The Title Says it All! Are you ‘am undergraduate student taking a signal processing or lin ‘+ a graduate student preparing fo the qualifying examinations ‘+ an instructor looking for «concise presentation ofthe material? working in industry and needa quick review of the fundament SOT ESE USS A GL Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple presents the core concepts and applications of Signal processing and linear system theory in a clear and concise format, Each chapter provider carefully selected illstations and examples to make Jearing or relearing the Trateril as simple as possible. This book is designed to serve as both a study guide and reference book on this fundamental subject. BCT aT Ly Y= ST by bringing out the key points on eac topic in read manner. Guaranteed tobe areal ime-saver for students.” Deron Jackson 6.003 Head Teaching Assistant, M.LT. page than any other book of its Rind. A N R i Fe Ni ‘valuable resource for any engineer Jeff Levison Engineer, Jet Propulsion Laboratory ith the student in mind in an unusually clear and simple language. It i your own personal tutor. T wish I had this book when Iwas studying for my qualifiers «= Rachel Learned Doctoral Candidate, MILT ‘Clearly emphasizes relevant concepts and problem-solving sis without losing the reader with unnecessary details. This isthe kind of book that should have been written longa Dr. Kleanhes Koniaris ‘Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, MLLT. ‘Zoher Z. Karu is a PhD. candidate in the Deparment of stm ores, and Computer Science at the eoco9> “Massachusetts Insitute of Technology. He as had several UVM ula “ Oe aes Zoher Z. Kar praised by both students and professors for hSignals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple ZiZi Press 002170591 Cambridge, MAFourth Printing [Copyright © 2001, 1990, 1997, 1995 by Zaher Z. Kary, All RightsReserved No pat ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored, or ansmitted ia any form or by any means without prior Written permision from the publisher, Printed in the United States of America Publisher's Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Catalog Ca Number, 94-90623 ISBN 0-9665752-1-4 Tncldes bibliographical references, Keywords: Signal theory (elcom). 2. System analysis. 3 Signal processing. 1 Tide 250i Press Tet: 256 520-5249 1408 Old Carine Lane FAX: (256) 883-3124 Huntvle, AL 35802 USA. E-mail: bookx@ziipes com Word Wide Web: hp: wwnnzizipes om To new beginnings“Never lt schooling interfere with our eduction. = Mark Tain ‘Be the master of your fae not its slave ‘Zohar Z Kara Success To laugh often and much; to win the respect of inteligen people and action of children to ear the appreciation of honest eres and endure the betrayal of alte frend to appreciate bea, find the est nother: to leave the world a bit beter, whether bya helthy child, a garden ‘atch ora redeemed social condition: to bx even one fe has breathed easier because you have lied. This is to have suceeded Ralph Waldo EmersonPreface ‘The eigins of his book date back othe Fall of 1992 when [was appointed to be the ead teaching assistant for 6.003, a semester long coe electrical enginerng clas at MLT. called “Signals sed Syste.” During the term, 1 put ogee a small handwrten review packet to help my saudats prepare forthe midterm exam I decided to call "6003 Made Ridctously Simple.” The notes ‘wee an insta sucess, and many people commented on their usefulness o me. Although Twas 20 Tonger teaching, the same packet became a regular handout for the next several semesters. The ppueat popularity and nee for such set of notes prompted me to write hs