the papers has been graded‖ or (better)
―Every paper has been graded.‖

Imply versus Infer

A speaker implies something by hinting at it; a listener infers something from what
he or she hears. Do not use them interchangeably. For example: ―The report implied that
the situation was critical, but did not present clear alternatives.‖ ―From the conclusions,
the readers were left to infer that immediate action was necessary.‖

Less versus Fewer

 Less means ―not as much‖; fewer means ―not as many.‖ Use less for indefinite
quantities, like water or satisfaction. If you can count the items, however, use fewer. For
example, the sign at the express checkout should read: ―Nine items or fewer.‖

Numbers
The style rules for numbers can vary, but the most important thing is to remain
consistent throughout the document. Here are a few suggestions regarding using numbers
in text. Refer to The Chicago Manual of Style for situations not mentioned here.

Generally, spell out numbers less than 10; write numbers 10 or greater as figures.
This applies to both cardinal and ordinal (spell out first or fifth, but use 14th or 122nd))
numbers.
Some exceptions to the general rule include:
 Express time in figures: ―11:30 a.m.; 4:00 p.m.‖
 Do not begin a sentence with a figure: either spell out the number (however
large), or rewrite the sentence so it does not begin with a number.
 Very large numbers are expressed in figures followed by the word million,
billion, etc. For example: not 1,000,000,000, but 1 billion. This rule applies
to general text only. Scientific information or tables may require full
numeric expression.
 Use figures for all percentages and decimals within a sentence. For
example: ―A score of 3 percent was reached an average of 3.5 times.‖
 Use figures for physical quantities and measurements. For example: 6
meters; 3 cubic feet; 9 gallons.
 Numbers applicable to the same category are treated alike within the
sentence. For example: ―Of the 25 books recommended, four of the
engineers could only find 7.‖ ―In the past four years, 22 reports were written
on the topic.‖ In the first example, books are one category, so both numbers
are written as figures.

Parentheses
Parentheses mark information that is not part of the main thought of a sentence or
paragraph, but provides relevant supplementary information. If the parenthetical remark
appears within a sentence, do not use a period within the parentheses, even if it is a
complete sentence. If the parenthetical remark stands alone and is a complete sentence,
place the period within the parentheses.
Per
Avoid using per to mean according to. Use per to express mathematical
relationships, such as feet per second.

Prepositions at the End of Sentence

Avoid ending sentences and clauses with prepositions, such as to, with, from, at,
and in.
For example:
Instead of writing ―The topics we want to write on,‖
Use ―The topics on which we plan to write.‖ Prepositions generally go before the
words they modify.
On the other hand, don‘t let the need to move a preposition make your writing
clumsy or obscure. If a sentence is clearer with a final preposition, let it stand. Remember
Churchill‘s famous remark to his editor: ―This is the sort of nonsense up with which I will
not put.‖

Semicolon
The semicolon provides a pause between two complete sentences when the second
sentence follows directly from the first. For example: ―The prevalent wind is from the
north; the high banks on the south are designed to allow for this.‖ Both the phrase before
the semicolon and the one following it must be complete sentences; the sentences must
directly relate to each other. In this way, the semicolon eliminates the use of conjunctive
phrases, such as thus, in addition to, and therefore.

Unique
Unique means ―one of a kind.‖ There are no degrees of uniqueness: something is
either unique or it isn‘t. If you want a word that implies degrees, use special or unusual.

4. Summary
Good writing is a combination of orderly ideas presented simply and the appropriate use
of words, phrases, and conventions. These include the use of lists, references, figures and
tables, and abbreviations. Overall, text should be in active voice, present tense, and use
short, declarative sentences. Check your writing to eliminate unnecessary words,
substitute simple words for overly complex ones, and ensure that you have used words
and phrases correctly. An editing checklist appears on the following page.
 Checklist 3—Editing

 Checked for present tense, active voice. Checked for unnecessary

words.

Used gender-neutral wording.

Acronyms and abbreviations defined when first mentioned. Checked for subject/verb
 agreement.

Used abbreviations and other terminology consistently.
 Checked misspelled words (do not rely solely on a spell checker). Checked for correct use

 of punctuation.

 Figures and tables numbered correctly and appear in the correct location. Supporting documentation located to
appendices.

Figures, tables, and appendices referred to accurately.

Bulleted and numbered lists have parallel construction and consistent punctuation.
 Heading levels follow sequentially. If you create one subhead, you must have at least two. For example, don‘t
 create heading 1.1.1 without a heading 1.1.2. If information for only one subhead exists, it should all appear
under the main heading, 1.1.
 Pagination is correct (for example, if sections are numbered 1-x, 2-x, etc., each section starts on page x-1).

Glossary identifies all key terms.

Updated and validated TOC and index entries.

 Title page lists the title, authors, volume number, date.

Attached sign-off sheet with comments and date that revisions are due.





Presented from:
Project Title:
Date:
Deliverable:

Review Contents:

Reviewers‘
Instructions:

Due Date:

Comments from Author:

Comments from Reviewer:

I have reviewed the attached document with changes as noted in writing.

Signature acknowledges authorization to incorporate comments and proceed with next
draft.

Reviewer Name, Title

Date
Lesson 4: Correspondence & Memoranda
Corporations and governmental organizations have standards for correspondence, email,
and some types of memoranda. In addition, there are often timing and content
requirements for quality records for companies that have a quality management system.
This lesson covers the appropriate format and content for:
Email
Correspondence
Meeting agendas and minutes
Memoranda
A checklist appears at the end of the chapter, along with samples and templates.

1. Correspondence
In your role as a technical writer, you may need to respond in writing to other
companies, agencies, colleagues, management, or the public. In many cases, the
correspondence becomes part of the public record, so it is critical that written
communication be clear and accurate.

a. Keep Comments within the Scope of the Organization‘s Responsibility

Make sure your letters and emails express the organization‘s position without
criticizing or offending the recipient. Correspondence should stay within the bounds of
the project, the area of requested feedback, and the organization‘s policies.
Comments outside of these areas may provoke angry commentary, and they never
enhance the organization‘s reputation or relationship with others.
For example:
Instead of (In a letter to the City of Oz Planning Department regarding an report)
―This project is inconsistent with the City of Oz‘ Riparian Corridor Policy.‖
Problem: Water District staff should not presume to tell the City about
inconsistencies within the City‘s policies and projects. This is not the District‘s
role.
Use ―The District is concerned with the project‘s impact on the riparian corridor of
Oz Creek.‖
Solution: It is the District‘s role to oversee and protect the creek. Present any
concerns about the project‘s effect on the creek only as they reflect the
organization's role.
b. Eliminate Personal Opinions
Keep personal feelings and opinions out corporate letters or emails. This can
be difficult if you feel strongly about some aspect of a project, or you see something that
others may have missed. If this is a public policy issue, write a personal letter to the
governing body under your own name, on your own stationery, from your home address.
You as a citizen have a right to comment and to have an opinion, but it is inappropriate to
use your position with a company or government organization for this purpose.
An example follows.
Instead of (In a letter regarding an environmental impact report) ―The report does
not provide adequate information supporting statements that there is a continuing
high demand for golf courses in the city, nor does it compare this need to other
recreational needs in the city. Because of the environmental impacts of the project
and the fact that this unique parcel is in city ownership, the city should consider
another type of park use which better utilizes and protects the natural character of
the park.‖
Problem: This is a personal opinion and should not be in a government report.
Remove the above example from the report. If use of this unique area is of
personal concern, write a letter on your own stationery with your comments.
When stating a professional opinion on behalf of the organization, state the
objective basis for the opinion or cite the source (planning study, regulation,
manual, etc.) when appropriate, and adhere to the principles discussed in Chapter
2. For examples of professional opinions stated as conclusions or
recommendations, see sections 5.1.4 and 5.1.5 of this manual.

c.Use Proper Format

Letters should state their purpose in the first paragraph, provide supporting
information in the body, and summarize their content in the final paragraph. Most
companies and government agencies have specific policies for correspondence. A letter
template in Microsoft Word that incorporates some general guidelines appears at the end
of this chapter. In the absence of such directives, use the Gregg Reference Manual as a
standard for business communication.

2. Email
Increasingly, email is becoming an important means of communication. Email
should adhere to the same standards that apply to correspondence. Whether within or
outside the company, email is part of the corporate or public record. It is often used in
court to substantiate events.
The ease and rapid-fire nature of email can lead to inappropriate content. This
section focuses on basic email etiquette, expectations as to content, and some tips on how
to maximize the benefits of email.
a.State the Subject Clearly
Use the email subject line to succinctly define what the email is about. For example:
Instead of Formatting issues
Use Suggestion about Word templates
Instead of Yesterday‘s meeting
Use ABC Features and Functions Meeting 10-11-02
Don‘t misuse email‘s reply feature (Re: xxx) to state the subject. If you‘ve moved on to a
new topic, enter a new subject line.
Clearly identify your audience and any action you expect from them. Send copies to those
who need to be informed but from whom no action is expected.

b.Write Short, Readable Communications

As you write your email, keep in mind that many people get between 20 and 200
emails a day. If you want your email to be read and answered, make the topic and any
key information clear in the first few sentences. It should be clear, polite, and short.
Include details that help the reader identify the information. It may have been weeks since
they thought about this particular topic.
For example:
Instead of ―Sorry to be late on getting back to you, but my schedule has been
packed. I know you needed this information last week, but hope it is still relevant
(smile). In regard to the revisions to the tables supporting section 1, I have
requested the information we need from Jane. She is the one who has access to the
internal reports that provide what we need. She promised to get back to me ASAP.
That was three weeks ago, but I‘m still waiting. Will let you know as soon as I
receive the information.‖
Use ―You asked me to provide revisions to the tables supporting Section 1 of the
Upper Guadalupe River Implementation Report. Jane Sable at the Army Corps of
Engineers is the individual who can provide this information. I have contacted her
by email and by phone (email: [email protected], phone xxx-xxx-xxxx), but have
not yet received the information. I will follow up weekly and report any progress. I
apologize for the delay.‖

c.Employ Email Etiquette

Email should employ basic politeness, standard capitalization and
punctuation, and good grammar. If you receive angry email, refrain from replying in
kind. Angry emails do not foster a professional image.
Some speedy conventions have found their way into acceptable emailese. These
include dropping letters out of words (thru and shd are common), as well as BTW (by the
way), EOD (end of day), IMHO (in my humble opinion), etc. These are helpful shortcuts
as long as you‘re not turning your email into acronym soup. For example: BTW IMHO
this shd be done by EOD. Use acronyms sparingly, if at all.
More misunderstandings occur in writing than in spoken conversation because you
cannot read the person‘s body language or hear the nuance in tone. This is true of both
correspondence and email. In an email exchange, called a ―thread,‖ a person coming into
the conversation in the middle will need the whole thread to be able to follow the
discussion. If you find it necessary to delete something, make sure all of the pertinent
information remains. In most circumstances, it is better to leave some extraneous
information than to err on taking out too much.

