INTRODUCATION TO LUKE-ACTS

1. Luke-Acts in the biblical canon

Looking at the arrangement of the Gospels and Acts in the Bible, we note the
following order: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Acts. Why such an arrangement? Mt, Mk,
and Lk have similar materials (that’s why it’s called Synoptics) which differ from Jn. So, Jn is
put last in the arrangement of the Gospels. How to explain then the order of the Synoptics in
the canon we have today?
It is probably an arrangement based on supposed date of composition of each book.
Mt is considered the earliest; Mk is the abridgement of Mt; Lk is the latest work to be written.
This order is of Eastern origin, popularized in the West by St. Jerome and Eusebius. 1 There
are however other arrangement of the Gospels that do not follow the canonical order as we
have it now. This arrangement is as follows: Mt, Jn, Mk and Lk.
«This order seems to have arisen from a desire to give the two apostles a leading place».2

2. The Gospel of Luke

This Gospel was not as popular as Matthew in the early Church, perhaps owning to the
fact that it does not strongly reflect the Jewish – Christian conflict so prevalent/predominant
in Matthew. However, in our contemporary world it is arguably the most popular gospel
because of several characteristic features which are particularly important for the modern
society. These are:
o Luke is a very human gospel, Jesus human qualities are emphasized
o Jesus in Luke is a man of inclusion: he shows profound concern for the marginalized
and excluded such as tax collectors and sinners.
o Jesus is deeply concerned with social justice and equality manifested through his
explicit concern for the poor and the issue of the gap between poor and rich.
o Women play a prominent role in Luke, arguably the greatest in the entire NT. Jesus
associates with them and emphasizes their role in deed and word.
o It is also the only Synoptic gospel which accepts that the end of times has been
delayed and the story of Jesus needs to be continued in life of the church. In other
words, this Gospel does not convey the sense of “eschatological urgency”.

In addition, Luke contains the most memorable stories which became a part of the modern
popular culture and are widely known even among the non-Christians: the good Samaritan,
woman searching for the lost coin, prodigal son.

1
B.M. METZGER, The Canon of the New Testament, Oxford 1987, 296.
2
METZGER, Canon, 296.

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Liturgical texts composed by Luke are a part of daily liturgy – these are the three great hymns
recite daily by many Christians: the Benedictus, the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis.
From the literal point of view, it is the only gospel with a sequel: a part of two volume work
called Luke – Acts which contains a comprehensive history of the new era of salvation history
beginning with Jesus and moving on to the time of the church.
It is also the only gospel which indicates its audience: Theophilus
It is also the most historically grounded Gospel situating the story of Jesus within the well-
defined chronological and geographical setting through making detailed allusions to the
time of Jesus’s birth, its location within the Roman Empire, and then detailing the expansion
of the church described in the sequel to the gospel.

3. The Unity of Luke-Acts

The current order of Gospel and Acts presents a particular point of misunderstanding:
the two books, Lk and Acts, which actually are two volumes of the same work, maybe
misconstrued as two separate works, since canonically speaking, Jn stands between them. But
there are serious reasons to believe that the third Gospel and Acts may be part of a single
work, authorship.
Note Luke 1:1-3 and Act 1:1:
Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things which have
been accomplished among us, just as they were delivered to us by those who from the
beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also,
having followed all things closely for some time past, to write an orderly account for
you, most excellent Theophilus […]» (Luke 1:1-3)

In the first book, O The-ophilus, I have dealt with all that Jesus began to do and teach
[…] (Acts 1:1)
Both works are addressed to the same person whose name is Theophilus. Who is
Theophilus? He is the intended recipient of the book. There are several opinions in regard to
the identity of this man:

a) Most scholars: they believe that Theophilus is the sponsor of the author of Luke-Acts. He
helped in furnishing the manuscript materials, publication and making copies of the work. It
may not be so. But the practice is known in the Greco-Roman world of that time. See for
example: The Odes (c.a. 30 B.C.)3 of Horace:

3
S. HORNBLOWER – A. SPAWFORTH, eds., The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. Oxford 1996, 274.

2
 Maecenas, sprung from royal stock, my bulwark and my glory dearly cherished, some
there are whose one delight it is to gather Olympic dust upon the racing car […] (The
Odes 1,1)4

b) Theophilus is a Christian, a believer. He is not a neophyte, though, in the faith since

elementary teaching is already presupposed (Lk 1:4). He stands for the Christian readers of
Lk’s time and thereafter.
c) Symbolically: Theophilus is a designation for the Christian reader of Lk’s writings. It
designates someone «beloved of God» or «loving God». The name is a substantivized
adjective. This symbolic interpretation is said to date back to the time of Origen.
However, Theophilus as an adjective has its earlier form — theophiles.
Letter of Aristeas 287: «For such men are beloved of God since they have cultivated
their minds for the fairest ends».4
But before the Byzantine Period, the term theophilus is hardly attested.5
The Acts mentions about the first work which is the third Gospel. Hence, the two books are
actually two volumes of the same work. In fact, the events of the Acts are clarified by the
events in the Gospel, and the events in the Gospel find resonance in the Acts. «[…] Luke’s
writings were intended by Luke to be read as two volumes of one work. In other words, the
Gospel and the Acts complement each other; neither can be fully understood without the
other, because his understanding of reality was just like that: the life of Jesus was fully
intelligible only by reading about the spread of God’s word to the ends of the earth, and what
was happening at the ends of the earth was intelligible only when one has read the life of Jesus
of Nazareth».6
Eg. See Lk 1:26-45 and Acts 1:13-14

Certain points need to be considered in these two readings: a) Mary is identified. In

Acts, she appears in the beginning much as in the Third Gospel; b) Mary is praying in both
cases. In the second instance, she was praying with the church; c) Mary stands in both
readings as the model disciple. Indeed, Luke-Acts are two big parts of the same work. This is
how I am going to present these two books. Why then in the first place did Luke come up with
two volumes?
The cue lies on the religious life of his contemporaries typified by Theophilus. They
never met nor knew Jesus or any of his apostles personally. They were born in the years after
the death and resurrection of Jesus. They had not been even in Palestine. Yet they all
professed Jesus as the one through whom they were saved. Luke saw and marveled at this.
The question then lingered: how can these people of the 80s be saved by commitment to God
through Jesus Christ? The goal of Luke, then, is to explain the events that led up to their

4
H. MOSES, A Brief Commentary on the Gospel of Luke, New York-Mahwah 1988, 1-2.
5
Origenis in Evangelium Joannis Commentariorum, Tomus Berolini 1831, 92.
6
J.J. KILGALLEN, A Brief Commentary on the Gospel of Luke, New York-Mahwah, 1988, 1-2

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commitment in Jesus, so that after having read the account he was going to write, the believers
would be further strengthened and affirmed in their faith in Jesus.
He began by relating events demonstrating how powerful, wise and trustworthy the
Lord Jesus is. What Jesus did was anticipated in the Scriptures. The same Scriptures spoke of
God’s desire to save all men even beyond the earthly life of Jesus, beyond the 30s, ie. beyond
the glorious earthly life of the Lord. Theophilus would understand that this offer of salvation
is intended also for him. The people need to understand that the saving work of the Lord
continues on through the works of those who represent Him. He continues to guide them from
His glory by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. To explain all these, Luke needs two volumes.

It is a matter of some consensus among the contemporary scholars that Luke and Acts are in
fact an intentional two-volume work from the hand of the same author. This work is often
described through the designation Luke-Acts, a term originating from 1927’s work of Henry
Cadbury.
Several concerns are raised against such a view:
There is no evidence whatsoever that the early church never appeared together in the early
manuscripts or in the listing of the NT books.
The conclusion of the Gospel of Luke ends the story of Jesus without any apparent need for a
follow-up, it is not an open-ended story.

However, the arguments in favor of linking the books together far outweigh any doubts that
might be raised: Common dedication: both books are dedicated to the same man - Theophilus
Acts begins with a specific reference to the Gospel indicating that the second volume will
continue the story – Luke and Acts form a coherent narrative.
The two volumes are intentionally linked by a classic literary “hook” – overlapping section
recounting Jesus’ ascension and the disciples’ returned to Jerusalem which ends the gospel
and begins Acts.
The two initial lines of the second volume contains a summary of the entire volume I.
Theological consistency between the two works is apparent: essential role of the Holy
Spirit is evident in both
 focus on salvation history and spread of the gospel to the Gentile world
 The prophetic character of all the major figures – beginning with Jesus and then to
his disciples.
 Work of the apostles in the second volume is a continuation of Jesus’s mission of
bringing salvation to the entire world. In fact, through the spirit Jesus continues to
act to his disciples and through the church.

All these arguments convince virtually all scholars today that the books should be read and
studied together.

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THE AUTHOR

The author of the Gospel as well as of the Acts is anonymous. The name of the author
is not given anywhere in these two works, unlike the letters of Paul which bear his name in the
introductory address. The name of the author can hardly be deduced with utter certainty from
any parts of the work. How about the title «The Gospel according to Luke»?
From the 2nd to the 4th century AD, the early church testified that Luke the travelling
companion of Paul was the author of both Acts and the Gospel of Acts. We will briefly
examine this evidence in two ways.

 Manuscripts: we will look at early written manuscripts about the Bible.

 ChurchLeaders: we will look at what early church leaders wrote about Luke’s
authorship

TRADITIONAL ASCRIPTION

Apostolic tradition attributes the ospel to Luke, a physician and companion of Paul.

a) Papyrus codex, P75 (175-225 AD)7,

The first thing to note is that it doesn’t say «The Gospel by Luke». The title «The
Gospel according to Luke» is found at the end of the Gospel in the oldest extant manuscript, a
now kept at Cologne in the Bibliotheca Bodomeriana. In general, such manuscript titles were
in vogue at the end of the 2nd century when the attribution of the four canonical gospels to
their traditional authors was already a common heritage. In short, the supposed title was not
part of the «original» work, but it came much later.

If the author of the Gospel is unknown and that the title itself is of a later addition,
how did the name of Luke crop up as the author of the work? The answer: church’s long-
standing tradition.

b) Marcion (140 AD).

The Scripture of his church comprised one Gospel (a version of Luke), 10 letters of
Paul (excluding the Pastoral letters and Hebrews) and his own work called «Antitheses». It
was indeed the first well defined canon in early Christianity. This collection attests to the high
value that the Christians of his time attached to the Third Gospel.

c) Muratorian Fragment (160-180 AD).

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It was discovered in 1952 in Egypt found on it some of our earliest NT manuscript evidence. It includes large
portions of the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John. It is written on it “the Gospel according to Luke” this
notice indicate that the material preceding the words the Gospel according to Luke was identified as Luke’s
Gospel. Manuscript evidence indicates that from very early on it was believed that Luke wrote the third and by
extension it points to Luke as the author of Acts as well.

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 This is an early incomplete list of the NT canon preserved in a codex. This Latin
canonical list was discovered by Lodovico Antonio Muratori (1672-1750).

Lines 2-8 of this fragment is significant in the present discussion:

The third book of the Gospel: according to Luke. This Luke was a physician.
After the ascension of Christ, when Paul had taken him along with him as one
devoted to letters, he wrote it under his own name from hearsay. For he himself
had not seen the Lord in person, but, insofar as he was able to follow (it all), he
thus began his account with the birth of John.8

d) Ireneus of Lyons in Adversus Haereses (ca. 180 AD)

The bishop of Lyons wrote this book. In it, we find interesting testimonies about the
Third Gospel.
d.a A.H. 3.1,1: Luke, too, the companion of Paul set forth in a book the gospel as
preached by him (i.e. Paul).

d.b A.H. 3.14,1: That this Luke was inseparable from Paul and was his collaborator in
[preaching] the gospel, he himself makes clear, not by boasting (of it), but led on by the truth
itself. For after Barnabas and John, who was called Mark, had parted company with Paul and
had sailed for Cyprus [Acts 15:39], he says, We came to Troas [Acts 16:8]. When Paul saw in
a dream a man of Macedonia saying, ‘Come over to Macedonia,’ Paul, and ‘help us’ [Acts
16:9], immediately he says, ‘we sought to set out for Macedonia, realizing that the Lord had
summoned us to preach the Gospel to them.
So we set sail from Troas and steered our course toward Samothrace’ [Acts 16:11]
….All the rest (that happened) with Paul he sets forth in due order […] In this way he shows
that Luke was always associated with him and inseparable from him”.

When Ireneus says that Luke was a companion of Paul, he may have drawn the
conclusion from reading these scriptural passages: Col 4:14; 2Tim 4:11; Phlm 24.
Fitzmyer9 scrutinizes the testimony of Ireneus. The arguments of Ireneus are hinged in most
part on the We-sections of the Acts. What are the We-sections of the Acts? They are the
following: a) 16:10-17; b) 20:5-15; c) 21:1-18; d) 27:1-28:16. In these narratives, the author
of the Acts uses the pronoun «we» which implies that he was part of the story that is being
narrated. It would appear then that the author was indeed an inseparable companion of Paul.
On closer look, one is led to be more cautious in making such assumption. Why? Consider the
following points:

8
FITZMYER, Gospel, 37.
9
J. FITZMYER, Luke The Theologian, New York-Mahwah 1989, 3-7.

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d.c) 1st We-section: the narrative took place in the middle of Paul’s 2 nd missionary journey
(16:10-17 which ends in Philippi)
d.d) 2nd We-section: (20:5-15 which begins in Philippi) departure of Paul and the author from
Philippi to Troas; this event is related to Paul’s return to Jerusalem which occurred at the end
of his 3rd missionary journey.

Taking in consideration this line of events, a question inescapably arises: where was
the author of the Acts between these 2 episodes? a) 50 AD: Paul’s first visit to Philippi; b) 58
AD: Paul’s return to Jerusalem at the end of the 3rd journey.
Now, according to Fitzmyer, 50-58 AD is precisely the time when Paul had to
confront the Judaisers and the charismatic factions in Corinth. It was also the time when he
wrote most of his important letters. And in this most important time in Paul’s life, the author
of Luke-Acts seems not to have been with Paul. What can be gleaned from this logic is:
contrary to what Ireneus had thought, the author of Lk-Acts was not an inseparable
companion of Paul, but a sometime companion of Paul.

e) Eusebius of Caesarea (264-349 AD).

This man was a student, scholar and bishop of Caesarea, a city where intellectual
activity was thriving. He left a multi-volume work entitled “Ecclesiastical History” ( ), an
offshoot of his study about many Christian traditions which he drew from legends or
traditions written or subscribed to particular leaders of the church in the 2nd century.10 The
paragraph about the author of Luke-Acts draws our attention:
Luke, who was by race an Antiochian and a physician by profession, was long a
companion of Paul, and had careful conversation with the other apostles, and in two
books left us examples of the medicine for souls which he had gained from them ---
the Gospel, which he testifies that he had planned according to the tradition received
by him by those who were from the beginning eyewitnesses and ministers of the word,
all of whom he says, moreover, he had followed from the beginning, and the Acts of
the Apostles which he composed no longer on the evidence of hearing but of his own
eyes. And they say that Paul was actually accustomed to quote from Luke’s Gospel
since when writing of some Gospel as his own he used to say, “According to my
Gospel”. (Ecclesiastical History 3.4,6-7)13

f) Argument against tradition

Not all scholars agree with the testimony given by tradition. Their hesitance is based
on the observation that the author of Luke-Acts “shows no knowledge of Paul’s epistles, little
understanding of his theology, and only slight appreciation for his main concerns (eg.

10
H.C. KEE, The New Testament in Context, New Jersey 1984, 173.

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Justification by grace, freedom from the law and his own apostleship)”. 11 But I find this
judgment inconclusive. Any author has liberty to use his materials as he sees fit. The author of
Luke-Acts may have simply omitted these so-called concerns of Paul for his own intended
purposes.

g) Majority opinion

What can we know therefore of the author? Most scholars believe: a) the author of the
3 Gospel is the author of Acts 12, since both books are addressed to Theophilus; the latter
rd

book refers to the former book; language and style are similar; b) the author was a companion
of Paul, at least for some period of his life. The We-section may possibly represent a diary
kept by the author; c) the author was a Gentile Christian. Internal evidence points to such
observation: superior quality of the Greek language, the avoidance of Semitic words (except
Amen) etc; d) the author of Luke-Acts is named Luke. Cfr Col 4:14; Phlm 24; 2Tim 4:11. On
this topic of Lucan authorship, J. Nolland’s observation is instructive:
The case for Lukan authorship is not clear-cut. There are, however, no decisive
arguments against it. In such a situation it would seem best to assume that the early
tradition is based on a continuity of memory that goes back to the first readers’
undoubted knowledge of who it was who had produced this Gospel for their use.13

This tradition of Lukan authorship dominated the apostolic Church with all the major
figures accepting it: Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, Eusebius, and Jerome, which
makes it almost unanimous agreement. This identification extends also to the book of Acts.

SCRIPTURAL DATA ON LUKE

There are three explicit references to Luke in the NT:

 Philm 24 names Luke among Paul’s companions, this is the only reference to him in
the undisputed letters of Paul14
 2 Tm 4:11 names Luke as a faithful companion of Paul in the last stages of his life. If
this letter is authentic then it likely refers to the Roman imprisonment of Paul15

11
M.A. POWELL, What Are They Saying About Luke?, New York-Mahwah 1989, 17. Cfr. Also P. VIELHAUER,
“On the “Paulinism’ of Acts” in Studies in Luke-Acts, Keck, L.E.-J.L. Martyn, eds., Nashville 1966; German
Original Published in 1950, 35-50.
12
A. PLUMMER, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to S. Luke, ICC 4th ed.
Edinburgh 1908 reprint, xi; J. NOLLAND, Luke 1-9:20, WBC 35A Dallas, TX 1989, xxxiii.
13
Nolland, Luke 1-9:20, xxxvii.
14
Philm 24 and so do Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke, my fellow workers.
15
Only Luke is with me. Get Mark and bring him with you, for he is useful in my ministry.

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  Col 4:14 names Luke as “the beloved physician”.16

According to this data Luke was not a Jew because in Colossians 4:11-14 he is explicitly
listed among the non-Jews.

The “we passages” in Acts suggest that he was a traveling companion of Paul. In Acts
16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1 – 28:16 a change in grammatical subject suggest that Luke
who wrote these lines was actually present with Paul in his travels.

o In Acts 16:10-17 he first joins Paul in Troas and travels with him to Philippi
o in 20:5-15: joins him again in Troas after his Ministry in Ephesus
o in 21:1-18: travels with Paul and his last journey to Jerusalem
o in 27:1 – 28:16, the last and longest section, he accompanies Paul in his imprisonment
in Caesarea and travels with him to Rome with all the adventures on the way.

Thus, the Scripture evidence suggests that he was from Troas, possibly resided there. This
data, however, offers no conclusive proof of his authorship of the gospel. It has to be noted
that only one undisputed Paul letters mentioned Luke.

PROBLEMS WITH IDENTIFICATION OF LUKE THE PHYSICIAN AND COMPANION OF PAUL

There are significant problems with identification of the author of the Gospel as the traveling
companion of Paul: Historical inconsistencies between Acts and Paul’s letters:

• Antioch incident (Gal 2; Acts 15)

• The account of Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:1-29; Gal 2:1-10)
• Lack of reflection of Paul’s troubles with Corinthian community
• simply literary way of writing history: literary convention
• why are they used inconsistently?
• Acts shows no knowledge of Paul writing letters.
• In Acts, there is no emphasis on righteousness by faith, so essential for Paul.
• The account of Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:1-29; Gal 2:1-10)
• Lack of reflection of Paul’s troubles with Corinthian community

Alternative explanations of the ‘we’ passages: simple literary way of writing history: literary
convention and why are they used inconsistently?

Theological inconsistencies: disparities between theology in Acts and in Paul’s letters

 Acts shows no knowledge of Paul writing letters

 In Acts, there is no emphasis on righteousness by faith, so essential for Paul.

16
Luke, the beloved physician, and Demas greet you.

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  A different view on the role of the Jews in the salvation history
o In Romans: Jews rejected the Gospel for a time but eventually they will
convert and embrace it
o In Acts 28:25-28: the Jews will never understand or embrace the gospel
 There is no eminence of parousia in Luke-Acts while Paul’s letters show an intense
expectation of the Jesus imminent return.

In summary, it is very difficult to claim with any certainty that the author of the Gospel and
the traveling companion of Paul are one the same person. The “we” sections speak strongly in
favor of such identification. On the other hand, lack of references to Paul the letter writer,
inconsistencies between the accounts of Paul’s life between Luke and Paul himself, and
differences in theological emphasis suggest otherwise. The issue remains unresolved.

IMPLIED AUTHOR

Luke is the best-defined Gospel writer in the NT. In Luke 1:1-4 he clearly states that
he was not an eyewitness and that his intention was to write a coherent account as a historian
writing with the purpose of reaffirming the faith in Jesus in his addressee.
He was a well-educated person:
He writes the best Greek among all the Gospels.
He uses Greek the rhetorical styles freely.
He writes following the patterns of the Greco-Roman historiography. His work is a
classic Hellenistic history with a characteristic prologue which contains dedication to a
wealthy patron, typical of Greek historians.

At the same time he is thoroughly familiar and at home with the Jewish Scripture on which he
patterns his hymns, particularly the Magnificat”, understands and appears to the patterns of
prophetic life, is familiar with the Jewish practices and customs.
• He quotes the Hebrew Bible using the LXX.
• This profile fits that of a “God-fearer”.

LUKE THE HISTORIAN

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Luke is considered to be the only true historian among the evangelists
He situates his story in the context of the broader world history by referring to:
 historical events (Luke 1:5; 2:1-2; 3:1-2; Acts 18:12)
 historical characters (Luke 2:1-2; Acts 12:20-21; 19:31; 18:12-17)
He explicitly indicates that his story is based on research and sources: the eyewitnesses who
became Christians and presumably other Gospel accounts (Luke 1:2).
He has fairly accurate information regarding Roman administration and its officials,
geographical boundaries of the districts and provinces.
His account features systematic arrangement with clear causal connections throughout the
narrative resulting in a well-connected story. This gives his narrative a coherent and
purposeful character focused on a single theme: the progress of salvation history.
He is selective in the choice of his material and omits some significant material he probably
had access to:
 He omits large portion of Mark: “the great omission” of Mark 6:45 – 8:27.
 He does not mention appearances of the Risen Lord in Galilee, which are significant in
the two other Synoptics.
 In the book of Acts he follows the story of Peter and Paul without any significant
treatment of the rest.
 He does not conclude the story of Paul but leaves it open-ended.

