Steel Topics

Week 2: Steel †
†
Introduction to iron and steel
Types of steel used in construction
† Steel production
† Iron-carbon phase diagram
† Heat treatment of steel
Mostly an overview of Chapter 3, M&Z † Steel alloys
† Structural steel
CEE 363 Construction Materials † Reinforcing steel
† Mechanical testing of steel
† Steel corrosion
† Astec Industries
† Metals prices
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Introduction to Iron and Steel Introduction to Iron and Steel

† A few definitions and general † A few definitions and general
descriptions are in order descriptions are in order
„ Iron: Iron is an element and can be „ Pig iron: Raw iron, the immediate
pure. product of smelting iron ore with coke
„ Cast iron: Iron that contains about as and limestone in a blast furnace. Pig iron
much carbon as it can hold which is has a very high carbon content, typically
about 4%.
4-5%, which makes it very brittle and
„ Wrought iron: Iron that contains glassy not very useful directly as a material.
inclusions.
„ Steel: Iron with a bit of carbon in it—
generally less than 1%.
3 4

A Selection of Mechanical Thermal Expansion of Various

Properties (from Gordon (1979)) Materials (from CISPI (1994))
Material in/in x 10-6 in/100 ft. of
Material Tensile Strength pipe per 100°F
(psi) Cast iron 6.2 0.75
Steel piano wire 450,000
PCC 5.5 0.66

Commercial mild 60,000 Steel (mild) 6.5 0.78

steel
Steel (stainless) 7.8 0.94
Cast iron 10,000 to 40,000
and higher PVC (high impact) 55.6 6.68
Wrought iron 20,000 to 40,000 ABS (Type 1A) 56.2 6.75

Polyethylene (Type 1) 94.5 11.4

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Introduction to Iron and Steel Types of steel used in construction
† A few definitions and general † Structural steel—plates, bars, pipes,
descriptions are in order structural shapes.
„ Alloy steel: A generic term for steels † Reinforcing steel—concrete
which are alloyed with elements other reinforcement.
than carbon. Why alloys? The mechanical
behavior iron is changed hugely by the † Miscellaneous shapes for applications
addition of carbon and other additives such as forms.
(or alloys).

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Types of steel used in manufacturing Types of steel used in manufacturing

construction equipment construction equipment
† A36 plate at Astec Industries, † A36 plate at Lafarge Cement Plant, Seattle.
Part of a new kiln for making clinker (portland
Chattanooga, TN
cement). Steel is 1.5 in. thick.

9 10

Types of steel used in construction Types of steel used in construction

“Civil and construction engineers rarely “Even though civil and construction
have the opportunity to formulate engineers are not responsible for
steel with specific properties. Rather, formulating steel products, they still
they must select existing products must understand how steel is
from suppliers. Even the shapes for manufactured and treated and how it
structural elements are generally responds to loads and environmental
restricted to those readily available conditions.” M&Z
from manufacturers.” M&Z

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Example of a local manufacturer Typical shapes
† Nucor Steel Seattle, Inc † Angle
Structural steel shape resembling L. May
† Location: West Seattle be Equal Leg Angle or Unequal Leg
† Nucor acquired assets for Birmingham Angle. Used in trusses and built-up
Steel Dec 9, 2002. girders.
† Annual capacity: 2.2 million tons † Channel
Structural steel shape which has a
† Products cross-section resembling [. Used in
„ Carbon steel angles, channels, flats trusses and built-up girders.
„ Reinforcing bar
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Typical shapes Typical shapes

† Plate † Sheet
Sheet steel with a width of more than eight Thin, flat-rolled steel. Coiled sheet steel
inches, with a thickness ranging from one accounts for nearly one-half of all steel shipped
quarter of an inch to more than one. domestically and is created in a hot-strip mill
† Flat-rolled steel by rolling a cast slab flat while maintaining the
Category of steel that includes sheet, strip, and side dimensions. The malleable steel lengthens
tin plate, among others. Produced by passing to several hundred feet as it is squeezed by the
ingot/slab through pairs of rolls. rolling mill. The most common differences
† Reinforcing Bar (Rebar) among steel bars, strip, plate, and sheet are
A commodity-grade steel used to strengthen merely their physical dimensions of width and
concrete in highway and building construction. gauge (thickness).