3.Meeting Agendas and Meeting Minutes

Agendas and minutes are before and after pictures of the same event. The
agenda documents who was invited and the meeting‘s intent, and the minutes document
who attended and what happened

a.Meeting Agendas
Distribute meeting agendas before the meeting. This lets the participants know
the purpose of the meeting, how long it may take, and whether they need to prepare
materials and/or information. Depending on the subject matter, an agenda can help even
an informal meeting be more productive.
The agenda should include the following:
 Date, place, start time and, if possible, expected end time
 List of participants
 Purpose/Objective
 Issues to be discussed
 Items to be presented
Include materials for review along with the agenda, or distribute them well
ahead of the meeting so people have time to review the material before they need to
comment.
This saves time and reduces the possibility of needing a follow-up meeting on the
same subject. The following is a sample agenda for an internal meeting of multiple
authors preparing a planning study:
 Agenda: Authors Meeting to prepare for XXX Reference Manual

Date: June 17, 2003

Time: 1-2 pm
Location: Building X, Conference Room Y
Participants: Name 1

Name 2 Name
3…

Purpose: To discuss roles and timeline for development of XXX Reference

Manual

If you cannot attend, please notify <Name> by the end of day on June 15.

1. Introductions: 5 minutes
2. Review contribution assignments, file location, style guide, timelines: 15
minutes
3. Review data and source materials, identify gaps: 20 minutes
4. Determine strategy to obtain missing data: 15 minutes
5. Schedule next meeting: 5 minutes

b.Meeting Minutes
Meeting minutes document what occurred at the meeting. They are not an
opportunity to present a position or to add new materials and comments.
The format should follow the agenda closely, including:
 Date, time, and place of meeting
 Names of those in attendance
 Purpose of the meeting
 Each issue addressed and highlights of the discussion
 A notation of any materials handed out at the time
 Outcome or decisions made (if an agreement was made to meet again, note
place and time of next meeting)
 For most meetings, simply documenting the topics discussed and decisions
reached should be sufficient. The following is a sample of the meeting minutes that
corresponds to the above sample agenda:

Minutes of Authors Meeting to prepare for XXX Planning Study

Date: June 17, 2003

Present: Name 1

Name 2 Name 3…

Next meeting: None scheduled

All authors met to determine the roles, responsibilities, and timeline for their contribution
to the XXX Planning Study. <Name> is managing this project. <Name> introduced the
contributors, and provided the URL for the Division style guide, as well as hard copy of
the Document Review Checklist.

Agreements and assignments from this meeting are as follows:

1. All authors will complete the Checklist and attach it with their draft submissions.
2. All authors agreed to meet the attached schedule of deliverables.

3. The project editor, <Name>, will contact authors weekly to remind them of due dates.

4. <Name> is responsible for obtaining the missing data from xxx.

5. We do not anticipate the need to meet again as a group until after delivery of the draft
report.
6.
<Name> will schedule the next meeting after consulting with all authors by email after
the draft report is complete.

Always attach copies of materials distributed at the meeting or note where to

find them. Since minutes are often reviewed months or years later, it is important to have
access to supporting documents with the minutes.

4. Memoranda
There are many types of memos. The two described here are technical memos and
documenting memos. Both types are frequently used to track technical projects, especially
if an organization has quality assurance procedures in place.

a.Technical Memos
 Technical memos are quality records used as part of engineering or planning and
design p r o c e d u r e s . Staff review and comment on the content and recommendations
made in a technical memo before the project teams or consultants can continue with their
work.
These memos are used to evaluate issues and discuss problems, objectives, plan
selection, and design. Memos should be clear, to the point, and formal.
Technical memos should include the following:
Title: (Indicates the subject and type of technical memo.)
Prepared by: (Names the staff person or engineering or consulting firm.)
Date: (Displays current date and/or date of the review. For example, Submitted
May 10, 2004, Reviewed June 3, 2004.)
Summary: (Names the project, describes its purpose, and briefly states any
conclusions or recommendations made in the memo.)
Background: (Includes a short discussion of the project background and why this
issue has come about.)
Evaluation: (Discusses the issue in-depth, and evaluates the problem or situation
and its possible solutions. It also includes any questions for the participants to
consider.)
Recommendations: (Provides detailed conclusions and recommended solutions to
the issue or problem.)
Clarity is extremely important in technical memos, so outline your thoughts before
presenting them. Use simple, straightforward language.
For example:
Instead of ―The purpose of this technical memorandum is to present the final
architectural design criteria at each water treatment plant. This refers basically to
the proposed ozone structures, liquid oxygen storage facilities, wash water
clarifications buildings, and new chemical facilities. This memorandum has been
finalized after receiving and incorporating review comments.‖
Problem: The statement fails to identify clearly which plants it is discussing. It
uses vague, wasted phrases and passive voice.
Use ―This final technical memorandum incorporates previous review comments
from the Oz Water District relative to the architectural design criteria for new
water treatment plants within the District. These criteria include:
 Proposed ozone structures
 Liquid oxygen storage facilities
 Washwater clarifications buildings
 New chemical facilities‖
 An example of a technical memo and a template are included at the end of
this chapter.
b.Documenting Memos
Documenting memos put a variety of information in writing as a formal
record. Quality records for most corporate or governmental projects include a
documenting memo on problems and objectives, and a memo on project selection. Other
memos simply note delivery of a document or completion of a milestone. Each type of
memo contains different information.

Generally, documenting memos include the following:

 Title: (Indicates the subject and type of documenting memo.)
 Prepared by: (Names the individual or firm.)
 Date: (Provides current date.)
 Re: (Provides the overall project identification number or other identifying
information.)
 Background: (Includes a short discussion of the project background and
why this issue has come about.)
 Documentation/Justification: (Includes the information that makes up the
body of the memo—for example, the document delivered, and review
solicited, the review comments, or other information.)
 An example of a documenting memo and a template are included at the end
of this chapter.

5. Summary
Remember you represent your organization whenever you write as its employee. The
information you present must be factual, unbiased, and supported by accurate up-to-date
data. Whether dictated by statute, or required by a company policy, it is important to use
the correct format and flow of information as you write. This chapter only contains a few
examples. Become familiar with the requirements of each document type for your
organization. Use the checklists to help you organize the information into a clear, concise,
well-written document.
Sample letters and memos appear after the checklists, along with templates for technical
and documenting memos. The templates do not have headings or page numbers.
Checklist 4—Correspondence & Memoranda

Letters
Follows standard format (see sample, which follows this checklist)
Starts with introductory paragraph the clearly states the purpose of the letter
Provides logical, supporting paragraphs for the body of the letter
Summarizes key points in the final paragraph
Discusses only items within the jurisdiction of the organization
Refrains from personal opinions
Maintains professional tone throughout

Email
Identifies topic of this email (not a previous one) in the Subject line
Keeps content short and to the point (one screen of information if possible)
Uses proper punctuation and grammar
Discusses only items within the jurisdiction of the organization
Refrains from personal opinions
Maintains professional tone throughout

Memoranda (see samples of technical and documenting memorandum, which follow

this checklist)
Follows standard format
Summarizes key points in initial paragraph
Keeps content short and to the point
Maintains professional tone throughout
 OZ Water District DOCUMENT NUMBER REVISION
A
Effective Date: 6/24/2004

Technical Memorandum
Final Technical Memorandum 3.14
Architectural Design Criteria
Prepared by: Lion, Tin Woodsman
Date: January 23, 2004
Summary
The purpose of this memo is to present the final architectural design for improvements to
the ozone structure and for the proposed public viewing corridor in the ozone generation
building of the Oz Water Treatment Plant (WTP).
Design consideration was given to the visual impact of the improvements on surrounding
neighborhoods. Exterior finishes will blend with the existing architecture to produce
visually pleasing process structures.
The District uses the Oz WTP for public tours. A viewing corridor for the general public
will be provided in the ozone generation building.
For the District‘s consideration:
Designate an area for tour vehicle loading and unloading to lower the impact on work
activities at the facility.
Advise us of special provisions for display cases and exhibits for the viewing corridor.
Have occupancy classifications for the viewing corridor reviewed by local building
department authorities during the construction document completion phase.

Background
An initial meeting was held with District staff to review the architectural design criteria for
the Oz plant. District staff then visited existing ozone generation facilities to assist in
developing preferences for the design of the new facility. The ozonation improvements
technical memorandum review meeting minutes dated July 24, 2000 reflect staff
comments.
Page 2 Final Technical Memorandum 3.14
Architectural Design Criteria
This current work builds upon previous architectural studies completed for the Water Quality Regulation
Compliance Project. They formulated exterior treatments for new ozone and chemical facilities and
contributed to the development of floor plans for this ozone generation building.

Architectural and Facility Design Considerations

This section reviews specific design considerations made for each aspect of the project.
Public Accommodation
The Oz WTP is the only facility with plans for special accommodations of public tours. These facilities
include a viewing corridor at one end of the ozone generation building. The new elevator and access to
the viewing corridor will meet disable access requirements for the public. The District should designate a
vehicle loading and unloading area for tours prior to the start of construction document preparation.

Facilities designated as public access will be designed for accessibility as required by law. Other
facilities, such as the ozone contractor structures, will not be designed for public access. The basis for
not designing these areas for access is:

These are security-restricted areas not intended for public access.

Employees do not customarily occupy these areas, except for maintenance and
operational duties.
District employees that are physically capable of performing the essential functions of WTP
operations, maintenance, and other duties associated with these facilities will be physically
capable of navigating stairs or ladders for access.
The physical requirements of these facilities due to hydraulics, chemical containment, site
restrictions, or other safety or process constraint does not readily accommodate at-grade access.
We recommend review of this basis for compatibility with District policies and the District’s
interpretations of its obligations under the current law.

Interior Finishing
The District visited the Wicked Witch of the West WTP in West Oz and the Good Witch of the East WTP
in East OZ. District staff liked the concrete floors and painted walls and suspended acoustical ceilings
of the East WTP ozone facility. For Oz, we will paint the walls and ceilings, where appropriate.

Access Doors
District staff preferred the large steel doors with unequal leaves and removable transom panels. This has
the advantage of allowing the use of the smaller leaf for normal ingress and egress while the larger leaf is
available for moving large components into and out of the building.

Landscaping
Landscape design is not part of this scope of work. Additional landscaping will be designed and
constructed by the District as a separate project. To accommodate future design, exterior walk areas
should allow for later planting, empty PVC pipe sleeves should be provided under concrete for future
irrigation piping and control valve wiring, and one or more electrical conduits may need to be provided
for future irrigation controller use (120 volt power).
Page 3 Final Technical Memorandum 3.14
Architectural Design Criteria

Recommendations/Conclusions/Action
We considered the visual impacts of Stage 2 improvements to the surrounding neighborhoods and
have designed the facilities. Exterior finishes will blend with existing architecture and produce visually
pleasing process structures. We will prepare photo-realistic graphics to show the views from the
neighbors’ perspective. Drawings of the proposed ozone facilities are attached to this memorandum.

Oz WTP will be primarily used by the District for tours. A viewing corridor for the general public will
be provided at the ozone generation building. The District should designate a public tour route for Oz,
indicating where tour vehicle loading and unloading will occur for coordination with the new facility
design.