book, ‘Traditonal textbooks in thi fel oem leave the reader to guess what's important and wha’ ot, ‘often losing wack of “he big picture” This book contains, a my opiioe, he fndameatal concepts behind signal processing and linear system theory. It tes you what you need wo know and els 19 you fst. This book isnt meant to replace a textbook, bu ahr supplement oe. tis designed tobe ‘ed in wo ways ata tod guide while aking sgl processing oe inear systems course and ata reference book fo rapidly reviewing he material fr an exam, che PLD. qualifiers, or before aking ‘Amore advanced course in his rea ‘The book is writen fom a student's perspective, providing pacical advice on problem solving stils while dealing areas that in my experience have been Kaowa to give peopl difculy Each ‘hapter canbe considered to be a set of letre ott ots on that ic. The appendix of thie took 2 compilation of variety of mathematical concept tha proestors often view at assumed owledge, bu stdens can’t seem to ind wien down anywhere. "have ietentonlly not ncaded several pages of exercises at the end of each chapter ~ thre are ‘lent of textbooks for a purpose, Rather, each chapter contains carefully seleced examples and | {ample problems that reinforce te fundamcatal iss on tha topic. My pilsophy i that oveiy ‘complicated problems fall o verify the cre concep inthe staden’s mind in that cas, students tend to leam by “pattern matching” ater than truly ying to understand the material, ‘The books based on a one semester MLT, Electrical Engineering course, which uns atthe tpi “ike ying to ake a dik rom air hose” pace. There is enough material o accompany amore it- depth (wo semester course if deemed necessary. Alo, although many ofthe examples ae dieu ‘ate, the material in his book should apeal several diferent engineering dsiplines. A great del of eort was pinto organizing the material in this book. The best part about sigals | land systems i that everything its together 0 nicely. Although this may be iotelectallysasying | When you'e done, it makes this subject very dificult each ince everything Is o interconnected. ‘The reader wil ge the most out ofthis book and subject mate by taking the ime to identify and appreciate the ung concepts present [As pat of my fist venture a an author, I decided wo stat my own publishing company to produce this book This ofcourse means thatthe ene burden of wring, poofeading, eng, designing, nd pining ets solely on my shoules. Believe me, it akes more time thn you might expect If there is one thing Ive leamed i's hat have grea respec fo people who can id the ime write 700 page textbook i [As with any work ofthis magetae, there are soveral people that have made this book posible 1 ‘would fs like to thank Professr Wilam Sibert forgiving me the opportunity tobe Head TA for £6003, t was truly an enjoyable experience. I woud alo lik to thank Dern Jackson whois by now 16.003 teaching machine. The time Deron spent profreading and providing suggestions for my ‘chapters hasbeen invaluable, He also provided ne with several FrameMaker and MATLAB Ups,Table of Contents including a very useful uly be wrote fo inmporting MATLAB grap ito FrameMaker. Ener Hang, Rajeev Soa, Bd Chalom, and Angela Hsieh alo povided may much-needed e ‘coments and managed to cach few lastmimut erors I would also like o thank all of he 6003 Stadens who have bath earned fiom and have given me feedback on these noe a they evolved into ‘book. Finally Thave to thank my pares, without whom this book would’t ave bees possible, in CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems. tore aya on Pap. 1 sincerely hope ht you fn his ook fl Plate