His selectiveness and omissions can be easily understood when the style of ancient
historiography is considered. Ancient historians were not at all preoccupied with providing
exact chronological, geographical and even factual data. Rather, they focused on conveying
messages and ideas, or painting their characters in a particular way. They did so in reference
to historical events, but without particular concern for them.
Thus, Luke’s account could be termed as “theological history”. He wrote history in the
service of theology, focusing on key events and characters which moved salvation history
forward. His story is a theological narrative with an instructional purpose.

LUKE’S PURPOSE
There are several views on what Luke sought to accomplish when writing his two-volume
work.

Exposition of Salvation history

In the first line of the Gospel the author states that he wants to write a historical
narrative, “orderly account” of what had taken place. However, this orderly account is not
focused exclusively on the events that had taken place in the life of Jesus but rather at those
events as they “have been fulfilled”. This implies that Luke wants to present a comprehensive
and panoramic view of salvation history. This salvation history in his two-volume work
unfolds in three clear stages:
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 Old Testament period with the law and the prophets as the first stage. The infancy
narrative is permeated with the notion of fulfillment of God’s promises, particularly
the promise to Abraham which Jesus comes to fulfill.
The life and mission of Jesus. Jesus comes to fulfill the divine plan of bringing
salvation to the entire world. Thus, he is the universal Savior sent into the world to
execute God’s purposes.
Mission of the Church. After Jesus’s ascension the mission of universal salvation
continues in and through the church. The church is empowered by the Holy Spirit –
the divine power that substitutes Jesus’s presence in the world and the church’s
mission is designed to bring salvation to the ends of the earth.

Since the mission of the church is an ongoing one and has not been completed in the
first decades of Christianity Luke consciously does not close his account with a definite
ending – he leaves it open ended, with Paul continuing his preaching in the heart of the world
– Rome. Thus, his theological salvation history is an account grounded in the ancient Israelite
traditions based on the Old Testament which find their fulfillment in Jesus and will be brought
to completion through the gradual extension and expansion of the church.
The divine agents in bringing that salvific purpose to fulfillment our first Christ and
then the Holy Spirit. The gospel account is therefore Christological in its nature while the
book of Acts focuses on the work of the Holy Spirit.
Such an account was necessary for both Jews and the Gentiles. For the Jewish
believers, Luke’s history was meant to make them understand their own ancestral faith in a
new light - through Christ event. Luke would also justify and explain why God’s offer of
salvation moves beyond the confines of Israel and was extended to the entire world.
Something that the Jews of large would be very eager to understand and know.
For the Gentiles this account was meant to lead them to a sound and clear
understanding of the ancient roots of their Christian faith as well as their place in God’s divine
plan. This is why Luke states in 1:4: “to know with certainty ἀσφάλεια about what he had
already been instructed”.

Understood as a comprehensive presentation of salvation history we recognize that the

primary purpose of Luke’s work was not primary evangelization. He writes to an already
believing community with the purpose of deepening and strengthening the already present
belief. Thus, while his account is primarily historical, it cannot be denied that it is also a
theological treatise aimed at instructing Christian audience, both Jewish and Gentile, by
revealing a deeper meaning and significance of the Christian community and movement they
chose to join. Luke’s work is history as much as it is theology. As part of this project,

APOLOGETIC PURPOSE

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 Some suggest that Luke had an apologetic purpose when writing his history. This
would mean that he intended to offer a form of defense and justification of Christian belief
and practice to the broader Greco-Roman world and opponents of the Christian movement.

Apology for Christians

Luke’s account is noted for its very friendly and accommodating attitude to and
portrayal of both the Roman authorities and the Jewish people at large. He absorbs both the
Jewish people and the Roman authorities from the guilt for Jesus’s death, laying it firmly at
the feet of a rather small group of the Jewish leaders.
This led many to belief that his purpose was to demonstrate that Christianity is not a
rebellious and militant movement that attempts to disrupt and undermine the world order.
Given the tragic events of the Jews war, Jewish sects and Jewish people at large were often
perceived as potential troublemakers who steer trouble and disrupt peace. Christianity, which
was considered a Jewish movement, would easily be susceptible and viewed with suspicion
by the Roman authorities and their fellow citizens.
Therefore, according to his view, Luke would have written a story in order to distance
Christians from any militant or apocalyptic movements and present Christians as good
citizens of the Roman Empire and model neighbors.

Apology for God

Without a doubt, Luke’s work shows a definite shift of God’s focus from the Jewish
people to the Gentiles. It recognizes that the Gentile Christianity and a Gentile community is
the future of the church, and that, with few exceptions, the Jewish people rejected the gospel.
This begs the question – how to reconcile this new situation with the previous history of God
and Israel, particularly how can the inclusion of Gentiles be reconciled with the Torah, the
exclusive promises made to Israelites and the long and complex history that preceded the
appearance of Jesus?
The shift from Jews to the Gentiles might have appeared to some as God betraying
these are lights and showing himself unfaithful to the people he had previously chosen. It
might suggest therefore that God is unreliable, capricious and changeable. In other words, if
God was unfaithful to the people of Israel what guarantee do the Gentiles have that God
would not treat the Gentile Christians in the same way? Would God perhaps abandoned them
in the future, just he seems to have abandoned the Israelites?

To answer these questions and calm possible doubts and fears Luke writes in order to
prove that God did fulfill his promises to Israel through sending the promised Savior, as is
plainly described in the infancy narrative. Jesus the Savior comes as the fulfillment of God’s
promises to Abraham, thus, God is not unfaithful or forgetful or changeable.
Furthermore, God’s salvation was offered to the Jewish people who rejected it. Thus
they willingly and because of their own lack of sound perception of their own Scripture
exclude themselves from God salvific project.
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 Furthermore, the extension of the promises of salvation to the Gentiles is not the result
of God’s changed mind, but it was in fact God’s intent from the very beginning of times.
Because of that Luke creates a comprehensive outline of salvation history showing that
nothing in it is a result of God’s inconsistencies or unpredictability.
Thus, God kept God’s promises to Israel and this is why the Gentiles can be confident of their
place in the salvation history as well as can be sure of God’s lasting faithfulness. Gentile
Christians are nothing else but a result of a continuation of the salvific work that God has
begun with Israel and, of the later stage, extended to the Gentile us a part of his predetermined
eternal plan. (Cf. John Nolland (WBC)).

Apology for Paul

 This is a minority view identifying Luke’s purpose as writing a defense or apology for
Paul and his ministry to the Gentiles.
 Accordingly, Luke presents teaching of the apostle to the Gentiles in view of the
spending trial in the role. Since Luke never presents the outcome of the Roman trial
some scholars believe that he wrote Luke acts as a kind of defense document to show
that:
Paul is not subverting Torah or abolishing Judaism
Paul’s teaching is compatible with some Pharisaic teaching: resurrection
Arguments in favor of this view are:
 dedication of the entire work to the one who is “excellent” (Theophilus) suggest that
the author writes for a government official, perhaps in charge of the trial
 the open-ending of the book before the trial takes place suggests that it was written in
view of the trial.
 remarkable detail in description of Paul’s earlier trials suggest that Luke wanted to set
a precedent for his coming trial
 Overall this is a hardly plausible suggestion because it does not explain it all the role
of the gospel. This view has only one proponent – D. Wallace.

Among these two proposals the first appears to be the most likely. Quite apologetic
purpose cannot be excluded, Luke certainly created a panoramic and systematic presentation
of salvation history explaining to his Christians what God had intended to do for the world
from the beginning of times. Luke presents this understanding as the foundation and
confirmation of their faith.

AUDIENCE

Theophilus. Luke is the only Gospel which names its receipt – Theophilus designated as
“most excellent”. This designation indicates that Theophilus was:
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  A government official of someone of high social standing and wealthy. He was likely
a sponsor for Luke’s work supporting him materially as he wrote his history and
providing him with the necessary means to accomplish the task; papyrus and perhaps
purchasing scrolls with Christian texts which Luke could use.
 His name suggest that Theophilus was a Greek and a Gentile which proves beyond
doubt that Luke wrote with Gentile readership in mind
 Whether Theophilus was a Christian is a matter of debate. Luke 1:4 uses the word
κατηχέω which can mean “informed” or “instructed”. Perhaps Theophilus simply
heard about Christians and wanted to learn more about this new movement or he was
already a Christian who needed for instruction. The second view appears more likely
as mere information would not be a sufficient reason for writing such an extensive and
theologically complex account.

Gentile audience. Despite writing to an individual it is very obvious that Luke has a broader
purpose in mind. His broader audience would be Gentile Christians have already joined the
movement and have had at least basic instruction in the Christian belief. This is obvious
because Luke assumes that his readers would have been familiar with the Jewish texts, Old
Testament references, and Jewish terminology which uses extensively.
At the same time Luke obviously writes to the Greco-Roman audience which is evident in:
 substitution of Jewish concepts and terminology with the Greek ones –
“Savior” instead of Messiah; Skull instead of Golgotha in Luke 23:33; and “it
is necessary” in place of fulfillment.
 omission of the offensive: “the dogs” in Phoenician woman story do not appear
 omission of the Jewish concerns: tradition of the elders in Mark 7:1-23
Several other observations can be made that situated audience firmly in the Greek world:
 Luke emphasizes the reality of bodily resurrection which was a difficult concept for
the Greek mind.
 Jewish synagogue is treated in a non-hostile manner suggesting that there were no
controversies and conflicts between the two communities involved
An interesting feature of Luke’s Gospel is its animosity towards riches and the rich (6:24-25;
16:19-31) and highlighting the role and value of the poor. This led some to speculate that
Luke had predominately the poor in mind as his audience. This can hardly be sustained since
he wrote to a wealthy person. Rather, his position on wealth and its pursuit should be
considered from a theological and spiritual point of view.

DATE AND PLACE

The lowest possible limit for Luke’s Gospel is connected with the date of the Acts
which was written no earlier than A.C. 62-63, since it describes Paul’s imprisonment. Thus,
the Gospel could not have been written no earlier than these years.

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 There are few who favour early date of Luke, prior to the destruction of the Temple,
arguing that the ending of Acts does not describe what happened to Paul: would not Luke give
his story more appropriate ending if he knew it? Thus, the proponents of this view argue that
Luke completed his work before Paul’s death which might have happened about 66 AC.
However, the majority view holds that the Gospel enacts will written sometime in the mid-
80’s. The Gospel clearly shows the knowledge about the tragic faith of Jerusalem (19:43;
21:20-24).

If the recognized theory of composition is a recognized and Mark was one of Luke’s
sources then the Gospel must have been composed after Mark, allowing time for circulation of
Mark places Luke’s Gospel in the 80’s. Since the book of Acts shows no signs of evolved
Church structure the completion of Luke’s work cannot be pushed too far past 80’s.
The place of composition remains hypothetical. Given the Gospel’s focus as well as history
of the early Christianity it is most likely that the work was completed somewhere in Asia
minor under the patronage of a wealthy Greek aristocrat. But location of the school position
remains entirely hypothetical/ theoretical.
On the basis of assumption that Luke was Paul’s companion some suggest that the Gospel
was written in Rome. But that also remains pure speculation.

SOURCES

 Luke uniquely acknowledges his sources which are of double character: oral sources
(eyewitnesses and others who transmitted Jesus story), and written sources (other
Gospel accounts).
 Despite some theories it appears that Luke did not know Matthew which is evident
because of: vastly different infancy narrative, extensive changes of such key passages
as the parable of the talents, the Lord’s prayer.

MARK
About 40% of Luke comes from Mark. Luke inserted Mark’s material Mark in large blocks
but integrated this source much better than Matthew.
Significantly, he omitted large blocks of Marks gospel:
“Big omission”: Mark 6:45 – 8:26: activity of Jesus, mostly in Gentile lands.
“Little omission”: Mark 9:41 – 10:12: teaching of Jesus on discipleship and divorce

Luke corrects Markan language, vocabulary and style grammatically and stylistically.
He writes a much better and smooth flowing Greek reducing Mark’s pleonastic style and
some of his redundancies (cf. “immediately”). He significantly rewrites marking passages in
his own way.

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 He account reads as a well-connected and flowing story following logical movement
with clear design and a well-defined purpose.
Luke dramatically alters the portrayal of the disciples presenting them in a very favorable
way.
Jesus is portrayed with far greater reverence than in Mark. He removes the following
statements:
 omits Mark 1:41, 43 where Jesus is moved with pity or with anger
 4:39 where Jesus rebukes to sea
 10:14 where Jesus is angry
 11:15 where Jesus overturns the table
 11:20-25 where Jesus curses victory
 13:32 where Jesus indicates he does not know the hour of the Parousia
 14:33-34: Jesus is troubled and sorrowful facing death
 15:34: Jesus’ cry on the cross

Luke omits all Aramaic statements.

Q
 This hypothetical source accounts for approximately 20% of Luke.
 Many scholars think that Luke preserved the structure and order of Q, unlike Matthew
who shaped it into discourses.
 Majority of Q material would have been incorporated into the major Lukan
composition: journey to Jerusalem

L
 This is the gospel with the greatest amount of a unique material among the Synoptics.
L accounts for about 40% of the gospel and features some of the most theologically
significant material in this account. Luke obviously took a great initiative in molding
his Gospel according to his own design.
 Some of the most significant element passages are: the infancy narrative (chs 1 – 2;
with the story of birth of John the Baptist in addition to Jesus and three theologically
significant hymns; raising of the widow’s son at Nain (7:11); healing of the 10 lepers
(17:11); Good Samaritan (10:29); Prodigal Son (15:1); Lazarus and the rich man (Lk
16:19); unjust judge (Lk 18:1); Zacchaeus (19:1).

STYLE: GRECO-ROMAN HISTORY

Literary genre in which Luke chose to cast his Gospel comes as no surprise given his
sponsor, Theophilus, and his Greco-Roman audience. He wrote the Gospel as a Greco-Roman
history. This ancient literary genre has some characteristic features which set it far apart from

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modern history writing. Both the Gospel in the book of Acts show clear evidence of Luke
conforming to and adopting this literary style. He does so through:

USE OF SUMMARIES
Both books feature extensive use of summaries which are general statements that
summarize and highlight dominant type and style of activities taking place. Luke increased the
number of such summaries found also in Mark significantly

the Gospel (8): statements regarding Jesus and his Ministry 1:80; 2:52; 4:14-15; 7:21-22; 8:1-
3; 13:22; 19:47; 21:37
Acts (8): statements regarding the Church or the apostles major summaries containing an
ideal portrayal of the church (2:42-47; 4:32-35; 5:12-16); small summaries in 5:42; 6:7; 9:31;
12:24; 19:20

SPEECHES
 Speeches are one of the characteristic features of Greco-Roman histories with
important characters delivering speeches at key junctions in history. The speeches are
immensely important because they explain the reasons as well as outcomes of the
events, they interpret history.
 Speeches are of key importance in the book of Acts. They reflect his theology and
what he thought should be pronounced on a particular occasion. Scholars count up to
25 speeches.
 The Gospel also contains several speeches of Jesus, with the major one in Luke 4:16-
30; (speech in Nazareth).

JOURNEYS
 Journeys are yet another characteristic feature of Greco-Roman histories: the
characters embark on long journeys, and the flow of history is delineated by the course
of the journey. The starting and ending point of these journeys is all significant.
 The Gospel story hinges on Jesus’s journey to Jerusalem which covers nearly half of
the text.
 The book of Acts is basically a story of apostolic journey switch beginning in
Jerusalem and then extend to the entire world with Peter and Paul as the main heroes.

EXTENSIVE USE OF PARALLELISM IN CONSTRUCTING THE NARRATIVE

Greco-Roman historians employed certain set patterns which would be repeated and
give the story a certain rhythm and cohesion. Luke uses federalism extensively as is seen in:
the infancy narrative with parallel stories of John and Jesus

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 o the story of Jesus and story of the disciples
o Peter and Paul performing similar miracles which resembled those of Jesus
o Peter and Paul confronting similar dangers and miraculous escapes
o the trial of Stephen resembles the trial of Jesus

STRUCTURE OF THE GOSPEL

There are numerous proposals for outlining the Gospel. Three proposals appear to be
most noteworthy.

THEOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY OUTLINE

Mark arranged Jesus’s life geographically but there does not appear to be a significant
theological component to his composition. Furthermore, Mark’s plot appears to go in a circle
beginning in Galilee and returning to Galilee at the end of the narrative. The follows Marks
basic geographical design, however rather than going in a circle he presents Jesus’ in terms of
its ever-expanding scope. His geography is clearly determined by theology.
Theological geography of the Gospel is clearly reflected in its rhetorical position which results
in a clear fivefold chiastic arrangement:

 Introduction: Infancy narrative and preparation for Ministry (1:1 – 4:13)

 Ministry in Galilee (4:14 – 9:50)
 Journey to Jerusalem (9:51 – 19:27)
 Ministry in Jerusalem (19:28 – 23:56)
 Conclusion: Resurrection and Ascension (24:1-53)

Jerusalem
The heart of Luke’s geographical arrangement stands Jerusalem. For Mark Galilee was
a theological center. For Luke the entire plot begins in Jerusalem where do fulfillment of
God’s promises to Israel takes place. The story returns to Galilee for a short while with Jesus
beginning his ministry but soon embarking on his journey towards Jerusalem from where he
ascends to heaven. It is from Jerusalem than the on the story will move out into the entire
world in the book of Acts. Geographically and theologically Jerusalem stands at the very heart
of Luke’s theological vision and his narrative.

Geographical Center
Jerusalem stands at the very center of Luke’s history
 The Gospel begins in Jerusalem, in the Temple with the Annunciation to Zechariah.
 Jesus visits the Temple as a boy 2:41-52 because it his home.

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  Temptations account culminates in Jerusalem reversing the order of Matthean
temptations (4:9).
 Transfiguration story: the conversation between Jesus Moses and Elijah is about what
is going to happen in Jerusalem.
 Journey to Jerusalem begins in the early part of the gospel (9:51) with subsequent
numerous reminders that Jerusalem is Jesus’s goal (13:22; 33-34; 17:11; 18:31; 19:11,
28)
 The story of the Gospel ends in Jerusalem with all resurrection appearances taking
place in the city and final instruction to the disciples to stay there.
 The story of the gospel moves towards Jerusalem.

The story of Acts moves away from Jerusalem:

 The programmatic statement of Acts in 1:8 “you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem
(Acts 1– 7), Judea, Samaria (8 – 12), and to the ends of the earth (13 – 28) clearly
indicates that the expansion of the church begins from Jerusalem.
 Jerusalem is therefore at the center of Luke narrative which reflects his theology.

Theological center
 For Luke, the city is virtually identical with the Temple, both are considered the
pivotal location in salvation history
 The Temple is the place of fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecies about the
Messiah, as the entire story of Jesus begins there with Annunciation to Zechariah and
later the identification of Jesus us the Savior Messiah by Simeon.
 The Holy Spirit descends in Jerusalem where Peter and the apostles deliver their first
speeches resulting conversion of multitudes. It is the birthplace of Christianity.
 It is the place where the place where the most important decisions were taken at the
Jerusalem Council which defined the Gentile Christianity.
 Paul’s journey to Rome begins in Jerusalem. From Jerusalem Christianity will move to
the ends of the earth.

Old Testament history flows to Jerusalem where God’s promises are fulfilled and a
new period in history, period of the church begins in Jerusalem and then moves from there
until the entire world marking the beginning of the year of the new people of God.

SALVATION HISTORY OUTLINE

Another way to structure the Gospel and the book of Act is to look at it in terms of a
threefold division of salvation history is presented by Luke.
According to this design, God’s project of salvation unfolds in three stages:

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Old Testament Period: God’s promises to the patriarchs and the people of Israel reveal the
usual stage of God’s salvation design. In this period, the most significant prophecy that of
Isaiah who sees Jerusalem standing at the center of the new creation with all the nations
drawing to it because it is the beginning of a new humanity, new people of God united to their
God (Is 60:1-6; 65:17:25).

The Work of the Messiah - Jesus: Jesus is the saviour promised in the Old Testament who
brings fulfillment of the divine plan and God’s promises His life is a journey to Jerusalem
where he accomplishes the decisive salvific acts of death in the rising from the dead, for the
forgiveness of the sense of the people which results in reconciliation between people and their
God.

The Work of the Church: Holy Spirit continues the work of Jesus in the world through the
church. The Holy Spirit descends upon the disciples in Jerusalem and brings about formation
of the first church community. Through this community the mission of Jesus is continued so
that salvation can be offered to the whole world. God’s salvation becomes universally
available.

• God’s promise of salvation given: towards Jerusalem (Old Testament)

• God’s promise accomplished: Jesus in Jerusalem (the Gospel)
• God’s promise universalized: the disciples from Jerusalem (Acts)

LITERARY PROLOGUE AND INFANCY NARRATIVE (Lk 1:1 – 2:52)

•This introductory section to the gospel lays the foundation for Luke’s entire work. The
prologue describes the authors approach and purpose to his work as a historical, literary, but
also a theological narrative.

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•The infancy narrative of John and Jesus establishes theological foundation and the
viewpoints.
o First, Luke makes a concerted and conscious attempt to link the history of Jesus with
the Israelite traditions of the Old Testament. Some could say that he attempts to claim
Israel’s heritage in order to legitimize the Christian movement and presented as
continuation of that ancient history.
o Second, Luke clearly defines the identity of John the Baptist differentiating it from
that of Jesus.
o Finally, Jesus’s identity is clearly established and his mission outlined in its broadest
scope.

LITERARY PROLOGUE (1:1-4)

This first section of the gospel consists of one long beautifully constructed sentence
which demonstrates Luke’s excellent command of Greek and his literary ability. Here, he
follows standard conventions of Hellenistic historiography frequented features such
introductions. The prologue supplies the reader with essential information concerning the
entire work in four distinctive areas.

