Handwriting

South Australian Modern Cursive

Education Department of South Australia

SAERIS cataloguing-in-publication entry
372.6 Handwriting: South Australian Modern Cursive: R-7 language arts / prepared by
HAN the English Curriculum Services and the R-7 Handwriting Committee -Adelaide
Education Department of South Australia, 1984
68 p. : ill. (some col.) :30 cm
DDC 19 1. Handwriting - Study and teaching.
372.63
ISBN 0 7243 7173 7
Contents

Introduction 2
South Australian Modern Cursive 2
Implementation 3

Handwriting in perspective 4
The place of handwriting in the language arts
programme 4
Handwriting developments 4

Implementation 7
School based implementation 7
Classroom implementation 8

The classroom programme 10

Aims 10
Content 11
Evaluation and assessment 31

Classroom programming issues 33

Starting points for a programme 33
Organising the programme and timetable 34
Framework for a lesson 34
Observation of children's technique 35
Demonstrating handwriting 35
Instruments 36
Surfaces 36
Children who need special consideration 37
Writing on lines 39

Resources 42
Part One-Early handwriting development 42
Part Two -Later handwriting development 49
Activities based on the history of handwriting 52
Commercial styles of lettering 52
Developing handwriting skills through art 53
Assisting children to overcome handwriting
difficulties 55
Encouraging handwriting through the writing
programme 55

Bibliography 59

Index 60

1
Introduction

The term writing as used in the document Writing: R-7 language

arts encompasses both the writing process and the means for
recording the message.
For the purpose of this document, the term handwriting refers to
the technique and style used by children to communicate in writing.
This document is designed to help teachers understand the reasons
for adopting the handwriting style called South Australian Modern
Cursive and the benefits it provides for children. It outlines possible
areas for consideration when implementing the style at both the
school and classroom level and provides detailed information
regarding the technique and style of South Australian Modern
Cursive.
The document is intended for teachers who:
are introducing handwriting to children who have not yet
developed their handwriting skills
are helping children to change from a non-Roman alphabet
have children whose current handwriting style is illegible or
causing difficulty, and for whom a change is advisable.
Middle and upper primary children, with well established
handwriting should maintain and develop their existing style.

South Australian Modern Cursive

South Australian Modern Cursive is learned in three stages.
Beginners' alphabet and capitals
Development of cursive alphabet
Linking guides
(See Resources Section, p. 62, for examples of lower case script and
development of exits. The example on p. 5 highlights cursive
linkages.)
For the first eighteen months at school, children will use the
beginners' alphabet and capitals when writing. Children may then be
taught to develop exits on lower case letters and be given time to
practise these before direct linking is introduced, approximately six
months later. (See pp. 28 and 29 for rules relating to the introduction
of links.)
Upper primary children can experiment with other handwriting
styles in order to develop a personal style. However, only those
styles which are produced using the same technique as South
Australian Modern Cursive (that is, Copperplate, Italic, and Looped
Cursive) should be encouraged since the appropriate technique is
vital if legible handwriting is to be maintained at speed.
Handwriting styles such as Linked Script and Print Script,

2
 which use a finger technique rather than a combined finger, hand
and arm movement, should be discouraged. (See pp. 30-31 for ways
to help children to experiment with other styles.)

Implementation
It is important to ensure the continuity of children's learning.
Therefore, the adoption of South Australian Modern Cursive should
be a staff decision. Once the decision to adopt the new style has
been made, a programme of teacher inservice will be needed to
ensure effective implementation at a classroom level. Teachers may
find this new handwriting style difficult since they have established
a personal style. Individual and small group practice sessions will
help to overcome difficulties. (See pp. 7-9)
Teachers who are setting the foundations for handwriting in
reception and year one classes and teachers of year 2 and 3 classes
who are assisting children to develop cursive skills, will implement
the style in the first year. Teachers of middle and upper primary
year levels will then incorporate the style into their programmes as
these children progress through the school. (See p. 9 for an
implementation time-line.)
All teachers within the school will need to be aware of the change
to South Australian Modern Cursive and to develop the capacity to
introduce it to children and to improve the legibility, of handwriting
in older children.
South Australian Modern Cursive is an appropriate tool for South
Australian school children; a tool which will complement the
writing process as children express themselves on paper.

3
 Handwriting in
perspective

The place of handwriting in the language arts

programme
The formalities and conventions in writing, such as punctuation,
spelling, grammar and handwriting, are the means to effective
written communication. They are not ends in themselves.
In recording their ideas, thoughts and feelings, children need a
relaxed technique and style of handwriting that they can produce
with confidence and sustain for increasingly longer periods of time.
By practising the technique and using appropriate materials,
developing writers gain the confidence and ability to produce a
legible style that will help them to communicate through writing.
Children should aim to develop a personal style that is both pleasing
to themselves and easily read by others.

Handwriting developments
Styles used in South Throughout history the process of communication through
Australian schools handwriting has altered according to the changing needs, values and
technology of society. Modern handwriting styles have been
developed to provide children with a tool for quick and effective
communication.
The chart on p. 6 shows some of the handwriting styles that have
been taught in South Australia.

Modern handwriting styles Modern handwriting styles are simplified styles of handwriting. They
are based on children's early writing behaviour which indicate that
children's natural movements are oval shaped and sloped (see Fig. 1)
rather than round and upright (see Fig. 2). (The left-handed person
has a natural slope to the left.) Most modern handwriting styles use
these natural movements. Children are taught to form letters using
the oval and slope upon entry into school (see Fig. 3). As children's
proficiency increases in the formation of lower case script, links are
learnt and a cursive style can quickly develop (see Fig. 4 on p. 5).
The technique (i.e. the hold of the writing instrument, paper and
body position, and the handwriting movement) used to produce
handwriting is as important as the style. Children need to develop a
relaxed technique to ensure that legibility and speed can be
maintained over lengthy periods of time.
Traditional handwriting styles such as Italic relied heavily on
special instruments for their reproduction. Modern readily available
handwriting instruments have created a need to adopt a style that is
easily produced.