fread ay comments or sapestions fr Waar Sia. = ‘ngrovemest you may ave ome They willbe ely precited. Wate yen 2 ‘ober Z. Kara | CHAPTER 2 Continuous-Time Systems .. ine alemalteda | ‘Dir ution Syste, 3 i dig te Sion 3 | Integrate Ader Gain Block DiMgF4 6 en annmn Site Egon. 7 $ j CHAPTERS The Frequency Domain Wy Now Dost Chip Pun. Ava Prlen. oped : Seay Sate Ane CHAPTER 4 —— The Laplace Transform .wmmsnnnsn ‘White Lapae Tesor a Use ve. ae 1 Ragin of Comer. ce Bike Lape Tato Pope f et Tnon Pl, 6 lave Lal To nn I Inkl an Fa Wie Theos ” CHAPTER 5 ——_ CT Systems Anallysiennenonssnne Tie Sten Pon — ” ler sn 200 2 CooveningDieratit Equations Syste Functions 21 er ap Resp nn 2 ‘Stone and Sytem nse Rideout Simple bcTable of Contents CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 Ze Ste Reg ‘Te pase Response ea Combining Syste. 4 Cobain the rgueey Response 6 ‘The Asympoic Aproximations. 26 Retin tthe Pole Pt nn Dealing wih Maple Pesan Zs, 28 Swramay of Bode Poting Rules... 28 Dealing With Complex Plea 20 cece 30 Sample Bae Plot Questions aa Caleaing the Freueny Response Experineataly 32 Discrete Signals and Z-Transforms men Aten Type of Sgt nn a ‘Theron, - at Region of Connegece oe rato Pi, as 2 Propet. a Inver 7-Tasform, _ Ina a ia Value Theorems a8 Discrete-Time System: Ditteseace Baton sa the Sytem Posie ” Dike Time Frequency Respond Dety-Adler Soi Block Ding. 0 Deseiig Sytem a Conveing CT Systeme DT Seen Combining DT Syste. a 2X Styai ane Sytem Made Rsouout Simple Table of Contents CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 Generalized Functions . The pti nnn Derivatives of Discotintis. 6 Te Del “ Step Functions “ Propet 4 The Impulse Response and Convolutior (CT and DT Sige Made of np... as Defic of impulse Response. ant The Coola ltega and Se. 46 igafnctnes Revise “6 “The Lik Berwoen Time Domain an Frequency Doma. Retin to Step Reson. Prpets of Covaation Discrete-Time Convolution.. apical pS Met “0 Conon Wh pe SO Canton Toh Sigs Decmpet08 nnn Conon of afte Legh Signa st ell Chek 2 CoevkionIiton so Continuous-Time Convolution ..imennnnnennnen 5B apical FipShin Meo 53 Conoltion wit pis ss Conlin by iecion ss saa Cec 56 Mee File an oS ‘Stone and Syste Made Rieutouty Simple x1Table of Contents Table of Contents CHAPTER 13 Deconvolution. a What i eset noe en1 CHAPTER 17 ‘Filters. wessns TT What i Fiteing 7 How to do Deca son1 {ype of Fen 7 n Wy iit et sana Noo-el ites (eral weed) 7 Poel Pefalle eet Fie Tarmacogy cnenneeee esgning x Continous Tne Fle 0 CHAPTER 14 Causality and Stability. i Cc Redleaf File een 8 What ie Cag 0 Recopiig «Fer ———— — 2 Condon fo Cat anne 1 ‘Avil Example oy Wat in Sable Sytem Pras Repose a ane 8 Conditions or iy os : Digit FRE enh ‘Switched Capacr Fite 8s CHAPTER 15 Feedback Wat i Fotbackt ewww CHAPTER 18 Modulation... kv ess Negative Feadback seventh Wat ie Modo 8 Ble s Fm ne a Ample Modena Loating Ets e 66 regency Mdultion ad Phse Mahlon cee aig Feeback ave Sp Sapetheterde Recrver 2 Accounting for Sst PMC or A Sample Problem %3 Removing Sytem Nola. a Using Psdicko Stile Syms 6 CHAPTER 19 ASumple Polen z “ Wat i Seg? nee ' Mechanins of Sampig. 9% CHAPTER 16 The Fourier Transform wun “The Reconstr —_ 97 What ithe Fore eat nn o asin. o Reltontip Bisel Lapse Taf enn “Tae Nyguet Samping Teor, 6 Fourier Transform Symmetry 0 ! Pratl Cansei nnn ier Tense Pope en nm [A Sample Probl (painted), ” Paseva’ Theorem nd More _ ee CHAPTER 20 Fourier Serie&.uuunsnnansse uration Randwidth ed he Uncen rin arene 101 oie Taner of itt Sige 76 ‘What ithe Fourier Sete 101 A SutglePb en 16 i Farms the Fete See nen Signals and Sytem Made detousy Simple Sionte and Sytem Made Rceulouely Sipe xi———— Table of Contents Me cuapTeR1 Introduction to Signals and RelaionsipBetwees he ore Sere nd Tanto. 