LUKE’S MOTIVATION AND SOURCES (1:1-2)

The situation that prompted Luke to write his work was an apparent lack of an account of
Jesus’s life that would be organized and systematic enough to serve as foundation for one’s
faith. Hence, Luke intends to write an orderly account – he intends to present the story of
Jesus in such a systematic way as to give a coherent view of the foundation of faith.
He defines his sources:
o Literary Sources. Apparently there were many attempts to write Jesus’s story which
Luke is aware of and, plausibly, has access to. Apparently he considers these attempts
inadequate. Depending on the gospel composition theory that one follows, these
accounts might have included Mark, Q, and possibly Matthew. This question can only
be answered on the basis of assumptions regarding Luke’s sources. Beyond doubt
however, Luke appears to written sources of his disposal.
o Oral sources. Luke names the testimony of eyewitnesses and the subsequent
transmission of Jesus tradition as his source. He will take into account and included his
story the testimony that comes to him in oral form from unknown to us individuals. It
is unlikely that Luke had access to the eyewitnesses himself. More likely, he refers
here to the various accounts of Jesus’s life that came to him from the second or third
hand witnesses. Importantly, these witnesses are not passive transmitters of a story to
testify to the divine purpose accomplished in history.

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Luke emphasizes that the content of his story will be focused on the fulfillment of the divine
plan. He uses passive voice, “the divine passive”, which emphasizes that the events described
have God as their ultimate cause. Already here Luke’s theo-centrism is evident.

LUKE’S METHOD AND AUDIENCE (1:3)

Luke emphasizes that his work will be systematic and carefully premeditated. He has
first undertaken the task of researching the sources which most likely included selection of the
sources he determined as credible. His account is both critical and comprehensive, Resulting
in an orderly account.
Order appears to be important for Luke as he understands it’s as means to explain to his
audience not only the sequence but more importantly the connections between the events so
that they may discover and understand their significance in a broader context of salvation
history. Thus, the meaning of individual events will become apparent. In other words, he
wants to paint a comprehensive picture that will reveal the meaning of the events that the
readers are familiar with.
Uniquely in the Gospel tradition Luke names his addressee – Theophilus.
o The word itself means “the lover of God”, or, in an alternative translation, “beloved of
God). But the name itself is clearly Greek. Theophilus was an individual person but he
also represents broader audience to whom Luke addresses his work.
o Theophilus is designated by “most excellent”. This implies that he is the person of
high social status, possibly a government official. As such she would be a wealthy
person and most assume that he was a patron who financed Luke’s research and work,
which would have required considerable investment and time.
o Theophilus represents a broader audience. It is clear that Luke has in mind Gentile
Christians in general, and also hopes that with his sponsor’s assistance he will be able
to circulate his account to a wider audience.

Verse 4 provides further information regarding Theophilus. He has been already “instructed”
regarding the events which Luke will narrate. Some have read this word as meaning simple
information that Theophilus has received about Christians and was merely curious about this
new religious movement. However, it would have been very unlikely that Luke would be
writing with the purpose of merely informing a curious individual regarding such complex
and elemental events in the human history.
More likely Theophilus himself as well as the Gentile Christians whom he represents
have already become a part of the Christian movement, and require further instruction.

LUKE’S PURPOSE (1:4)

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In verse 4, in addition to indicating that his audience are already Christians, Luke clearly
defines his purpose – he attempts to provide his readers with “surety” or “certainty” or
“reliability” (ἀσφάλεια).
Luke’s purpose is clear – by providing a systematic and coherent account revealing the
meaning of events he aims to set his readers faith on a firm foundation.
Second, he obviously intends to further their understanding of the faith that they have
embraced, to understand the meaning of Jesus’s story, and,
finally, to situate themselves and the movement which they have joined in and against the
context of God’s purposes and work in world history.
Luke intends to make his readers sure and certain that their beliefs are not fantasies but are
firmly grounded in history and are not a chaotic combination of disjoint events. It is little
wonder therefore that Luke’s account reads like a continuation of the biblical history which
has started already with the people of Israel.

INFANCY NARRATIVE (1:5 – 2:52)

 In order to establish a link with the ancient Israelite history and God’s purposes
described there in, Luke sets and defines the identity of the two key characters: John
the Baptist and Jesus. He masterfully establishes that link by presenting these two lives
as intertwined.
 On the literary level Luke created this link presenting the beginnings of their lives and
defining their respective identities using sophisticated and purposeful literary
parallelism. Luke merges the stories of two births, defining John as a transition figure
between the Old Testament and Jesus, who fulfills Old Testament promises and moves
forward God’s salvific plan.
 Luke situates the birth of Jesus in an ongoing history of Israel ensuring that his readers
would be assured that what God had done in Jesus does not negate or break with what
God had done with Israel - God did not do this on the people of the first covenant but
held true to his promise fulfilling it and only for them but also for the entire world.
 The structure of the infancy narrative is very clear. Some scholars compare it to two
“diptychs” – “annunciation diptych” and “birth diptych”. A diptych is a set of parallel
panels, like doors with two wings, adorned with sets of corresponding images (cf
Brown 228-235). However, such outline does not do justice to the text which in fact
contains seven distinctive episodes arranged in a clearly parallel manner.
 These six episodes can further be divided into two distinctive parts. Two
Annunciations and visitation of Elizabeth together with Mary’s hymn bring to a close
the Old Testament period of history while the remaining three, from the births of John
and Jesus together with the prophecies linked to both, to the visitation of the Temple
represent the beginning of the new era of salvation history.
Annunciation to Zechariah Annunciation to Mary

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 (1:5–25) (1:26–38)
Visitation of Elizabeth
(1:39–56)
Birth of John (1:57–66) & Birth of Jesus (2:1–21) &
Prophecy of Zechariah (1:67–80) Prophecy of Simeon
(2:22–40)
Visitation of the Temple
(2:41–52)

Great reversals. These stories are also permeated and illustrate Luke’s theological principle
of “great reversals”.
“Great reversals” concept describes Luke’s understanding of and the way of describing how
God acts in human history:
 God brings about radical changes of fortunes and fates contrary to all human
expectations: barren women to bear children, humble are exalted, arrogant are
humbled.
 God’s judgments and decisions to not follow human logic
 God’s value system differs from that of human beings
 This principle reveals God’s absolute autonomy in designing and guiding human
history as well as limits of human comprehension and understanding.
 This principle indicates the necessity of obedience and acceptance of God’s ways
despite one’s own preferences and expectations.
The three hymns. Luke’s infancy narrative contains three major hymns which lay theological
foundations for the gospel and Acts, and also reflect Luke’s theological vision. Significantly,
these three should be read together as a chain of texts linked together in the sequence of
events which begin with the incarnation of Jesus in Mary, moving to God’s intervention in the
history of Israel, Mission of John the Baptist is a part of that intervention, and ending with the
Christological statement describing Jesus and his mission.
“The Magnificat”, a song of Mary which is theo-centric in that it focuses on God and his
operation in the history of the OT people which precedes and leads to the events described in
the gospel. It begins with Mary’s individual experience and shows it in relation to situates it in
relation to what God had been doing. The song ends with praise of God for his intervention in
the history of Israel, describing it in a rather general terms as simply “help”. The next hymn
will describe the nature of God’s intervention in much greater detail.
“The Benedictus”, a song of Zechariah which focuses on how God intervened in the history
of Israel through the specific concepts of redemption and Savior. He describes the purpose of
the Savior’s coming as well as defines John the Baptist identity and his role in salvation
history, linking it firmly with the OT period. It could be read as a natural continuation of the
Magnificat with God’s intervention in the history of the Israelites continuing into the life of
John and ending with the anticipation of the universal mission of the Savior. Again, the song

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ends with a motif which will be continued in the next hymn – that of light which will dawn
upon humanity.
“Nunc Dimittis”, a song of Simeon, is a Christological hymn that describes Jesus and his
mission in terms of salvation and Jesus as the light of revelation, Both themes continued from
the Benedictus.

Therefore, we can see these three hymns as one grand theological composition pronounced by
three prophetic figures that described God’s intervention in history through John and then
culminating in Jesus.
The structure of infancy narratives is quite obvious and features high degree of parallelism.

INFANCY NARRATIVE PART ONE: CLOSURE OF THE OT ERA (1:5-56)

This first part of the infancy narrative consists of three distinctive episodes. Despite the
difference in content all three are firmly rooted in the OT traditions while looking forward to
the beginning of a new chapter in salvation history. Their function appears to be at least
twofold:
 to create an intrinsic link between the history of Israel and the history of Christianity
 to affirm God’s fidelity to what he had started with the people of Israel, by indicating
that the story will now continue through two special individuals – John and Jesus.

ANNUNCIATION TO ZECHARIAH (1:5-25)

Setting (1:5-7)
In world’s history. Luke locates the beginning of his history in time and space: this new
chapter in salvation history will begin in the Jewish homeland: Judah, with a Judean king on
the throne. Herod was an illegitimate king from the Jewish point of view. Still, Luke’s make it
obvious that God’s intervention happened in time and space and is firmly rooted in Jewish
history.
It was also noted that this opening line resembles the opening lines of many of the prophetic
books with the indication of the reigning king and the land where revelation would take place.
The prophetic character of Luke’s work is evident here.

In Israelite tradition. Luke then moves to set his story in the Israelite religious traditions of
the OT thus creating this unbreakable link to what has gone before.
Two key figures of this for a passage are introduced – Zechariah and Elizabeth. There are the
individuals who represent the OT order and traditions:
Zechariah and Elizabeth stand both in the line of OT priesthood, with Elizabeth as a direct
descendent of Aaron! o Zechariah must have been one of the minor priests. There were 24
divisions of minor priests who would occasionally serve in the Temple. Because of a great
number of priests such privilege would happen only once or twice in a lifetime. The priest

26
offering the incense was chosen by lot and would then come to the holy place, right outside
the holy of holies. This was as near as anybody, apart from the high priest, with ever come to
God’s presence.

Zechariah and Elizabeth further exemplified the OT tradition of the righteous but childless
couples Abraham and Sarah (Gen 18:11), parents of Samuel: Elkanah and Hannah (1 Sam
1:1–2); parents of Samson Manoah and his wife (Judg 13:2). They are also of old age which
creates a clear parallel with the story of Abraham and Sarah. Their situation has a clear
precedent in the OT, it will also be “history repeating itself” with God once again
miraculously intervening to bring about his purposes.

Gabriel’s message to Zechariah and his response (1:8-20)

Zechariah, chosen by lot – which indicates God’s will – and there’s the holy place in the
Temple. This is the heart of his sales life and worship. He stands in God’s presence with the
assembly of Israel gathered outside. In this OT setting a new chapter in history of salvation is
about to begin.
This in chapter begins with the divine messenger appearing on the side of the altar. The story
follows a familiar pattern which will be repeated in Annunciation to Mary.
• Appearance of an angel (V 11). The angel appears inside the Temple, standing by the
altar. Once again Luke highlights the connection between the Temple in this event.
• Zechariah’s response of fear (V 12). Zechariah is terrified, which is, however, a
classic example to divine manifestations in the OT. It is also a classic feature of the
prophetic call. Luke casts this event is a type scene which would be familiar to all who
know the OT.
• Reassurance and message (V 13-17). The pattern of prophetic call continues with the
reassurance “do not be afraid”. This is followed by an announcement of divine decree.
The angel announces:
God has responded favorably to the couples prayers and Elizabeth will bear a son whose name
will be John.
His birth will bring about joy and gladness for many. This indicates that God’s action is aimed
not only at the couples’ happiness but is intended to affect the entire people, this signifies
eschatological joy at the fulfilment of God’s purposes.
The angel proceeds to outline John’s identity and mission, all the characteristics mentioned
are cast in relation to the OT:
 “be great in God’s presence” – he will be a faithful servant of God carrying out
God’s work not his own
• “he will not drink alcohol” he will be like Aaron’s sons who were forbidden to drink,
but even more so as a Nazirite, like Samson, anointed as God’s chosen.

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 • “filled with the Spirit” - this is the first mention of God’s Spirit and indicates that,
like the prophets of OT, John will be empowered by God’s Spirit and function like a
prophet.
• Finally, John will be a new Elijah turning people of Israel to their God and, and
reconciling parents and children in direct fulfillment of the concluding prophecy of the
old Testament (in fulfillment of the prophecy of (Malachi 4:5-6).

Beyond any doubt Luke presents John as a person who has the entire OT tradition behind him
and fulfills the concluding prophecy of it. He’s truly a transitional figure whose mission is still
prepare people for the Lord’s coming.
Zechariah’s response (V 18). In the pattern of prophetic call frequent response to the divine
message is that of an outward refusal. Zechariah does exactly that revealing his doubt and
revealing his that his human thinking is focused on the obstacles and improbability of the
fulfillment of what was declared to him. He does not trust the messenger nor his message.
Asking “how will I know that this is so” keys asking for a confirmatory sign revealing that he
is lacking in trust and confidence. In his response he resembles Abraham and Sarah as well as
Moses.

Reconfirmation and a sign (V 19-20). The pattern of prophetic call continues with
reconfirmation of the truthfulness of the message. This takes place by two means:
 Identification of the messenger: the angel reveals his name – he is Gabriel, one of the
seven archangels and a God’s credible messenger. He represents God and wills divine
authority on behalf of God as he stands in God’s presence. His function is to bring the
good news. The formula “good news” bring to mind the eschatological prophecy of
Isaiah in Isaiah 40:9; 52:7; 61:1 which would later be used by Jesus himself to
describe his mission. Gabriel’s activity ushers in the beginning of the good news and
separation in the world.
 A sign: somewhat ironically, Zechariah is given a sign he probably had in mind by
being made mute. Because of his disbelief he’s unable to communicate his experience
to the people. This is a punishment and a consequence of the lack of belief. Something
that will be reversed in the story of Mary.

Effects of Annunciation to Zechariah (1:21-25)

Gabriel’s mission has a twofold effect:
Effect on the people and Zechariah (v 21-23). People wonder at Zechariah’s delay. The
phrasing itself might be symbolic as the people await side of the sanctuary much like the
Israelites awaited God’s intervention. Mute to Zechariah coming out of the sanctuary is unable
to communicate to them the good news. He makes gestures, which again might be
symbolically alluding to the OT role as link with the good news but unable to communicate it
clearly and fully.

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 o Another significant element in this presentation is that Zechariah is unable to bless the
people with the priestly blessing, as he was required to do after coming out of the sanctuary.
The people gathered in the Temple await the blessing in vain, however they realized that
something extraordinary has happened, something that they are yet to understand.
Zechariah returns home, having accomplished his time of service in the Temple and yet still
unable to communicate the blessing to the people.

Effect on Elizabeth (v 24-25). Unlike Zechariah, who because of his disbelief cannot convey
the blessing, Elizabeth experiences the blessing. Why her active role is not described she’s
clearly a recipient of a divine favor and privately rejoices that God has reversed the disgrace
of barrenness in the midst of the people.
By that last phrase Luke once again emphasizes that this new chapter in salvation history with
the conception of John the Baptist has occurred in the midst of the people. It is God’s
intervention among the Israelites intended at bringing them the joy of salvation.
Luke emphasizes the silence of both Zechariah and Elizabeth. The reasons for the silence is
however diverse. Zechariah silent because of his disbelief.
Elizabeth remains silent for five months. By stating this Luke emphasizes that Elizabeth does
not want to claim that God bless her until sign of pregnancy would become visible. In other
words she does not want to proclaim what God had done for her in words only but once the
sign of God’s intervention become visible.
Another function of “five months” is to provide a chronological link to the next scene which
will begin in “the sixth month”. Luke shows himself true to the promise of creating an orderly
account which will follow a chronological sequence.

This first major episode of the gospel describes the beginning of God’s intervention in
human history with a direct preparation for “the coming of the Lord” and declaration
o that this intervention is about “the good news.
o This intervention will consist in bringing about birth of the forerunner of the Messiah
whose identity is for the first time described.
o It is firmly set in and linked to with the OT traditions, John will be its last
representative. Thus Luke creates an ardent expectation in a reader concerning what is
about to happen next.

ANNUNCIATION TO MARY (1:26–38)

The second major episode is Annunciation to Mary. Luke presents the story in an
almost exactly parallel manner to that of Zechariah. However, his intention appears to be to
demonstrate both consistency as well as differences between Zechariah the father of John and
Mary the mother of Jesus.

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Setting (v 26-27).
Luke begins by setting this episode is a chronological and thematic continuation of the
previous episode. He achieves so by naming a subsequent month, the sixth month and the
same messenger, Archangel Gabriel.
Location however is entirely different. From the lofty location of Jerusalem Temple the
action shifts to a very insignificant town in Galilee. This is not a promising location as no one
ever heard of Nazareth and Galilee itself had a rather ill fame.
Mary is introduced as:
o Virgin. There is no tradition of virgin birth in the Old Testament. However, Luke
creates a link to Isaiah 7:14 in its Septuagint version which uses that very word. This is
one of few common elements of the infancy narrative study Luke shares with
Matthew, pointing to a common Christian tradition they both reflected.
o She’s engaged which indicates that she has entered into a relationship with Joseph, a
member of David’s household.
o The situation appears to be very complex and one is left to wonder what will God
effect in the life of this, otherwise insignificant and engaged woman.

Gabriel’s message to Mary and her response (1:28-34)

This part of the story will unfold in exactly the same manner as it was the case for Zechariah.
However it will differ in detail.
Appearance of Angel Gabriel (v 28). The angel appears with the greeting the words of
greeting, unlike in the story of Zechariah. This is because Zechariah’s identity was clear – he
was described as a priest. Mary has no credentials and no standing in these are light tradition.
Hence Luke justifies why the angel came to her.
He names Mary as favored by God in the greeting that indicates that God has graced her with
his presence. It is a formula which should be translated “greetings one who has been graced,
the Lord is with you”. In these words
Gabriel explains the nature of Mary being “graced” – God has singled her out for his
particular purposes and is present with her. The angel will explain that subsequently in the
subsequent verse.

Mary’s response of perplexity/fear (v 29). Unlike Zechariah who was afraid Luke states that
Mary was “perplexed”. Perplexity or being troubled reflect the angel’s sudden appearance but
also she does not understand the purpose and the reason for God’s grace.
Reassurance and message (v 30-33). Just as in the case of Zechariah the angel offers
reassurance. But his reassurance is more of an explanation – God has found her worthy of his
grace. Simple words, this is the election of Mary, an arbitrary choice of God of this
insignificant girl for God’s own purposes.
The angel continues with his message:

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Gabriel announces the task that Mary was chosen for – to bear a son whose name will be
Jesus. The angel then proceeds to outline the identity of Jesus, whose name means “God
saves”:
• he will be great and The Son of the Most High. From the very first line Jesus is
designated in terms of his divine Sonship.
• he will be a Davidic ruler, and son of David: clear allusion to God’s promise to David
and a further link to the OT
• he will rule over the house of Jacob: before the link between Jesus to even more
ancient Israelite traditions
• his kingdom will have no end: the clear allusion to Nathan’s prophecy to David and a
clear link with the messianic expectations of Israel.

Luke’s purpose here is quite obvious. He lays the foundations for the understanding and
identity of Jesus but does so in terms of his linkage with the OT. At the same time he
distinguishes Jesus from John the Baptist in very clear terms: John great before God while
Jesus Son of the Most High
 John a Nazirite while Jesus the Davidic ruler
 John prepares the people while Jesus rules
 John is the Elijah while Jesus is the Messiah

Mary’s response of perplexity (v 34). While Zechariah in his response indicated doubt the
impossibility of fulfillment of the Angels words, Mary inquires as to the manner in which this
can be fulfilled. Luke always presents Mary as a reflective person who carefully ponders and
seeks to understand God’s word.
She inquires as to the manner in which this can come about as she is engaged and would
expect that her child will be fully human son of Joseph.
Her question could be also rephrased as an inquiry about “what should I do” in response to
this announcement. She is willing but uncertain what she ought to do.

Reconfirmation and a sign (v 35-37). The angel offers reassurance in the form of
explanation. The child that Mary will conceive will come as a result of overshadowing by the
Holy Spirit. The concept of “overshadowing” recalls divine theophanies of the Old Testament
with the presence of the cloud. It is a matter of God’s manifestation which indicates that God
will be present to bring about this miraculous birth.

The angel then spells out the effects of God’s action: holiness of the child. Holiness here has
several consequences:
o it implies that this child will be set apart for God to get out God’s purposes.
o Since he’s conceived by the Holy Spirit his life will be directed by the Holy Spirit

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 o Jesus will share therefore in God’s holiness in a unique and unparalleled way since he
is “the son of God” and not just “a son of God”, the title which the OT attributes to
Israel as a nation, to the Kings, or to Angels.
The sign which will be given: pregnancy of Elizabeth which affirms God’s miraculous
intervention in a visible way. The concluding words confirm impossibility does not exist for
God.
Mary’s response of willing obedience (v 38). Unlike Zechariah who fell silent Mary declares
her willful acceptance of the role designated for her by God. She declares herself God’s
servant who will act according to God’s word.
The angel departs signifying that God has set his purposes in motion in the world. The history
of salvation has entered moved to a new stage.

Annunciation to Mary sets in motion the history of Jesus. It is constructed as both a

continuation but also a contrast to Annunciation to Zechariah. These contrasts are purposeful,
setting Jesus apart from John but also indicating that this new era of salvation will follow
different patterns that those known from the Old Testament. Here, neither the Temple nor
priesthood will be the chief channel of God’s presence with his people. It is rather God’s
grace operating in the midst of the ordinary circumstances and through ordinary people that
will result in completion of salvation history.
The story of Zechariah and Mary is the first example of Luke’s principle of great
reversals in operation. By contrasting the two stories and these two individuals Luke shows
how the expectations that might have been created by the hopes of people of Israel will be
now realized in new, surprising and unexpected ways.

VISITATION OF ELIZABETH (1:39-56)

This story serves a fourfold purpose of intertwining of the two separate stories of John and
Jesus, recognition of Mary’s significance, describing the manner of God’s intervention in
human history in terms of “great reversals” principle, and of linking Jesus’s mission to the
patriarchal tradition.
This section consists of two distinctive parts in which these four elements occur.