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Steel production (US stats)

Steel production Statistic Million metric tons
(2003)
† Reduction of iron ore to pig iron.
Pig iron production 39.4
† Refining pig iron to steel.
Steel production 91.5
† Forming the steel into products. Basic oxygen furnaces (%) 48%
† Refer to Fig 3.1, M&Z Electric arc furnaces (%) 52%
Imports of steel products 21.7
Exports of steel products 8.2
Apparent steel consumption 104
Net import reliance 9%
Import sources: EU—18%, Canada—15%, Mexico—10%,
17 Japan—7%, Other—50%

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World steel production
Statistics for raw Million metric tons Steel and aluminum recycling
steel (2003)
US 91.5
Brazil 27.5
Metal Percentage Recycled
China 200
EU 159 Iron and steel 55%

Japan 110 Aluminum 38%

Korea 46
Russia 61.2
Ukraine 38 For US only.
World Total 924 20

Steel production Steel production

† Materials used to produce pig iron † Three types of furnaces have been
„ Coal—as coke—used to supply carbon. In a blast used for refining pig iron (or scrap
furnace, ore is heated in the presence of
carbon—this allows oxygen in the ore to react steel) to refined steel
with carbon to form gases. „ Open hearth (no longer used the US)
„ Limestone—helps to remove impurities „ Basic oxygen
„ Iron ore—processed ore at the start of the
process has about 65% iron.
„ Electric arc
„ Impurities (slag) float on the top of melt.
† Requires about 3.2 tons of raw materials to
produce 1.0 ton of steel.
21 22

Iron-carbon phase diagram Iron-carbon phase diagram--terms

† To refine steel from either scrap or † Ferrite (α): Iron in a BCC structure. Maximum
solubility of carbon in ferrite is low (0.02%C).
pig iron, the amount of carbon must † Austenite: Iron with a FCC structure. Due to
be carefully controlled. FCC structure, more carbon atoms can be
accommodated. Maximum solubility of carbon
† In M&Z, Fig 3.2 shows a typical iron- in austenite is 2.11%.
carbon diagram. This helps us to † Cementite (or iron carbide): This forms when
understand how this control is done. solubility of carbon in solid iron is exceeded.
Fe3C contains 6.67%C. Cementite is present in
† A slightly more colorful version of the all commercial steels.
iron-carbon phase diagram follows. † Pearlite: Lamellar structures of α ferrite and
cementite.
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Iron-carbon phase diagram Iron-carbon phase diagram
† Ferrite, pearlite, and iron carbide greatly
influence the properties of steel.
„ Ferrite has relatively low strength but is
Iron
Austenite
+ liquid carbide+ very ductile.
liquid
Austenite (γ) „ Iron carbide has high strength but little
ductility.
Austenite + iron carbide „ Combining these two in different proportions
alters the mechanical properties of steel.
„ In general, increasing carbon content
increases the strength but reduces ductility.

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Iron-carbon phase diagram Iron-carbon phase diagram

† Left side—pure iron (0% carbon) goes through two 1. At low temps and to the right of the solubility limit line,
transformations as temp increases α ferrite and iron carbide (Fe3C) coexist.
„ Pure iron below 912°C has BCC crystalline structure 2. From 727°C to 1148°C, the solubility of carbon in the
called ferrite. austenite increases from 0.77 to 2.11%. The solubility
of carbon in austenite is greater than in α ferrite
„ At 912°C, ferrite changes to a FCC structure called
because of the FCC structure of austenite.
austenite (γ).
3. At 0.77% carbon and 727°C, a eutectoid reaction
„ At 1394°C, iron returns to a BCC structure.
occurs, that is, a solid phase change occurs when either
„ The high and low ferrites identified as δ and α ferrite. the temperature or carbon content changes.
† Carbon goes into solution with α ferrite at temps
between 400°C and 912°C—but solubility limit for
carbon is very low—about 0.02% at 727°C