Other facilities, such as the ozone contractor structures, will not be designed for public access. We
recommend review of this basis for compatibility with District policies and the District’s
interpretations of its obligations under the current law.

The District should advise us if special provisions for displays and exhibits are desired for the viewing
corridor.

Occupancy classifications and viewing corridor exiting should be reviewed with the

local building department authorities during the construction document completion phase.
Company Info DOCUMENT NUMBER REVISION

<a, b, c, etc.>
Effective Date:
<date>

Technical Memorandum
(Name of Technical Memorandum)

Prepared by: (Name of writer or consulting firm)

Date: (Date or date submitted)
Summary
(Include purpose of memo and summary of conclusions.)
Background
(Summarize background of this particular issue as it relates to this project.)
Evaluation of Issues
(Explain the issues involved and any related information that is pertinent to decision
making or needed to support your conclusions and recommendations.)
Recommendations/Conclusions/Action
(Your recommendations, conclusions, or recommended actions supported by information
in this memo.)
 M E M O R AN D U M
Company Name

TO:
SUBJECT: DATE:

Purpose: (Summarize memo purpose and briefly introduce the topic.)

Discussion: (Discuss and evaluate issues. Present data and information that can help the reader
understand the issue and make related decisions. This data and information should also support
whatever is presented in the conclusions section.)
Conclusion/Expected Action/Recommendations: (Refer to data presented. Summarize and
conclude with specific recommendations and expected actions.)

<Title>
Lesson 5: Reports & Studies
This chapter provides information about the structure of, the elements in, and the
flow of events involved in writing complex documents. It presents a guide for developing
an effective outline for communicating information. The chapter starts with general rules
for report content, with good and bad examples taken from sample reports. The chapter
concludes with a checklist that covers basic organizational principles.
This chapter covers:
Guidelines for reports
Rules for presenting content of various types
Rules for coherent flow of information

1. Report Guidelines
Reports vary in technical level, subject addressed, and purpose. The following
guidelines apply to report writing in general. Following these guidelines ensures that your
reports will be meaningful and effective.

a.Executive Summary—A Stand-Alone Chapter

The executive summary is a key element in any report of more than 10 pages. The
executive summary serves as a stand-alone document that average, non-technical
readers can use to determine if they want to read the report. The executive summary
is often the only chapter of a document recipients read. Therefore, the information
presented here is key to the value of the document as a whole. It consolidates the principle
points of the document. It must state the purpose—the objectives or the problems it
addresses—a summary of the findings, and the major conclusions and recommendations,
if there are any. Although this chapter is the first one readers see, it should be the last one
authors write, because it is essential to draw the content for the summary from the
document itself. It should be specific and concise. A simple example of an initial sentence
for an executive summary follows.
Instead of ―The purpose of this report is to present the results and recommendations of
the Study to the District of Oz.‖
Problem: This sentence is meaningless.
Use ―This report presents data on the structural integrity of XYZ Creek to assist Oz
District Engineers and Project Managers to estimate costs and prioritize the importance of
proposed channel repair and replacement work.‖
Solution: Now you know for whom the report is written, and what they should do with it.
 Once the report is complete, create the executive summary by extracting the
main points from the report text. The summary must cover the content in enough detail
to reflect the meaning of the data, but do so concisely and clearly so that busy people with
little time or knowledge of the subject can grasp key information.
Make an effort to keep the executive summary as short as possible. Two to
four pages are usually sufficient to provide a summary of most technical reports. The
executive summary should be clear and meaningful independent of the report. Therefore,
do not refer to figures, tables, or references contained elsewhere in the report. The
summary itself can contain figures, tables, or footnotes, as long as the information is
integral to the summary and key to supporting the recommendations. Because executive
summaries are frequently read in place of the full report, all uncommon symbols,
abbreviations, and acronyms should be spelled out and, if appropriate, defined.
Never add new data or conclusions in the executive summary. Every statement
in the summary is information already in the report. The summary should never introduce
information not contained in or supported by the report, and it should not exceed the
document‘s scope. For example, if the purpose of a report is only to explore possible
alternatives and present findings, the summary should not include recommendations.
Conversely, if the document is to summarize a policy decision, clearly state that decision
and the reasons behind it, but not necessarily go into details of the process behind the
decision.

b.Summary Paragraphs
Open each chapter with a summary paragraph. The summary paragraph provides
an overview of the chapter in much the same way the executive summary provides an
overview of the report as a whole. For example, look at the first paragraph of this chapter.
It explains the purpose of the chapter, what it contains, and where to find a quick
overview of the information.
The function of the summary paragraph is to let readers know whether to read this
chapter or not, and if they want to read it, where to find the information that interests
them. For example, management might only want to read the executive summary and the
summary paragraph of each chapter of a detailed report. From this reading, they should be
able to gather all the essential points of the document and find key supporting data,
without delving into the details of every topic.

A good summary uses present tense, active voice, and clearly states what is in
the section it summarizes.
 An example follows.
Instead of ―In this section, the advantages of the alternative selected for
monitoring water quality in Oz are summarized. Discussion will include an
overview of the problem as we see it, all the suggested alternatives studied, the
research about each alternative, and how the conclusions and recommendations of
District staff were reached.‖
Problem: Vague and uninformative.
Rev 2.00, September 1, 2004
Introduction to Technical Writing
Use ―This section details the recommendations of the District staff for effective
monitoring of water quality in Oz. We present the problem statement first,
followed by our recommendation. The remainder of the section presents all
alternatives studied, and the methodology and supporting research used to form the
conclusions that led to these recommendations.‖
Solution: Informs the reader exactly what is included and the order of the
presentation.
As with the executive summary, write the summary paragraph of the chapter
after the chapter is complete. Draw only on the contents of the chapter to create
the summary.

c.Main Body of the Report

The body of the report is where the author presents detailed information. The
contents should be organized as follows to present information in a logical flow:
 Introduction—Provide the background and origin of the study, the location
and study limits, an overview of the problem or issues studied, and how the
information is organized.
 Methodology (approach)—Discuss what the study proposes, what the
investigator is trying to learn, what data is required and why. A work plan
for the study or a discussion of similar research is appropriate here.
Document any assumptions or constraints.
 Data—Discuss the findings, the pertinent data gathered, the key
information of the report. Put supporting or background data not critical to
the flow of the main report in appendices. Reference data from other
sources so readers can locate it.
 Analysis—Provide an analysis drawn from the data presented. Note any
deficiencies or unexplained data.
  Conclusions—Present a professional opinion as to the meaning of the data
and your analyses. Discuss options and limitations. (See Section 5.1.4 for
more information.)
 Recommendations—Present a professional opinion as to the action or
policy indicated. (See Section 5.1.5 for more information.)
 Appendices—Present detailed supporting information that would detract
from the flow of the report but is required as supplementary information.
(See Section 5.1.6 for more information.)
 Each chapter or section should flow logically from the one before. That
is, present the problem, the method used to explore the problem, and the
findings. Then analyze the data, develop conclusions based on this analysis,
and, if appropriate, present recommendations based on the conclusions.
If your report contains multiple chapters of data, present the data so that the reader
can follow from the initial findings through more complex detail. Title each chapter
clearly, so that readers can easily find the chapters of interest.
A common mistake in reports is to refer to figures or tables that you have not yet
presented. Data and appendices must be presented in order. Only reference data
after it has been introduced and explained, not before.

d.Conclusions
Conclusions are designed to tie together the main ideas of the document in light of
the document‘s objectives. Writers must draw their conclusions from the data and
analyses presented in the report. Conclusions build from the data presented; they do
not present new data or draw on other sources.
As part of the process of creating the document, you define its specific purpose.
The conclusions must be consistent with that purpose. They serve as the focal point of the
document, the goal toward which the report was created. For example, if the objective of
the report is to provide alternatives for water treatment plant processes to enhance water
quality, the conclusion must be a presentation of specific alternatives. It should not
discuss the aesthetic value of the design, the surrounding open space, or the plans of other
groups or organizations.
The following is an example of the conclusion from a Planning Study.
The stated purpose of the report is to provide a concise overview of the project and
alternatives to reduce flood damage potential. Even without reading the report, this
conclusion summarizes the findings and presents a clear alternative. It discusses only
those issues relevant to the problem, and presents a clear and concise conclusion, based
on the data and analyses presented in the report.
 The existing flood-carrying capacity of Oz Creek is considerably less than the 1
percent design flow. The culverts at the road crossing and the Southern Pacific Railroad
represent a significant bottleneck in the existing channel system.
Because of the inadequate culverts and channels, Oz Creek has the potential to
flood over 1,600 existing structures to depths of up to 2 feet. The estimated flood damages
from a 1 percent flood are approximately $21 million. The proposed flood control project
would provide protection from the 1 percent flood, improve local drainage, and enable
the facility to be more effectively maintained. The project will cost about $10.9 million
and would be financed over eight years from existing revenue sources.
The only improvement to the above example might be some slight editing:The
existing flood-carrying capacity of Oz Creek is considerably less than the 1 percent
design flow. The culverts at the road crossing and the Southern Pacific Railroad
represent significant bottlenecks in the existing channel system. Because of inadequate
culverts and channels, Oz Creek has the potential to flood approximately 1,600 existing
structures to depths of up to 2 feet. The estimated flood damages from a 1 percent flood
are approximately $21 million. The proposed flood control project would provide the
following benefits:
 Protect against the 1 percent flood
 Improve local drainage
 Enable efficient facility maintenance
 The project cost is approximately $10.9 million, and can be financed
over eight years from existing revenue sources.
 Note that the conclusion above is not a recommendation. However,
the information is presented in such a way that the benefits of the
proposed action are clear, and the recommendation that follows in
the report needs no further substantiation.

e.Recommendations
Writers often confuse conclusions and recommendations. Conclusions are the
synthesis of the data presented in the report. Recommendations are suggested actions
or policies based on the conclusions. Recommendations move a step beyond the
conclusion to recommend a specific choice or decision.

Recommendations should only appear if they are part of the scope of the
document and within the expertise of the author. Going beyond the scope, or making
unsolicited recommendations or recommendations that exceed the author‘s purview, are
activities that often have adverse consequences for the organization. This can be true
whether inappropriate recommendations appear in an email, letter, or formal report.
 Before including recommendations in your writing, be sure that they are
warranted, solicited, and supported by data. For example, a feasibility study may include
conclusions drawn from the report as to whether various courses of action are feasible and
recommendations on which alternative to pursue. These recommendations should focus
on issues that have to do with quantifiable objectives from the scope of study, not on
ancillary issues such as perceived public opinion.

The following recommendation examples pertain to the proposed alternative to

provide backwater relief by creating a spillway for Oz Creek.
Instead of ―Substantial biological resource impacts could result from this
alternative. Actual mitigation requirements are not known, but based on the
difficulties of identifying suitable mitigation sites for other project alternatives,
adequate mitigation for these unavoidable biological impacts may not be
available. This proposal is almost certain to be controversial with the City,
environmental groups, and the general public.‖
Problem: This was labeled as a recommendation in the report. However it doesn’t
appear to recommend anything. It doesn’t identify any specific alternatives, is
written largely in the passive voice with wasted phrases and repeated words, and
doesn’t present a clear statement of the action desired. It is not based on objective
data and conclusions.
Use ―We do not recommend the proposed alternative of cutting a spillway to Duck
Marsh from Oz Creek’s northerly levee. Munchkin Marsh is a bay habitat, and
infrequent fresh water inundations from Oz Creek would have a potential negative
impact on this habitat. At a minimum, this alternative would require an
Environmental Impact Report to determine feasibility.‖
Solution: Even without reading the preceding chapter, this recommendation
succinctly summarizes the specific findings and presents a clear recommendation
focused on the issue.