Encounter between Elizabeth and Mary (1:39-45)

Responding to what she heard from angel Gabriel Mary rushes to meet her relative, Elizabeth.
The fact that the two women were related implies that Mary was also from the Priestly line of
Aaron.
Linking destinies and creating continuity. Mary’s visit can be understood as an ordinary
concern for an aged woman and a desire to help her in her pregnancy. However, clearly Luke
understands this visit theologically: this is the first encounter between John and Jesus, and
their mothers. Thus the story of Jesus is linked with the story of John just like what happened

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to Elizabeth is linked to what happened to Mary. Continuity between the two stories is
obvious.
Praise of Mary. Mary’s greeting provokes a reaction by both Elizabeth and John lodged her
womb.
 John reacts to Jesus’s presence as a sign of recognition of who Jesus is. This is the joy
of the messianic era.
 Elizabeth, who did not know about what happened to Mary, is “filled with the Holy
Spirit”. She functions as a prophetess revealing the divine message, hence, her words
reflect the knowledge of supernatural character. Thus, she understands what her
child’s joy means and expresses it in three ways using the concept of “blessing”.
 Blessing is God’s favorable intervention on behalf of humanity. Thus, Elizabeth
expresses four fundamental truths:
Mary is blessed because God has intervened in a unique way in her life
Jesus is blessed because to him God’s ultimate blessing of salvation will be delivered,
furthermore he is recognized by Elizabeth as the Lord.
Mary is blessed because she believed in the fulfillment, that is truthfulness, of God’s word
delivered to her.
Mary is unique in that she became the channel of God’s blessing to humanity.
However, Luke emphasizes that her role is not that of a passive recipient but a willing
participant in bringing about that blessing to humanity. Her faith, that is her trustful response
in accepting God’s word, made the coming of blessing possible.
Another important reversal is signaled by Luke through Elizabeth’s question “why has this
happened to me, that the mother of my Lord comes to me?”. Mary is a woman of higher
stages as she carries Jesus in her womb, and yet it is she who comes to visit Elizabeth. The
opposite should happen in the social structure of that day.

Mary’s song of praise “the Magnificat” (1:46-56)

Mary responds to Elizabeth’s blessing in the recognition with a song of praise. This is a
response of someone who has been once again assured about the truthfulness of God’s word
delivered to her by an angel.
Her song is thoroughly theological and theo-centric in content and describes a threefold
intervention of God starting with most particular (Mary herself) and moving to most general
Israel). The first two praise God for his action that follows the principle of great reversals,
why the final affirms God’s faithfulness to his sentient promises and continuity executing his
purpose.
The entire composition is probably based on the song of Hannah from 1Samuel 2:1-10, Which
Luke employed as a pattern for his composition.

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Praise of God for his intervention in Mary’s life (v 46-49). Mary begins by focusing on
herself and what God had done for her. She praises God and rejoices explicitly naming God as
“Savior”.
The word Savior is a Greek term which was commonly used as a descriptive term for
someone who has done great deeds that benefit the community. Luke will employed as a
technical term describing both God and Jesus as saviors who will bring the ultimate benefit of
salvation to the people.
Rejoicing once again appears as a dominant motif as Mary speaks of God’s acts. These acts
consist in showing her favor that will lead to her being blessed.
She alludes to her “lowliness”. Despite her lowly status and other insignificance after
insignificance she was selected by God and given a special role that entitle her to carry
designation “blessed”.
This election of Mary was done by God who is Mighty and Holy. These two theological
affirmations recognize God omnipotence as well as holiness: classic attribute of God known
from the OT.
Praise of God for his intervention in the life of the lowly (v 50-53). Here, Mary affirms
how God intervenes in the life of lowly people who are God’s faithful. She does not name
Israelites explicitly but most likely has ordinary Israelites in mind. Those who fear God are
the antithesis of the proud. To fear God needs to rely on God and look to him for sustenance,
how to be proud means to rely on one’s own powers rejecting God’s authority in the process.
In this section Mary introduces the concept of “mercy”. Mercy could be best defined as God’s
acts of care for the preservation, restoration and sustenance of human life.

Mary affirms that God has consistently executed his might through showing mercy following
the pattern of great reversals. Thus,
 he scatters the proud, possibly in allusion to the Tower of Babel and the human
attempt to innovate the heavenly realm and assume the position of God. Thus, the
proud who rely upon themselves are scattered as their thoughts and understanding
prove false and misleading.
 he executes judgment upon the earthly powers, the mighty, who are traditionally
perceived as oppressors of the powerless, they are brought low.
 the rich responsible for exploitation of the ordinary people lose the source of their
wealth and become hungry.
All these as examples of God’s mercy in that God ensures the well-being of those who cannot
count on human benevolence to secure their existence.
Praise of God for intervention the history of Israel (v 54-55). Mary now turns her attention
to Israel as a nation affirming that God has helped Israel, his child, following consistent
pattern of mercy. What exactly is the shape of this “help” which was delivered according to
what God said to Abraham? Abraham was promised progeny and land, both aimed at securing
lasting existence.

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Mary therefore alludes to God’s continues sustenance of the nation and his faithfulness to the
OT covenant and his promises. She affirms that God has been consistently faithful to his
people, and suggests that this throughout the past.
In this section Mary makes an important connection between the past and the present
implicitly suggesting that what she experienced in all the subsequent events will be afforded
expression of God’s mercy. Without naming it, she hints that the child she will bear will
continue with God’s process of showing mercy to his people.
In her song Mary expressed some fundamental truths about God. She confirmed
God’s selection of her, an unmerited act that will result in blessing, which will in turn confirm
God’s might and holiness. She described how God acts reversing fortunes of those who are
faithful to him reversing the normal social realities of the world. Finally, he affirmed God’s
consistency and faithfulness to the patriarchal promises, sustaining the people throughout
centuries.
Mary’s song begins with an individual experience of a woman chosen by God and she
relates that experience to the broader experience of Israel. Her experience and the subsequent
birth of Jesus is for Luke the starting point for understanding the entire salvation history,
which you will move forward in the two subsequent hymns which will follow. These two
hymns will relate to Mary’s statements and will expound them.
Therefore, Mary’s hymn functions as bridge between her own experience, the
predicted birth of Jesus and God’s intervention in the history of Israel.
The last verse in this section (v 56) shows Mary’s returning to her home before the birth of
John concludes the first major part in the infancy narrative. This scene has been set for the
words of angel Gabriel to be fulfilled.
The first three major scenes in infancy narrative set the foundation for what will
follow in the rest of the gospel. They root the history of Jesus in the Old Testament affirming
essential continuity of salvation history. These are the themes which Luke will subsequently
develop to great length in the Benedictus.

INFANCY NARRATIVE PART TWO: BEGINNING OF THE NT ERA (1:57 – 2:52)

The transitory and connective focus of the first part of the infancy narrative shifts to
describe the initial steps in bri0nging about the fulfillment of what was indicated in part one.
Therefore, this section of three major episodes which will lay theological foundations for the
future developments.
While the first part of infancy narrative was essentially looking towards the past, part
two looks towards the future.

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BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST (1:57-66)
In parallel with part one, the first event described in the section is the fulfillment of Angels
words to Zechariah: John the Baptist is born. This is briefly proclaimed in spell v 57. The rest
of the section outlines the initial effects of John’s birth.

Effect on the Neighbors (v 58)

People in the immediate surrounding of Zechariah’s family rejoice over the mercy shown to
her.
Mercy to Elizabeth consistent in bringing life out of her barrenness. This is perfectly in line
with Mary’s song, and once again demonstrates the theology of reversal. God’s intervention
in his gift of life is a natural cause for rejoicing.

Effect on Zechariah (v 59-64)

Zechariah, who has been mute up to this point will get a chance to redeem himself.
Faithful to the Jewish law the child is circumcised on the eighth day and is going to receive
his name. John’s parents are faithful and observant Jews. Both he and Jesus firmly stood in
and observed the ancestral traditions.
The naming however, poses a problem as the child is not going to be named according to
what people have decided. By giving the child an alternative name Luke signifies that this
child will not be under human authority but will execute God’s will.
This time Zechariah does not bend to his human limitations but obediently follows the Angels
command received at Annunciation. It is at this moment of obedience that his speech is
restored and he began still speak praising God.
Luke skillfully points to the fact that those who can proclaim God’s deeds with credibility at
those who experience God’s revelation and then responded to it. The content of his praise will
be revealed later, after reaction to Zechariah’s restoration is described.

Effects on the people (v 65-66)

Luke returns his attention to the witnesses to all these events. Not only neighbors but the
entire region is made aware of these events. They are reaction is twofold: fear and wonder.
Fear indicated here is likely “fear of the Lord” – and obedient reverence in response to God’s
words and acts. People begin to recognize that God is beginning to act among them in any
way.
Amazement leading to pondering about the meaning of events signifies that the people do not
yet understand what is happening. They see the child guided by the hand of the Lord but have
no clue as yet what is this child’s role.
Zechariah’s song, the Benedictus, which is in fact Zechariah’s prophecy regarding the future
of this child was served to elucidate and explain the child’s mission.

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ZECHARIAH’S PROPHECY – THE BENEDICTUS (1:67-79)
In continuation with the previous section and in answer to people’s wonder John’s identity
will now be defined by his father who acts as a prophet. He is filled with the Holy Spirit (v
67) just as his wife was earlier on, while describing Mary. He will now pronounce the
second major hymn found in the infancy narrative. Several general observations should be
made:
The content of this song does not directly relate to the story of John’s birth but defines his
future role. Thus, in addition to its theological dimension, this song clearly defines John’s
place in salvation history.
It begins when the song of Mary left off – alluding to God’s intervention in the history of
Israel according to the promise given to David. Continuity between these two accounts is
obvious as Luke moves down the salvation history sequence from Abraham to David.
This hymn continues the theo-centric focus of the song of Mary. However, it is much more
detailed in his description of God’s intervention on the part of his people by employing
specific theological concepts of salvation and redemption.
It constitutes a further step in Luke’s presentation of salvation history by linking the
patriarchal traditions to John the Baptist and then hinting at the further development – Jesus –
in its last part.
The hymn therefore functions as clear bridge between the OT with the NT period.

PART 1: GOD’S SAVIOR AND HIS PURPOSE FOR ISRAEL (1:68-75)

The hymn begins with Zechariah pronouncing a blessing upon God for God’s intervention on
behalf of Israel in showing them favor and redeeming them. Blessing of God in the Scripture
implies nothing else but recognition of the blessing that God has bestowed upon his people.
To say “Blessed be God” means in fact God is blessed because God has blessed us.
Mary ended her hymn by alluding to God’s help according to the promise made to Abraham,
but without specifying it. Zechariah picks on that theme and will spell out what that
intervention mean. God is specifically described as “Lord God of Israel” clearly Israel is in
view in this first part.
Purpose of God’s intervention (v 68). The content of the blessing is expressed next – God is
blessed because “God has visited and effected redemption” for his people (literal translation).
Visiting the people refers to God entering human history and intervening in it. The manner of
this intervention is “redemption”.
Redemption is a rare concept in this Gospel found only here and in 2:38; 21:28 and
24:21. However, it is a technical term for Paul and describes freeing of the people from
enslavement to sin and other powers. Redemption is about change of status and liberation. It
can be described also as deliverance. Together with salvation this concept describes how God
changed the fortunes of his people making them free from the powers that afflict them and
destroy lives.

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Means of redemption (v 69-73). God does not intervene personally but through his agent –
“mighty Savior”. literally Luke speaks of “a horn of salvation” - which is an example of the
OT language expressing God’s power (horn), operating for Israel’s salvation. This is a
messianic symbol as is made clear by the reference to the “house of David”. Luke states that
God intervened for human redemption by sending someone who will act for salvation and
who will be member of the Davidic household – the Messiah. At this point it is only a general
statement indicating the beginning of messianic era.
God’s intervention as fulfillment of his promises to Israel (v 70-75). Luke devotes a major
part of the section highlighting that God saving action is the fulfillment of his promises to the
people of Israel.
God has promised to save his people from their enemies through the prophets (v 70-71). This
promise is fulfilled through sending of the Davidic Messiah. These enemies should not be
considered only in terms of political and military powers but as a metaphor for all that seeks
to destroy the people in both spiritual and historical dimension.
The coming of the Savior is an expression of God’s mercy (preserving and sustaining the live
of his people) according to the covenant (v 72), and according to the promise given to
Abraham (v 73).

The purpose of redemption (v 74-75). Luke defines the outcome of redemption in four
ways: being saved from the enemies – protection next, Luke describes the purpose of
redemption using Sinai covenant and the notion of righteousness, which again is a classic
Pauline concept.
Sinai covenant:
Redeemed people can worship God without fear. This is a community of priestly people,
and worshiping community who has access to God and is no longer separated from him –
being community which has access to God and be a worshiping community.
They are also holy people, which means set apart for God and unique relationship with
him

Righteousness is a Pauline concept of being in a covenantal relationship with God. These

people are therefore people of the covenant with direct access to God serving him without
hindrance.
For Luke the purpose of Messiah’s coming and the meaning of redemption and salvation is
not so much political liberation but the rather making people truly God’s people according to
the Sinai covenant and the concept of righteousness: holy priestly and righteous.
In this section Luke unequivocally stated that God has fulfilled his promises to Israel by
sending his Savior in order to make Israelites his unique people in fulfillment of the Sinai
covenant. This view is based on the Mosaic covenant. Luke creates a comprehensive overview
of how the Messiah will fulfill the most important OT covenants.

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PART 2: JOHN THE BAPTIST IN HIS PURPOSE (1:76-77)
Zechariah turns his attention to his son. John the Baptist is not the Messiah but a profit
and the precursor of the Messiah. Jones identity is encapsulated in v 76 which leaves no doubt
as to his role and function. In complete agreement with the NT traditions John is described
through the words of the prophecy of Malachi 3:1 and Isaiah 40:3, which was already
declared by the angel in Luke 1:16.
However, Luke proceeds to spell out the mission of John in more detail terms
declaring that this preparation will include “giving knowledge of salvation by the forgiveness
of sins”. Once again, the nature of salvation is defined not in political but spiritual sense.
Luke understands John’s mission as the removing of barriers (sins) that separate God
and people. Sin is an important concept in Luke’s theology as the precondition for receiving
the fullness of salvation. A person has to be in good standing with God and open to God’s
work, something that sin makes impossible. Thus removal of those barriers, since, is
necessary before a person can open himself or herself to receive God’s favor.

By forgiveness of sins John will enable people to recognize that salvation is within their grasp
– that’s why he does not bring salvation, he’s not a Savior, but enables people to know that
salvation can be the theirs.

PART 3: GOD’S SAVIOR AND HIS GENERAL PURPOSE (1:78-79)

The final part of the hymn comes back to the theme of God’s intervention in human history.
This time however we see a shift from the exclusive focus on Israel. In this final part the
scope of God salvific action begins to expand.
Returning to this seem familiar from the song of Mary God’s mercy is evoked again. Mercy,
which well describes God’s salvific intervention, is now spoken of in the revelatory terms.
Luke uses imagery of light building his statements on the messianic texts of the OT,
particularly Isaiah 9:2-7 which speak of the arrival of a new leader, a Davidic messianic
characters who, endowed with divine qualities, will restore the kingdom and peace and justice
to humanity.
However, unlike in part one of the hymn were the Savior’s mission was described specifically
in relation to Israel, this final section is purposefully general and indicates that the mission of
the coming Savior will extend beyond Israel and to the entire humanity. The next major song
in the infancy narrative will pick up on exactly that point alluding to the “light of revelation to
the Gentiles”.
Looking at the three parts of the Benedictus we can recognize how Luke takes three steps
towards his final goal – declaration of Jesus as the universal Savior. In part one, he begins
with a firm assertion that God has fulfilled his promises given to the patriarchs and embedded
in the covenant with Abraham and with Moses. in part to he moves forward in his logic
defining the role of John the Baptist was preparing the people of Israel to receive the salvation

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by forgiveness of sins. John’s role is to make people aware that salvation has become
possible.
In part three, Luke hints that this salvation which will be affected by the Messiah will be like a
new dawn, beginning of the new era whose light worked on upon people sitting in the
darkness and the shadow of death. In this broad concept Luke likely intends the entire
humanity, as will become obvious in the third major hymn which will be pronounced after
Jesus’s birth.
The final statement which concludes this section of the text (v 80) is the first summer
statement of Luke which describes John the Baptist life – he grows in God’s favor and lives in
the wilderness preparing himself for the public appearance. With his mission clearly defined
all the reader needs to do is to wait for him to appear in public and began his mission of
baptism for the forgiveness of sins in view of the appearance of the Savior.

BIRTH OF JESUS (2:1–21)

Jesus’ birth story is constructed by Luke according to his set theological agenda. It is
therefore clearly focused theological account that consists of two distinct part.

BIRTH OF JESUS (2:1-7)

In the initial part of this extensive passage Luke shows how Jesus’s birth took place in the
midst of Greco-Roman world. As such he locates it firmly in human history. However, Luke
emphasizes that this dominant civilization of the day another neither recognize nor accepted
him.

Historical setting (2:1-2)

Unique among the evangelists is Luke’s chronological data regarding Jesus’s birth. Luke
intentionally provides a list of the ruling powers of the day and gives information about the
census which would determine the circumstances of Jesus’s birth. Jesus is born into the world
ruled by Rome.
The census of Augustus provides the background for Jesus’ birth.
Historical accuracy of this data is questionable and conflicting: Annunciation to Zechariah
was set in the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 BC, while Quirinius was the governor
of Syria between 6-7 AD, long after Herod died. This is an obvious contradiction.
 there is no record of Empire wide census ordered by Augustus (30 BC – 14 AD)
 census is not likely to have happened in the client kingdom of Herod
 the necessity for Joseph to report to his ancestral city was not according to the Roman
census practices
 it is wrong to think that Mary had to be present as well

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All these difficulties can however be explained in one way or another, scholars debate fiercely
the problems issue of Luke’s chronology many suggest that Luke had information regarding
to two censuses and combine two accounts:
 one under Herod the Great which would involve his Jewish subjects and would require
Joseph to travel to Bethlehem. It would have taken place sometime before Herod’s
death in 4 B.C
 second census under Quirinius was to place likely in the aftermath of deposition of
Archelaus by the Romans, when they took over control of Judaea. It was an extremely
unpopular census which did take place about 6 AD. It was a direct cause of an uprising
by Judas the Galilean mention in the book of Acts.
 he had to locate Jesus’s birth in Bethlehem as city of David origin were the Messiah
was to be born in fulfillment of the prophecy (Micah 5:2), which was also the firm
establish Christian tradition.
 But he knew that Jesus lived first part of his life in Nazareth. Hence, he had to
reconcile theology and history. He sacrificed historical accuracy for theology, which is
a standard practice for histories with theological purpose.
 another solution is a possible translation of v 2 to the effect that the first census took
place before Quirinius became the governor of Syria. Thus, Luke would distinguish
the two censuses. Luke might have gotten his history wrong but the point is made
clear: the birth of Jesus takes place in the context of world history which first indicates
that his mission would go beyond the confines of Israel and be relevant to the whole
world, the Roman Empire
 his chronological problems might reflect his deep theological purpose: he wants to set
the story of Jesus’s birth in the context of the Empire, and he needs to locate Jesus’s
birth in Bethlehem. Uses available data but perhaps sacrifices chronology

Birth of Jesus (2:5-7)

 These two sketchy lines described birth of Jesus without any details. Luke only notes
that the birth had taken place in a barn and a child was placed in a manger.
 Jesus is born and placed in condition of poverty among the animals. This sets a scene
for the great paradox and another of the great reversals, the child lying in poverty will
be soon proclaimed as the savior of the world.
 The world does not recognize or knows about this child, paradoxically he will become
the best-known human being in history.

DIVINE REVELATION OF JESUS’S IDENTITY (2:8-20)

In the context of Jesus utter anonymity surrounding his birth Luke weaves in the story which
discloses Jesus’s true identity through a divine revelation through an angel: God’s messenger.

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 Setting (v 8-9)
This revelation comes to shepherds attending flock in the field.
The fact that this revelation comes to the shepherds might be in allusion to David’s own
shepherd origin, however, it is also clearly one of Luke’s reversals – the mighty of the world
know nothing of the Messiah’s coming while the lowest in the Israelite society, as shepherds
were perceived, gets this divine revelation and subsequently welcome Jesus into the world.
An angel appears in the same way as was the case with Zechariah and Mary, and this
encounter follows the same pattern: reaction fear, followed by reassurance: “do not be afraid”,
followed by the angel’s message.
The angel and the shepherds are surrounded by the glory of the Lord: manifestation of God’s
power makes this revelation of the highest order, the shepherds found themselves standing in
God’s presence.

Angels message (v 10-11)

He defines the content of his message as GOOD NEWS: the same word was used announced
the birth of John the Baptist in 1:19
This is a keyword for Luke used by John, Jesus and by the apostles: it discloses the
content of God’s salvific acts, and is frequently linked with the concept of joy.
Recipients of this good news: all people - for the first time the universal they mention of the
good news is explicitly stated.
The angel precedes with the declaration of the core of his news: disclosure of identity of the
newly born child:
Saviour: the term relates to terminology of the book of Judges and should be understood as
deliverer, one who brings redemption, one who restores, one brings peace
This would be a term very familiar to the Hellenistic audience because Roman emperors and
other great individuals who brought peace to the world were honored with such title.
However, look clearly distinguish this savior from the Roman emperors by adding another
title:
Messiah (Christ)
Child’s birth in the city of David and the title itself unambiguously point to his identity as the
fulfilment of OT prophecies: he is the Davidic Messiah
the Lord
this is a designation of honor which would come to its full force only after the resurrection
where Luke would speak of the reason Jesus us the Lord (Acts: 2:36).
However, already here Luke anticipates the future events by naming Jesus in an appropriate
manner, true to his full meaning and identity.
Without the shepherds specific request or even a hint of desire for it, the Angel indicates a
sign that will confirm the truthfulness of his proclamation: a child lying in poverty
such a sign represents yet another reversal – will this Savior, Messiah and the Lord will be of
a different kind that was expected by the people of the world, Jews and Greek alike.