4
 Background to South There has been an international move towards the simplification of
Australian Modern Cursive handwriting styles taught in schools. This has resulted from recent
understanding of the development of handwriting skills.
South Australian Modern Cursive has been based on international
handwriting trends and the existing styles of handwriting in this
State. At various times in South Australian schools, children were
taught Print Script in their first years at school and then, in middle
and upper primary years, the traditional Copperplate which was
modified in 1967 to become Looped Cursive. Styles such as Simple
Modern Hand (Scotland) and Lehman's Cursive (USA) developed
from Italic.
South Australian Modern Cursive has maintained as much
character as possible of the styles currently taught in schools. It
employs the same technique as Copperplate and Looped Cursive,
with the lettershapes retaining certain characteristics of Print Script
and Looped Cursive. (For example, a commences at two o'clock,
rather than at one o'clock. See Fig. 5.)
The advantages of using South Australian Modern Cursive are:
children learn a handwriting style based on their natural
movements and scribblings
the transition from script to cursive occurs without the
relearning of basic letter shapes
linking is a natural development
children acquire a relaxed technique which helps to develop
speed and to maintain legibility
alternative styles can easily be adopted according to particular
needs and individual preference
the style is produced using instruments readily available.

South Australian Modern Cursive

5
Handwriting styles

COPPERPLATE
Traditional handwriting style of the 18th century. Adopted
in South Australian government schools. Written with a
flexible nib for variation in stroke thickness.

LOOPED CURSIVE
A less embellished version of Copperplate gradually
developed to follow the print script beginners' style in
South Australian primary schools. No longer necessarily
written with flexible nib and ink.

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MODERN CURSIVE

One of many efficient styles developed throughout the
world since the 1960s. It uses simple lettershapes formed
with traditional handwriting technique in both script and
cursive forms. Not far removed from the Looped Cursive
and Copperplate styles but written with any handwriting
instrument.

'BALL AND STICK' PRINT SCRIPT

Alphabet of simple elements, easily learnt and read by
beginners. Adopted in South Australia early this century.
Round upright shapes.

LINKED SCRIPT
Introduced in the UK in the 1930s by Marion Richardson
and others. Tested in South Australia in the 1950s but not
adopted by government schools. It is a cursive style using
the same letter shapes and technique as 'Ball and Stick' print
script.

ITALIC
Traditional handwriting style of the 16th century. Adopted by
some independent schools in South Australia. Written with a
chiselled nib.

SIMPLE MODERN HAND

Introduced in Glasgow, Scotland about 1960. Uses simple
lettershapes formed with the traditional handwriting
technique in both script and cursive forms. Not far removed
from the Italic alphabet but written with any handwriting
instrument.

6
 Implementation

Implementation must take place at both school and classroom

levels in order to ensure that the introduction of South Australian
Modern Cursive takes place as smoothly as possible. Decisions
made at a school level will assist classroom programming and
procedures. Implementation within a school should be a gradual
process. A suggested time-line is given on p. 9.

School based implementation

Implementation will involve staff inservice, policy development
and liaison with parents.

Staff inservice The staff will need time to practise and become familiar with the
style. Decisions regarding resources, timetabling, modelling,
record keeping and evaluation will need to be made before the
style is introduced to the children. It is suggested that some time
during the term prior to classroom implementation be set aside for
this purpose.
An inservice programme using this document as resource
material will help staff to come to terms with the reasoning behind
the change and the benefits to the children. Staff meeting time
should be allocated for practice and discussion. Other inservice
options may include:
staff and/or parent workshops
observation visits to key schools within the region
hub group meetings
regional
School assistants and teachers from local kindergartens could
be involved in the inservice programme.

Policy development A school's handwriting policy provides guidelines for school and
classroom procedures. The policy will develop through staff
discussion and inservice, and should include statements about:
the place of handwriting in the language arts programme
the use of blank and lined books
guidelines for left handed children
resource allocations
induction of new staff
procedures for children transferring in and out of the school
assessment, evaluation and reporting methods
programme monitoring procedures.

7
First year R-3 When South Australian Modern Cursive is implemented in a
Second year R-4 school, children from reception to year three levels should
Third year R-5 commence in the first year, with the remaining year levels adopting
Fourth year R-6
Fifth year R-7
the style as these children progress through the school (see Fig. 6).

Children who have established an acceptable handwriting style

Implementation time-line
Figure 6
should maintain their existing style, unless they are experiencing
difficulty. In such cases children may be given the option of
changing to South Australian Modern Cursive.
For further information regarding the process of policy
development, see Planning and programming: R-7 language arts.

Liaison with parents Parents will require information about South Australian Modern
Cursive and its development. This information could be provided
on a parent night or by means of an information sheet. Some
parents may wish to learn the style in order to assist their children.
Parent workshops could be a valuable way of achieving this.

Classroom implementation
Once inservice has taken place, with particular procedures and
guidelines decided upon, teachers can consider their classroom
programmes. Classroom implementation may involve:
introduction of style and technique
organisational strategies
timetabling
classroom layout
evaluation.

Introduction of style and Teachers can determine the sequence in which letters will be
technique introduced. The sequence may be based on a combination of the
following points.
The teacher's observation of what the children can do. If
children commence letters at the bottom and move clockwise
(see Fig. 7), the teacher may decide to introduce letters that
incorporate this movement even though the letters commence
with a down stroke (see Fig. 8).
Related letter movements, such as clockwise, anticlockwise or
sloped movements (see p. 12).
Current programmes in language arts and other curriculum
areas. The children might produce labels for artwork or stories.
Guidelines as stated in the school policy.
The child's name.

Technique would be introduced in handwriting lessons and

emphasised in subsequent art lessons or whenever children are
writing. (For suggestions on how to use art to aid handwriting, (see
Resources, p. 53).

8
 Organisational Teachers can use whole class, individual and group strategies for
strategies teaching handwriting. Whole class situations would be beneficial
when giving instruction in:
letter formations
correct instrument hold
linking guides
layout ideas
alternative styles
It would be useful to divide the class into small groups when:
handwriting is being assessed
instruction is necessary for a particular group of children
practice is required in various skills.
Teachers may organise groups during a specific handwriting
lesson or at various times during the day. Individual assistance
can be given whenever children are engaged in writing or when
the teacher perceives a particular need.
The strategies used in teaching handwriting will depend on the
teacher's observations of the children and their needs.

Timetabling Regular practice is necessary if children are to develop a relaxed

technique and desired style. There are various timetable options
open to teachers. They include:
short daily practices
two or three half hour sessions per week
part of the language arts block time allocation.
Teachers should alter their timetable according to the changing
needs of the children.

Classroom Classroom organisation will be influenced by the resources which

layout teachers use for instruction. Moveable resources such as a white
board or overhead projector permit a flexible layout. Children need
to see clearly the way in which letters are formed if they are to
reproduce them correctly.
Children who experience difficulty copying from the board can
be helped if the teacher fixes a copy of the beginners' or cursive
alphabet to their tables. Examples of the style should also be placed
around the room for easy reference.