108, Systems Te DC Of nnn 108 ropes of he Four Serie Coes. 104 neva’ Thetem for Fore Seti anne DOS Sune Wave Recnstncton eae os A Suge Poe nen 106 ‘ Overview This book is about the analysis of signals and how they interact with APPENDIX Review Topics.enenmen systems. We will focus on a special subclass of systems known as linear aa timednvariant systems. Signals and systems theory isthe foundation of Comgler Numb ne 107 ‘any engincer's knowledge. Just remomber, everything is signa, and all, Basic Lise Celt Te enn the wor ora Forma. E el “Tigonometic Heties Pata ect xg ne gps — - 1.1 Philosophy acl evening rounds canbe hoe of ter signal ra sytem. Th bookie abou he dy of ‘ipa an interaction nih seme Algh edna found lvl Engnering cae he ‘abject signal and sytem ite fomdaon ofall advance engimering subse. The concep pried ‘Seqoencer nd Sees. = Bom Expansion ——— z ea Algor enen 1 ‘This materi pesents neatly new way o looking athe word noun you the fequeny din. This BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 tev concept proves «power aerate aos oration anytime, Whi leing abot Tignes sstams, you wil be presented nha ray of els td tectues,Two coos at may inealyssem unre ae Ley to be dep inetwited. Looking forse itrconsectns il Bip ‘iy he nj arn your ie erate be far achng igiicance of te npr el 1.2 Whats a Signal? [A signal in an sac of any mesure quay al is function of on more ndependet vals ‘Sch tine osc. fat sande vagus becuse ae everywhere! Voges and cons ae ‘arp of cleccl igus: thesand coming ino your ass a mechan inal he page of it books two-dimensional lip spn on your eins he popuaon of Nigeria yet acter peo sgl ‘There are to trol clase of ipl: conauus ine (CT) an seein (DT) A continous sgn ‘Sone thas presen forall stan in ine pce sch an ailing Vlage signal er pio om ‘camera. A sete signa ls oly present at rete pins In tine ot tac, For expe daly ‘Sing sk ret verge aga a changes ony tart pins Inte (a ew of exch a) A npc image compost of pte Is abo a crete sig. Olen, cet slgals ae sald ‘ern of ota me signal a is the case for the mai reared on compact is ra heh ‘amd ino compat 1V_Slgnle ad Syste Made Rutty Spe ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple by Z. Karu 7currant Introduction to Signals and Systems cHaPTER2 Continuous-Time Systems 13 Whatis a System? 1a general atom isa abstain of ayhng that aks an apt signal, operates nit and poss on ‘ut signal meer wort yee eles lationship betwen temp an ony a example ‘tasyetem ican azomoble, where inp might be he porn of he scoeleto an the pt Hed ‘tbe car Ate example a caer, whee te inpt i te ight entering the es ud the outa ia pot (aph Sst ta opert on connor ine pats a Hawn ax CT stems, and sts ha pee on ‘ree time sigs e known ss DT sy x —+| system |—= ‘A special malas of tense oth nar tne invariant, known st LT sens shor. I this Book ‘te tl or ently o6 LTT syste, Asse costeed be new the lowing codon mt vee 59 ef sem Le 94 mt ag. ef pen Le 0 Lineariy => As +2510 —ef Lnrsuen]—e 98940 ‘io, fr 3 ner sstem ay inet operon on ts ipa sil pac an ont Sigal moied by the {Sc near operation. For example yen kes east vale ofp ot ear An pt of “Y" produces on ott of": However an inp of 2 uli the epi inpt by 1 oes ot rece sh output of" Examples of Incr oeraboe nla cing inept and eens, Aten system sone tat espoeds te same no mater wal nee inp ispeseted. ing" proloces ouput", then he apt" peeled 3 das ine wll poduce he same ouput" exact 5 yx Ete im ter anc laying te np pode th conesring lay nthe outpesiaal Mathai, ‘scan be charred