2
Temperature

3
1

Carbon %

Iron-carbon phase diagram Iron-carbon phase diagram

† At carbon contents less than eutectoid composition,
† The eutectoid reaction describes the phase hypoeutectoid (or containing less than 0.77% carbon)
transformation of one solid into two different solids (or alloys are formed. Most structural steels are
S1=S2+S3). In the Fe-C system, there is a eutectoid hypoeutectoid (about 0.1 to 0.3% carbon).
point at approximately 0.77% carbon, 727°C. The phase
just above the eutectoid temperature for plain carbon 1. For example, at 0.25% carbon, and above about 810°C,
steels is austenite—as noted previously. Consider what solid austenite exists as grains of uniform material. As
happens as this phase is cooled through the eutectoid the temp drops, α ferrite is formed from 810 to 727°C
temperature (727°C). and accumulates at the grain boundaries of the
austenite.
† Austenite –> ferrite + iron carbide (Fe3C). Thus, the
2. At temps slightly above 727°C, the ferrite will have
steel has 0.77% carbon 0.02% carbon in solution and austenite will have 0.77%
carbon.
3. When temp drops below 727°C,
the austenite will transform to
pearlite (alternate layers of
α ferrite and iron carbide).
Pearlite is not a phase but a 1
2
mixture of two phases. Refer to
next image. 3

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 Iron-carbon phase diagram
Pearlite and Ferrite below 727°C

The relative amounts of

ferrite and austenite are
scaled horizontally (refer
Ferrite to blue line). As shown
here, there about equal
amounts at about 750°C.

Pearlite

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Image of pearlite Heat treatment of steel

Light colored † Properties of steel can be altered by applying a
material is ferrite variety of heat treatments.
and dark material
is iron carbide. „ Annealing: Heat to austenite range (about
10°C above the austenite line) then slowly
cool to room temp. Results in softer steel,
reduced internal stress, increases ductility
and toughness.
„ Normalizing: Same as annealing but heat to
40°C above the austenite line. Then air cool.
Produces a uniform, fine-grained structure.
Considered as a corrective treatment and
not for strengthening.
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Steel alloys Steel alloys

† Alloy agents are added to improve one † Structural steels based on composition
or more of the following properties „ Carbon or carbon-manganese steels
„ Hardness „ High strength low alloy steels (HSLA)
„ Corrosion resistance „ High strength quenched and tempered alloy
„ Machineability steels
„ Ductility „ Read the content in the pdf file from MIT,
„ Strength Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept,
Spring Semester 1999 entitled “Chemical
† Typical alloys are shown in Table 3.1, Composition of Structural Steels.”
M&Z.

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Structural steel Structural steel specifications
† Structural steel grades in the US (but not limited to)
† City of San Diego—refer to pdf on class web
„ ASTM A36—be careful, this one is being replaced by
ASTM A992. Thus, info in M&Z needs a little site.
updating. † WSDOT Standard Specifications—Division 6
„ ASTM A529 Structures. Go to Section 6-03 Steel Structures,
„ ASTM A572 page 6-108. URL is
„ ASTM A242 „ http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/fasc/EngineeringPublications/Manuals/SS2004.PDF

„ ASTM A588
„ ASTM A514
„ Refer to additional details in Table 3.2, M&Z.
„ Be careful—should always obtain information on
locally available grades and changing grades.
† ASTM A992
† ASTM A852 37 38

Structural steel specifications Structural steel specifications

† Bridges † Bridges
„ American Association of State Highway „ AASHTO M 270 continued
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) † “This specification covers carbon and high-
„ For example, WSDOT Standard strength low-alloy steel structural shapes,
Specifications refer to AASHTO M 270. plates, and bars and quenched and
tempered alloy steel for structural plates
What is this?
intended for use in bridges. Six grades are
† “Carbon and High-Strength Low-Alloy available in four yield strength levels.”
Structural Steel Shapes, Plates, and Bars
and Quenched and Tempered Alloy
Structural Steel Plates for Bridges”

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Structural steel Structural steel question

† Structural steel shapes † Is it always better to specify shapes with
„ W: Wide-flange the highest possible strength?
„ HP: Wide-flange
„ M: Wide-flange
„ S: I-beam
„ C: Channel
„ MC: Channel
„ L: Angle
„ Refer to Fig 3.5, M&Z.
„ Refer to ASTM A6 “Standard Specification for General
Requirements for Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Sheet
Piling, and Bars for Structural Use.”
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Reinforcing steel Reinforcing steel specifications
† PCC has little tensile strength, thus † WSDOT Standard Specifications, Section
structural PCC members subjected to 9-07.2 “Deformed Steel Bars”
tensile and flexural stresses must be “Deformed steel bars for concrete reinforcement shall
conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 31, Grade
reinforced. 60 or ASTM A706.
† Can be produced in four grades: 40, 50, † AASHTO M 31 “Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
60, and 75 ksi. Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.” This
specification is the same as ASTM A615.
† Refer to Table 3.3, M&Z. † ASTM A706: “Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and
Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement”
† Billet-steel simply refers to a type of section (or
block) of steel prior to rolling into a final shape
or product.
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Reinforcing steel sizes