Instead of ―To ensure the efficient operation of the proposed flood control
measure and to continuously evaluate the need for removal of sediment, debris,
and vegetation, a maintenance program is necessary.‖
Problem: This recommendation is written in the passive voice, and doesn’t clearly
identify the project or specify the maintenance program.
Use ―Based on the history of flooding in Oz, East Oz, and West Oz, and the
detailed findings of this study, the District of Oz believes the Oz Creek study area
requires a maintenance program to eliminate hazardous conditions that contribute
 to potential flooding. We recommend the following program (list details of
recommendation).
Solution: This recommendation clarifies the basic problem, identifies the specific
area of study, and sets the stage for the details of the maintenance plan.

f.Appendices
Appendices contain materials that supplement or clarify the data presented in
the report. Although not a mandatory part of a report, an appendix can be useful for
explanations that are too long or complex to include as a footnote or endnote, but are
helpful for the reader seeking further assistance or a clarification of points made in the
report. A well-written report usually contains all the information required to present the
objective, how it was investigated, the conclusions, and if appropriate, recommendations.
Any detailed, lengthy supporting information belongs in an appendix. This keeps the
details from impeding the orderly presentation of ideas.
Appendices typically include background information or the complex history of a
project, passages from documents and laws that reinforce or illustrate the text, detailed
charts and tables, letters and other supporting documents, calculations, raw data, and case
histories. An appendix, however, is not a parking place for miscellaneous bits of
information you were not able to work into the text. Each entry in the appendix should
support the information in the text.
Generally, each appendix contains only one type of information. The contents
of each appendix should be identifiable without having the reader refer to the body of the
report. When a report contains multiple appendices, arrange them in the order to
which they are referred in the text. Each appendix starts on a new page and is identified
with a title describing its contents. An introductory paragraph describing the context of
the appendix is often helpful.

g.Headings
Headings in a document are like road signs on a highway. Select brief, descriptive
headings to help readers navigate easily through the document. Typically, headings
appear flush left, are a different font from text, and are larger and in bold face.
Appropriate headings help readers quickly scan through the document to find what they
need. However, headings are not arbitrary markers. They follow basic rules, including:
Headings follow standard rules for capitalization of titles.
At least one sentence of text should appear beneath the heading that describes what
the heading covers. For example, don‘t have a blank heading labeled Conclusions, then
immediately a subheading labeled Conclusion 1. Summarize what the conclusions contain
with at least one sentence of text, then present the individual conclusions under
subheadings.
Subheads must always be in groups of two or more. If you have no text for a
particular heading, or fewer than two subheadings, combine the information to eliminate
the need for headings for the topic. For example, in this chapter, 5.1 is a heading, and
5.1.1 through 5.1.8 are subheadings.
Do not indent headings for reports. Leaving them left justified makes them easy to
scan.

h.Reference Information
References to data are important in technical documents. However, writers should
only refer to information they have presented previously. Do not refer to a table that
appears in a following chapter. Present information in a logical sequence, so that the
supporting data appears with the discussion. You can then refer back to it, if
necessary, to reinforce a conclusion. Charts or graphics that explain text should appear
with the text on the same page or a facing page, if possible. Detailed tables and complex
technical information usually belong in an appendix. In this case, refer to the appendix
when you first define the information it supports and, as necessary, as you explore the
topic.

2. Summary
A clear and logical presentation of information is key to transferring knowledge to
the reader. Outlining the points in a logical sequence should be the first step in preparing
a report. The following pages provide a checklist.

Checklist 5—Reports & Studies

Audience & Purpose

Clearly defines the individuals who should read this document.
Tells this audience specifically what the document will help them do.
Uses words they can understand.
Executive Summary
Is a stand-alone document that average, non-technical readers can use to determine
whether they want to read the report?
Content is drawn from the report and does not reference anything outside the report.
States the objective of the report.
Summarizes key points in the report.
States the conclusions or recommendations of the report.
Refrains from personal opinions (applies to entire report).
Presents conclusions or recommendations that are within the jurisdiction of the
organization (applies to entire report).
Is not more than four pages.

Report Body
Written in present tense, active voice.
Each chapter begins with a summary paragraph that provides an overview of the
chapter.
Content follows logical order: objective, methodology, data, analysis, conclusions,
and recommendations.
Supporting material is placed in appendices, not in the body of the report.
Data is referenced only after it has been presented.
Proper punctuation and grammar used throughout.
Brief, descriptive headings help readers navigate easily through the document.
Professional tone maintained throughout.
 Conclusion
 Built from the data presented.
 Does not present new data or draw on other sources.
 Presents opinions drawn from the analysis of the data so that the reader can
easily determine the best course of action.
 Does not specifically recommend an action
.
Recommendation
s
 Only appear if appropriate for this report.
 Suggest a policy or course of action based on the
 conclusions. Clearly summarize the conclusion on which it is
 based.

Appendix A. Glossary
This glossary serves as an example of terminology commonly used in water district
reports. It does not represent terms used in this document. It appears as a two-page
example of the format and level of information a glossary should provide.
ABA
Architectural Barriers Act
ACM
Articulated concrete mattress
Acre-foot (af)
A quantity of water that would cover one acre to a depth of one foot, equal to about
325,000 gallons of water.
Ad valorem tax
A tax based on property value.
ADA
Americans with Disabilities Act
ADT
Average daily traffic
Aggradation
The geologic process by which streambeds and flood plains are raised in elevation by the
deposition of material eroded and transported from other areas. The opposite of
degradation.
Alluvial
Pertaining to material or processes associated with transportation and/or subaerial
deposition by concentrated running water.
Ambient
Existing or background (e.g., ambient conditions). Commonly used to describe existing
air, soil, water, or habitat conditions in a given area. Any unconfined portion of the
atmosphere (i.e., outside).
Armoring (hydrology)
The application of various materials to protect stream banks from erosion.
Amortization
The process of liquidating a debt by installment payments or payment in a sinking fund;
to prorate over a defined period at a specified interest rate.
anadromous
A fish that migrates from salt water to spawn in freshwater, as salmon of the genera
Salmo and Oncorhynchus.
aquiclude
A body of rock that absorbs water slowly, but does not transmit it fast enough to supply a
well or spring.
Aquifer
A body of rock or formation that is sufficiently permeable to conduct groundwater and to
yield economically significant quantities of water to wells and springs.
 Aquitard
A saturated but poorly permeable stratum that retards but does not prevent the flow of
water to or from an adjacent aquifer.
Articulated concrete blocks (ACB)
Small, interlocking, precast concrete blocks tied together in a mat with high strength
polyester cables. Used for erosion protection on creek banks and inverts. Available with
holes for vegetative growth and percolation through the blocks.
Attractive nuisance
Something that invites people into a dangerous situation.
A-weighted sound level (dBA)
A sound level to which the A-weighted scale has been applied. The A-weighted scale
approximates the frequency response of the human ear by weighting the frequency range
of 1,000 to 5,000 hertz more heavily than other frequencies. (Unweighted sound levels are
expressed in the unit dB.) It is possible to measure A-weighted sound levels using an
instrument with an ―A‖ filter.
Bank erosion
Removal of sediment and soil particles from a bank, primarily by running water. Climate,
ice, debris, chemical reactions, and changes in land and stream use may also contribute to
bank erosion.
Bank full discharge
A bank full discharge or channel-forming discharge is a single discharge equivalent in its
effect to the range of discharges that govern the shape and size of the channel.
Bank stabilization structure
Feature installed or constructed to reduce bank erosion.

Bar
A deposit of sediment (boulders, gravel, sand, and mud on the bed of a stream), typically
formed and modified at high flow and exposed at low water.

Appendix B. Document Checklist

Document Title
Author
Audience & Purpose
Clearly defines the individuals who should read this document.
Tells what the document will help the audience do.
Uses words readers can understand.

Letters
Follows standard format.
Starts with introductory paragraph that clearly states the purpose of the letter.
Provides logical, supporting paragraphs for the body of the letter.
Summarizes key points in the final paragraph.
Discusses only items within the jurisdiction of the organization.
Refrains from personal opinions.
Maintains professional tone throughout.

Email
Identifies topic of this email (not a previous one) in the Subject line.
Keeps content short and to the point (one screen of information, if possible).
Uses proper punctuation and grammar.
Discusses only items within the jurisdiction of the organization.
Refrains from personal opinions.
Maintains professional tone throughout.

Memoranda
Follows standard format.
Summarizes key points in initial paragraph.
Keeps content short and to the point.
Maintains professional tone throughout.

Reports & Studies

Executive Summary
Is a stand-alone document that average, non-technical readers can use to determine
whether they want to read the report?
Content is drawn from the report and does not reference anything outside the report.
States the objective of the report.
Summarizes key points in the report.
States the conclusions or recommendations of the report. Refrains from personal opinions
(applies to entire report).
Presents conclusions or recommendations that are within the jurisdiction of the
organization (applies to entire report).
Is not more than four pages.

Report Body
Written in present tense, active voice.
Each chapter begins with a summary paragraph that provides an overview of the chapter.
Content follows logical order: objective, methodology, data, analysis, conclusions, and
recommendations.
Supporting material is placed in appendices, not in the body of the report. Data is
referenced only after it has been presented.
Proper punctuation and grammar used throughout.
Brief, descriptive headings help readers navigate easily through the document.
Professional tone maintained throughout.

Conclusions
Built from the data presented.
Does not present new data or draw on other sources.
Presents opinions drawn from the analysis of the data so that the reader can easily
determine the best course of action.
Does not specifically recommend an action.

Recommendations
Only appears if appropriate for this report.
Recommends a policy or course of action based on the conclusions. Clearly summarizes
the conclusion on which it is based.
Are within the jurisdiction and expertise of the author.