Assessment Assessment should provide information about what the children can
do and give the teacher directions to help children to overcome
specific problems. Children need to be informed as to the criteria
upon which their handwriting is being assessed and encouraged to
look at their own handwriting, using similar criteria. Assessment
ideas are discussed in the section beginning on p.31.

9
 The classroom
programme

The handwriting programme will involve teachers in:

establishing aims
deciding content
organising timetable and resources
selecting appropriate teaching strategies
assessing children's handwriting and progress
evaluating the programme.
The issues of organisation and teaching strategies have been
dealt with in 'Implementation' (p. 7) and 'Classroom Programming
Issues', (p. 33). For additional information on classroom
programming, refer to Planning and programming: R- 7 language
arts.

Aims
The overall aim of the handwriting programme is to guide children
to develop a handwriting technique which enables them to produce a
legible and fluent personal style.
The handwriting programme should provide the following
elements.
Instruction in South Australian Modern Cursive technique and
style.
Practice in developing technique in order to experiment with
various handwriting styles.
Experiences that will enable children to come to an under-
standing of the value and importance of handwriting as an
effective tool for communication.
Opportunities for children to develop the ability to assess and
monitor their handwriting progress.
Opportunities for children to develop the necessary knowledge,
attitudes and abilities that will enable them to produce the style
with confidence.

Knowledge Children will become aware that:

print conveys a message
handwriting is a tool used in the writing process
various handwriting styles can be produced with the same
technique
the purpose and audience for writing influence the style and
layout used
pen lifts have specific functions.

10
 Attitudes Children will develop:
a positive attitude towards themselves and their handwriting
the desire to experiment with various handwriting styles in
order to develop a personal style
a willingness to accept responsibility for their own written
material.

Abilities Children will develop:

hand, eye coordination
fine motor control
correct lettershapes by following the suggested sequence of
movement
consistent size, slope, spacing, proportion and alignment of
letters
appropriate use of pen lifts
relaxed technique
legible handwriting, at speed
strategies to assess their own technique and style.

Content
Early handwriting Learning the skills of handwriting is associated with early attempts
to draw and say something with pictures. Children want to do this.
They want to play and to try out shapes and signs which will help
them to show what they are thinking or feeling. When teachers
show children how to use the tool of handwriting, they should
allow time for children to experiment with all the shapes they are
discovering for themselves as well as the shapes and forms teachers
want them to learn.
In early writing, children experiment with shapes, lines, patterns,
stick figures, circles, scribbles and letter shapes. They draw and
write as complementary processes. When they draw and write,
children explore the page or other writing surfaces. They solve
problems of space and dimension. They have to learn the principles
of putting visual signs or shapes on paper. These signs and shapes
might be drawings or letters and words. Children have to learn to fit
them on the page, to put them in order, to make them clear and in
the right proportion, and to go from left to right and down the page.
As children solve these problems they play with the marks they
are making on paper. They need time to experiment and play with
early pictures and scribbles as they develop their fine motor skills
and their visual perception of what they want to represent, whether it
is a picture of a house, a flower, a tree, a dog or the lettershapes
which fit their first invented spellings  HS (house), Flwee (flower).

Experiences that assist early handwriting development

Teachers need to allow for the links between play, drawing, writing
and handwriting to be made by children as they solve the problems
of written language. These links may be developed through
involving children in experiences that help them to
11
develop an effective handwriting technique and style. Such
experiences may include: opportunities to write for different
purposes and audiences
manipulation and exploration of line through drawing, painting
and patterning activities
experimentation with handwriting materials and instruments
verbalisation of lettershapes whilst practising handwriting (e.g.
m -'down, up, around, down, up, around, down')
use of finger plays, puppetry and dramatic activity as relaxation
techniques
time to practise lettershapes
opportunities to display their writing.

Lettershape patterns
Young children enjoy making scribble patterns. The enjoyment
children find in this kind of activity can help them develop their
skills in handwriting. Teachers can encourage children to practise
patterns based on movement incorporated in lettershapes (see Fig.
9).
Other patterning activities can be used to help remove tension
and thus help in the development of a relaxed technique for
handwriting. (See Resources for examples of activities.)

12
 Development of abilities
Children enter school with varying abilities that assist their
handwriting. However, teachers will need to provide activities
(during structured play or specific lessons) which help children to
develop:
hand-eye coordination
motor control
fine motor control
knowledge of spatial relationships
visual discrimination.

See Resources section (p. 44) for activities that may be useful in
developing these abilities.

Introduction of lettershapes
Teachers can decide on a sequence for introducing lettershapes to
children. Any sequence may be valid in a particular teaching
situation, although it is not wise to teach minimally contrasted
lettershapes together (see Fig. 10).
The chart on p. 12 shows lettershapes grouped according to
related movements. Teaching lettershapes as a related group
reinforces specific aspects of technique.

Technique refers to hold of the handwriting instrument, the position

of the paper and body, and the actual handwriting movement. Style
refers to the manner in which letters (or numerals) are formed and
linked together to make words.

13
Technique One of the most important decisions affecting the success of a
handwriting programme is the extent to which children are taught
and encouraged to develop sound techniques.

Hold of handwriting instrument

The writing instrument is held gently so that the index finger can
flex slightly. Pressure on the handwriting instrument and consistent
tension in the fingers or hand may cause fatigue and cramp
preventing fluent handwriting. The instrument rests on the side of
the top joint of the middle finger, with the thumb resting on the
side of the instrument and the forefinger resting on top. A small
space should be visible between the thumb and forefinger. The
fingers should not be placed too close to the writing tip because
tension will develop. The angle of the instrument to the paper
should be about 45 degrees. A steep angle will also lead to greater
tension. Left handers should hold the writing instrument further
back from the point so that they can see what is being written.

Paper and body position

The paper and body position should be comfortable for the writer,
so that the writer may write with ease for long periods of time if
required. The paper should be placed so that its base is at right
angles to the forearm of the writing hand and the body should have
comfortably balanced support so that body weight does not rest on
the writing arm. Tension in the eyes, neck, wrist, shoulders or back
indicates an uncomfortable paper and/or body position which will
interfere with the optimum handwriting movement and will cause
fatigue in the writer.