Giver x9 ef aymen Le x09 TH =p t-9 —e[ Hein |e x10 (nly ssa percentage ofthe stm inte word areal LT For example, 5 defection in te eon of sz splane wing might produce it foe of IOO0N: wills 10° deacon produce sit force of 20008? Fighy unite Sa ten why are hee Keralyhodeds af toks on LTT syste hor? Basse none ‘ystems canbe spyoximaed being linea within a nal eough input range The tos ast with TY ‘Seem say ofl get icght item betas, They eae fly carcerze new cet cleats ‘Sch lel esos, capac, nd ido or even el mechanical system cements ike asp ad Springs. More complex nonlear ym tik the apa leon can sil be ald wing TT tenis Uy fist leasing he system characteris around an operating pot wen he model beaks down, jt ‘ove the operting pot td ier gain. Other paces appa inde te conpect ic payer, ‘hich ieaprime example of nal proceing and TI sytem Beery, yt end fh bok Jou wil hve he {ooo analy bow works "Now wos bea goad ne wo read dough the Append cf hs book if you ned a view of insodsctory ‘ei henry a well Some baie mathematical one 2. Stgnas and Systems Made iclovsy Simple Overview — Continvoastime systems are described by differential equations. Although traditionally decomposed into the particular and homogenous perts, for LTT system analysis it ia more intuitive to break up the tot tion into what are known ax the Zero State Response and Zero Input Response” The chapter also describes integrator-addergain block diagrams and state-space representations, two other methods for repre senting continuous-time systems. AA Diferential Equation is a System A sytem i nyhng tht cobs areca banen ts apt ad its oar One way 1 sib ontnousiime sysem is ough a ferns equation In hi bok, we wil retit ouster fo 171 ‘ysems which corespend ier, const coef decal eqns uch 5 In ost cases, tbe inp an output ae bth sets fine 22 Finding the Solution ‘The complet saton wa sitleretial eton consists of the sm of to par: (1) the pata son, hich icany fection at atiser the ferential equation, ané (2) he angen soon, which he ‘oltn ofthe diferent eqn with ll pat tems 2. Aay known constant inthe compe ‘Stn ae usally found by subg inal cotton tat sey tpt ands Sevives et od ‘The probiem wih te sboe sition process i tht fhe nial conto re ot 0 (0) #0) he soln tthe sytem sot nea Recall ht inex em shoul proce 2 ouput i he apt 2 ‘rich illo be theca if re none conn. The asta we wil deep ook we may forte ana of easy em Sot get wound ie roblom, we wl parte te soln 0) ystems in vo pus he Ze St spore (ZSR) andthe Zao lp Repose (IR). The sym hall ‘tal condos (ts) ot eo sd wot" rex" ia easy and ston given on np signals tbe SR. Mean tbe ZR the ett ofthese Wi the inp eto sro sgn ‘tein condos ony, Th compete oun then found by aig tpt the 2a ZR, Meo crim | Hone Tootisin te stv enies al a = cos jin The bl shows ow eer singe evalu or pura complet conju vais of" is bee completely carters wie ret ftps of eto ‘The coef Hs) is in general complex umber, adit vale depends onthe egueney "fhe apt [is ow pie uae what commonly called" rane” In plat tlow the tape of be me ‘ignat Malipying fens ya compen nmber ators armagtde ads phave. Fer expe, a0!) thmainfncon shed inthe pon of he compe egeny plneto which comesponds sn then As(0 48) somes oa nis actly ute ay to prove tat forms of a indent eigenentons, but only afer developing the The Shane Concepts inthe nes seve capers he rot wil veo wai wt Seton 104 Plaente at onctons ‘te form en (wher te unt ep fncton Seinen Section 94) rea eigefunctnsofCT cect arp, | Ins [tleyseme Thies commoner so wach ot fri Seen ee rm nny te wn brentrotercermmmeraantet ucrenenerenne Tare cist yeas 4 ee a $snci09 —o] mm Le couisn No! ee pe rr Aco 