Use ―We do not recommend the proposed alternative of cutting a spillway to Duck Marsh
from Oz Creek‘s northerly levee. Munchkin Marsh is a bay habitat, and infrequent fresh
water inundations from Oz Creek would have a potential negative impact on this habitat.
At a minimum, this alternative would require an Environmental Impact Report to
determine

Ethics
Language clearly states who is responsible for what. Correctly represents all data
Avoids language that could possibly mislead readers. Provides correct emphasis based on
the data.
Treats the views of others fairly and professionally. Clearly cites all sources used to write
the report.
Each alternative is presented in a clear and unbiased manner.
All recommendations and conclusions are supported by factual information presented in
the report.
All judgments, recommendations, or comments are within the scope of the project or the
Organization‘s charter.
Acknowledged and received permission to use copyrighted information used in the report.
All the material is pertinent to this project.
Checked the document for comments that might be misconstrued or cause conflict for the
organization or between organizations.
Editing
Checked for present tense, active voice.
Checked for unnecessary words.
Used gender-neutral wording.
Acronyms and abbreviations defined when first mentioned. Checked for subject/verb
agreement.
Used abbreviations and other terminology consistently.
Checked misspelled words (do not rely solely on a spell checker). Checked for correct
use of punctuation.
Figures and tables numbered correctly and appear in the correct location. Supporting
documentation located to appendices.
Figures, tables, and appendices referred to accurately.
Bulleted and numbered lists have parallel construction and consistent punctuation.
Heading levels follow sequentially. If you create one subhead, you must have at least
two.
For example, don‘t create heading 1.1.1 without a heading 1.1.2. If information for
only one
subhead exists, it should all appear under the main heading, 1.1.
Pagination is correct (for example, if sections are numbered 1-x, 2-x, etc., each section
starts on page x-1).
Glossary identifies all key terms.
Updated and validated TOC and index entries.
Title page lists the title, authors, volume number, date.
Attached sign-off sheet with comments and date revisions are due.

I have reviewed the attached document with changes as noted in writing.

Signature acknowledges authorization to incorporate comments and proceed with next
draft.

Reviewer Name

Date
 Homework:
Work in pair and write a proposal or a Meeting Minutes about an IT Project.
Chapter 5: Interviewing Skills
Objectives
After completing this chapter:
Students will know a variety of interview types as well as their importance. Also, they will
learn what to do before, during and after the interview and how to impress the
interviewers.
Lesson 1: Introduction to interviewing
1. Purpose of the Interview
The interview is an opportunity for a recruiter to determine which candidate is the best fit
for graduate or professional programs, jobs and internships.

The interviewer is looking to determine the following:

 Can you demonstrate the skills they are seeking?
 Can you solve their problem(s)?
 Are you able to contribute to the graduate program?
 Are you the best fit for the organization or program?

2. Interviewing skills Quiz

True or False?
1. You should schedule your first interviews with companies or organizations in which you
are most interested.
2. You do not have to answer questions regarding age, sex, race, national origin, or marital
status.
3. Conducting an informational interview can be an effective way to find a job.
4. At a medical school interview, it is not necessary to repeat information provided in the
application process.
5. It is important to discuss salary requirements early in the interview.
6. When asked about your background, spend two minutes or so unless questioned further.
7. Avoid eye contact with the interviewer since it will make him or her uncomfortable.
8. If you are asked if you have any weaknesses, you should never give any.
9. The interviewer expects you to be well-informed about the company, organization, or
graduate program.
10. The most productive method to obtain a job is through recruiters, personnel agencies,
and online postings.
11. You should schedule some interviews to get experience prior to the ones in which you
are most interested.
12. Employers should not ask these questions, but they can be discussed if you bring them
up
13. The content of your personal statement and secondary application is important
information about why you want to go to medical school, and should be elaborated on in
the interview
14. Don‘t discuss until the job offer has been extended
15. Review the Tell Me About Yourself section on page
16. Maintaining eye contact shows that you are interested and that you have good
communication skills
17. Give one weakness and then follow-up with a positive action plan for improvement
18. Research is a critical component to the interview process and you must be prepared and
knowledgeable.
19. Networking is the best way to make career contacts. 70-80% of your career success is a
result of your ability to build and use your network of contacts.

3. Types of interviews
a. Screening Interviews
Screening interviews determine whether you measure up to the profile of the
hypothetically ideal candidate. Your answers should be direct, concise, and positive. Three
common types of screening interviews:

On-Campus Interviews Preliminary Interviews Telephone

Interviews

Determine who will be Large organizations use a personnel A cost-effective

invited for additional specialist to screen out candidates way to screen
interviews who are not appropriate candidates

Often arranged through the Consists of probing questions to Treat the

Toppel Career Center and determine technical competence and interview as
conducted by a college open-ended questions to assess seriously as an in-
recruiter personality person interview
 If an interviewer
calls without
warning and
wants to interview
you on the spot,
Typical on-campus interview
let him
is 25 to 30 minutes long
or her know that
you have a
conflict and
suggest
alternatives
Tips for Phone Interviews
Go to a quiet place Make a list of important points to highlight
Listen carefully to what the interviewer is saying Have your resume in front of you Turn off your
call waiting
Speak slowly and enunciate clearly Stand up if that will give you more energy
Dress professionally

b. Hiring Interviews:
Interviews are usually conducted by the immediate supervisor or by a person with authority
to hire. This is your opportunity to demonstrate good listening skills, ask intelligent
questions, and illustrate through discussion of your accomplishments that you can address
their needs.

Two common types of hiring interviews:

Panel or Board Interviews Series Interviews

Conducted by two or more people Consist of individual interviews with three
simultaneously or more people in the organization
Each person usually takes turns asking Participants are possibly the same people
questions and has his or her own separate as the panel interview, but you will meet
agenda one at a time rather than as a group
Expect to be interviewed by as many as Organizations may utilize this method to
five different people, including a human test your consistency and stamina
resources representative, that may
represent various levels of management
and functional areas within the
organization

c.Behavioral-based Interviews
An interviewing technique based on the idea that past behavior and performance
predicts future behavior and performance
Focuses on experiences, behaviors, knowledge, skills, and abilities that are job
related
More interviewers are turning to behavioral based interviews as the preferred
method of screening and evaluating applicants
This method of interviewing provides a fair, equitable, and effective system to guard against
costly and unproductive ―mis-hires

d. Informational Interviews
Initiated by the student and can help to narrow career interests
Meet with people working in their chosen careers to ask questions about particular
occupations or companies
Be exposed to a variety of perspectives by meeting with professionals
This is not the time to ask for a job

e. The Multiple Mini-Interview

Applicants move between interview stations and are observed by a single rater
Each station covers a different issue, including communication, collaboration, ethics,
health policy, critical thinking, and awareness of health issues

Graduate and Professional School Preparation

Research the universResearch the university and the specific program of interest
Review your application materials, including the personal statement/ statement of
purpose and secondary application
Be prepared to answer ethical questions and those about the balance between
your personal background and professional life
Be able to articulate why you want to enter this profession and why you want to
attend this program
Many graduate programs require assistantships for admission, and some do not
Research through the Graduate School and specific program office
Some graduate programs require students to do research
Know the research interests of the faculty and active projects
Elaborate on which research projects you want to contribute to as a research
assistant
Research what makes this program different from the competitionity and the
specific program of interest
Review your application materials, including the personal statement/ statement of
purpose and secondary application
Be prepared to answer ethical questions and those about the balance between
your personal background and professional life
Be able to articulate why you want to enter this profession and why you want to
attend this program
Many graduate programs require assistantships for admission, and some do not
Research through the Graduate School and specific program office
Some graduate programs require students to do research
Know the research interests of the faculty and active projects
Elaborate on which research projects you want to contribute to as a research assistant
Research what makes this program different from the competition.
Lesson 2: Before the interview
1. Conducting Research
The more information you have about a prospective employer or graduate or
professional program, the better prepared you are during the interview. Knowing about
the organization‘s products or services, trends, and employment requirements are vital to
your interview preparation and success.
Research the Company
 Primary mission or purpose of the company or organization
 Principal services or products
 Latest annual sales or revenue information
 Major competitors
 Organizational culture (management style, work environment, structure)
 Trends in the industry or field and the ‗hot‘ issues

Research the Graduate Program

 Demographics of the institution
 Research opportunities
 Curriculum and program requirements
 Assistantship or internship opportunities
 Clinical rotations and opportunities
 Funding opportunities

Research the Position

 Major responsibilities of the position
 Qualifications and skills required
 Training and education required
 Typical earnings, advancement, career path, and employment outlook
 Opportunities for continuing education and training

How to Look for Information

 Obtain a job description from the company
 Attend the company information session (if one is being offered at the Toppel
Career Center)
 Schedule an informational interview
 Access company profile on their website
Find company information on the Career Insider—Powered by Vault (access through
CaneZone)
Look up competitive salary ranges in NACE Salary Surveys
Speak and network with people that work, hire, or teach in the career field in
which you are interested

Research graduate or professional schools online by using:

 Peterson‘s (www.petersons.com)
 Student Doctor Network (www.studentdoctor.net)

2. Assessing Your Strengths and Skills

Once you have relevant information, you will need to prepare to demonstrate that you
will be a valuable addition to the organization or graduate program. It is important to
differentiate between the strengths and skills you possess. Also, select the accomplishments
you want to emphasize based on your research of the organization.
Strengths are personal traits and can be described as your unique qualities
Examples include: diligent, dependable, flexible and punctual
Skills are knowledge-based and are typically acquired from education and
experience
Examples include analytical skills, language skills, and interpersonal skills
When elaborating on these, always provide examples of how you demonstrate
them.

3. Preparing Your Answers

Once you have determined the skills you possess that best match the company
profile and position description, you need to organize your thoughts so that your answers flow
naturally. Experienced interviewers ask penetrating and often difficult questions. They have
limited time and are skilled at getting to the point. Preparing in advance allows you to
illustrate good communication skills and express yourself in a well-organized, professional
manner.
Although you cannot anticipate every question, you can prepare your responses
and practice answering difficult questions.
Recall and write your accomplishments ahead of time
Follow each skill or accomplishment with a specific example
Describe your skills and accomplishments by using behavioral-based interviewing
techniques
Describe relevant experience
 Review relevant course work that relates to the position described
Answer potentially negative questions by demonstrating how you learned from
the experience and that you took responsibility for any mistakes
Prepare for brainteasers during technical interviews
Demonstrate to the interviewer that you think in a logical manner
Explain your thinking as opposed to offering a guess
Lesson 3: During the interview
1. Verbal/Non-Verbal Communication
Hand Shake: The hand shake is your first interaction with an interviewer. It is as important
as being dressed appropriately for an interview. No knuckle crushers and no wimpy
handshakes!

Active Listening: Body language can show that you are interested and truly listening.
Posture: Sit up straight during your interview.

Be Relaxed: Do not slouch or sit too stiffly.

Eye Contact: Maintain friendly and attentive eye contact without a glassy stare. Do not let
your eyes wander. When there is more than one interviewer, establish eye contact with
everyone.

Facial Expression: Make sure your facial expressions match what you are saying. Relax
and smile often.
Gestures: Be careful not to tap nervously or jiggle.

The 3 ―C‖s: Appear calm, cool, and confident! Don‘t act or appear desperate.

Negative Talk: Never talk negatively about your past employers, professors, classmates,
or yourself. Stay positive even when describing your shortcomings.

Talking too Much: Don‘t ramble, or you may talk yourself out of the position? You are
there to get information as much as you are to give it.

Tone of Voice: Inflection and volume are important. Speak in a clear, well-modulated,
audible voice. Rapid speech and loud volume show your nervousness.

Non-words: Eliminate non-words such as ―you know,‖ ―um,‖ ―like,‖ and ―OK.‖ Good
grammar and well-articulated speech are crucial!

Pace Yourself: Take your time when answering questions.