Mechanical testing of steel
Bar diameter (in.) US Customary Metric (diameter,
(1/8’s of an inch) mm)
The major tests are:
0.375 #3 #10
0.500 #4 #13
„ Tension test—you will do this one in lab as a
group.
0.625 #5 #16
0.750 #6 #19
„ Torsion test
0.875 #7 #22 „ Charpy V Notch Impact Test—a measure of
1.000 #8 #25 toughness. This will be demonstrated in lab.
1.128 #9 #29 „ Bend test
1.270 #10 #32 „ Hardness test—this will be demonstrated in
1.410 #11 #36 lab.
1.690 #14 #43
2.260 #18 #57
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Tension test Tension test in CEE Lab

† Refer to ASTM E8 “Standard Test Method for † Report material property items shown in
Tension Testing of Metallic Materials” (also ASTM E8
AASHTO T 68)
„ Yield strength and method used to
† Determine (refer to Figs 3.9—3.10, M&Z) determine yield strength
„ Yield strength „ Yield point elongation
„ Yield point elongation „ Tensile strength
„ Tensile strength „ Elongation
„ Elongation „ Reduction of area
„ Reduction of area „ ….and modulus of elasticity.
† Testing done at room temperature
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Tension test in CEE Lab Tension test in CEE Lab

Impact test
† Refer to ASTM E23 “Standard Test Methods for
Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic
Materials”
† Also designated AASHTO T 266.
† Used to measure the “toughness” of the
material—or more to the point—the energy
required to fracture a V-notched simply
supported specimen.
† Energy measured in m-N (ft-lb). This value is
compared to allowable specification values.

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 Example—Tanker constructed for
WW2 Impact Test Transition Temperature

Energy Absorbed on
Impact
Transition
Temperature

Temperature
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Mechanical properties of Titanic

Example—steel from Titanic steel from hull

Property Result

Yield Strength 28 ksi (193.1 MPa)

Tensile Strength 60 ksi (417.1 MPa)

Conversion: joulesx0.74=ft-lb Elongation 29%

Titanic steel plate had a Charpy
Value of about 4 ft-lb at 0°C Reduction in Area 57.1%
(which was appropriately the
water temperature the night of
the sinking) 58

Chemical composition of Titanic

steel from hull (%) Impact test example specification
† WSDOT Standard Specifications, Section 6-
One of the issues with the steel hull plate from the Titanic is the 03.2 Materials.
relatively high amounts of phosphorus and sulfur.
„ “All AASHTO M 270 material used in what the Plans
Source of Steel C Mn P S Si Cu O N MnS
show as main load carrying tension members or as
Ratio tension components of flexural members shall meet
Hull Plate from 0.21 0.47 0.045 0.069 0.017 0.024 0.013 0.0035 6.8:1 the Charpy V-notch requirements of AASHTO M 270
Titanic temperature zone 2. All AASHTO M 270 material used
Sample from 0.25 0.52 0.010 0.03 0.02 -- 0.018 0.0035 17.3:1 in what the Plans show as fracture critical members
Gate—Ship Canal shall meet the Charpy V-notch requirements of
Locks AASHTO M 270, Fracture Critical Impact Test
A-36 0.20 0.55 0.012 0.037 0.007 0.01 0.079 0.0035 14.9:1 Requirements, temperature zone 2.”
„ So what are the Charpy requirements in AASHTO M
Ship Canal steel from Chittenden Ship Canal Lock, Seattle 270?