6) = ARe toe) = Rel Bo] @iscomple) Row b= ME) = Aeon (844 0") c= 01 So.using he pipes of icary a superpsiion, we ca id asses eons snus apt by fis finding ts espns the eoespnding compe exponent input ad en jus aking tere prt the ame Ths my nil sem ikea mote mek this proce willbe much eae in Ge og on Since fnetins ft frm play aspecil le in CT syste aay (Sinai and Systems Made delet Simple Signte and Sytome Made Pistol Simple 9currens The Frequency Domain Soution Fi expres the nt inthe form ff acomples exponen! (ale: Sea" ene hey ae compen) ‘alla sot depres inthe phase 35 iy = Re aoemet-som4, = wamreesewr Fed aso 1y 2-548) Jaowe diy. ‘We the KVL eit, seo = wig OL By cgefunction thay, me know thu he gu mt fea rgnal of He) = Te? Subsite in the complex exponen — ge Ble stsJets Liew {a forms ofthat ad out eee] Satie values for RL, C aed 1, vie throgh bythe common 9 = 274300227 fare Si inthe wae for sg aad pga Shefer? TART,” TITTIES Comples number eaiplon.. P= a pane io °F C=O 7B © BS TBIG (40/282 01807-10009 «Layee nly bane Mo = Re (TeV) = 19e Hes (81—AAI") Note tht me were she oi the slaton wit he rao meio of sling the iftrenta egution Casuming + fo ofthe slion ec) Alou hs new procedure my sil set bit complete tl ‘come tuch ener afer intorecing th concept inthe next few sects. We wl arto te Spe of rote in Seon 26 4 uate ust how guekl they canbe solved If yoe me oo somfate wth ‘mpl umber manplaton, ee ea the Appendix of is Bak now 10 Signal and Systems Made Recuousy Simple currens The Frequency Domain Impedance 1 the previous section we found the caret Bowing hgh cc gen he plied volage Using Os Laval V= Ise cold hve ful he uve esane” ofthe et by dividing Vb [Sie be tcom resistance oily apis ol tresses, for ger cats conning Land Ce wel thisqoamity impedance gn the sbi Impedance Form of O's Law velZ “The impedances in general comple nunber adit value wil depend onthe compen quency of te np Siena or exalts sty sng capac and ent peace: let = Veron iar 8) = Re (Per) 0 ay erage mgs woken MO = Ree Ee cascade we 1 EBD natty = Reenter oping the Re dite efor, we gt ‘The impedance ofa capcitr is 1/ eC) Rec fom bas ct hur capacr tent block ow ‘eq ial (ie DC) and ely pe Np quency sina Pag ers and ono he imped ‘hos cxpestion you shoud pow understand why, neances fr er ia ements canbe ive in 1TStarfahoh revls aermmrsnd in the ble elo Blement Impedance Resor ®) ® Inducer 0) a Capac (©) * Remember tenga ofits nt constant depends on te fequency of heap sig Slate and Systems Made lceuously Simple 11curnns The Frequency Domain 3.6 Steady-State Analysis Ingato fa a dy tag Lhe xt fl ine —= <1, Vg conse ‘Seton, veto tte senty- tan oupt rte he came fon tse inp bes pole change in raagnitude and phase. That insight allows us to solve steady-state problems quite easily. as Given inpat = Re Fe} we ow hat etpu= Reet} where Va = HO) Qe efer Sout amas ay Input = Acos(ar 0) => Oul= Alfons (wr-+8+ Zia) ‘eieatmssrse tt "Now solving a steady-state problems merely rebel Boing te maga ad phase of Mi) evaluated x ‘he poper comple fequeney The concept o impedance will mike ding Hi) morh esr Otsere Braneie va = trancsre209 GP 1 sonetornso = Re i2ere") cwour Tt Roe GUO i, comers) 240) = WIM -cor(51420°« 2 aac oo : : 1 2tt49 = 45° 1 1 1. 