Be Proactive: Don‘t hesitate to ask the interviewer when the organization will make a
hiring decision.
Follow Up: Ask for a business card from all interviewers so you have their contact
information for thank you notes

2. Biggest Interviewing Mistakes

1. Most candidates expect to be interrogated. Come prepared to have an exchange of ideas
with the interviewer. You need to ask questions throughout the interview in order to show
initiative.
2. Turning your weakness into a failure. When asked what your weakness is, avoid cliché
phrases including, ―I am a perfectionist.‖
3. Highlight a skill that you want to improve and state what action you are taking to
correct it. Most often, employers don‘t focus on the weakness, but how you handle the
question.
4. Not preparing for the interview. It is imperative that you attend the interview having
done your research. This includes researching the organization or program and being
prepared to match your skills and strengths to the position. Highlight the attributes that
make you a good fit for the job.
5. Leaving your cell phone on. Turn your cell phone off during the interview and do not
keep it in plain sight.
6. Arriving late to the interview. An obvious faux pas. Arrive 15minutes early to make a
good impression. Remember to consider traffic jams and bad weather!
 Lesson 4: After the interview
1. Thank You Letter Tips
Proofread all letters for spelling, grammar, and clarity
Use proper business-letter format and high quality paper
Send thank you letters within 24 hours of an interview
If you have interviewed with more than one person, each one should receive a thank
you note
If you have corresponded with the interviewer via email all along, it is appropriate to
send a thank you via email
If the organization is formal and traditional, use U.S. mail to send the thank you note
(a typed letter is standard)
Handwritten notes are most appropriate for a more casual office setting or as thanks
to additional staff members in the office who were helpful

[Thank you letter sample]

Your street address
Your City, State and Zip Code

Date of the letter

Name of the Recipient

Job Title of the Recipient
Name of the Employer
Employer's Street Address
Employer's City, State and Zip Code

Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name:

Thank you very much for the opportunity to interview for the position of [job title] yesterday [or today, if
appropriate]. I enjoyed speaking with you, meeting other members of the staff, and the opportunity to learn more
about this position. I am very interested in this position and the opportunity to join your team.

This job feels like a very good match between my skills and experience and the requirements of this job. As we
discussed, you need someone with strong [whatever] skills, and I have extensive experience with [whatever
technology or tool that is important to the job and that you have experience using]. In addition, in my current [or
former] job as [names or type of employer in your past] has provided the opportunity to polish my skills
in[whatever] and [whatever] needed for your [job title] position.

Again, thank you for considering me for this wonderful opportunity. Please let me know if you have any questions
or concerns or need more information. I look forward to hearing from you next week [or whenever they said they
would be in touch] and hope to join your staff soon.

Best regards,

[your name]
[Your tagline, like "eCommerce Customer Support Specialist"]
[Your job search email address]
2. Negotiating Salary
Do not discuss the issue of salary until the employer does
When the employer asks what salary you are looking for, reply with a question
such as: ―What is the typical salary for this position?‖
If pressed, name a pay range (for example $25,000–$35,000)
Have average salaries prepared based on your internet research, www.salary.com,
and NACE Salary Surveys in the Toppel Library
Don‘t take an offer on the spot
Before accepting or declining an offer, look at the entire compensation package,
including health insurance, sick/vacation/holiday leave, 401K benefits, etc.

3.Interviewing Dos & Don’ts

a. Dos
 Arrive 15 minutes early
 Dress appropriately
 Demonstrate knowledge and proficiency
 Be prompt, neat, and courteous
 Research the graduate or professional program
 Ask relevant questions
 Allow the interviewer to express him or herself
 Research company information
 Evaluate the opportunity objectively
 Follow company online application processes
 Be honest about your background and experiences
 Promote yourself in the best possible light
 Express your interest in the position or graduate program
 Send a thank you letter after the interview
 Reiterate your interest in the position or graduate program

b. Don‘t
 Freeze or become tense
 Be late for the interview
 Make elaborate promises
 Criticize yourself, anyone, or anything
 Present an extreme appearance (with jewelry, hair, or clothing)
 Interrupt the interviewer
 Run on too long when answering questions
 Ask about pay, vacation time, or benefits
 Interviewers seek enthusiastic people. Show enthusiasm by speaking positively about
previous experiences, internships, or supervisors.
Smile often and express your desire to be a part of the organization or graduate program.

Pair work: Work in pairs, one of students is the recruiter and the other is job seeker.
Let‘s have a job interview.
Chapter 6: Effective E-mail Communication
Objectives
This chapter is intended to help students learn to communicate more effectively using
e-mail by giving them knowledge about appropriate use of e-mail and providing them
with useful rules and tips to coherently convey message.
Lesson 1: How to write an effective Email
1. Background
Although e-mail is a valuable communication tool, its widespread use in
academic and business settings has introduced some new challenges for writers.
Because it is a relatively new form of communication, basic social conventions for
writing and responding to e-mail are still being worked out. Miscommunication can
easily occur when people have different expectations about the e-mails that they send
and receive. In addition, email is used for many different purposes, including
contacting friends, communicating with professors and supervisors, requesting
information, and applying for jobs, internships, and scholarships. Depending on your
purposes, the messages you send will differ in their formality, intended audience, and
desired outcome. Finally, the use of e-mail for advertising purposes has clogged
communication channels, preventing some e-mails from reaching their intended
audience. Writers are challenged to make their e-mail stand apart from ―spam‖ and to
grab and hold the attention of their audience.
So—how do you know when sending an e-mail is the most effective way of
getting your message across? When is a brief message o.k., and when it is more
appropriate to send a longer, more professional-sounding e-mail? How should a writer
decide what style of writing is appropriate for each task? How can you prevent your e-
mail from ending up in the junk pile? Keep reading for answers to these questions!

2. When is e-mail the appropriate form of communication to use?

E-mail is a good way to get your message across when:
You need to get in touch with a person who is hard to reach via telephone, does
not come to campus regularly, or is not located in the same part of the country or
world (for instance, someone who lives in a different time zone).
The information you want to share is not time-sensitive. The act of sending an
e-mail is instantaneous, but that does not mean the writer can expect an instantaneous
response. For many people, keeping up with their e-mail correspondence is a part of
their job, and they only do it during regular business hours. Unless your reader has
promised otherwise, assume that it may take a few days for him/her to respond to your
message. You need to send someone an electronic file, such as a document for a
course, a spreadsheet full of data, or a rough draft of your paper.
You need to distribute information to a large number of people quickly (for example, a
memo that needs to be sent to the entire office staff).
You need a written record of the communication. Saving important e-mails can
be helpful if you need to refer back to what someone said in an earlier message,
provide some kind of proof (for example, proof that you have paid for a service or
product), or review the content of an important meeting, deadline, memo.
3. When is e-mail NOT an appropriate form of communication to use?
E-mail is not an effective means of communication when:
o Your message is long and complicated or requires additional discussion
that would best be accomplished face-to-face. For example, if you want
feedback from your supervisor on your work or if you are asking your
professor a question that requires more than a yes/no answer or simple
explanation, you should schedule a meeting instead.
o Information is highly confidential. E-mail is NEVER private! Keep in
mind that your message could be forwarded on to other people without
your knowledge. A backup copy of your email is always stored on a
server where it can be easily retrieved by interested parties, even when
you have deleted the message and think it is gone forever.
o Your message is emotionally charged or the tone of the message could
be easily misconstrued. If you would hesitate to say something to
someone‘s face, do not write it in an e-mail.
4. Who is your audience?
People have different opinions about the form and content of e-mails, so it is
always helpful to be aware of the expectations of your audience. For example, some
people regard e-mail as a rapid and informal form of communication—a way to say
―hello‖ or to ask a quick question. However, others view e-mail as simply a more
convenient way to transmit a formal letter. Such people may consider an informal e-
mail rude or unprofessional.
A message like this one might be o.k. to send your friend, but not to your
professor:
Hey Joan,
Do you know what the assignment is about? Can U help me?
Although it may be obvious to you that you wouldn’t send such an e-mail
to your professor, let’s carefully examine what assumptions this message
makes about the reader and his/her expectations. The tone of this
message is very casual; it assumes that the reader knows who the sender
is and has a close personal relationship with the sender. Because it
contains an ambiguous reference to ―the assignment,‖ this message also
assumes that the reader is familiar with the subject matter at hand (for
instance, it assumes the reader will know which course and which
particular assignment the sender is referring to). In this message, the
writer also makes an implicit assumption about the reader’s familiarity
with the slang that is often used when sending an instant message or text
message. If the reader is not familiar with this type of slang, the ―U‖ in
―Can U help me?‖ might be confusing, or it might even be taken as a
sign that the writer is too lazy to type out the word ―you.‖
Making assumptions about your audience‘s expectations increases the risk that
your message or its tone will be misinterpreted. To ensure that your message has its
intended effect, use the following questions to help you think about your audience and
their needs:
 Who is your audience? How often does your audience use e-mail to
communicate? How comfortable is your audience with using electronic
communication—for example, when in their lifetime did they begin using e-
mail (childhood or adulthood)?
 What is your audience‘s relationship to you—for example, is the reader your
teacher? Your boss? A friend? A stranger? How well do you know him/her?
How would you talk to him/her in a social situation?
 What do you want your audience to think or assume about you? What kind of
impression do you want to make?