Recommended paper positions

The handwriting movement

The handwriting movement is a combined finger, hand and arm
movement. The arm should be supported lightly by the forearm and
the little finger. This allows the writing hand to move smoothly
across the page. Avoid a fixed forearm. The fingers will flex slightly
in moving to form the letter shapes. The hand will move smoothly
ahead of the point of contact between instrument and paper.
Left-handers should hold the writing instrument so that fingers
are at least 3 cm from the end. This allows the writer to see

14
 what is being written without having to bend or hook the wrist. See
p. 37 for further information on left-handed writers.
Patterning of lettershapes can aid the development of a relaxed
handwriting movement. (Finger, hand and arm movements in the air,
using a blackboard or large pieces of paper, enable children to relax
and 'warm-up' before a handwriting task.) Experimentation with
repetitive scribble and letter shapes can also assist developing
handwriters to gain a sense of fluency of movement. When teachers
are using letter shape patterns during instruction, it is preferable to
simulate a word by writing about three to five shapes and then lift
the instrument. It is unrealistic to insist on long lines of continuously
linked letters.
As handwriting tasks lengthen, older children should be
encouraged to use natural pauses as an opportunity to relax the
instrument hold. Tapping the forefinger lightly on the instrument
or freely rotating the wrist helps to relax the hand. Such exercises
will be particularly valuable when children are writing at a greater
speed.

15
Style In order to develop a legible, consistent style it is recommended
that children learn the correct stroke sequence for each letter. The
charts on the following pages detail each letter shape, describe the
cursive development of each letter, and highlight potential problem
areas.
The differences between the beginners' alphabet and cursive
formation are apparent in the letters f and x and in the exits of a, d,
h, i, k, 1, in, n, o, r, t, u, v, and w. (Exit refers to the stroke that
forms the beginning of the link to the following letter.)
When cursive formation is being taught, two points should be
considered.
Special attention will be required for letters with exits.
More attention will be required in the spacing of letters.
The linking aspect of South Australian Modern Cursive may
become apparent to some children before they have been given
instruction in how to link letters, due to the simplicity of the
cursive alphabet shapes.

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
'hook'

24
25
26
27
Formation of letters
Starting places, direction of movement and number of strokes per
letter are important aspects if linking, fluency and speed are to
develop with ease. An oval body shape is recommended with a 2
o'clock starting position for all anticlockwise ovals. (A 1 o'clock
starting position produces an almond shape; a 3 o'clock starting
position produces a circular shape.)

Size
Letter shapes should be in proportion. This means they will
maintain relativity in both width and height to each other. The
overall size of writing will depend upon the purpose of the writing
and the size of the surface being used. Larger letter shapes help in
the establishment and maintenance of combined finger/hand/arm
movements in handwriting. Small letter shapes, less than 2mm,
may be the outcome of a tense penhold and will make the task of
identifying incorrect letter shape formation more difficult.

Slope
For right-handers, a slight slope to the right is the outcome of a
well developed cursive technique. For left-handers, a slight slope
to the left is the natural result for children who are using a relaxed
finger-hand-arm movement. Slope should be consistent for each
individual. However, a 5 to 15 degrees variation in the slope to
the left or right of vertical is acceptable between individuals.

Spacing
Consistent spacing enhances the legibility and appearance of
handwriting. Spacing within words, between words, between lines
of writing, and the use of blank space on the page should be
highlighted in teaching.

Alignment
The visual pattern of words becomes more consistent when
hooks, descending letters and ascending letters are accurately
positioned in relation to each other.

Linking
When encouraged to develop a flowing, cursive handwriting
technique, children may naturally begin to link groups of letters.
However, teaching will be necessary to avoid the development of
awkward links.
The introduction of links should not be a slow and laborious
process because lettershapes themselves do not change. There
should not be any deliberate drawing of lines between letters.
When children have developed a good handwriting technique,
whole groups of links may be introduced concurrently, as the
letter shapes are already quite familiar.
There are specific rules related to linking.
There is no link from upper case letters to lower case letters.
Correct starting place and direction of movement for each
letter shape are the bases for the development of links.
The links are the outcome of a flowing handwriting
movement rather than deliberately drawn connections
between letters in a word.

28
 Any distortion caused to letter shapes through linking should
be discouraged (see Fig. 11).
Small groups of letters should be practised rather than
individual letters as this is more likely to simulate the
movements required for writing (see Fig. 12).
Letters which link to the following letter should link directly
from the end of the letter to the commencement of the next
letter.
Certain letters do not link to other letters. These are x, y, z, g
and j.
The point at which the exit links to the following letter
should be no higher than the exit of o.
If you link to an s you do not link from it.
Do not link to f or z.
When linking is introduced to children, they may need to
practise:
developing the exits before linking to the letters a, d, h, i, k,
1, m, n, t, and u
developing the 'hook' on v, w, r, and o
linking directly to other letters
linking two letters at a time, or writing small words
containing direct links.
Direct links need to be considered and practised during
handwriting instruction.
These links should be only those which occur in the English
language since handwriting practice should support the
development of spelling proficiency.

Pen lifts
Pen lifts occur in handwriting even though the writer may not be
aware of them. These natural pauses relax the hand and help
avoid illegibility. Individuals develop pen lifts to suit their
personal style and technique. They will occur at various intervals
within words, but not always before the same letter (see Fig. 13).
Children should be discouraged from making a pen lift during
the formation of an individual letter, other than where specifically
indicated in the charts on pp. 17 -25. As children increase the
speed at which they write, they will develop pen lifts naturally.
Teachers should be aware of the functions of pen lifts and
encourage children to use them where 'necessary. Children
struggling to write long words using continuous links should be
shown where pen lifts can be incorporated in order to relax the
hand. However, teachers who observe children making frequent
pen lifts would be wise to look at the technique and stroke
sequence used by the children (see Resources p. 55).

Speed of handwriting
When words are written at considerable speed, legibility can
deteriorate due to incorrect handwriting technique or poorly
established letter and link formations. Children can be
encouraged to recognise the effects that speed has on their style
and be given time to practise handwriting in situations such as
brainstorming, where speed is necessary.

29
 Middle and upper primary children could:
experiment with different writing instruments, surfaces and
styles to note the effects of writing with speed
practise note taking at speed with telephone messages, recorded
Interviews, broadcasts, and lecturettes
take dictation from a listening post
experiment with speed during continuous writing periods
experiment with different starting points for certain capitals
(see Fig. 14).

Experimentation Young children may require assistance in the development of style,

technique and presentation (margins, titles, dates, mathematical
problems, poetic forms). However, as children develop proficiency
in handwriting they can be encouraged to experiment with
alternative styles and layouts, and various handwriting
instruments.