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The sign (v 12)
Proclamation by the angelic host (v 13-14)
Such a proclamation of peace is intrinsically linked with the concept of “Savior” in both
Jewish and Hellenistic sense - saviors bring peace to the world.
This child will bring God’s peace into the world: he will usher in (introduce) messianic peace
extended to all the people chose.
This peace does not mean absence of war and unrest, but more specifically it points to
restoration of creation and establishment of a new social order which will guarantee security,
prosperity, and harmony among the people.

By the proclamation the angels emphasize that what this child will do is ultimately God’s
doing and will bring glory to God – God will be recognized and glorified as the result of this
child work.
Shepherds’ testimony (v 15-20)
Responding to the Angels proclamation the shepherds go to Bethlehem and they found the
promise sign.
The shepherds see with their own eyes the fulfilment of the word that has been declared to
them. They do not honor the child but they rather confirm the truthfulness of what they have
heard and proclaim what they have heard.
The function of the shepherd is to be first proclaimers of the good news. In a startling reversal
shepherds becomes the first to publicly testify to the birth of the Messiah. Luke emphasizes
that twice (v 17; 20).
It is perhaps Luke’s way to signal that the good news of Jesus was from the beginning
intended to spread among the persons of the lowest status in the society. Something very true
about among the early Christians.

Mary ponders the shepherds’ words, it signifies the marvel and the puzzlement at the apparent
absurdity of the situation: child lying among the animals declared Saviour and the Messiah

NAMING OF JESUS (2:21)

Jesus is given the name in accordance with the Annunciation and on the same occasion as
John: circumcision on the eighth day of Jesus in John follow the practices of their ancestral
faith - he is a person standing within the Mosaic covenant as well as the result of God’s
special intervention.
The name given to Jesus: Jeshua in Hebrew, means “Yahweh saves”.
For the first time the child will be known by its name, the name which also reveals the child’s
mission - that of a Savior.

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PROPHECY OF SIMEON (2:22–40) - REVELATION OF JESUS’ MISSION
This text contains the third significant theological pronouncement in the gospel. It is not as
extensive as the song of Mary or Zechariah, however it defines the identity of the Messiah
Savior in the clearest terms yet.

SETTING (22:22-28)
Setting the life of Jesus (v 22-24)
The event takes place 40 day after Jesus’s birth. In accordance with the Jewish law the woman
needed ritual purification 40 days after the childbirth, (circumcision took place 7 days after
birth, circumcision and purification 33 days after circumcision Leviticus 12:3-4).
It was also the day when the firstborn male would be consecrated to God. This happens in
accordance with the law, once again presenting Jesus as standing firm in the Mosaic tradition
with the sacrifice of two pigeons offered also according to the law. They offer two pigeons
instead of a lamb and a turtledove because they are poor.

Setting for the prophecy (v 25-27)

Introduction of the person through whom the prophecy would come: Simeon
Simeone is described as a reliable prophet with all typical features: righteous, devout, filled
with the Holy Spirit and awaiting the consolation of Israel.
Waiting for the consolation of Israel implies that the man awaited the Messiah, as it attested in
the later words – he would not die before seeing the Lord’s Messiah.

As a person Simeone is a perfect embodiment of the entire OT tradition – a prophet, a man

living in Jerusalem and frequenting the Temple, and a man awaiting the Messiah. It is a man
representing all the hopes and traditions of his people.
On the day of the encounter the Holy Spirit guides Simeone into the temple where Jesus and
Mary come to complete the right prescribed by the law, with Simeone guided by the Holy
Spirit immediately recognizing who this child is.

Simeon’s Prophecy - identity and mission of Jesus (v 29-32)

• The words of this old prophet, Simeone declare that the prophecy given to him is
fulfilled in Jesus. He’s holding Messiah in his hands. However he goes further describing
the Savior’s identity:
o Universal Savior (v 30-31)
▪ Simeone states that his eyes have seen God’s salvation. Undoubtedly, he refers to Jesus
whom he’s holding in his hand. Therefore, Jesus is the promised Savior.
▪ Moreover, this salvation is going to be seen by all peoples. Thus, Simeone indicates that
Jesus is not just Savior of the Israelites but a universal Savior who will make God’s
salvation public and visible before the entire world.

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 ▪ God’s plan of salvation for the entire humanity is embodied in Jesus

o Saviors’ mission to the Gentiles (v 32a)

▪ the prophecy proceeds to define the Savior’s mission to the Gentiles confirming his
universal character “light of revelation to the Gentiles”.
▪ The notion of Messiah as the light is derived from the Isaiah’s Song of the Servant in
Isaiah 42:6; 49:6. Jesus the Savior will reveal God to the Gentiles thus opening their eyes
to the light of faith and making them God’s children.

o Savior’s mission to Israel (v 32 b): glorification of the chosen people

▪ Jesus the Savior will also be “glory to the people of Israel”.
▪ This expression should not be understood in terms of glorification of the people of Israel
but relates to a number of passages in the book of Isaiah which speak of God’s glory rising
above his people, and God being the glory of his people (Isaiah 60:1; 60:19; 46:13; 58:8).
▪ Israel is already God’s people but the Savior will bring them to their full stature before
they are God so that they will be in the presence of God.

o This outline of the Savior’s mission leaves no doubt that God’s plan of salvation is
universal. The Messiah will alter the destinies of both the Gentiles and Israel.

The manner of salvation (2:34-35)

After the exuberance of the first part of the prophecy there comes an indication that the
mission of the Savior Messiah is going to involve suffering. Without going into details
Simeon hints that salvation is going to involve struggle
The Messiah will bring division between those who embrace him and those who do not. These
are lights will be divided an account of Jesus with those who embrace him distant rise and
those who reject him destined to fall.
He will be a sign that many will oppose, for the indication of opposition.
His presence and work will reveal the content of the heart of many – it is likely in allusion to
Jesus’ denouncement of his enemies, particularly the leaders who willfully reject God.
In the allusion to the sword that is going to pierce Mary’s heart we find likely in allusion to
Jesus’ own death. Mary as the mother would experience the loss of her son being pierced by
sword.

Prophecy of Anna (2:36-38)

Luke further reinforces the prophetic testimony of Simeone by bringing a representative of the
northern prophetic tradition. Simeone might have been from Judah while Anna is from the
tribe of Asher that means from the Norton Israel, from the territories of Galilee.
Is explicitly named as a prophet this and further describe as a person of supreme authority: old
age, a widow, her continuing presence in the Temple in prayer and fasting.

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Her words confirm all that had been stated but Simeone as she praises God. Her words
indicate that he is the awaited Redeemer.

Summary statement: hidden life of Jesus (2:39-40)

 In parallel to John, Jesus withdraws into relative obscurity of a small town in Galilee,
Nazareth.
 Luke emphasizes that he has completed everything required by the law, he is an
obedient and pious Israelite
 He advances in wisdom and closeness with God and his remarkable progress will be
testified to by the next passage.
 This third significant in theological statement describes names and describes the long-
awaited Savior. It is also the text which fully reveals that God’s salvation is extended
both to the Israelites and to the Gentiles – Jesus is the universal Savior.
 His mission is described through Simeone and Anna can be described in terms of Jesus
as the Savior, Revealer, Messiah, and the Redeemer.
 Significantly, Luke for the first time hints that the Savior will be opposed and his path
of salvation and redemption will lead through suffering.
 Thus, this section of the text already defines Jesus in terms that will be justified and
fully developed in the rest of the gospel.
 Identify and then discuss the Christological foundations of the gospel contained in
Luke 2:22-38.

VISITATION OF THE TEMPLE (2:41–52)

The final episode in the infancy narrative provides a smooth transition between Jesus’ infancy
and the beginning of his public ministry, something which is lacking in all other Gospels.

Setting (2:41-42)
This story is set in the context of the Jewish feast of the Passover which his parents attended
every year. They were exceptionally faithful Jews.
Significantly, Jesus is no 12 years old, this is the time would undergo a ritual that would mark
his passage into adulthood – from now on he was obliged to follow the law from now on he is
perceived as a mature Israelite, obliged to follow the law of Moses.

Jesus in the Temple (2:43-50)

The story is told by Luke is clearly intended to make a point. No parent would be assuming
that the child is simply with the relatives while absent. It would make Jesus’s parents rather
negligent.
In telling the story Luke has a clear threefold purpose which is intended to emphasize that
Jesus is no ordinary Israelites subject to the law, that he and fact will go beyond the law.
It appears that Luke has a threefold purpose in mind by narrating the story:

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to confirm Jesus’ complete familiarity with the Jewish law. At 12 years of age Jesus could
not have possibly mastered the vast body of the Jewish laws. Presenting him as a child of
externally wisdom he emphasizes that Jesus and his teaching would not be a result of
ignorance of the law – he has been familiar with it from his earliest years. This makes him a
credible teacher as well as an Israelite firmly rooted in his ancestral tradition.
To define Jesus’ mission. In his answer to his distraught parents Jesus states that his business
is “in what is my Fathers” (the word “house” is not used here). These words might refer to the
Temple but also to God’s people or God’s mission. Clearly Jesus’s life mission is to go about
God’s business.
These words, pronounced in the Temple, show clearly the focus of Jesus life as well as the
central role of the Temple. Life is about doing God’s work and his family does not take
precedence over his mission.
To affirm him as the son of God. In his answer to the parents Jesus also use the expression
“my Father”. This defines his relationship to God in terms of the filial relationship which he
has with God.
That his parents do not seem to understand Jesus’ answer is a reflection of the early Christian
tradition that shows Jesus family is quite a comprehensive of his life and mission.

Summary statement: continuing life In Nazareth (2:51-52)

This summer statement concludes Luke’s infancy narrative. It generalizes the rest of Jesus’s
young life in terms of his obedience as well as growth in wisdom and favor was with God and
with people.
He is moving towards achieving full capacity to carry out his mission by growing on the
divine and human level.
Luke’s infancy narrative is a masterful piece of theological writing. Using narrative means
Luke the historian creates a story firmly rooted in human history but oriented towards creating
a theological foundation for the rest of his two-volume work.
His overarching purpose seem to be twofold:
He lays firm foundations for his narrative by linking it firmly to the OT history of the
people of Israel. Therefore, all that will be taking place subsequently in the gospel and in the
book of Acts will ultimately be a continuation of what God had started with the people of
Israel. The infancy narrative creates that bridge between the two chapters in salvation history.
He establishes the identities of two key individuals for the gospel: John the Baptist and Jesus.
The reader, venturing into the gospel has already full awareness of who these people are and
what respective role they are to play. It is only a matter of how they will execute their
missions and what will be the outcomes of their work.

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PREPARATION FOR THE MINISTRY OF JESUS (3:1–4:13)
 Before Luke begins narrating how Jesus the Savior went about his mission he prepares
the ground for his presentation. This preparation takes place in two parts.
 First, John the Baptist, true to his mission indicated in the infancy narrative, will
appear to prepare ground for Jesus.
 Subsequently, Jesus will appear as a public person, and the stages of his preparation
for the ministry will be described. His credentials as God’s Messiah will be confirmed.

MINISTRY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST (3:1-20)

• Preparation for Jesus’ ministry begin with Luke describing John the Baptist carrying out his
mission of the precursor of the Messiah. These 20 verses will encapsulate his entire mission,
and Luke will only briefly return where his identity will once again be confirmed.
• John’s ministry is presented in three distinctive sections.

HISTORICAL SETTING (3:1-2)

 For the third time Luke the historian will firmly situate his narrative in world’s
history. The first two verses of his account of John’s ministry will contain an
extensive list of the authorities governing the world. The purpose of this description
would be to situate his history of salvation in the midst of world history.
 He described three groups with representing and wielding different authority:
o Emperor Tiberius and Pontius Pilate – Roman Imperial authority
o Herod Antipas, Philip, and Lysanias – local Jewish rulers who governed the
territories on behalf of Rome
o Annas and Caiaphas – Jewish high priests representing religious authority

 The beginning of Jesus’s story will unfold in the world with well-defined power
structures, with these seven individuals connected through a chain of authority
descending from the highest (the Emperor and ending with Caiaphas. It was a complex
system, but these individuals had to cooperate in order to govern the lands effectively.
 Luke then gives us one from date – 15 th year of the reign of Emperor Tiberius. This
would set the beginning of the story in 29 AD. Indeed, all the other persons mentioned
would have been in power at that time.

IDENTITY AND MISSION OF JOHN THE BAPTIST (2:2b-6)

Returning to the issue of John’s identity and his mission, Luke reconfirms what has
been stated about John doing the Annunciation to Zechariah and in his prophecy.
“The word of God came to John” – in accordance with Zechariah’s prophecy John will be a
prophet. In a definite historical moment God’s word comes to him.

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This word came to John in the desert which is a classic OT location for God’s revelation but
also for testing as well as the change of life and identity.
• V 3 describes John’s mission – proclaiming a baptism of repentance. Again, in reference to
his father’s prophecy his mission’s focus on removal of sin through baptism as preparation for
coming of the Messiah.
• V 4-6 again confirm the words of Annunciation and apply extensive text of Isaiah 40:3-5 to
John.
o Important to note is Luke’s usage of the word “salvation” in verse 6. The original
Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible does not contain that word. It is found in the
Septuagint which proves that Luke used the Greek text for his OT quotations.
o Also important is that Luke quotes this passage from Isaiah in its full extent and the
emphasis seem to rest on “all people”. Matthew and Mark also quote the same text but
limit themselves to just the first verse.

PREACHING/TEACHING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST (3:7-18)

• After the historical introduction and general description of John’s activity in his focus on
baptism and repentance, Luke will give a unique and extensive description of John’s message.
For Luke, John’s mission was not limited to just baptism but it contain an element of
preaching and instruction.
• John’s preaching and teaching covers two distinctive subjects.

Preaching for repentance (3:7-14)

Luke shares the first two lines of his message with Matthew. A difference should be
noted however, as Matthew speaks to Pharisee’s and Sadducees while John speaks to the
people in general: the multitudes.

Warning against hypocrisy and false confidence (v 7-9). The beginning of his message (v
7-9) is a frightening prophetic warning which warns those coming to him to be baptized
against any form of hypocrisy.
The expression which John uses addressing the crowds means literally “children of snakes”.
Whether he makes an allusion to Genesis 3, or as a symbol of calculated cleverness remains
unclear. It is obvious however, that John warns those coming to him against any hypocrisy –
they ought not to think that baptism alone will guarantee their safety from God’s wrath.
Similarly, being children of Abraham, in the sense of their descent from Abraham, guarantees
them nothing.
What is important is to produce the fruits of repentance. This is the only way to withstand
God judgment which is graphically described in v 9, to the images of acts placed against the
root of the three.

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Fruits of repentance (v 10-14). John’s frightening message provokes a question about the
nature or the fruits of repentance – what does it mean to repent? In answer John will give
examples of repentance for three distinct groups. Two of these groups – tax collectors and
soldiers would have been the most disliked and despised groups in the society of the day.
o Repentance for the crowds (v 11): an example of sharing one’s property – clothing and
food points to the necessity for generosity, kindness and care. To repentance implies
the change of mindset from the selfish focus to the concern for others. The foundation
for a new society is thus established through the basic acts of sharing food and
clothing: love of neighbor becomes the foundation of Lukan ethic.
o Repentance for the tax collectors: tax collector or a group notorious for their rapacity,
imposing additional charges over what they had to collect for their own personal gain.
John teaches that they ought to fulfill their duty without using their power for self
enrichment.
o Repentance for soldiers: this would have been Jewish soldiers, possibly mercenaries
functioning as police facing the same contention to corruption and extortion. John
gives them a double exhortation – to refrain from violence or false accusations for
monetary gain. It would have been natural for such searches to abuse their position and
use their power for monetary advantage. Thus, the soldier is to be satisfied with their
wages and not to seek enrichment through unlawful means.

For John, the true fruit of repentance and an adequate response to God is manifested in very
real ways. Repentance is therefore essentially turn away from self interest and pursued of
gain. Such a change could only happen if one changes one’s mindset in view of a fellow
person. It is to treat fellow person not as an object and react to that person with either
indifference or as a possible source of monetary gain.
Here we see the nature of sin in Luke’s understanding. He perceives it is something that
prevents a person to relate to God because of self-centered focus that not only disregards
fellow human beings but orients all actions, the entire life of a person, towards himself and
herself. It closes a person to God and to others.
John’s mission was that of an eschatological prophet who sees the nearness of God’s
judgment. His mission to the various groups of the Jewish society aims at bringing about
fundamental change in perception of another person and shifting one’s focus away from
monetary gain and other securities. Only a person who is able to seek something beyond
himself or herself will be able to receive the gift of salvation which Jesus will offer.

Teaching about the Messiah and his baptism (3:15-18), and the end of John’s mission
(3:19-20)
• The preparatory mission of John was not limited to baptismal preaching of repentance. Like
all other evangelists Luke includes a section where John points to the coming Christ and his
baptism with the Holy Spirit.

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• In answer to the people’s wonder whether he is the Messiah John points to someone far
greater than himself using a common symbol of “untying the sandals”.
The image of untying the sandal is a recognition that John is subordinate to Christ. In
comparison to the coming one John is merely a servant.
• The greatness of the one to come is, at least partially, a result of his ability to baptize “with
the Holy Spirit and fire”. The addition of fire to the notion of baptism is also found in
Matthew and questions are raised why this double phrase? Several answers are possible:
o This compound image of the Spirit and fire might be a reference to the Pentecost.
o It might also be that Luke thinks of two distinctive baptisms – one being the Pentecost
with sending of the Spirit and the fire as a reference to judgment.
o Given that the next verse speaks of judgment in terms of separating the grain and the
chaff which will then be thrown into the fire it is most likely that Luke brings in fire to
indicate the consequences of rejection of the Spirit. Fire in Luke is commonly
associated with judgment as is evident in the statement about Jesus bringing fire (Luke
12:49-53) and the day of the Son of Man as a fire that divides people (17:29-30). Thus,
Luke speaks of Jesus bringing baptism of the Spirit and the fire of judgment based on
either rejection or acceptance of him.

• The last verse in this section contains a summary of the entire preaching of John describing
its contest context as “good news”. The good news theme is continued from the infancy
narratives and describes what Jesus will accomplish. John has initiated the process.
• The final two verses in this section conclude the mission of John with a brief note of
imprisonment. It’s a short summer statement consistent with gospel tradition about the
conflict between the ruler of Galilee and his wife allied against John the Baptist.

• Proclamation of John the Baptist explicitly points to the impending coming of Jesus. Luke
emphasizes that John is a transitional figure and that his preparatory role was to prepare the
ground for Jesus’s appearance. His mission is completed quite anticlimactically as he is shot
up in prison never to emerge again. Still, Luke paid more attention to John than any other
evangelist. John has successfully accomplished his part in salvation history and will give way
to the one whom he had proclaimed.
• After describing how John prepared the grounds for Jesus’s ministry, Luke turns his
attention to Jesus himself and will outline how Jesus prepared himself for ministry. This will
be describing three separate episodes which will highlight Jesus ‘identity.

JESUS’S BAPTISM – EMPOWERMENT AND CONFIRMATION OF JESUS’

MISSION AND IDENTITY (3:21-22)
• In contrast to the Ministry of John, the baptism of Jesus is shortest among the Synoptics. It
might seem that Luke wants to diminish the importance of this event. His reworking of the
material from Mark is significant.

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• It appears that Luke wants to make the transition from John to Jesus complete by presenting
Jesus as the one who will now embark on his mission with the full power of the Holy Spirit.
• When unless carefully it appears that the cold this passage “baptism of Jesus” is rather
inadequate as Luke appears to lay emphasis on the send and the Holy Spirit upon Jesus rather
on the baptism itself.
• Setting. V 21 provides the setting for the dissent of the Spirit. The setting is twofold
the broad context is John’s baptizing activity numerous people receiving that baptism.
Significantly Luke does not mention that Jesus came from Galilee, neither does he
explicitly state that John baptized. It might be assumed but certainly Luke seeks to
underplay the importance of this fact. Indifference to Matthew he neither includes the
dialogue between John and Jesus nor makes clear why Jesus should be baptized.
Second aspect of the setting is the prayer. Unlike in all other Gospels the Spirit will not
descend upon Jesus in the act of baptism for immediately afterwards, but later and in the
context of prayer.
Prayer is an important feature of Luke’s account and some of the most important events in his
ministry take place in the context of prayer (selection of the 12 apostles, Peter’s confession,
Transfiguration, teaching the Lord’s prayer, and Gethsemane – 3:21; 5:16; 6:12; 9:28-29;
11:1; 22:41; 23:34, 46); all these instances, except for prayer in Gethsemane are unique to
Luke).
Jesus is in direct contact with God through prayer and it is at that time when the heavens open.
Opening of heavens is a metaphor for removing the barrier between the earth and the heavenly
world. It is an act that precedes revelation or God’s intervention in the earthly realm.
o In the first act the Spirit descends in the form of a dove. This association between the
spirit and this bird is not entirely clear. Perhaps, this metaphor derives from the Greco-
Roman mythology where gods were often associated with birds. More likely
suggestion was to associate this image with the story of Noah where the dove is sent to
find solid land. Thus, dove would be associated with the end of the period of judgment
in the beginning of a new world.
o In the first act the divine voice confirms Jesus’ identity. The voice undoubtedly
belongs to God who addresses Jesus as the beloved Son.
▪ God speaks directly to Jesus, it is a voice confirming to Jesus his identity.
▪ In line with the Annunciation to Mary Jesus is confirmed as God’s son – a person in a
special relationship with God.
▪ Since he is “beloved” it implies particular closeness between God and Jesus, closeness
unlike that which was enjoyed by others who were called “God’s sons” such as Israelite kings
or Israel itself.
▪ Since the voice comes after coming of the Holy Spirit, it is a confirmation to Jesus that he is
sent and empowered by God for a mission – he is the Messiah and future Savior.

V 22 reports to events descend of the Spirit and God’s testimony about Jesus.

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• Both the dissent of the Holy Spirit and the voice from heaven confirming his identity and his
unique relationship with God serve as initial preparation of Jesus for his future ministry. He is
now firmly set on a course to begin that ministry. However, there are two other significant
aspects of this preparation that have to happen.