5. Important components of an effective e-mail:

a. Subject Lines
E-mail subject lines are like newspaper headlines. They should convey the
main point of your e-mail or the idea that you want the reader to take away from your
e-mail. Therefore, be as specific as possible. One word subjects such as ―Hi,‖
―Question,‖ or ―FYI‖ are not informative and don‘t give the reader an idea of how
important your message is. If your message is time sensitive, you might want to
include a date in your subject line, for example, ―Meeting on Thurs, Dec 2.‖ Think
about the subject lines on the e-mail messages you receive. Which ones do you think
are most effective? Why?
b.Greetings and Sign-offs
Use some kind of greeting and some kind of sign-off. Don‘t just start with
your text, and don‘t stop at the end without a polite signature. If you don‘t know the
person well, you may be confused about how to address him/her (―What do I call my
TA/professor?‖) or how to sign off (From? Sincerely?). Nonetheless, it is always
better to make some kind of effort. When in doubt, address someone more formally to
avoid offending them. Some common ways to address your reader are:
Dear Professor Smith,
Hello Ms. McMahon,
Hi Mary Jane,
If you don‘t know the name of the person you are addressing, or if the e-mail
addresses a diverse group, try something generic, yet polite:
To whom it may concern,
Dear members of the selection committee, Hello everyone,
Your closing is extremely important because it lets the reader know who is
contacting them. Always sign off with your name at the end of your e-mail. If you
don‘t know the reader well, you might also consider including your title and the
organization you belong to; for example:
Mary Watkins
Senior Research Associate
 Bain and Company
Joseph Smith
UNC-CH, Class of 2009
For your closing, something brief but friendly, or perhaps just your name, will
do for most correspondence:
Thank you,
Best wishes,
See you tomorrow,
Regards,
For a very formal message, such as a job application, use the kind of closing
that you might see in a business letter:
Sincerely,
Respectfully yours,
c.Cc: and Bcc: (‗carbon copy‘ and ‗blind carbon copy‘)
Copying individuals on an e-mail is a good way to send your message to the
main recipient while also sending someone else a copy at the same time. This can be
useful if you want to convey the same exact message to more than one person. In
professional settings, copying someone else on an e-mail can help get things done,
especially if the person receiving the copy is in a supervisory role. For example,
copying your boss on an e-mail to a nonresponsive coworker might prompt the co-
worker to respond. Be aware, however, that when you send a message to more than
one address using the Cc: field, both the original recipient and all the recipients of the
carbon copies can see all the e-mail addresses in the To: and Cc: fields. Each person
who receives the message will be able to see the addresses of everyone else who
received it.
Blind copying e-mails to a group of people can be useful when you don‘t want
everyone on the list to have each other‘s e-mail addresses. The only recipient address
that will be visible to all recipients is the one in the To: field. If you don‘t want any of
the recipients to see the e-mail addresses in the list, you can put your own address in
the To: field and use Bcc: exclusively to address your message to others. However, do
not assume that blind copying will always keep recipients from knowing who else was
copied—someone who is blind copied may hit ―reply all‖ and send a reply to
everyone, revealing that he/she was included in the original message.
d.Some additional tips for writing more effective e-mails
Think about your message before you write it. Don‘t send e-mails in haste.
First, decide on the purpose of your e-mail and what outcome you expect from your
communication. Then think about your message‘s audience and what he/she/they may
need in order for your message to have the intended result. You will also improve the
clarity of your message if you organize your thoughts before you start writing. Jot
down some notes about what information you need to convey, what questions you
have, etc., then organize your thoughts in a logical sequence. You can try
brainstorming techniques like mapping, listing, or outlining to help you organize your
thoughts.
Reflect on the tone of your message. When you are communicating via e-
mail, your words are not supported by gestures, voice inflections, or other cues, so it
may be easier for someone to misread your tone. For example, sarcasm and jokes are
often misinterpreted in e-mails and may offend your audience. Similarly, be careful
about how you address your reader. For instance, beginning an e-mail to your
professor or TA with ―Hey!‖ might be perceived as being rude or presumptuous (as in,
―Hey you!‖). If you‘re unsure about how your e-mail might be received, you might try
reading it out loud to a friend to test its tone.
Strive for clarity and brevity in your writing. Have you ever sent an e-mail
that caused confusion and took at least one more communication to straighten out?
Miscommunication can occur if an e-mail is unclear, disorganized, or just too long and
complex for readers to easily follow. Here are some steps you can take to ensure that
your message is understood:
Briefly state your purpose for writing the e-mail in the very beginning of your
message.
Be sure to provide the reader with a context for your message. If you‘re asking
a question, cut and paste any relevant text (for example, computer error messages,
assignment prompts you don‘t understand, part of a previous e-mail message, etc.) into
the e-mail so that the reader has some frame of reference for your question. When
replying to someone else‘s e-mail, it can often be helpful to either include or restate
the sender‘s message.
Use paragraphs to separate thoughts (or consider writing separate e-mails if you
have many unrelated points or questions).
Finally, state the desired outcome at the end of your message. If you‘re
requesting a response, let the reader know what type of response you require (for
example, an e-mail reply, possible times for a meeting, a recommendation letter, etc.)
If you‘re requesting something that has a due date, be sure to highlight that due date in
a prominent position in your e-mail. Ending your e-mail with the next step can be
really useful, especially in work settings (for example, you might write ―I will follow
this e-mail up with a phone call to you in the next day or so‖ or ―Let‘s plan to further
discuss this at the meeting on Wednesday‖).
Format your message so that it is easy to read. Use white space to visually
separate paragraphs into separate blocks of text. Bullet important details so that they
are easy to pick out. Use bold face type or capital letters to highlight critical
information, such as due dates. (But do not type your entire message in capital letters
or boldface—your reader may perceive this as ―shouting‖ and won‘t be able to tell
which parts of the message are especially important.)
Proofread. Re-read messages before you send them. Use proper grammar,
spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. If your e-mail program supports it, use
spelling and grammar checkers. Try reading your message out loud to help you catch
any grammar mistakes or awkward phrasing that you might otherwise miss.
Questions to ask yourself before sending an e-mail message
 Is this message suitable for e-mail, or could I better communicate the
information with a letter, phone call, or face-to-face meeting?
 What is my purpose for sending this e-mail? Will the message seem
important to the receiver, or will it be seen as an annoyance and a waste of
time?
 How many e-mails does the reader usually receive, and what will make
him/her read this message (or delete it)?
 Do the formality and style of my writing fit the expectations of my
audience?
 How will my message look when it reaches the receiver? Is it easy to read?
Have I used correct grammar and punctuation? Have I divided my thoughts
into discrete paragraphs? Are important items, such as due dates,
highlighted in the text?
 Have I provided enough context for my audience to easily understand or
follow the thread of the message?
 Did I identify myself and make it easy for the reader to respond in an
appropriate manner?
 Will the receiver be able to open and read any attachments?

[Sample e-mails]
Use what you‘ve just learned to explain why Student 2′s e-mail to Professor Jones is
more effective than the e-mail written by Student 1. How does the tone of the
messages differ? What makes Student 2′s e-mail look and sound more appropriate?
What are the elements that contribute its clarity? If you were Professor Jones and you
received both e-mails, how would you respond to each one?
E-mail from Student 1:
hey, i need help on my paper can i come by your office tomorrow thx
E-mail from Student 2:
Hi Dr. Jones,
I am in your ENGL 101 class on Thursdays, and I have a question about the
paper that is due next Tuesday. I’m not sure that I understand what is meant by
the following sentence in the prompt:
―Write a 10 page paper arguing for or against requiring ENGL 101 for all
UNC freshmen and provide adequate support for your point of view.‖
I am not sure what you would consider ―adequate‖ support. Would using 3
sources be o.k.?
Can I come by your office tomorrow at 2:00 pm to talk to you about my
question? Please let me know if that fits your schedule. If not, I could also come
by on Friday after 1:00.
Thank you!
Tom Smith
Here are two versions of an e-mail from a supervisor, Jane Doe, to a group of her
employees. Which version do you think is most effective? Why?
Version 1 of Jane Doe‘s E-mail:
Subject: tomorrow
As you know, tomorrow afternoon we’ll be meeting to discuss the status of all of
our current projects. Donuts will be provided. Be sure to arrive on time and
bring along the materials you have been working on this week—bring enough
copies for everyone. Some of these material might include your calendars,
reports, and any important emails you have sent. Also, I wanted to remind you
that your parking permit requests are due later this week; you should turn those
in to Ms. Jones, and if she is not at her desk when you stop by, you can e-mail
them to her.
Version 2 of Jane Doe‘s E-mail:
Subject: materials for Wed. staff meeting
Hi, everyone—
For tomorrow’s 3 p.m. staff meeting in the conference room, please bring 15
copies of the following materials:
 Your project calendar
 A one-page report describing your progress so far
 A list of goals for the next month
 Copies of any progress report messages you have sent to clients
this past month
See you tomorrow—
Jane
Lesson 2: Email Phrase Bank
1. Basics

Formal / Neutral Informal

Name Dear Mr/Ms/Mrs Dupuis Dear Hi/Hello Mary
Mary Mary,... (or no name at all)
Previous contact Thank you for your email of ... Thanks for your email. Re your
Further to your last email, ... email, ...
I apologize for not getting in Sorry I haven‘t written for ages, but
contact with you before now. I‘ve been really busy.

Reason for I am writing in connection with ... I Just a short note about ... I‘m writing
writing am writing with regard to ... about ...
In reply to your email, here are ... Here‘s the ... you wanted. I got your
Your name was given to me by ... name from ... Please note that ...
We would like to point out that ...

Giving I‘m writing to let you know that ... Just a note to say ... We can confirm
information We are able to confirm that ... that ... Good news!
I am delighted to tell you that ... Unfortunately, ...
We regret to inform you that ...

Attachments Please find attached my report. I‘m I‘ve attached ...

sending you ... as a pdf file. Here is the ... you wanted.

Asking for Could you give me some Can you tell me a little more about
information information about ... ...
I would like to know ... I‘d like to know ... Please send me ...
I‘m interested in receiving/finding
out ...

Requests I‘d be grateful if you could ... I Please could you ... Could you ...?
wonder if you could ... Can I have ...?
Do you think I could have ... ? I‘d appreciate your help on this.
Thank you in advance for your
help in this matter.
Promising action I will ... I‘ll ...
I‘ll investigate the matter. I‘ll look into it.
I will contact you again shortly. I‘ll get back to you soon.
Offering help Would you like me to ...? Do you want me to ...? Shall I ...?
If you wish, I would be happy to ... Let me know if you‘d like me to ...
Let me know whether you would
like me to ...
Final comments Thank you for your help. Thanks again for ...
Do not hesitate to contact us again Let me know if you need anything
if you require any further else.
information. Just give me a call if you have any
Please feel free to contact me if questions. My number is ...
you have any questions. My direct
line is
Close ... looking forward to ... (+ ing) Looking forward to ... (+ ing) Best
I‘m
Give my regards to ... wishes to ..
Best wishes Regards Speak to/see you soon. Bye (for
now)/All the best
2. Negotiating a project

Asking for information What are your usual charges (fees/rates) for ...? Can you give me
some more information about ...?

Requests Do you think you could ...? Would you be able to ...?

Emphasizing a main My main concern at this stage is ... The main thing for me is ...
point

Asking for a suggestion How do you think we should deal with this? What do you think
is the best way forward?

Making a suggestion Why don‘t you ...? What about if we ...?

Negotiating: being firm I understand what you‘re saying about ... (but ... ) I can see what
you‘re saying, but ...

Negotiating: being We would be prepared to ... (if ...) I am willing to ... (if ...)
flexible

Negotiating: agreeing Okay, I‘m happy with that for now. That‘s fine.

Next steps I‘ll be in touch again soon with more details.

Let‘s talk next week and see how things are going.
Closing I look forward to working with you.
I‘m sorry that we couldn‘t use your services this time, but I hope
there will be another opportunity.

3. Checking understanding

Technical Did you get my last message sent on ...?

problems Sorry, you forgot to attach the file. Can you send it again? I got your
email, but I can‘t open the attachment.
Did you mean to send this? I don‘t want to open it in case it‘s got a
virus.
Asking for I‘m not sure what you meant by ...? could you clarify? Which ... do you
clarification mean?
I don‘t understand this point. Can you explain in a little more detail? Are
you sure about that?
Giving Sorry, what I meant was ..., not ... I thought ..., but I may be wrong. I‘ll
clarification check and get back to you.
The correct information is given below. Please amend your records
accordingly.
Sorry, forget my last email. You‘re right.

Close I hope this clarifies the situation.