Alternative styles
In years six and seven, children can be introduced to alternative
styles of handwriting which use the same technique as South
Australian Modern Cursive, such as Italic, Copperplate and
Looped Cursive.
If children are given the opportunity to experiment with alternative
styles, they may develop a preference for a particular style or
certain characteristics of a style, and incorporate them into their
personal style. Awareness of alternative styles can be developed if
the teacher provides:
samples of handwriting through the ages which trace the
development of letter shapes
collections of adult handwriting samples
Italic, Copperplate and Looped Cursive alphabet cards, copy
books or worksheets
collections of the different pens used for handwriting e.g.
italic pens, split nib pens, fountain pens and feather quills.
(Early handwriting styles have more character when the
appropriate materials are used.)
When children experiment with alternative styles they need to
look critically at their handwriting, paying particular attention to
legibility and the maintenance of an easy, relaxed technique.

Various handwriting instruments

The handwriting instrument influences style and comfort of
production. Children can be encouraged to try various writing
instruments and to select the instrument preferred for their own
handwriting, or the one best suited to the purpose of the writing.
(See Resources for examples of handwriting styles using various
instruments.).

Signatures
Attention can be given to the development of legible signatures.
Children enjoy experimenting with signatures and using them
whenever possible. Through various activities the children will
develop an understanding of the legal, commercial and social
implications of signing their names.

30
 Layout
The collection and examination of different layouts will help
children improve their own layout techniques. Children will
come to understand that:
a planned layout can increase both legibility and the attrac-
tiveness of the finished product
different sized paper and instruments require different
layout techniques
the time used to prepare a rough layout is well spent when
it enhances the finished product
the number of words per line influences the appearance of
the page
a line containing too many words tends to tire the eye of
the reader
the use of wide margins emphasises the importance of
the writing which they surround.

Evaluation and assessment

If any form of assessment is to be worthwhile, it must
provide both the children and the teacher with useful
information which will help in the evaluation process and the
planning of further learning experiences.
As children are central to the learning process, they should
share in the evaluation of their work. They need to
understand that the assessment of their handwriting will be
based on a variety of criteria. For example, handwriting
might be assessed at certain times for its visual appeal, its
presentation and style (in a project sheet or a book) and at
other times for its legible communication of a simple
message (such as a reminder, an address or a telephone
number). Children also need to realise that the development
of a relaxed, fluent technique is essential and that they need
to monitor fatigue and tension themselves.
There are several options available for both children and
teachers but three processes are essential.
Monitoring or gathering information.
Recording information in a useful way.
Reflecting and deciding on a plan of action.

Options for teachers Teachers can gather information regarding children's

handwriting in order to determine progress.

Observation, anecdotal records and follow up

Anecdotal records provide valuable information regarding the
processes children use and the finished product of
handwriting. The following questions may help guide
teachers' observations.
Are the children developing sound handwriting techniques
which serve the purposes of writing? (Are the children
holding the writing instrument in a relaxed manner,
writing with a combined finger-hand-arm movement and
using an appropriate paper position?)
31 Have the children developed a style appropriate to their
 everyday requirements? (Are they producing a legible style and
forming lettershapes consistently?)
Have the children developed an awareness of purpose and
audience and the effect that these have on the presentation
of their handwriting? (Are they able to produce
conventional layouts for addresses and letters, and to use
margins and headings correctly? Are they using alternative
styles where appropriate? Do they select the appropriate
tools and materials?)
Have the children developed the ability to write legibly at a
speed consistent with their requirements?

Samples of work
A sample of each child's 'usual' handwriting could be taken
regularly and kept in the pupil record folders or a loose-leaf
folder. These become valuable resource material for children,
parents and teacher throughout the year and also provide evi-
dence of progress made.

Individual assessment using a checklist

Teachers may use a checklist (like the one below) to record
strengths, weaknesses and follow up activities. Children can also
keep an individual checklist, monitoring their own strengths and
weaknesses, such as speed, legibility and spacing.

Options for children Children need to develop the ability to assess their handwriting.
Teachers can assist by informing children how teachers assess
their own handwriting as well as that of the children. Children
need to understand such terms as 'technique', 'legible' and
'fluent' in order to do this effectively.
Options for children include:
keeping dated and annotated samples of work in a special
folder and talking with the teacher about them
using individual checklists
discussions where children decide the positive aspect of
someone else's handwriting and highlight points for practice
recording statements for future reference.
All records should provide directions for future activities and
learning experiences.

32
 Classroom
programming issues

In the following section a series of questions and answers has been

provided. The questions represent many of the common concerns
which have been expressed by those teachers who have been
developing plans and strategies for the teaching of handwriting.

Starting points for a programme

Question: How do 1 find a starting point for a
classroom handwriting programme?

There is no set starting point at any particular year level. The

starting point will be influenced by the following factors.
The teacher's previous experience at that year level.
The children's needs and abilities. (There will be a wide
range within the class.)
The teacher's view of children's learning.
The handwriting programme should incorporate the following
points:
technique
formation of lettershape
development of linkages
development of speed and legibility
development of presentation and layout skills
development of alternative styles
development of the children's ability to look critically at the
product and the technique used.
Teachers of middle and upper primary levels may wish to tackle all
of these concurrently. Alternatively, they may choose one or two to
become the focus of their teaching.
The teacher's aims serve as a guide to what is appropriate for a
particular year level. In addition, short term objectives may be useful
in planning and monitoring the programme. For example, the
objective might be "That the children will be able to grip the pencil
in the correct way by the end of term 1".
Teachers should use a variety of writing experiences, media and
materials throughout their programme so that the skill of
handwriting is not associated with dull 'drilling' of lettershapes.
Displays of good handwriting in the form of charts and children's
books can act as a model for what is possible.

33
Organising the programme and timetable

Question: What are the organisational options for teaching

handwriting?

The purposes for a handwriting lesson will influence how it is

organised.

Working with the whole class: This is a useful organisational option

when:
new lettershapes, links or pen-lifts are being explained
children are discussing, assessing and practising patterns or
lettershapes.
Regular daily practice of ten to fifteen minutes can be used for
these purposes. Timetabling short sessions helps to avoid excessive
repetition of rows of lettershapes. This may be a waste of time for
many children in the class when only a few require concentrated
instruction.

Small group work: It would be useful to organise the class into small
groups when:
the teacher wants to pay particular attention to certain
children's technique, or formation of lettershapes
children are analysing their handwriting
children are discussing the most appropriate layout for a
project.
The use of copy cards, work cards or activity sheets may
supplement the teaching of a small group. Group work facilitates the
monitoring of the handwriting process as well as the product.

Learning centres.. These can be used when children wish to practise

their technique and experiment with alternative styles. A learning
centre may involve the children in:
production of labels, captions, etc.
experimentation with instruments and materials
development of signatures
project work on the history of handwriting
recording of proverbs, quotations, jokes, riddles and greetings
in other languages
production of decorative titles and borders for books and
assignments
publication of poems or short pieces of prose
production of books or class newspapers.