GENEALOGY OF JESUS – JESUS’ IDENTIFICATION WITH THE HUMAN RACE

(2:23-38)
The descent of the Holy Spirit and the confirmatory voice from heaven firmly established
Jesus is supernatural credentials. He is United with God in a unique way in late by the Holy
Spirit.
Luke purposefully inserts his genealogy at this point in the text to establish Jesus’s credentials
as a human being.
Luke begins this genealogy with the statement that already hints at history purpose: he
informs about Jesus’s age. By stating that Jesus is about 30 years old he highlights his
humanity.
Historical value of distaste cannot be a certain by any means. It differs drastically from that of
Matthew and most fundamental ways and it can be safely said that the two have very little in
common. Some essential differences:
o Unlike in Matthew, there is no clear structure to this list, no division into groups of seven
Matthew has 42 names why Luke 76 names and they differ widely.
They are arranged in reverse order and cannot be reconciled.
Luke includes a large number of individuals who are not found in biblical accounts.
It is obvious that Luke’s purpose is theological and not historical. His chief purposes can be
described as follows:
 to emphasize that Jesus is part of the human family by tracing his origin all the way
back to Adam.
 Luke confirms through tracing Jesus’ origin back past Adam and to God that, while
human, Jesus originates from God.
 because of his human descendent he represents the human family before God. The last
word in this genealogy is, in fact, God signifying that through Jesus humanity is now
linked with God in a way that was formerly impossible.
 Showing Jesus as a member of the human family, Luke makes him and his mission
universal. He is not merely a representative of Israel but of the human race.
 By inclusion of the great persons from the OT Luke also continues to highlight to
continue 80 between what God was doing the people of Israel. However, Jesus mission
clearly extends beyond the Israelites and to the very roots of the human race.

By presenting Jesus as a full member of the human family Luke emphasizes that God’s
salvation will be delivered by human means. Humanity, represented by Jesus will participate
in its own salvation.

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TEMPTATION OF JESUS 4:1-30
Luke’s temptation story bears numerous similarities to that found in Matthew. However there
are also notable difference is which are difficult to explain – the name of the tempter differs –
the tempter/devil; stones/stone; reversal of the order of the two final temptations. Still it is
obvious that both authors draw on a common Christian tradition.

SETTING (4:1-2)
Picking up on the story of baptism Luke introduces Jesus as “full of the Holy Spirit”. He
ventures into a wilderness which is the place of testing, transformation, but also formation.
Luke emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit by mentioning the spirit twice in that first verse.
The duration of Jesus’s stay is set at 40 days. It is either 40 days of journey to the wilderness
for 40 days in the wilderness, after which temptations would happen.
The significant reference is however, to 40 days. This is the period of Israel’s desert sojourn,
duration of the flood, fasts of Moses and Elijah. Moses was with God on Mount Sinai for 40
days.
The most likely purpose of stating this number is that Luke wants to create a parallel between
Jesus and the Israelites in the desert. When in the desert, Israelites were exposed to hunger,
thirst, and temptation to idolatry. They failed all these tests. Jesus will be exposed to the same
temptations as he’s hungry and exposed to the temptation of idolatry. Will he fail the test just
as Israel did?
Temptation story is composed in such a manner as to answer three fundamental questions
before the beginning of Jesus’s ministry. The questions regarding his capacity and credibility
to carry out God’s mission in the world: o Will Jesus use his God-given power to satisfy his
needs and serve himself?
Will Jesus serve God or will he become the servant of Satan?
Will Jesus trust God unconditionally without seeking signs and testing God’s fidelity to him?

FIRST TEMPTATION – TO THE SELF-SERVING USE OF POWER (4:3-4)

The tempter makes his appearance. Luke calls him “the devil”. In the NT the devil, or Satan,
is a being who opposes God seeking to assume God’s place. He frequently attempts to
frustrate God’s purposes by deceiving people to serve him rather than God.
First temptation hinges on the question “if you are the son of God”. In Greek this is presented
in the first class conditional sentence which means that devil is not trying to put doubt into
Jesus’s mind regarding his identity as God’s son. In fact devil is stating “since you are the son
of God” turn this stone to bread.
Temptation here is for Jesus to use his powers of miracle working for self-serving purposes –
to satisfy his hunger.

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Jesus answer is straightforward quoting Deuteronomy 8:3 he states that “one does not live on
bread alone”. His answer implies his powers are not for him to satisfy his own needs. His life
is not focused on sustaining himself but rather doing God’s will. Jesus lives with the purpose
of doing God’s will and not filling his belly.
In this temptation Jesus resists what the Israelites in the desert couldn’t. Faced with hunger,
there was so absorbed by the concerns of daily sustenance that they murmured against God
and rebelled against Moses.

SECOND TEMPTATION – TO IDOLATRY (4:5-8)

The second temptation begins with Jesus being given a glimpse of the splendor of all the
Earth’s kingdoms. The devil offers him their wealth and authority over them. He asserts that
they all are under his authority, which is an apparent lie, because he does not have absolute
authority over the world, as Jesus will show in his exorcisms.
Jesus is offered authority over these kingdoms but, since Satan perceives that they belong to
him, is in fact offering Jesus to become his servant, that is evident in the request for
worshiping Satan. Thus, Jesus is offered a position of Satan’s viceroy.
This temptation is easily resisted with Jesus thus quoting Deuteronomy 6:13. This is a fitting
answer for faithful Israelite utterly committed to faith and worship of one God and one God
alone.
In this temptation Jesus again does what Israelites in the desert couldn’t. Towards the end
their journey through the desert they fail into gross idolatry worshiping the gods of the
Moabites (cf. Numbers 25).

THIRD TEMPTATION – TO MISTRUST GOD (4:9-12)

The final temptation is described a longest manner and, unlike in Matthew, it takes place in
Jerusalem on top of the Temple. Luke’s understanding of the pivotal role of the Temple is
obvious.
Seeing that Jesus answered twice by quoting the Scripture, devil changes his approach. Now
he attacks Jesus using the Scripture. The quotation from Psalm 91:11-12 speaks of God’s
protection for his righteous ones.
Satan implies that since Jesus is the son of God (this is the same type of “if” as in the first
temptation), God will protect him no matter what. However, by doing so Jesus would be in
fact testing whether

God’s word and God’s presence with him are reliable. He would be testing God or forcing
God’s hand.
Such a test would be equivalent to Zechariah’s demand for sign from the Annunciation story,
and it would show that Jesus does not really trust God and requires additional proof.

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Jesus again answers with the passage from the Deuteronomy 6:16 where the Israelites were
reminded not to test God as they had done at Massah (cf. Exodus 17:1-7).
At Massah the Israelites complained that what God provided was not enough and demanded
for more. Unlike them, Jesus trusts God does not need additional proof or signs of God’s
presence and protection.

With the third temptation resisted, the devil leaves Jesus. In the course of his ministry Jesus
will be confronting devil’s agents – demons frequently, and will show his superiority over
them. Devil will reemerge in the passion narrative in Luke 22:3 and 31, where Luke attributes
do this is betrayal to Satanic activity and alludes to Satan’s demand for testing the disciples.

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 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.
INTRODUCTION
THE AUTHOR OF ACTS AND PAUL
There can be no serious doubt about the common authorship of the Gospel of Luke and Acts
of the apostles. The issue of the common authorship has been treated in the introduction to the
gospel.
But the question remains as to whether the author of both works was the traveling companion
of Paul. The name “Luke” never appears in the book itself, and the author never states
explicitly that he was associated with Paul. The Christian tradition recognizes him as the same
Luke, the “beloved physician” to whom the letter to Colossians refers. Making the connection
between the letter, Paul, and Acts the Christian tradition, only recognized the author of this
book as a fellow worker of Paul who was also a Gentile Christian.
The main argument put forth in favor of this view are the so-called “we passages”. These are
sections of the texts found in the second part of the book (16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:8-18; 27:1 –
28:16), where the subject changes from the narrative third person to the first person plural
“we”. These suggest that the author was personally present with Paul as the events which he
narrates unfolded.
The criticism raised against the “we sections” as the proof of the personal presence of the
author with Paul is that those sections do not constitute coherent parts of the narrative. Rather,
they are inserted into the text sometimes in the midsentence suggesting that the author might
have been simply incorporating an external source which was written by somebody else using
the “we” pronoun. Scholars postulate that this was a “traveling diary” or a “travel log” by one
of the real companions which the author had available and incorporated into his text.

What cannot be doubted is that Paul is the one of the two main characters of the entire book,
so it is logical to postulate that it was in fact written by someone who knew Paul personally or
was at least very keenly aware of Paul’s importance in this new religious movement.

THE LITERARY CHARACTER OF ACTS – HISTORY OR THEOLOGY?

The long-lasting debate about the Acts’ literary character is a debate as to whether
Luke can be considered reliable history or not. Most scholars fall somewhere in between the
two extremes of seeing Luke’s account as historically very reliable and perceiving it as an
imagined and idealized portrayal of the early days of Christianity.

ACTS AS HISTORY
That those who perceive the book of acts as a natural continuation of the gospel devoted to
presentation of the historically accurate account of the spread of the early church. These
scholars take Luke as a historical account.

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On the other end of the spectrum stand those scholars who consider Luke as most the fictional
account which has very little to do with history but rather is a totally theological and invented
story.
It is rather obvious that Luke’s accounts in the book of acts is not focused on narrating the
historical details with accuracy. Luke narrates history but in a theological manner.
Luke’s lack of concern with historical accuracy is seen in the internal inconsistencies with
which he narrates the same events. A good example is the threefold report of Paul’s
conversion which is narrated in chapters 9, 22, and 26. These accounts feature minor but
significant differences. For example, did his companions see bright light and heard Jesus’s
voice, or did they only see light? Did they fall down to the ground or what the left standing?
These details are different which shows that Luke is not concerned with giving details.
But a major proof of Luke’s lack of historical accuracy are the differences between his
account of the life of Paul and Paul’s own letters. How soon did Paul go to Jerusalem after his
escape from Damascus? How many times did Paul go to Jerusalem before the Jerusalem
Council? What were the decisions taken during the Jerusalem Council? Why did Paul and
Barnabas separate?
Perhaps most significantly, Paul speeches reported by Paul feature virtually no
common theological concepts as those evident in Paul’s letters. The teaching on righteousness
by faith, controversies about the continuing validity of the Jewish law which dominated Paul’s
letters and the emphasis on Jesus’ death are not at all evident in Luke’s account.

All these factors proof that look is not a primary historical account. However, this is not to say
that Luke’s account is utterly fictional. On the contrary Luke basis his account on the
information and sources available to him, aiming to show how God acted through human
history to further his salvation plan for humanity. Thus, the people and events are not fictional
but rather cast in a theological manner and interpreted theologically.

ACTS AS THEOLOGY –
MAJOR THEOLOGICAL EMPHASIS OF THE BOOK OF ACTS
Acts is clearly not intended to function as a disinterested historical report. If not it has
to be considered as an theological account that narrates the spread of the early church in the
context of and in reference to God’s design for humanity.

The story of Jesus Continues in the History of the Church

Even on the theological level some scholars juxtapose Acts and the Gospel as
“Teologia Glorie” versus “Teologia Crucis” respectively. Often, Acts is perceived as rejection
and denial of Jesus’ mission as presented by Luke. Such views and juxtapositions are
completely unwarranted. How likely is it that the same author would have written one book to
contradict his other account? The two books therefore, has to be considered as consistent in

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their views in fact, Acts is nothing else but a natural continuation of the work of Jesus through
the ministry of the apostles and the Church.

Continuity through the Spirit

The first clear indication of the continuity between Jesus and the church is the role of
the Holy Spirit. Jesus received the Spirit upon his baptism and with the power of this Spirit he
worked as a prophet. After his resurrection Jesus ascends to heaven. Significantly Luke
emphasizes that after his ascension Jesus received the Holy Spirit from the Father and poured
it out upon the apostles (Acts 2:33). The continuity between him and the Church will be
guaranteed by the same Spirit. All significant individuals in the story will be filled with the
Holy Spirit, and they will hand the Holy Spirit to others. This will be done by Peter, John, and
Paul.

Jesus-like Apostles and Church

 Jesus is baptized and receives the Spirit, the believers are baptized and received the
Spirit. Just as Jesus is portrayed as a prophet in the Gospel, the apostles and the
community also portrayed as prophetic people.
 In Peter’s speech of the Pentecost he extensively quotes from Joel citing the prophecy
about coming of the Spirit upon flesh. He significantly acts a line in 2:18 states which
refers to the outpouring of the Spirit upon God’s servants, were he adds “and they
shall prophesy”. Luke emphasizes that this newly found community constituted by the
Holy Spirit will now be the community of the prophets. The outpouring of the Spirit
on the initial group will translate into the growth of the people filled with the prophetic
spirit. This community will continue the mission of Jesus.
 Jesus, empowered by the Spirit performed miracles, cast out demons, healed the sick
and raised the dead. The apostles performed the exact same actions.
 Jesus was opposed by the Jewish authorities, his followers and apostles are persecuted
and opposed by the authorities.
 In Luke Jesus goes to the Gentiles because he was rejected by the Jews, in Acts the
apostles are projected the Jewish leaders and then they go to the Gentiles.

God directs and empowers the growth of the Church through the Holy Spirit
The Holy Spirit, “the power from on high” has come to make the mission of the
church possible. The apostles in the church they are empowered from God. Since God
is behind the process of the spread of the gospel and salvation this story is
unstoppable. Trying to prevent amounts to fighting against God and was explicitly
stated by Gamaliel in 5:39.

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Christianity as the new Israel
 Christianity does not stand in contradiction to Judaism, neither it replaces Judaism.
The message started first to spread among the Jewish people and then demographically
and ethically expanded beyond the confines of Judaism. The Gentiles who accept the
faith do not have to go back to the previous stage, to Judaism.
 Outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon all flesh at Pentecost creates the new community
from among the Jewish people. First proclamation of Peter is directed to the Jewish
people with the proclamation of Jesus is the Lord and Messiah calling for repentance
(2:36-38).
 Peter then makes very clear what this repentance implies – it implies being baptized
in the name of Jesus and then reception of the gift of the Holy Spirit (2:38). He
continues admonishing them to “save yourselves from this corrupt generation”.
 His call results in 3000 receiving baptism in becoming the first community of the
saved ones. Here, salvation means belonging to the community of faith, it means being
a part of the reconstituted people of God. The life of this community is then described
as the community of shared possession and prayer (2:43-47). These are the common
Lukan themes.
 The rejection of this new community by the leaders in the subsequent scattering of the
community has the same effect as Jesus’s rejection in Nazareth had. The apostles now
turn to the broader world taking this new faith to the broader world.
 But the mission to the Gentile world is not a replacement or abrogation of Judaism and
Israel. It is continuation of what had started in Jerusalem. It is the fulfillment of the
hope that it Judaism carried an extension of the boundaries of God’s people, of Israel,
beyond one ethnic group. Christianity is therefore an authentic renewed Israel
constituted by faith in Jesus and caring in it of the promises that were first given to the
Israelites.

STRUCTURE
The structure of the book is very clear, it can be described as the “structure of the
expansion”. Geographically this expansion takes us from Jerusalem to the ends of the world.
On the personal level it is a transition from the twelve, particularly Peter, to the apostle Paul
who will bring the gospel through its greatest geographical extent. It is also in ethnic and
demographic transition from the Jews to the Gentiles.
These transitions carry a profound theological message. First, they illustrate how the mission
of Jesus continues in and through the Church. He himself never ventured beyond Palestine
and his salvific acts benefited mostly Jews. Through the Church his mission of salvation
expands to the entire world.
The structure also emphasizes that God faithfully oversees history of salvation through
the action of his Spirit that acts in the apostles and through Christians at large.

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INTRODUCTION (1:1-26)
This introduction includes a programming statement in 1:8 which outlines the rest of the book.
Notable here is Jesus’ statement that the disciples will receive the empowerment of the Holy
Spirit and they are to witness to Jesus before the whole world in Jerusalem, Judea and
Samaria, and the entire world. The book follows this outline. The ascension and
reconstitution of the twelve is also included.

PENTECOST (2:1-36)
Sending of the Holy Spirit follows the introduction with the empowerment of the disciples
and Peter’s all-important speech which lays foundations for the subsequent mission of the
disciples.

MISSION IN JERUSALEM (2:37-8:3)

Their witness in the city brings about mass conversions as 3000 convert in 2:41; 5000 in 4:4
and 5:14 many more people convert. This is the beginning of the Christian church. The
leaders oppose the mission of the apostles and eventually through persecution they drive them
out of Jerusalem. This brings about the spread of the church to Judea and Samaria.

MISSION IN JUDEA AND SAMARIA. PHILIP AND PETER (8:4-12:25)

In this section the two dominant figures of Philip and Peter carry out the mission to the
brother world surrounding Jerusalem. Philip converts the first Gentile to faith while Peter lays
the foundations for the transition between the Jewish and the Gentile Christianity.

MISSION TO THE ENDS OF THE EARTH. PAUL (13:1 – 28:31)

Paul becomes the person to whom the full inclusion of the Gentiles among God’s people
becomes a reality. He goes on extensive missionary journeys eventually carrying the Christian
message to the center of the civilized world, Rome, which fulfils the mission to the ends of the
earth. One major feature in this section is chapter 15 with the account of Jerusalem Council
and the formal approval and sanctioning of the existence of a Gentile mission, together with
acknowledgment that the Gentiles did not need to be converted to Judaism before becoming
Christians.

ACTS’ SPECIAL LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS

SPEECHES
Among all the books of the New Testament, the acts of the apostles feature the greatest
amount of direct speech by various characters cast in the form of speeches. The scholars
usually identify 24 speeches, but there are those who go as far as 27 or even 28, with
additional distinction of partial speeches and dialogs. The importance of speeches is seen in
the amount of space that take up in the text of Acts. It is counted that out of approximately
1000 verses, 300 are taken up by speeches. Thus, nearly 1/3 of the book consists of speeches.

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Beyond any doubt, Luke as author made conscious and purposeful use of speeches in his
composition. The study of speeches has a long history in biblical scholarship and it is a
complex undertaking.

Speeches and Greco-Roman historiography

It is a well-known fact that Greek historiographers presented their heroes as making speeches
at some crucial points in history. Thus, major speeches are made before a major battle is
fought, or a major journey is undertaken, a decision is made to build the city or erected
Temple.
In Greco-Roman histories but also in the biblical literature, such as Deuteronomistic history,
speeches were purposefully created, or invented, by the historians for some specific purposes.
These included:
o to inform the audience about the character of the speaker by revealing his
motivation and values he upholds
o to provide information about the factors that move history forward, besides the
revealed inside information about “what is going on behind the scenes”. This
often would involve the divine causation that decides how events would unfold
o to reveal theological and historical principles that underline the events
o to interpret and explain the existing situation
o they often focused on and revolved around a single concern and elaborated the
same point from different angles.

•This speeches, therefore, were essential for ancient histories. They were often very long and
their primary function was to interpret the events.
•This speeches offer included examples from the past.
•Those living the speeches were often cast in the mold of ancient figures, and behave in
patterns familiar from the stories of the heroes and authority figures from the past.
•Lukan speeches the feature most of these elements. Beyond doubt look at the historian was
influenced by the canons of history writing familiar to him.

The Speakers
Christian speakers. The two major speakers are Peter (eight speeches) and Paul (nine
speeches), whose speeches are frequent and extensive. There are also major speeches by
Stephen (7:2-60) and by James (15:13-21; 21:20-25).
Non-Christian speakers. Significantly, in addition to the main Christian character speeches
we find also important speeches of the non-Christian figures who are usually opponents. Here
we find Gamaliel’s speech (5:35-39) and Festus’ speech to King Agrippa (25:14-21), in
addition to brief statements by numerous other characters.

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Types of Speeches
Speeches are often classified according to their importance and character. Out of the total of
24, 10 speeches are considered major once. These are:
o three missionary speeches of Peter (ch. 2; 3; 10).
o three missionary speeches of Paul (ch. 13; 17; 20). The placing of the speeches is
purposeful and strategic as Luke situates them in three distinctive phases of Paul’s
ministry – Pisidian Antioch, Areopagus in Athens, and the farewell address at Miletus.
o three defense speeches of Paul (ch. 22; 24; 26)
o the speech of Stephen before the Sanhedrin (ch. 7). This is the most extensive speech
in the entire book.

General Pattern in Speeches

In analysis of the more extensive, major speeches, a general pattern can be discerned.
Although not rigidly followed this pattern testifies to the fact that speeches will Luke’s own
creations and feature consistent and repetitive pattern and vocabulary. His general pattern
features six parts:
 Direct address to the audience with a call for hearing.
 Indication and description of the situation would lead to the speech; contextualization
of the speech.
 The body of the speech containing the response to the situation and the teaching or a
message supported with the relevant Scripture quotations.
 Christological kerygma – proclamation of Jesus’s death and resurrection and the
resulting offer of salvation.
 A proof of the truthfulness of kerygma, often based on Scripture
 the offer of salvation with call for repentance and outline of the conditions for
salvation.