Get back to me if there‘s anything else.
4. Arrangements

a.Meetings

Formal / Neutral Informal

Reason for writing I‘m writing to arrange a time for Just a quick note to arrange a
our meeting. time to meet.
What time would be convenient When would suit you?
for you?
Suggesting Could we meet on (day) in the How about (day) at (time)?
time/place (morning) at (time)? Are you free sometime next
week?
Saying when you I would be able to attend the I‘m free Thursday am.
are/ are not free meeting on Thursday morning. I won‘t be around until after
I‘m out of the office until 2pm. lunch. Any time after hat is
Any time after that would be fine. okay.
I‘m afraid I can‘t manage next Sorry, can‘t make it next
Monday. Monday.
Confirming I‘d like to confirm ... Thursday is good for me.
That‘s fine. I will call/email you That should be okay. I‘ll get
tomorrow to confirm the details. back to you if there‘s a
problem.

Changing This is to let you know that I will Re our meeting next week,
arrangements not be able to attend the next I‘m afraid I can‘t make
meeting next Thursday. Thursday. How about ...
I wonder if we could move it to instead?
...? I apologize for any Sorry for the inconvenience.
inconvenience caused.
Close I look forward to meeting you in See you in Brussels.
Brussels. Give me a call if anything
Let me know if you need to changes.
change the arrangements.
b.Invitations

Formal / Neutral Informal

Inviting We would be very pleased if you could come I‘m writing to invite you to ...
to ... Would you like to come to ...?
I would like to invite you to ... / attend our ... Please let me know if you can
Please let me know if you will be able to make it.
attend.
Prepare Before the meeting it would be useful if you Please prepare ... before the
could prepare ... meeting. Please bring to the
It would be helpful if you could bring ... meeting ...
Accepting Thank you for your kind invitation. The date Thanks a lot for the invitation.
you suggest is fine. The date‘s fine for me.
I would be delighted to attend the meeting. I I‘d love to come to the meeting.
am sure it will be very useful. It sounds like a great idea.

Refusing Thank you for your kind invitation. Thanks a lot for your kind
Unfortunately, I have another appointment on invitation. Unfortunately, I have
that day. Please accept my apologies. something else in my schedule
I hope we will have the opportunity to meet on that day.
on another occasion in the near future. I am I hope we can meet up soon.
sure that the meeting will be a great success. Good luck with the meeting!
5. Writing Styles

Formal / Neutral Informal

Example phrases Thank you for your email received Thanks for the email. Re ...
12 Feb. Please could you ...
With regard/reference to ... I‘m sorry to tell you that ... I‘m sorry
I would be grateful if you could ... for ...
We regret to advise you that ... Could you ...?
Please accept our apologies for ... You haven‘t ... Don‘t forget that ... I
I was wondering if you could ... need to ...
We note that you have not ... I might ...
We would like to remind you that Shall I ...?
... It is necessary for me to ... But, ... / Also, ... / So, ...
It is possible that I will ... Would If you‘d like more details, let me
you like me to ...? However, .../In know.
addition, ... / Therefore, ... See you next week.
If you require any further
‗information, please do not
hesitate to contact me.
I look forward to meeting you
next week

Latin / Anglo- Assistance / due to / enquire / Help / because of / ask / tell / facts /
Saxon origin inform / information / obtain / get / job / have / give / fix / ask for /
occupation / possess / provide / needs / check (prove)
repair / request / requirements /
verify

6. Direct / Indirect

Direct Indirect: polite / diplomatic

Requests Can you ...? Please could Could you ...?
you ... I was wondering if you could ...

Asking for Can I ...? Is it all right if ...?

permission Could I ...? I wonder if I could ...?

Offering help Can I ...? Would you like me to ..?

Shall I ...? Do you need any help with ...?
Making a What about ... (+ing)? Shall Why don‘t we ...? Perhaps we should ...?
suggestion we ...?

Softening a There is a problem. I‘m afraid there is a small problem. It seems

strong comment That will be very expensive. there is a slight problem. That might be
We can‘t do that . quite expensive.
That gives us very little time. Won‘t that be a bit expensive? I‘m not sure
It will be better to ask Heidi. we can do that.
I disagree. Actually, that doesn‘t give us much time.
Wouldn‘t it be better to ask Heidi?
I can see what you‘re saying, but ... Don‘t
you think that ...?
To be honest, I think it might be better to ...
7. Complaints and Apologies
a.Complaining (customer)

Open I am writing ...in connection with my order FS690 which arrived this
morning.
to complain about the quality of a product I bought from your website. to
complain about the poor service we received from your company. to
draw your attention to the negative attitude of some people in your
customer services section
Complaint Our order dated 16 September clearly stated that we wanted 1,000 items,
however you ...
The goods were faulty / damaged / in poor condition.
There seems to be an error in the invoice /a misunderstanding.
The equipment I ordered has still not been delivered, despite my phone
call you last week to say that it is needed urgently.
The product I received was well below the standard expected. To make
matters worse, when I called your company staff ...
Request for Please replace the faulty goods as soon as possible.
action We must insist on an immediate replacement / full refund.
Unless I receive the goods by the end of this week, I will have no choice
but to cancel my order.
Close I hope that you will deal with this matter promptly as it is causing me
considerable inconvenience.

b. Apologizing (supplier)

Open I am writing in relation to your recent complaint.

Apologizing I was very concerned to learn about ... Please accept my sincere apologies. I
would like to apologize for the inconvenience you have suffered.

Denying We appreciate that this has caused you considerable inconvenience, but we
responsibility cannot accept any responsibility in this matter.
Promising Can you leave it with me? I‘ll look into the matter and get back to you
action tomorrow. I have looked into the matter and ...
I have spoken to the staff involved, and ...
We will send replacement items / give you a refund immediately. I can
assure you that this will not happen again.
We‘re having a temporary problem with ... . We‘re doing everything we can
to sort it out.

Compensation To compensate for the inconvenience, we would like to offer you ...

Close Thank you for bringing this matter to my attention. Please accept my
assurance that it will not happen again.
Once again, I hope you will accept my apologies for the inconvenience
caused. I very much hope you will continue to use our services in the future.
If you have any further queries, please do not hesitate to contact me on my
direct line...
8. Personal
a.Being Friendly

You heard something, but you are not sure It seems that ... Apparently, ...
Something is true, but surprising Actually, ... In fact, ...
Something is obvious or already known Obviously, ... Of course ...
Good/ bad fortune Unfortunately, ... Luckily, ...
Saying what you really think To be honest, ... Frankly, ...
Going back to a topic Well, ... So, ... Anyway, ...
Changing the topic Anyway, ... So, ... By the way, ...
Summarizing with the most important point Anyway, ... Basically, ...

b.Asking for advice

Formal/Neutral Informal
Open I‘d like your advice about a I‘ve got a bit of a problem.
problem I have
Asking for advice I was wondering if you had any Do you have any ideas about ...?
ideas about ...? What should I do?
What would you advise me to do?
Close Please write back when you have Please email me when you get the
the time and let me know what you chance.
think.

c.Giving advice
Formal/Neutral Informal
Open I was sorry to hear about your current I‘m sorry you‘re having such a hard
difficulties. time at the moment.
Giving advice I think it might be a good idea to ... I think you should ... What about ...
Have you thought of ... (+ing)? (+ing)?

Result This would mean that ... That way, ...

Options I think this option would be preferable I think it‘s better than ... (+ing)
to ... (+ing)
Close I hope I have been of some help. I hope I‘ve helped a bit.
d.Suggestions

Making a suggestion I think we should / I suggest that we / Let‘s go to ... Shall we /

Perhaps we could/Why don‘t we go to ...? I suggest... /How about
going to ...?
Accepting It‘s a great idea!
I think your idea would work really well. It might be worth trying.

Rejecting I‘m not so sure about your idea.

It sounds like a good idea, but I don‘t think it would work in practice.
It sounds like a good idea, but I can see one or two problems.

e. Special situations

Thanks Just a quick note to say many thanks for ...

I really appreciate everything that you have done.

Good luck Good luck with ...I would like to take this opportunity to wish you
every success in the future.
Congratulations Many congratulations on your promotion / new job. I was delighted
to hear the news about ...
Well done!

Best wishes Please give my best wishes/regards to ...

Bad news I was so sorry to hear about ...
I was really sorry to hear you‘re not well ...Hope you feel better soon.
If there‘s anything I can do to help, let me know.

f.Job Application

Greeting Dear Sir/Madam

Reason for writing With reference to your advertisement on the ... website, I am
interested in applying for the post of...
Your background I am 26 years old and am currently studying for a degree in ... at ...
and experience University. For the last two months I have been working as a ... at ... .

The job itself I am interested in this job because ...

I feel that I would be well-suited for this job/have a lot of experience
Referring to your Iinhave
... attached my CV as a Word document. You will notice that I ...
CV as well as ... . You will also notice that ... .
Final comments I would be grateful if you would consider my application.
You will see from my CV that two people can be contacted as
references, one is ... and the other is from ... .
I am available for interview in .../ by phone any weekday afternoon,
and you can email me or telephone me on the number below.
Close I look forward to hearing from you soon. Yours faithfully
9. Reports
a.Report structure

Introduction / As requested at the Board meeting of 18 April, here is my report. The

Background report will discuss / consider / describe / analyze / review ... The
report is based on ...
I have divided the report into three sections.
Findings The findings / figures / results / investigations show that ... It appears
that.... This has led to a situation where ...
The graph/table shows that ...
Signposts As can be seen in table 1 / section 2 / figure 3 ... As mentioned above
... / ..., see below.
...and I will discuss this in more detail below /in section 3.2.

Conclusion / I (would like to) suggest /recommend that ... My specific

Recommendations recommendations are as follows.

Closing comments Please have a look at the report and let me have your comments.
Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions.

b.Linking words
Sequence Firstly / secondly / finally
Talking generally In general / usually / on the whole
Contrast However / nevertheless / on the other hand
Adding another point In addition / moreover / on another point
Examples For example / for instance / e.g.
Alternatives Either ... or ... / alternatively / instead of ...
Real (surprising) situation In fact, / actually, / as a matter of fact
Something is obvious Clearly / obviously / of course
Most important point Especially / above all / in particular
Rephrasing In other words / that is to say / i.e.
Result/consequence As a result / therefore / for this reason
New topic In relation to / regarding / with reference to
c.Careful, balanced style

Giving both sides of an argument In general ..., however ...

On the whole ..., but ...
Making a statement less general Many / some ...
Usually / typically / often ...
Making a statement less certain It is possible / probable that ... It seems / appears that ...
... tends to be...

Making a comparison less strong Substantially / considerably / much (+ comparative

adjective) Significantly / relatively (+ comparative
adjective) Marginally / slightly (+ comparative
adjective)
Concluding On balance, ...
Taking all the above points into consideration, ...

Homework:
Write an Email to invite your teacher to join in a meeting that will be organized by your
class.
References
http://www.cvplaza.com/cv/
http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/cv.html
http://www.cvplaza.com/cv-personal-details/what-personal-details-to-include-on-a-cv/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_writing
http://www.skillsyouneed.com/presentation-skills.html
http://www.englishtown.com/community/channels/article.aspx?articlename=184-email
http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Cover-Letter
http://career-advice.monster.co.uk/job-interview/preparing-for-job-interviews/top-5-job-
interview-tips/article.aspx
http://techwhirl.com/what-is-technical-writing/
http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/word-definitions/definition-of-technical-writing.html