Individual assistance can be given during any of the above options,

during a writing conference or whenever children are engaged in
writing.

Framework for a lesson

Question: Is there a framework for a lesson with the whole class?

When an aspect of technique or style requires specific attention, the

sequence of warm up, work out and wind down may be helpful
activities for a lesson with the whole class.
34
 Warm up of fingers and handwriting movements consists of
relaxation activities, finger plays, action songs or rhymes, and
patterns which reinforce handwriting movements. At this
time, the teacher can check that children are seated at chairs
and tables appropriate to their size.
Work out involves thoughtful practice of the technique and
lettershapes. Children can be encouraged to make decisions
about the number of repetitions they personally need to make,
and to monitor the degree of relaxation in their hand while
writing.
Wind down involves the children talking about their hand-
writing, critically analysing the strengths and weaknesses and
suggesting changes to technique. At times a wind down may
include a presentation of good quality handwriting to other
audiences.

Observation of children's technique

Question: Why is it important to watch a child write?

By watching a child write, the teacher will be able to recognise

problems arising in the child's handwriting technique and be able
to assist the child to overcome these problems. The teacher can
look at the angle and the hold of the instrument, the paper and
body position, the support of the writing arm and the use of the
non-writing hand. The technique used is as important as the
finished product.

Question: How can I watch thirty children at once?

It is unrealistic to try to observe thirty children at once. However,

there are some alternatives.
Break up the large group and set targets for smaller groups
of children sitting in different areas of the classroom.
Enlist other children or adults to watch.
Set some tasks which require the writer's own decision
making and assessment so that you are able to observe the
technique and formation used by individual children. The
use of some kind of inventory or checklist may be helpful.
(See 'Evaluation and assessment', p. 31 for suggestions.)
Develop the habit of observing handwriting technique in
whatever contexts children are writing, and endeavour through the
course of one week to observe each child's technique at least once,
giving attention where necessary.

Demonstrating handwriting

Question: Is the blackboard the best way to demonstrate letter

formation?

Teachers may find the blackboard (or whiteboard) to be the most

accessible writing surface in the classroom when it is impractical to
model for children individually. Alternatives include an overhead
projector, poster or butchers paper. The overhead projector enables
the teacher to use different degrees of magnification to demonstrate
35
detail. It also allows children to display their own handwriting
easily to a large group.
Working with finger paint, in a sandtray or on the pavement
with chalk, can also capture children's interest in lettershape
formation.
Children seated in groups may not easily be able to see the
display on a board, screen or chart. Reorganisation of seating
arrangements or duplicated cards can assist these children.

Instruments

Question. What instruments should I provide for the children?

Beginners: Pencils with a soft lead (4B, 2B, B), crayons, oil
pastels, chalk, paint brushes with fine or thick tips, and a variety
of felt tipped pens are all useful for beginners. Paint brushes and
felt tipped pens are particularly good because they do not require
pressure on the tip and therefore aid the development of a more
relaxed handwriting technique. Pencil grips may be useful for
some children having problems.

Experienced handwriters: Harder tipped instruments such as HB

pencils, ballpoint pens, nylon tipped pens and fountain pens with a
ball point or nib tip may be used by more experienced
handwriters. Children in upper primary years should have some
choice regarding the instrument used. Teachers should discuss
with children the advantages and disadvantages of various
handwriting instruments to help children with their choice.
Characteristics such as the length and diameter of the barrel and
slipperiness of the writing tip will need to be considered. Pens
which are greasy and slip over the page causing loss of control
should be avoided.
A nibbed instrument will be useful when exploring the
Copperplate and Italic styles of handwriting, and it may be
preferred by some older students. Lettering pens, brushes and
ruling pens may be useful for lettering or printing.

Surfaces

Question: What writing surfaces should I provide for children?

A variety of quality and size of writing surfaces should be used.

The surface and size will frequently be determined by the task.
Beginners: When practising lettershape, letter combinations or
linking, children should use small blackboards and chalk or the
large classroom blackboard to develop style and technique. Ease
of erasure ensures that imperfect models or reversals are not
reinforced. Scrap paper or newsprint can also be used for exper-
imentation.

Experienced handwriters: When children can confidently produce

simple sentences in legible handwriting, lined paper may be
introduced. Rulings wider than 8 mm should be used until the
children show that they have both the muscular control and the
handwriting skill to reduce the size of their writing to fit 8 mm
lines. It is important that good quality surfaces and handwriting
36
 instruments be used where possible so that the children can produce
handwriting that reflects care and consideration for an audience.

Children who need special consideration

Question: How do I provide for the left-handed writer?

Left-handed children will need special attention if they are to

develop fluent, relaxed handwriting.
Seat the left-handed child to the left of a right-handed child so
that their elbows do not bump each other.
Allow the child to use a lower than normal writing surface.
Teach the child to hold the instrument at least 3 cm from the
tip.
Encourage the child to turn the paper from the vertical position
to a slightly clockwise one (see diagram on p. 14) and place it
left of the body midline.
Use a left-handed teacher in the school or a parent who uses an
appropriate technique to assist a left-hander.
Do not change the slope if a left-hander has a natural backhand
slope, provided it is not too exaggerated or inconsistent.
Seat the child so that hand and arm do not exclude light.
Ideally, light should come from behind and over the right
shoulder.

Question: What approach should I take with a child who appears to

have no preferred hand?

Carefully observe the child's manipulative skills and eye-hand

coordination in both writing and non-writing contexts. Some
children will use either hand with facility for different tasks. In
cases of uncertainty 'preference tests' may be used to establish hand
dominance. When such tests are administered, ensure that the child
is placed in a position so that either hand may be used easily. In
each test record the preferred hand.
Tests to establish hand preference include:
cutting out a circle with each hand (the best result is recorded)
throwing an object to the teacher
receiving an object from the teacher
reaching for something high
erasing the blackboard
stringing beads
putting marbles into a jar, one at a time.
If preference cannot be established with the above tests, the
frequency of letter reversals with each hand may be used as another
indicator. Teachers will need to decide, through discussion with the
parents and the child, which hand is to be encouraged. Consistency
of lettershapes, spacing, proportion, alignment, frequency of letter
and word reversals should be taken into account when the decision
is made.
From observation you may also conclude that a right-handed
child may have left eye dominance, or that a left-handed child has
right eye dominance. In such cases it may sometimes be necessary

37
to seek additional advice if the child's progress is being hindered.

Question: How do I cope with a child who has difficulty copying

lettershapes and words from the blackboard?