Historicity of Speeches
 Another significant issue intensely debated by the scholars is the historicity of Luke’s
speeches. Did Luke wholly invent the speeches or are they based on reliable historical
sources which quote what the speakers actually said?
 Since Luke obviously followed the practice of the Greek historiographers and placed
speeches at key junctures in his narrative in the mouth of key individuals, we must
first look at how these ancient historians approach the matter. Here however, the
evidence is ambiguous.
 This was the practice of the father of ancient historiography to Thucydides, was
quoted as saying that, even though he did not have access to exact text of what his
character said, he still intend to “keep as closely as possible to the general sense of the
words that were actually said, to have the speaker say what, in my view, was called for
by such situation”. This was also the practice of another historian, Polybius, who

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 strongly condemned the practice of inventing speeches by some of his predecessors. It
appears, that historical accuracy was the ambition of the most notable ancient
historians.
 Many scholars assume that Luke took exactly the same approach – that gathered
information from those who heard the speeches and reported them as accurately as it
was possible, faithfully conveying the essence of what was said.
 It is noted that the Lucan speeches were quite short in comparison to the speeches in
other ancient historical works. It is therefore argued that Luke cost those speeches in
his own words but presented no more than summary of what was said. This is obvious
when we note that Peter’s speech in the temple began at three in the afternoon and
lasted until the sunset (Acts 3:1; 4:3). However, Luke reports only a short version of
the speech in no more than 14 verses.
 It is also quite evident that the speeches generally contain very similar vocabulary,
share the same style and follow common structure. Thus, they are depended on one
another and prove that they have been created by the same hand.
 Finally, beyond doubt speeches in Acts are intended to advance the Christian kerygma.
They are not disinterested and thematically dispersed but rather focus and share the
common concern with presenting Jesus as the Savior and are meant to bring about
conversion of the listeners.
 Having said that, it must be acknowledged that the speeches are delivered in great
variety of context and by very different persons. While their general concern is
consistent, the arguments are often particular in their focus.
 The evidence cited above is inconclusive and does not allow to firmly answer the
question whether the speeches go back to the original speakers or they are entirely
Lucan creations. The scholars stand on both side of the spectrum, some claiming basic
historical accuracy, with others arguing these to be sheer inventions.
As a way of summary we have to acknowledge that they are essentially Luke’s creation.
However, even as such, they do reflect the early Christian understanding of Jesus and convey
the sense of their own history and identity. While their direct connection to the apostolic
figures might be doubted, what cannot be question is the fact that they do reflect the early
Church tradition.

The Function of Speeches in Acts

Acts is a very complex book featuring the greatest number of characters, great diversity of
events, and the broadest geographical scope of any NT books. It also addresses a great variety
of issues, both theological and historical. Reading such a complex book one might have an
impression that it is a collage of episodes that are largely unrelated.
o The book is also not consistent in terms of its presentation of events and characters.
The initial heroes from the introductory part of the book disappear from view by its

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 middle. While the new character, such as Paul, notably absent from the beginning of
the book, dominates it in the later part.
o The ending of acts, much like the original ending of Mark leaves the book without a
suitable conclusion. It is an open and which puzzles to reader.
In this very complex and diverse book speeches play a special role as a literary device to unify
the entire narrative. This is the important Jesus of Marion Soards.
By the fact that the speeches are consistent in structure and quite repetitive in character allows
Luke and out the narrative with the sense of coherence. In addition to being theological
statements, the unify the entire narrative showing that behind the various seemingly unrelated
events there lies a deeper current of salvation history where God acts to Christ for salvation.
Thus, speeches articulate Luke’s view of history and serve to present the salvific plan of God
Since they are focused on kerygma, the Christ event is in fact the unifying factor which the
speeches merely express in various forms.

SUMMARIES
 Another important feature of Acts are the summaries. Liking the Gospels, the
summaries are generalizations, a sweeping statement that provide broad impression of
the type and character of the activities taking place or of a person whom they describe.
 Virtually all Luke’s summaries in Acts portray the Christian community in its early
days. Thus, we find three long summaries in 2:43-47; 4:32-37; 5:12-16 which disclose
the character of this early community is a community of shared possession and the
healing ministry of the apostles.
 Other summaries points to the prayer life of the community (1:14), and the tremendous
growth and expansion of the Church (cf. 6:7; 9:31; 12:24).
 These summaries present an ideal picture of the community, the community as it
should be – the community of prayer, total sharing of material goods, the community
of witness permeated by the Holy Spirit and able to be in apostolic community by
sharing God’s word with the world.

TRAVEL NARRATIVES
Journeys and travels where common features of the ancient epics and history’s. Luke adopted
them with the full of travels in both the Gospel and its sequel. In the Gospel Jesus is on a
journey to Jerusalem for its entire central part. But Acts is unparalleled in its detailed
description of the travels of the main heroes. Luke notes with great attention the names of
cities, places, locations and movements. It might appear somewhat artificial and superfluous
to put such details and extend the story. However, this was the exactly the way that the ancient
history where written. Such details also create the sense of accuracy and produce the effect of
trustworthiness of the account. However, the travels of the apostles serve the more important
purpose of presenting the outward movement and expansion of the Christian message to the
entire world.

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 THE BEGINNING OF THE CHURCH (ACTS 1:1 -2:47)
LITERARY PROLOGUE (1:1-2)
 The initial two lines of Acts linked this work to the first volume in a very direct way.
This follows the conventions of ancient writings where such products were used.
Hellenistic literature demanded that such passages be short and contained a brief
summary of what was covered in the first volume. Luke follows that pattern exactly.
 He directly addresses Theophilus, “loved by God” or the lover of God” who is the
same person to whom the gospel was addressed.
 He mentions to the first book and briefly summarizes it content – it covered the earthly
ministry of Jesus in terms of his deeds and teaching up to his ascension.
 The ascension was the last occasion when Jesus taught the disciples and that teaching
will be narrated in the next section. Significantly, this teaching was delivered “through
the Holy Spirit”. The alternative translation is that he instructed the apostles whom he
had chosen through the Holy Spirit. In either case, Luke already shows his focus on
Jesus’s successors whose ministry will be empowered by the same Spirit who rested in
Jesus during his life and ministry.

PREPARATION FOR PENTECOST (1:3-26)

The central event that begins the story of the Church is the Pentecost. There are several stages
of preparation for this central event, with the Ascension of Jesus as its most important event.
Luke begins by narrating how Jesus prepared the apostles for his impending departure, and for
the next stage information of the Church – coming of the Holy Spirit.

THE PROOF OF RESURRECTION AND PROMISE OF THE SPIRIT (1:3-5)

 The first part of the preparation focuses on the reconfirming the truthfulness of the
resurrection. The Greek word used by Luke to describe Jesus ‘alive’, implies
providing evidence and visible proof that Jesus rose from the dead. Here Luke appeals
directly to his account of the appearances of Jesus in the Gospel, where Jesus made the
disciples both understand what happened to him as well as he proved that he was
physically alive by having them touched him and eat with them.
 These proofs were essential for the disciples become witnesses to the resurrection, for
which role they will be commissioned at the ascension itself.
 Jesus also continued his instructions on the kingdom of God. This means that he
continued to form them to carry on with his mission.
 V 4 contains a difficult expression that is sometimes translated as “while staying with
them”. Yet, more accurate translation indicates an act of eating or sharing a meal. It is
yet another throwback to the gospel story and the proof of the veracity of resurrection.
 Luke then cites the promise of the Spirit – they are to stay in Jerusalem and wait to
be baptized with the Holy Spirit. This baptism was promised by John in Luke 3:16 and

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 there is no doubt that Pentecost is intended when the spirit will be poured out upon the
disciples like fire.
John’s baptism was the baptism of conversion and purification. Baptism with the Spirit
which will repeatedly occur in the rest of the book is usually preceded by conversion or
repentance, followed by baptism, followed by gift of the Spirit. These elements do not occur
in the case of the apostles, they have already undergone purification and conversion by the
virtue of being with Jesus and believing in him.

MISSION OF THE SPIRIT-FILLED APOSTLES (1:6-8)

In the second step of the preparation, Jesus outlines the mission of the apostles. This teaching
will occur at the final meeting between Jesus and the apostles on earth. It is therefore a form
of Jesus is testament and the final instruction.
This section begins with a question regarding restoration of the kingdom of Israel. First to be
noted is the formulation “kingdom to Israel”. What is the relationship between this kingdom
and the kingdom of God about which Jesus instructed them earlier?
The question reveals the thinking of the disciples with Jesus will modify
o first, it is possible that the disciples anticipate that Jesus is about to initiate the
eschatological renewal of all things. They anticipate that this final act of Jesus will be
also the moment of the parousia, resulting in restoration of Israel by the Messiah to
the glory of the kingdom of David and Solomon.
o The question also focuses on Israel, the disciples expect that Jesus’ salvific act will be
extended to Israel and Israel alone.
Jesus’s answer is twofold. First, he tells them that the knowledge about the scatological
restoration of all things is reserved to God and God alone. Theologically this implies that God
is in control of history, it is the knowledge that is beyond the human reach.
Second, and more importantly he shifts their attention from the issue of knowing God’s mind
to their own mission – instruct them what they ought to do before the kingdom is revealed.
Once again, he points to the Spirit is the very foundation of what they would be doing. It is
only once they received the Holy Spirit that their mission will be possible.
That mission will be of being witnesses to Jesus. The function of the witnesses to bear
testimony with the intention of bringing about conversion and faith in Jesus. Luke 24:48
explicitly stated that they are to be witnesses who possess the knowledge about Jesus, his fate,
and his resurrection.
They are witnessing will naturally include testimony to the Jesus’s resurrection. The disciples
will be witnesses caring forth the Christian kerygma.
The final part of the verse contains the geographic and chronological outline of the mission of
the apostles. This is also a blueprint for the entire book. The mission will begin in Jerusalem,
from then it was spread in concentric circles to the surrounding region of Judea and Samaria,
finally it will reach “the ends of the earth”. This last statement must be referring to Rome

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because this is where the story of Acts ends. But the phrase in fact indicates nothing else than
distant lands.
This verse concludes the section that prepares the disciples for the Pentecost. Jesus makes
them aware that the empowerment of the Holy Spirit will eat scratch that will transform them
into his witnesses and empower them to carry that mission to the ends of the world.
On another level this section also implies that the parousia is not going to happen soon. The
eschatological urgency is thus removed and replaced with emphasis on the prospectively long
and ever-expanding mission of the Church.

ASCENSION OF JESUS (1:9-11)

 The account of the event of ascension itself is very brief. It is in fact only one line
portraying Jesus as disappearing into the clouds. It symbolically represents Jesus’s
departure from the earthly realms and moved to the heavenly world.
 Later in the narrative it will become clear that Luke understands this ascension as the
act of exultation. Jesus assumes his place at the side of God sharing God’s authority.
 Luke devotes more attention to the message of the two men in white robes. These
appear to be the same figures whom the women saw in the tomb and will first
proclaim the resurrection (Luke 24:4-5). Their message reminded the women that
Jesus prophesied his death and resurrection.
 At the occasion of the ascension the message predicts Jesus is return to earth. This is
the prophecy of the parousia which will occur in the future.
 The question “why do you stand looking up towards heaven?” appears as a spur to
action. Since it is just witness a miracle they might be overwhelmed with awe, or they
just simply express their longing for Jesus. Whatever the case, the time for action has
come before Jesus returns.

RECONSTITUTION OF THE TWELVE (1:12-26)

THE PRE-PENTECOST COMMUNITY (1:12-14)
o Following instructions of Jesus the disciples return to Jerusalem and gather in the
room which might have been the room where the last supper had taken place. The
continuity with the gospel is evident.
o Further continuity is revealed by listing the name of the 11 apostles which are exactly
the same as in the list in Luke 6:13-16. Only the order of names is different. John and
James, two significant characters are listed in the order of importance in which they
appear in acts replacing Andrew, the brother of Peter.

The character of this community. This early community is said to be “united”. This is a
nearly indication of the harmony and unity which will be repeatedly emphasized by Luke in
his subsequent portrayals of the Church.

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The grounds for this unity is the prayer. This is a standard Lucan motif which dominates both
volumes, where prayer is the context for all the significant events and decisions in the story.

Membership of the community.

o The eleven disciples
o The eleven disciples are not alone. The women, likely the same who follow Jesus from
Galilee, who were present at his death and burial and the first witnesses of the
resurrection are present.
o Notable is the explicit mention of Mary the mother of Jesus. Interestingly this is the
first time when Luke names the mother of Jesus outside of the infancy narrative. She
will be present at the birth of the church just as she was present at the birth of the
Messiah.
o The final group mentioned are Jesus’s brothers. According to Mark 6:3 Jesus had four
brothers – James, Judas, Joseph, and Simon. The age-old debate is whether there were
Jesus’s cousins or Joseph’s children from the previous marriage, or Jesus’ real
brothers. This question cannot be answered historically or linguistically. James will
become an important figure in the later part of the book.
The final verse of this section is the first of the summary sections in the book. It provides a
generalized view of the Christian community, here it indicates that it was community built and
prayer and open to the reception of the Spirit.

FIRST SPEECH OF PETER AND SELECTION OF MATTHIAS (1:15-26)

o V. 15 is an introduction to this distinctive new section. “In those days” points to a
distinctive event that took place in this phrase of waiting for the Spirit.
o The group of believers numbers 120. This is not an accidental number is 120 was the
minimum required number of members to constitute a local synagogue. Thus, the
group of believers is ripe to become the beginning of the new community of God’s
people.
o This is also the first full-fledged speech in the book of Acts. While not a major speech
it is still an important one as it serves the reconstitution of the circle of the 12. The
new church will begin on the full apostolic foundation which was established by Jesus
during his ministry.

Fate of Judas (1:16-20a)

 Peter begins the speech with a theological foundations referring to the Holy Spirit’s
inspiration of the Scripture which was fulfilled in the store of Judas. The Scriptures
quoted will be Psalm 109:8. He uses the divine passive “it is necessary” pointing to the
divine necessity in connection with the Scripture. What God had decreed has to be
accomplished.

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  The tragic disciple was a member of the apostolic group and shared in his ministry.
Yet he betrayed Jesus and departed the group. This is a reminder that his place is
vacant and needs to be filled.
 Vv 18-19 are a reminder of what happened to Judas. The horrible manner of his death
foreshadows the end of Herod Agrippa in 12:23. This account shows some similarities
to Matthew’s longer and more detailed description. While different in detail the broad
concept of purchasing a field with the betrayal money and the gruesome manner of
death are the same.
 What Judas did not frustrate God’s plan, in fact, the Scripture anticipated that this
would happen.

Replacing Judas (1:20b-26)

Equally, the Scripture demands that the group of the apostles be completed by Judas’
replacement.
Criteria for apostleship. The requirements to fulfill Judas role is being an eyewitness to the
ministry of Jesus from the very beginning that from John’s baptism to the ascension
o This requirement makes it effectively impossible to have the so-called “apostolic
succession” in the sense of being one of the 12. This role is unique and be replaceable
as it required physical presence with Jesus. This is why James son of Zebedee was not
replaced after his death.
o There are two possible candidates who fulfill the criteria Joseph Barsabbas (son of the
Sabbath) and Matthias (gift of God).

Function of the apostle. Luke emphasizes that the core task of an apostle is to be to witness
to Jesus’s resurrection.
The choice between the two is determined by God in the context of prayer. The community
praise for a determination whose heart is in the right place. The right place is the ministry and
apostleship, something that Judas abundant “to go to his own place” – namely the field which
he bought and where he died.
Judas bought himself the field which was his dwelling place and was also became the
place where he died. Luke ironically shows him replacing apostleship for field which,
in some sense is his critique of greed and pursuit of possessions.
Casting lots was a standard method for determining God’s will used in the Old Testament.
Matthias is not selected by the vote of the people, the replacement for Judas is God
determined just like the place among the 12 was determined by Jesus’s own choice.
With the circle of the 12 apostles, the 12 witnesses now back in place in the number of
believers sufficient to begin a new community of God’s people all is set and prepared for the
arrival of the Holy Spirit in the beginning of the Church.

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 PENTECOST (2:1-12)
THE DESCENT OF THE SPIRIT (2:1-4)
The Holy Spirit is sent on the Jewish feast of the Pentecost, known also as “the feast of
weeks”. The name itself means the 50 day as the feast celebrated 50 days after the Passover.
On that day the first fruits of the wheat harvest were presented to God in a gesture of
thanksgiving for God’s blessing and provision of food.
Theologically this feast celebrated the gift of the law on Sinai, and it came to be seen
as the anniversary of the Sinai covenant. It was a Pilgrim feast which was celebrated in
Jerusalem at the time of Jesus.
V 1. The community described in the previous section is gathered together, their togetherness
is emphasized by the author as they continue in expected waiting. Those who received the
Spirit are not only the 12, it is the group of 120 which becomes the foundation of the new
church. Thus, while the apostles will play a central role in this new community, the evangelize
others who will soon speak in tongues will be far more numerous.
V 2-3. The coming of the Spirit takes place accompanied by two phenomena.
The first is the loud sound from heaven which fills the house, the sound resembles
violent wind. In the OT the loud sound from heaven usually accompanies theophanies
– God’s presence is indicated by it. Wind likewise is associated with theophanies as
Elijah experiences it, it accompanies his ascent to heaven, 1kgs 19:11-13 and in
Ezekiel 37:9-14 it symbolizes the breath of God which animates bare bones of the
nation, bringing to life again. Thus, the phenomena of the loud sound like that of the
wind manifests God’s presence which briefs new life.
The second phenomena was that of tongues of fire which descend upon all present.
Again, fire usually accompanies divine theophanies. However, in Luke’s narrative this
event is obviously a fulfillment of Luke 3:16 where John explicitly refers to Jesus
baptizing with the Holy Spirit and fire.
 The tongues of fire are a visible manifestation of the Spirit’s presence, in addition to
the audible phenomenon of the wind.
 The fire denotes divine presence as a senior in Exodus 3:2-5.
 The resemblance of the fire to “tongues” is significant. In Greek the same word is used
for “tongues” which the Spirit enabled the disciples to use. Thus, Luke already hints at
what the effects of the Spirit’s presence will be.
V. 4. Luke reveals that the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit. The baptism thus
foretold by John has been fulfilled. Jesus send the Holy Spirit upon the disciples as Peter will
make explicit in 2:36.
The effect of this baptism is that the disciples begin to speak in tongues.
o Glossolalia, or speaking in tongues was a common gift in the early Christian
community. Glossolalia means ecstatic speech which no one can understand, unless an
interpreter who has the gift of understanding of such a speech can make it
comprehensible. The value and importance of this gift is evident in 1 Corinthians

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 where Paul devotes considerable attention to this particular gift, attempting to regulate
its use and prevent abuses.
However, at Pentecost the gift of tongues cannot be equated with glossolalia. As we’ll see in
the subsequent verses the disciples speak in intelligible foreign tongues that others can
understand. The extensive list of different nationalities who were able to understand the
apostolic speech reveals Luke’s purpose – he presents the gift of the Holy Spirit as an
enabling gift, one which will allow the mission of witnessing and proclamation of the gospel
to become universal. The charge born on this day will be a Church of many tongues and
peoples, and multilingual community permeated and directed by the same Spirit.

THE EFFECT OF PENTECOST ON THE PEOPLE (2:5-13)

In the passage that follows Luke portrays initial response of those confronted with the
apostolic proclamation. The response is either that of amazement or outright ridicule.
Composition of the crowd. Since Pentecost was a Pilgrim feast, the crowd at Pentecost
consisted of Jews from all over the world. That described as “pious”, which should not be
confused with “God fearers” which later in the account refer to the Gentiles sympathetic to
Judaism. This first grout consists of the Jews who made their pilgrimage from all over the
world to be present at the feast. They speaking many languages determined by the lands where
they dwelled. Hence, they are pious Diaspora Jews among whom the church will begin.
The list of the lands where these pious Jews came from provided by Luke is geographically
arranged moving from East to West.
o Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and residents of Mesopotamia are the Easterners,
members of the Jewish diaspora that began with the Assyrian and Babylonian
deportations.
o Judea is the Jewish heartland, these are not the Diaspora Jews but the Aramaic
speaking dwellers of Palestine.
o Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, these are the lands of Asia
minor which had numerous and large Jewish communities. These territories will
become the initial focus of the Gentile mission of Paul and Barnabas.
o Egypt and the parts of Libya belonging to Cyrene, are the north African lands with the
major Jewish population in Alexandria and the richly populated African coasts of the
Mediterranean. It is estimated that about 1 million Jews lived in Egypt at the time.
Cyrene was the homeland of Simon who get it Jesus is cross.
o Rome which was the center of the ancient world at the time. These visitors from Rome
became the beginning of the Roman church was origins are otherwise obscure. But we
know that less than 20 years after Pentecost there was a thriving Christian Roman
community. It is estimated that the Jewish community in Rome numbered about

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 60,000 people. In fact, Claudius’ edict from 49 A.D. reveals that Christian message led
to profound division and riots in the community.
 Luke suggests that the delegation from Rome included ethnic Jews as well as
converted Gentiles. This is quite unique because proselytizing was not high on
the Jewish agenda.
o Somewhat surprisingly the list concludes with Cretans and Arabs. Arabs were desert
dwellers from the far south while Cretans were island dwellers. Because these two
groups do not fit the rest of the list in this suggested that there were later additions to
the text.
Reaction of the Crowd. Reaction of the crowd falls into two categories.
o Amazement – openness. V 6-8 shows the reaction of initial amazement. As those they
verse nationalities speaking vastly different languages can comprehend the language of
those who received the Spirit, they’re understandably puzzled as though speaking are
the Galileans. The Galilean accent was easily recognized, which is evident in the ease
with which Peter was identify as one of the Galilean followers of Jesus at his betrayal.
o Thus, the initial amazement is caused by the ability of the 120 to make themselves
comprehensible.
o Subsequently, v 12, shows that the crowd attempted to interpret this very unusual
phenomenon. Amazement and perplexity indicates suspended judgment. This part of
the crowds means that they have not yet interpreted and discovered the meaning of this
sign and are thus open to be instructed, which will happen subsequently in Peter’s
address.
o Misinterpretation – rejection. V 13 shows a different reaction. A part of the crowd
interprets this event a simple case of public drunkenness. This is a sign of skepticism,
and outright rejection which is typical in the subsequent events in acts. There are those
who experience signs and misinterpret them, that’s also rejecting the possibility of
receiving revelation.

Coming of the Holy Spirit has two major symbolic applications.

o In the first sense Pentecost is parallel to the gift of the Torah at Sinai. Since it occurs
of the Pentecost in undoubtedly has that connection. For this new Christian community
the Holy Spirit becomes in guiding and empowering force, just like the Torah was for
the Jewish people.
o The second line of interpretation is to see the Pentecost us “the reversal of Babel”. The
story of Genesis shows the dispersion of the human family as a result of mixing of
languages. The Holy Spirit enabling the first Christians to speak different languages
produces the opposite effect – it unites humanity. By bringing together the people of
diverse languages the spirit creates a new united community communicating the
common language of Christian faith.
On the theological level, Pentecost in Luke’s account plays triple role as well.