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Impact test example specification Hardness test
† So what are the Charpy requirements in AASHTO M 270? † Often used in specifying machine parts and
„ Two tables in AASHTO M 270—non-fracture critical impact tools or the effect of heat treatments.
test requirements and fracture critical impact test
requirements. These are minimum test requirements.
† A frequently used hardness test for steel is the
„ Function of steel grade, thickness and joining method and
Rockwell Hardness Test.
temperature zone (there are three of these). † ASTM E18 (or AASHTO T 80) “Standard Test
„ Example for non-fracture critical Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
† 36T, Zone 1: 15 ft-lb at 70°F Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials”
† 36T, Zone 2: 15 ft-lb at 40°F † ASTM A370 “Standard Test Methods and
† 36T, Zone 3: 15 ft-lb at 10°F
definition for Mechanical Testing of Steel
„ Example for fracture critical
Products” contain correlations between
† 36F, Zone 1: 25 ft-lb at 70°F
Rockwell hardness numbers and approximate
† 36F, Zone 2: 25 ft-lb at 40°F
tensile strength of the steel.
† 36F, Zone 3: 25 ft-lb at 10°F
61 62
Note: 36T and 36F refers to a specific grade of steel.

Steel corrosion
† Corrosion is estimated to cause $276 billion in
damage in the US each year. Much of this
corrosion is due to iron and steel.
† Some State DOTs, such as the Florida DOT do
an extensive amount of corrosion related
testing for bridges.

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Steel corrosion Steel corrosion

† Carbon steel accounts for approximately 85%, † Defined in M&Z as the destruction of a
of the annual steel production worldwide— material by electrochemical reaction to the
and—importantly—carbon steel has relatively environment.
limited corrosion resistance. This type of steel
is used in large tonnages in: † Corrosion requires four processes
„ Marine applications „ Anode—the corroding metal (steel).
„ Nuclear power „ Cathode—the reduced metal.
„ Fossil fuel power plants „ Conductor—the steel in this case.
„ Transportation „ Electrolyte—a liquid (or gas) that supports the
„ Chemical processing flow of electrons.
„ Petroleum production and refining, pipelines † Corrosion process is analogous to a car
„ Mining and construction battery.
„ Metal-processing equipment.
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Steel corrosion Steel corrosion
† Methods for corrosion resistance † Other preventive measures (some not
„ Barrier coatings: Isolate steel from moisture and
oxygen. Metallic coatings fit into this category directly addressed by M&Z):
including galvanized coatings such as hot dipped „ Modify the environment
zinc (hot dipped zinc coating is applied to steel
at a temperature of about 450°C). „ Modify the properties of a metal
„ Inhibitive primer coatings „ Install a protective coating over the metals
„ Sacrificial primers (cathodic protection):
Typically this type of coating is zinc. The zinc „ Impose an electric current to supply
becomes an anode and, in effect, “corrodes” in electrons
lieu of the steel it is protecting. Thus zinc
coatings can protect steel as a sacrificial anode „ Change to non-metallic materials
and as a barrier coating.

67 68

Supplemental photos—
Steel corrosion manufacturing of paving equipment
Chrysler Building built in NYC in 1930
†
is clad with stainless steel (302 stainless). This
† Photos taken June 2004 at Astec
helped achieve the art-deco style. Industries, Chattanooga, TN.
† Stainless steel is a family of steels that
contain a minimum of 10.5% chromium. † Astec and Roadtec manufacture
† Chromium in contact with oxygen forms a
chromium oxide film a few microns thick. That heavy equipment for highway
is how stainless steel has substantially
reduced corrosion. construction such as
† So, can stainless steel corrode? Yes! However „ Hot mix plants
at a substantially reduced rate when
compared to unprotected carbon steel. „ Milling machines
„ Paving machines

69 70

Astec manufacturing site,

Chattanooga, TN Don Brock, CEO, Astec Industries

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Roadtec Industries, paving
machines Astec plant located in Alabama

Roadtec paving machine and

HMA storage silo Shuttle Buggy

Steel plate for new paving Plate stock for hot mix plant, Astec
machine, Roadtec Industries Industries

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Bending plate, Astec Industries A different view of bending plate

Hot mix plant being manufactured,

End result Astec Industries

Metals prices References

† Steel (hot rolled plate) † Mamlouk, M. and Zaniewski, J. (1999),
“Materials for Civil and Construction
„ January 2003: $0.15/lb
Engineers,” Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
„ January 2005:$0.34/lb † Gordon, J.E. (1976), “The Science of Strong
† Aluminum alloy Materials,” Princeton Paperbacks.
„ April 2005: $0.85/lb † CISPI (1994), “Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
Handbook,” URL:
† Titanium http://www.cispi.org/handbook.htm
„ April 2005: $4/lb

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