The following ideas may help a child who is experiencing difficulty

copying from the board.
Stand beside the child while you are demonstrating and describing
the lettershape in the book or on the paper.
Make sure that the child is sitting facing the board.
Encourage the child to rehearse the lettershapes or words in the air
or on the table, using a finger.
Affix a personal alphabet to the desk, or hang clear, simple charts
near the eye level of the child.
Guide the child's hand to form the letters.

Question: How can I assist an upper primary child who is using an

established but illegible handwriting style?

Closely observe the handwriting technique (the process) and style

(the product). Use anecdotal records, sampling or checklists, and
talk with the child to find out why the handwriting is difficult to
read or causing frustration to the writer.
Develop the child's awareness of the problem through discussion
and examination of handwriting samples. Refer to:
legibility and general appearance
consistency of style
letter formation
awkward techniques.
Determine whether the child shares your concern and is prepared to
make a commitment to relearn technique and/or style.
Provide short and varied tasks to ensure that both technique and
style become familiar to the child. A range of exercises from
repetitive patterning through to publication of labels, riddles, and
poems can be provided. Encouragement of good attempts is
important at this stage to help the child to see the benefit of practice.
Negotiate a 'contract' to improve the child's handwriting. Such a
contract should give details of.
specific objectives
an agreed time after which improvement might reasonably be
expected
provision for reporting to the child and parents with samples of
work.
The contract should make provision for:
a variety of activities that involve writing for a purpose, such as
daily silent sustained writing in a journal or writing stories to be
read by younger children
experimentation with a variety of handwriting instruments
a handwriting learning centre or writing electives (e.g. book
making).
There should be a clear understanding that the contract will expire
when the child's interest is lost or when the teacher feels that
sufficient progress has been made.

38
 Special note: Upper primary children should maintain their
existing style. If their handwriting is not consistent, fluent and
legible, they may be introduced to South Australian Modern
Cursive and given the option to adopt the style if they wish.

Question: How do I provide for children from countries where

an alphabet other than the Roman alphabet is used?

South Australian Modern Cursive is appropriate for children

who are literate in languages which do not use the Roman
alphabet because it involves the learning of only one style.
These children will need time to carry out the following
activities.
Practise holding and manipulating the handwriting
instrument in order to develop a relaxed finger, hand and
arm movement.
Practise diagonal downstrokes and oval movements (see
Fig. 15).
Practise patterns that will assist children with linking and
alignment (see Fig. 16). Ask children to make four or five
links and then to start a new pattern, since handwriting is
not a continuous series of links across a page.
When children are able to make these patterns in a relaxed
and fluent manner they can be shown how to combine them to
form upper and lower case letters (see Fig. 17).
It may be necessary for some children to develop their fine
motor control in order to manipulate the handwriting instrument.
For further ideas, see Resources, p. 43.
If children are experiencing difficulty, advice could be
sought from the Languages and Multicultural Centre. (This
answer has been adapted from Assisting non-English speakers:
handwriting, Languages and Multicultural Centre, Education
Department of S.A. 1981.)

Writing on lines

Question: When should I introduce writing on lines?

Blank surfaces are best for beginners. By writing on blank paper,

the children learn about the proportions within letters, (e.g. the
stroke of a d is twice the height of its oval portion) and the
proportions between letters. It is important that children learn
about these proportions before their movements are restricted
within lines. When children have this knowledge of the pro-
portions of lettershapes and a sense of alignment (e.g. the tail of
the g hangs below an a), then the following sequence for
introducing writing on lines could be adopted.

39
40
41
Resources

This section of the document provides suggestions for handwriting

activities and examples of resource materials. It is envisaged that
teachers will use these suggestions as a guide to what they may
provide in their classroom programmes.
The Resources section has been divided into two parts for easy
reference. The first part concentrates on ideas and activities that are
useful for children who have not yet developed their handwriting
skills, while the second part is devoted to ideas for children on the
way to mastering the skill of handwriting.
A sample of South Australian Modern Cursive is provided on p.
62. This page may be photocopied and reproduced for a child's
individual reference sheet, or may be fixed to desks for easy
reference. Teachers should use only that section of the page which
will be useful for the particular needs of the children in the
classroom.

Part One-Early Handwriting Development

This section includes examples of activity cards and patterning
exercises which are useful for beginners. There are ideas for
classroom activities and a chart which highlights complementary
activities for early handwriting development. Details of a follow-up
activity for the children or instructions for how to use the card could
be given on the back of each activity card.
Sample patterns will help children to develop movements that
will be used to form the letters in South Australian Modern Cursive.
Patterns which are not based on specific letter shapes are useful as
an aid to relaxation, but have not been included here.
These pages represent only a small portion of the possible
activities and resources that can be used to complement classroom
handwriting programmes.

42
43
44
45
46
47
Ideas for Handwriting Activities
Many activities can be used to supplement children's early attempts
with handwriting.
Hand-clapping games with a partner. These develop
coordination and rhythm.
Musical doodles. Children create patterns and doodles to music,
songs and rhymes (see Fig. 18).
Finger drumming to marching tunes.
Decoration of books, cards and displays. The children work
within a given border.
Patterns which require children to reproduce a particular design.

48
 Activity cards designed by the children for their own use.
Notes to parents, written by the children. (This will give them a
purpose for producing good handwriting.)
Talking to the hand. This helps children to internalise the
movements required to produce letters consistently (see Fig.
19).

Part Two: Later Handwriting Development

The following pages provide examples of activity cards which will
assist children with linking guides and correct letter formation.
Various lists and ideas are included for developing handwriting
skills through art and for helping children to overcome
handwriting problems. Activities for learning centres which deal
with certain aspects of handwriting are also given.
It may be necessary for some children to practise specific letter
formations. Children can be encouraged to compose and record
sentences using alliteration.
Children will find it useful to practise common links which occur
in words. The word list given on p. 50 could be made into activity
cards for children to trace or copy.

49
49
50
51
Activities based on the history of handwriting

Activities for children:

Trace the history of handwriting from Babylonian and Egyp-
tian times. Write in cuneiform. Produce scrolls, cave paintings,
tablets.
Research oriental handwriting, learning some of the symbols,
and reproducing them. Display them, using a world map.
Make a chart of Roman numerals with Arabic equivalents.
Collect samples of illuminated manuscripts and other styles of
historically important writing in books and documents.
Make a scrap book about handwriting. There are many
examples in magazines and newspapers. Work with a friend.
The finished book could be presented to the class or school
library.
When children are investigating the history of handwriting, they
may wish to experiment with various styles. Clear reference
material should be available for the children. Examples, such as the
one below, can be found in books on history, art, lettering and
advertising.