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  First, it is the beginning of the Church because the community was empowered and
enabled for its mission. With the coming of the spirit the witness to resurrection could
begin, as the speech of Peter which immediately follows demonstrates. The resulting
conversion of 3,000 people shows the effectiveness of the early mission.
 Second, it is the beginning of the universal church. By including this account and
extensive list of nations look demonstrates that this community was spread beyond the
confines of Judea and Judaism. The Diaspora Jews representing “every nation under
heaven” indicates that the barriers of nationality and eventually raise will be
transcendent.
 Both of these two factors imply that the final stage in salvation history has begun. God
has created a new people to whom the offer of salvation is now extended.

PETER’S SPEECH AT PENTECOST (2:14-36)

This is the first of the major speeches in the book of acts, and the first “missionary
speech”. Immediately following the descent of the Holy Spirit Peter’s address is fundamental
in that it lays foundations for the rest of the book. Its content can be described as the
“kerygma” – the early and condensed form of Christian message that encapsulates the core of
this new faith.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE SPEECH AND OF THE APOSTOLIC PREACHING IN GENERAL

This speech contains three major sections delineated by direct address of the audience by the
speaker. Each is distinct and its content and purpose.
o Explanation and Interpretation of Pentecost (2:14-21)
o Kerygma (2:22-28)
o Call to conversion and faith (2:29-36)
This literary structure of the speech follows what is, in fact, the general structure of the apostolic
speeches in this book. These speeches regularly consist of four steps.
 The announcement of the Dawn of the eschatological age. The final stage of God’s
salvation history has arrived.
 Kerygma – announcement of Jesus’s death and resurrection, often preceded by a brief
summary of his earthly ministry which preceded these events.
 Scriptural proof – citation from the Old Testament that proves that what was
accomplished by Jesus is a fulfillment of God’s predetermined plan.
 Call to respond to kerygma through repentance and faith in order to receive salvation.
These four elements are clearly visible in this first speech.

EXPLANATION AND INTERPRETATION OF PENTECOST (2:14-21)

Peter begins by assuming a posture of a speaker – like any Greek orator he stands up and
raises his voice

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Addressees. Peter addresses himself to his fellow Jews, the large audience gathered, but
singles out the men of Jerusalem, those whom he will later make responsible for the death of
Jesus. He calls for attention and listing.
14
But Peter, standing with the eleven, raised his voice and addressed them, "Men of Judea and all who
live in Jerusalem, let this be known to you, and listen to what I say.

Explanation of misunderstanding (v 15-16)

Indeed, these are not drunk, as you suppose, for it is only nine o'clock in the morning. No, this is
15 16

what was spoken through the prophet Joel:

o The speech begins with Peter reacting to the misunderstanding. He addresses those
who misinterpreted the signs of the Spirit is drunkenness. This rebuttal points to the
early hour by which why could not have possibly become drunk. If not drunkenness
than what could explain such unusual behavior? In what strikes one as irony Peter
explains the alleged act of debauchery as the supreme act of God in fulfillment of the
prophecy of Joel.
o Nine o’clock in the morning was an hour of prayer and the Jews could only eat after
that. This is the role Jews they could not have been drunk, especially on the feast day
such as Pentecost.
o Many speeches in Acts, in fact, begin with correction of a misunderstanding.
Universal gift of the Spirit – the beginning of the final era of salvation (v17-18)

17 'In
the last days it will be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons
and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall
dream dreams.
Even upon my slaves, both men and women, in those days I will pour out my Spirit; and they shall
18

prophesy.
 The extensive citation from Joel 2:28-32 indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit is a
mark of “the last days”. This is the classic first step of an apostolic speech which
indicates that the final era in salvation history has begun.
 The text of the quotation follows the Septuagint. It was originally a prophecy which
followed the apocalyptic image of divine judgment executed through the plague of
locust and famine. In its context, Joel used this image to call people to repentance with
the following promise of prosperity and subsequent coming of the day of the Lord –
the beginning of the new age when God’s will be poured out on all of Israel. The
quotation is adjusted by Luke in few small but significant details.
 While Joel begins his prophecy with “and afterword” Luke begins with “in the last
days”. For him Jesus’s resurrection begins the final era in salvation history.
 The Spirit really poured out upon “all flesh”. This implies that the Spirit will be
universally available. It is an indication of the universal character of the community
marked by the universality of the gifts of the Spirit. This universality is reflected in
indication that the Spirit’s gift will be extended regardless of gender, age and status.

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Gender. The outpouring of the Spirit begins with “your sons and daughters” resulting in them
having ability to prophesy. This is another indication of universality – both men and women
will have the gift of the Spirit.
Age. Both young and old men shall have visions and dreams. Visions and dreams are yet
another mode of the divine revelation in the Old Testament. Those who received the Holy
Spirit will have access to the divine revelation both of prophets as well as visionaries.
Social status. The universality of the Spirit’s coming is reemphasized by the Spirit’s coming
even upon the servants. Here, Luke adds two features to Joel’s text. First, he God “my”
making the servants God’s servants. He also adds that they will prophesy which means they
also made into profits just like the sons of daughters. The gift of the Spirit is truly universal
and the effects of his coming are equal for all regardless of gender, age and status

Further Signs of the End of Times (19-21)

And I will show portents in the heaven above and signs on the earth below, blood, and fire, and
19

smoky mist. The sun shall be turned to darkness and the moon to blood, before the coming of the
20

Lord's great and glorious day. Then everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.'
21

The second part of Joel’s quotation further situates the coming of the Spirit in the context of
the eschatological end of times.
First, he alters Joel’s text by adding “above” to heaven and “signs below” to earth. The
combination of signs and wonders become significant in the rest of the book with frequent
references to the signs and wonders performed or accompanying the work of the apostles
(2:43; 4:16.22.30; 5:12; 6:8; 8:6. 13; 14:3; 15:12). Thus, the miracle working among this early
Christian community is yet another indication of the fulfillment of the prophecy.
Second, the cosmic portents of blood fire, darkness and moon turning to blood are likely
images related to the Pentecost and Jesus’s passion, with the darkening of the sun shuttering
of the earth scratch that with darkening of the sun and shuttering of the earth. However, it is
equally likely that these are the standard apocalyptic signs that precede God’s judgment.
Therefore, the miracle working by the apostles, the coming of the Spirit in fire, and the death
of Jesus place the entire history from then on in the perspective of the divine judgment.
V 21 confirms this interpretation by pointing how can one find salvation on the day of
judgment. It is by invocation of the Lord’s name that salvation becomes possible. This
statement contains the theme of Jesus’s Lordship will be elaborated in the rest of the sermon.
But in fact it is this verse which defines Jesus as the Savior and as such, constitutes the heart
of this speech.
The outpouring of the Spirit and the effects of it are set by Peter as the indication that the final
times have come up on the world. In the context of the impending judgment, adherence to
Jesus is the only choice for those who want to find salvation. The rest of the sermon will focus

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on Jesus himself in an attempt to bring the audience to recognize him as the Lord and the
Messiah.

KERYGMA (2:22-28)
The central section of the speech is taken up by the fundamental event that underlines
everything else – Christ death and resurrection. This is the heart of Peter’s sermon and
provides its theological foundations.
 V 22 begins this section with the call to hear the message which is directed to the
Israelites. He then preceded the proclamation of Jesus’s death and resurrection with a
brief summary of Jesus’s earthly ministry. This is the first element of a standard
apostolic speech. He introduces Jesus as “a Jesus of Nazareth clearly highlighting
Jesus’s earthly roots. He was a real human being.
 His activities of miracles, wonders and signs provides at the station that he is the
Messiah. Even though Luke explicitly does not explicitly state this fact, since he’s
talking to the people of Israel they would have immediately recognized that the signs
and wonders where the mighty works proving that God’s power operated through
Jesus. He relies on the knowledge that his audience would have had about Jesus.
 The subsequent two verses contain the second element of an apostolic speech –
kerygma.
 V 23 contains the first element of kerygma – proclamation of Jesus’s death. It is also
an indictment of the audience. They handed Jesus over to the Romans for crucifixion.
The Roman soldier are “the lawless man” which means that they are Gentiles, outside
of the law.
 However, Luke is far from seeing Jesus’s death as merely a consequence of rejection
by the audience. In some sense, he absolves the audience from responsibility for
Jesus’s death by showing it to be an act of the divine will following “definite plan and
foreknowledge of God”.
 “The plan of God” is a frequent Lucan expression occurring in Luke 7:13; 23:51, and
Acts 4:28; 538; 13:36; 20:27. The phrase implies that Jesus’s death was a part of a
much greater design and was purposeful.
 V 24 contains the second element of the kerygma – proclamation of Jesus’s
resurrection. The Israelites acted for Jesus’s death, in stark contrast created by a
contrasting particle “but” God acted for restoration of Jesus’s life. God raised him and
freed him from death. Luke uses a graphic image of “loosening the pangs of death”
which suggests the absolute novelty of resurrection comparing it to a new birth. Just as
a pregnant woman cannot stop birth from happening, no more could death prevent
God’s life from overcoming its power.
 Resurrection was an act of God. Just as Jesus’s death, it was also part of God’s plan
and design.

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SCRIPTURAL PROOF FOR RESURRECTION, ASCENSION, PENTECOST AND JESUS’S LORDSHIP
(2:25-36)
 This section contains the third element of the apostolic speech – and extensive spiritual
proof that offers biblical grounds for resurrection, ascension, and contains further
explanation of the Pentecost.

Proof of Resurrection and Reinterpretation of the Messiah (25:32)

 This significant section not only offers proof for reliability of the kerygma but also
serves to reinterpret the Jewish concept of the Messiah in line with the teaching of the
gospel.
 Jewish beliefs regarding the Messiah, although very diverse, did not include suffering
of the Messiah, or his resurrection. Luke faces a task of linking the resurrection and
the Pentecost with the claim that Jesus was indeed the Messiah. He successfully
accomplishes this through Peter’s explanation and interpretation of the words of the
Psalm.
 Vv 25-28 the first scriptural proof which declares resurrection of Jesus as fulfillment
of the Scripture as well as confirmation of Peter’s message. Peter emphasizes Davidic
authorship of the Psalm which will become important in the subsequent argument.
This proof is, therefore, offered by the ancient tradition represented by David himself.
 This confirmation is provided by the Septuagint quotation from Psalm 16:18-11. The
text is reproduced exactly without changes, applying David’s statements of confidence
in this individual lament Christologically, to Jesus the Messiah.
 The argument in the quotation relies on association of Jesus with God. Since Jesus acts
in accordance with God’s will it is impossible that the God of life could allow one so
intimately linked with him experience death. Therefore, even faced with death the
psalmist expresses absolute hope that Hades, the residing place of the dead, as well as
the corruption will not be experienced by his Messiah. He’s destined for continuing
life in God’s presence as anticipated by the Scripture.
 V 29-32 – the second scriptural proof that confirms the veracity of the first proof for
resurrection. But it also serves to other very significant purposes. First, it serves as a
reinterpretation of the concept of the Messiah and contains the testimony of the
apostles to the truthfulness of the resurrection. It is a proof provided by Peter.
 Peter begins by direct appeal to his fellow Israelites and draws upon the tradition they
all knew about. David died, was buried, and remain buried as was obvious to everyone
by the virtue of his tomb still present. Peter states that the words of the Psalm could
not be applied to David, they must be applied to somebody else.
 Peter moves to apply Nathan’s prophecy from 2 Samuel 7:12-13, also restated in
Psalm 132:11, to the situation. The prophecy implies that one of David’s descendants

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 will enjoy eternal rule – a traditional messianic text that every Israelite would
immediately and unmistakably understand. How could that prophecy be fulfilled?
 This question this significantly modifies Jewish beliefs regarding the Messiah, and his
role allows Peter to modify the understanding of the Messiah. According to this logic
the promise to David has been fulfilled in resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth.
 Thus, resurrection of Jesus is a definite proof of Jesus’ messiahship.
 Furthermore, the speaker, Peter himself as well as his companions are the living
witnesses that the resurrection has indeed happened. Their testimony accessible to the
audience provides living proof that Jesus of Nazareth, killed and raised was truly the
Messiah of Israel.

Pentecost as a Proof of Ascension and Exaltation (v 33 – 36)

These verses provide twofold attestation of Jesus’s ascension and exaltation.
The first proof is the Pentecost itself. The appearance and the ability of the apostles and others
to be heard and understood, are the tangible proof of the presence of the Spirit. The Holy
Spirit which gives them these amazing abilities has been sent by Jesus who received the Spirit
from the Father. This all-important verse reveals Luke’s view on the role of Jesus is the
mediator in sending of the Holy Spirit, which is also tested in the Gospel of John. It is Jesus
who sends the Holy Spirit, and he could do that only from heaven hence, the apostles
themselves in their new capacities are living proof of Jesus’s ascension and presence with
God.
The second proof is the scriptural one. Once again appealing to David’s authorship of the
Psalms, Luke quotes Psalm 110:1 is a proof of Jesus’s exaltation over all creation. o Using
the same logic as in the earlier interpretation, the fact that David remains buried, Peter states
that the words about Jesus’s exaltation to God’s right hand and assumption of authority over
all hostile powers could not be applied to David. They are therefore only applicable to the one
who has been raised from the dead, Jesus. He’s now the glorified Lord.
V 36 contains an imposing summary of the Christological teaching of this entire sermon.

Therefore let the entire house of Israel know with certainty that God has made him both Lord and
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Messiah, this Jesus whom you crucified."

 Peter analysis to Israel that its expectations and hopes for the Messiah have been
fulfilled in Jesus whom the people themselves brought to the cross.
 Yet, in a stunning reversal, God made the crucified Jesus both Lord and Messiah.
Unlike those who condemned him God vindicated him according to his plan.
 Pentecost proves this by the presence of the Spirit, which in fact confirms the
reliability of the apostles as witnesses to the resurrection.
 The significant assertion in this last verse is that “Jesus is the Lord”. The designation
“Lord” in its religious sense was used by the Jewish people only in reference to God
and God alone.

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  Luke here returns to the beginning of his proclamation and the eschatological setting
of the last days where he declares that anyone who calls on the name of the Lord will
be safe. He has not made clear that this Lord in whom salvation is to be found is Jesus
himself.
 Peter’s sermon formally ends here but it will be followed by the call to conversion.
 This text lays theological foundations for the entire book of Acts. The dominant motif
of salvation in the book is here intrinsically connected with Jesus.
 Luke provides the scriptural proof for Jesus’s resurrection, his enthronement, and his
Lordship. All these are confirmed by the witnesses who are in term confirmed as
reliable witnesses to the presence of the Spirit. From now on, the proclamation of
salvation in Jesus’s name is set on firm grounds and can be carried on with decisive
resolve.

CALL TO REPENTANCE (2:37-40)

The call to repentance is normally the last part of an evangelizing speech, sometimes
included in the speech itself. In the case of Peter’s speech at Pentecost the reaction of the
audience and call to conversion stents separate as they involve exchange between the speaker
and the audience.
The structure of this part of the speech is fairly clear with the reaction to Peter’s speech
bracketing his direct call to conversion. This call to conversion contains four standard
elements required is a fitting response and its effects to kerygma.

REACTION OF THE CROWD (V 37)

Peter’s message strikes a chord – the Jewish audience acknowledges its responsibility for
rejection and crucifixion of the Messiah. They rejected the Messiah but down the accept the
proclamation of his resurrection and exaltation, which leads to a direct question – what can we
do?

CALL TO CONVERSION (V 38-39)

Peter’s response contains a four step comprehensive outline of the conversion experience
which is a standard pattern in Luke-Acts.
Repent. The word in Greek literally means changing one’s mind. Here it implies a change of
heart and turning away from their attitude of rejection and failure to recognize Jesus as the
Messiah to embrace him as such. It is about opening one’s eyes to what God is doing, or
changing one’s mind to be open to receive revelation.

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Baptism in the name of Jesus Christ. Baptism was a formal right that confirmed repentance.
It was the fitting response to the preaching of John the Baptist. In the case of the Christian
community it was a right of initiation into the new community. It could be seen as a result of
repentance.
This baptism takes place “in the name of Jesus Christ”. This differentiates it from the baptism
for the forgiveness of sins. Rather, it means incorporation into Jesus Christ, establishment an
intimate union with him which lays the ground for the subsequent bestowal of the Holy Spirit.
It implies the former acceptance of Jesus’s identity as Christ.

Forgiveness of sins. This is the second outcome of repentance. Importantly, baptism here
does not lead to forgiveness of sins. It is the repentance which does so.
Some interpreters see the connection between baptism is leading into the forgiveness of sin.
But that connection is not made anywhere else by Luke. He makes a frequent connection
between the repentance and forgiveness of sins (Luke 2447; Acts 3:19; 5:31). If it is not
linked with the repentance then it is connected with faith (Acts 10:43; 13:38; 26:18). Thus, it
is logical to see the connection between repentance and forgiveness of sin rather than
repentance and baptism.
Forgiveness of sins that results from one’s turning to Jesus does not refer to removal of moral
or ritual faults. Sin is a power that all your needs the person from God. The sin of the crowd
was the rejection of the Messiah and refusal to walk in God’s ways. This sin now is
effectively forgiven; believers enjoy their established union with God.

Gift of the Holy Spirit. The fourth step in the process is the reception of the Holy Spirit. It is
in fact “baptism of the Holy Spirit”. This is the final step because it required both repentance
and turning to Jesus in faith, as Jesus is the one bestowing the Spirit. All three previous steps
prepared for this ultimate act of transforming a former sinner separated from God into a
disciple who will now be incorporated into the fellowship of the new people of God.

Motivation (v 39-40)
Peter proceeds with motivating the audience to respond.
First, positively, Peter emphasizes the universal scope of the promised salvation. This
salvation is not only for those present at Pentecost and hearing his proclamation but also for
the future generations as well as the Gentiles, which the phrase, “who are far off”, implies.
Thus, no one, even those responsible for Jesus’s death, are prevented from accessing God’s
gifts.
The words of Peter “whoever the Lord our God calls to him” continue the words of Joel from
2:32 which complete the verse quoted by Peter in the first part of the sermon. The phrase
which concludes the verse is, “and among the survivors shall be those whom the Lord calls”.
Therefore, those who call upon the name of the Lord for salvation will be in turn called by the
Lord. Peter emphasizes the need to actively reach for God’s salvation.

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Second, negatively, Peter exhorts them to save themselves from the corrupt generation. This
expression is based on the Old Testament language (Deut 32:5; Ps 78:8) and implies the people
who are rebellious and unfaithful to God. This resembles Jesus’s words addressing those who
refuse to believe in him (Luke 9:31; 11:29). The unbelief and the rejection of Jesus brings a
person on the judgment, this is yet another appeal to the beginning of the sermon and the quote
from Joel which presents the day of judgment with exhortation to call on the name of the Lord in
order to be saved.

RESPONSE OF THE CROWD (V 41)

The response of the crowd is staggering. There are about 3000 from the audience who repent, and
were baptized with the resulting inclusion into the community. Significantly, Luke meets the final
step in the conversion process as he does not explicitly mention bestowal of the Holy Spirit at this
point.
This great number of overshadows the response that Jesus ever enjoyed to his preaching. Indeed,
the empowerment of the Holy Spirit makes the small group of the 120 explode in terms of size.
The expansion of the Church to the ends of the world has begun.

THE FIRST CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY (2:42-47)

This is the first of Luke’s extensive narrative summaries that present the life of the first
Christian community in a broad and idealized fashion. It has a twofold part of the structure.

INNER RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY (2:42-43)

o This first verse identifies four practices upon which the religious life of the community
was based. The devoted themselves to apostles teaching. This implies that the community
was molded with the proclamation of the apostles who have, presumably, instructed them
further in Jesus teaching which they witnessed.
o Fellowship. It implies working towards communion and close relationships. This implies
the harmony and union in the community. They focused on building their togetherness and
harmony on the basis of the teaching as well as the practices which will be described next.
o Breaking of the bread. This is more than just an ordinary meal. It is fulfillment of Jesus’s
command in Luke 22:19, it was the celebration and participation of the Lord’s supper.
This was likely the famous agape meal of the early Christians.
o Prayers. Another unifying factor was the prayers which they offered together as a
reflection of belonging to one in the same God. They were praying together.

OUTWARD EFFECTS OF THE COMMUNITY LIFE (2:43)

This verse indicates that the Pentecost and Peter’s speech was not a one-off event. It had a lasting
impression and effect and led to a continuing awareness that something extraordinary has
happened. This is manifested by the sense of all which was felt by the people in and outside of the
community.
The signs and wonders which are performed by the apostles would be described in details later on.
But the phrase itself reiterates the quotation from Joel used by Peter earlier. The last days indeed

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have come, as it is evident in the activity of the apostles was miraculous deeds will be soon
described.
INNER SOCIAL LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY (2:44-45)
The union and fellowship built on the religious practices extended into the economic and
practical aspect of the community life. The sense of unity translated in helping everything in
common.
This gathering of property and sharing in the material goods was not unknown in the Greek
world. Some of the philosophical movements, such as Pythagoras community practiced the
same, as did some Jewish sects and communities.
The Christians embrace this practice as yet another expression of the sense of sharing of the
same Spirit and being in communion with one another and God.

OUTWARD EFFECTS OF THE COMMUNITY LIFE (2: 46-47)

 The intense inner religious and social live the community translated into outward
witness. Initially manifested itself in their visible presence in the temple where they
spent much time, presumably in the temple precincts.
 This implies that there were faithful to their Jewish roots in public he testified to their
continuing adherence to the God of Israel, be it in any way.
 This outward visibility and presence was an outcome of their unity in the home church
where they continue to celebrate the Lord’s supper.
 There praise of God and pious life evidently was the first testimony which one them
favor in the eyes of the people. Their lifestyle and piety attracted numerous new
followers who joined themselves to this new movement and thus enjoyed the benefits
of salvation.
 This section shows the first effects of the Christian witness.

 Chapter 2 of Acts describes the beginning of the Church. It all happens in response
to the descent of the Holy Spirit. The presence of Jesus’s spirit enables and empowers
the recipients to first understand what happened in Jesus Christ and then proclaim it.
This proclamation brings about further conversions and the formation of the first
community. This community, in turn, by the witness of its pious life of Christian
fellowship becomes an evangelizing witness through which salvation is offered to
evermore people.

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