Commercial styles of lettering

Activities for children:

Collect different types of lettering from magazines and news-
papers.
Select a style of lettering you like, and practise it. Use lined
paper vertically to help you with the spacing (see Fig. 20).
Use some of your new styles for the class noticeboard, title
pages or birthday cards of your own.
Make a collection of advertising slogans from television
commercials.
Make illustrated table cards for teachers and children in years
2 or 3. Illustrate with pictures from magazines.
Make class birthday chart and illustrate with signs of the
zodiac.
52
 Developing handwriting skills through art
Some aims in undertaking these exercises are:
enjoyment of the task
satisfaction with the finished product
increasingly thoughtful and skilful placement of lines or
marks on a page
increasing awareness of the techniques involved in producing
smooth flowing lines, the effect of different instruments and
line thicknesses, and of the demands of presentation for an
audience.
Children will benefit from opportunities to work with a variety of
writing instruments (brushes, pencils, pens, textas etc.) and other
materials. The teacher should encourage discussion about such
aspects as balance of design, effects of contrast in line thickness
and colour (i.e. stimulating awareness of presentation and
audience). Attention should be focused on smooth flowing
movements (i.e. relaxed hand movements). Most of all, children
should be allowed to enjoy the creativity of this approach to
developing handwriting skills.

Exercise 1
Start at the top left-hand corner.
Use a simple flowing line.
Follow the line, changing the pen thickness for variety.
Begin on the original path, then wander away, and finally
arrive back on the original path.
Follow the new path, varying the thickness of the line.
(Left to right flow, downward progression of lines, control of
spacing and movement are emphasised.)

53
Exercise 2
Fill the page with lots of anticlockwise spirals. They can be of
different sizes.

Exercise 3
Start at centre top.
Draw a line from top to bottom with bumps wandering to
the left.
Follow the path on the right side of the line, mirroring the
bumps.
Follow the lines on either side, keeping a regular distance
between the lines.
Vary the distance between lines, keeping it constant for
each movement from top to bottom.
(Top to bottom flow, control of horizontal spacing, smooth
uninterrupted movement, recognition of mirroring to right and left
of central point are emphasised.)

54
 Assisting children to overcome
handwriting difficulties
Check grip/hold-a pencil grip may help.
Allow children to experiment with different pens until a
suitable one is found.
Discuss styles - a change of style and therefore technique
may be needed.
Use daily practice sessions of ten minutes.
Check seating position, paper slant, etc.
If the child is left-handed, use ideas in the booklet
obtainable from the Left Handed Products Co, 81 George
Street, The Rocks, Sydney, NSW (Telephone 02 27
3674).
Allow children to work with a pencil and an eraser for
easy alteration.
Try a variety of lined paper in order to find a size that
suits the children.
Experiment with underlays and guide sheets for size and
slope.
Check letter formation.
Introduce pen lifts instead of retracing to avoid
illegibility. Pen lifts can occur before the letters based on
oval shapes (see Fig. 21), the letters with ascenders (see
Fig. 22) and the letters s, x and z. Double letter
combinations can involve a pen lift (see Fig. 23). Letters
may appear to be linked when a pen lift has occurred (see
Fig. 24).

Encouraging handwriting through the writing

programme
The following list suggests possible activities in which
children may be involved during the course of the classroom
writing programme. These activities can assist the
development of handwriting abilities, and they may be
included in a learning centre.
Addressing envelopes, setting out official letters,
preparing formal invitations
Completing forms:
applications for club membership, driver's licence
banking
enrolment for school or electoral roll
excursion consent
income tax (first page)
medical claim
questionnaires
orders
telegrams
Publishing:
verse and prose
acronyms and abbreviations
colloquialisms
idioms
proverbs
55
 similes
newspaper headlines
recipes and menus
words and phrases from other languages
Practising signatures and initials
Preparing labels and signs
Recording world facts:
famous people
historical data
current events
countries
languages
capital cities
currencies

56
57
58
 Bibliography

Coles, R E and Goodman, Y "Do we really need those oversized pencils to

write with?" in Theory into practice Vol X1X No 3
Gardner, W H Left handed writing-available from the publisher Left
Handed Products, 811/2George Street Sydney NSW
Gourdie, T Handwriting for today Berkshire UK Pitman Publishing
Limited 1971
Gourdie, T Improve your handwriting Bath Pitman Publishing 1975
Gourdle, T The Puffin book of handwriting Harmondsworth Middlesex
Puffin Books 1980
Gourdle, T The Puffin book of lettering Harmondsworth Middlesex
Puffin Picture Books 1961
Graves, D H "How to keep handwriting in perspective" in Writing:
teachers and children at work Exeter Heinemann Educational
Books 1983
Handwriting: make the right move PEN29 Rozelle NSW Primary
English Teaching Association 1981
Morris, N The lettering book Gosford NSW Ashton Scholastic 1982
Smith, P Developing handwriting London Macinillan Education 1975
Writing: R-7 language arts Adelaide Education Department of South
Australia 1979

59
Index

Abilities, 11, 13, 33 Numerals, 26-27

Advantages of South Australian Modern Observation
Cursive, 5 of children, 9
Aim of handwriting programme, 10 of style, 32
Assessment, 9 of technique, 35
options for teacher, 31
options for children, 32 Parent awareness, 8
(see also Evaluation) Patterning, 12, 15
Attitudes, 11 Pen lifts, 10, 15, 29
assistance for older children, 55
Drawing and writing, 11-12 Policy, 7-8
Evaluation, 31-32 Problems with handwriting, 39, 56
Instruments Signatures, 31
experimentation with, 30 Speed, 2, 29-30
hold of, 14 Staff inservice, 3, 7
pencil grips, 36, 55 Style, 16
suitability of, 4, 36 alternative styles, 2, 5, 30
International trends, 5 definition of, 13
Knowledge, 10 existing style, 2, 8
Layout, 10, 31 experimentation with, 32 30
influences on, 28
Left handed instruction in, 13
assistance with style and technique, introduction of, 8
37 (see also Lettershapes)
degree of slope, 28
hold of instrument, 14 Technique, 5
natural slope, 4, 28 definition of, 4, 13
Letter shapes instruction in, 14, 15
formation of, 17-25 introduction of, 8
introduction of, 13 relaxation, 3, 4
patterning on, 12 the handwriting movement, 14
(see also Style) Timetabling, 9, 34
Lines, 36, 39
Linking specific rules,
28-29 teaching of, 29

60
 The sample of South Australian Modern Cursive provided on the
following page may be photocopied and used for reference.
61
62