9,7 MO FRCTT THAHOD TT * THF 5 Fema (51-25% (site in 5) eanpie . yp Reta sll = "co (51420°) Soe fo €9 onesie fp = 12h contse20°4 229 We Vay aH = 4 poe To = Son 546 te on odo ‘cavinwinnsy Note hitb sane snreras C242 Gated esta neta. Ti ine eso tp sven of he pa 12 Sigal and Syotame tae Rcevovsy Simple cHapter4 The Laplace Transform LT Overview ‘The Laplace transform is the most important tool in the analysis of continuous-time systems, Ite ured to decompose a signal into the sum of ‘complex exponentils, each of which is an eigenfunction of an LTT ‘system, Since the output ofa aystem for an eigenfunction input is easily ‘determined, the Laplace transform ean be used to determine the output for virtually any input, Unus greatly simplifying the analysis of CT ystems, This chapter introduces the forward and inverse transform and alks abou! many of ie mathematical properties. LY 4.1 What is the Laplace Transform? ‘We hve seen ho Yoana systems th have cope exponent inputs. bet sbibaly here we aber ‘ppl sign What so we do thn? The Lplce anf sa mathemati pean ht cam express atl any continue siglo be um of complex exyonenas of te fra Ke. Since we ow The espe to each egefoncton wing te sige in Capler we can recone he opt for ‘aly an nut by esing he pre of nea and soperporision shrine Laplace tansform. AS (Seaham ne the Lape ester rely gies the analy of condonatine seems “The formulas fo te frward a inves asfrm e shown below. Looking carefully atthe foal fo the Inve ransorm, we sx hat basally pst signal) can Be expressed asthe sor (inter of 6 Infie namber of pops sxed compen exponeaal of the Ferm Xs)" BiatralLaplace Transom tors apace Trastom we) = Panera wove gh f moe the averse he contour of iteration i sah ie parle tthe joan fo any vl of Inthe wansforms repo of eonvergence (ee in Seton 43). But on’ pai: bee's an case way take {inverse tanto, sown In Soon 4. We wil pend he rest of hs hater deserting the mater [Ra propio of te Laplace transform nd some example forward a inven pas In Caer, We will tein esate de cle fe Laplace rasorm in hea of CT ese. ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple ~ by Z. Karu 2.outers The Laplace Transform 42. Unilateral vs. Bilateral e this book we wll we wha is own a he Bera Laplce tanform. This the forms given in Staton 41- Arter form of be Lapic vansor i Known she anata orm, where then ft {ron are nly fom aero fo infin. Mont pope conesrod with he “eal soi (econo sem ‘ESiger) amos says ah neal frm since them are ach ig 5 negate ine. Bat the wit andthe nome ie pal proce rly ue he ral frm pial Dose of Srpeaing weston proper, ne Mtr! we signa ht tat tines ae geneally writen in ‘itonton mith he vit ep fonction such a (De). Preting 1 oth u() is 2 common er 50 ‘rach ot frit Al, retee ht a nat fe frm er componed of «single compen Fen, Wherean something kee") is composed of many fect comple fees. Te only spit ‘erence ewe heute se lara ansfors she way hey el wih nil Conditions, which side in he gration ad iflestiion popes Seton 43. Region of Convergence “The eion of convergence (ROC) of Lapice afr is ened a the set of valves for which he [pice eal ing can be ease ite ow op) ‘Example xi) = ea), Gd ond ts ROG iene “fom nly posite i Res) in exponent <0 os => ROCs Re(sb>2 “Ther ae sever shat a he ed to uy dteine he ROC witout performing any nteprato:al thurs needed is te tp of sgl (ech low) sd te etn of he poles of the wastorm Ape is ‘dined avalos hat anesthe denominator of he wrsor to become nr. The cone of ple wll ‘perme clea dell an explained Caper x ‘ypee of Signale lef-sidd signal (oor omer, ds t=) SS rightsided signal (cert omer, deat =) (ea two-sided signal ana (ooneat sentatt) aoe ee ee ee arc tt Sena 14. Sinat and ystems Mc Rccuousy Simple curters The Laplace Transform ules forthe ROC +The ROC never conn any poles + Wt esphside. than he ROCs iahsidd eRe >, where asthe Rel iho pole + Ih sels ten he ROC el idl 1. Aes} 0 (sine) a) aa Rels]>0 en a eos 446 Inverse Laplace Transform ‘he ema a rein 0) fom) ibe ope ate wong | tow 0 NOT USE Ts FORWUAI Rater. pero he inverse Lape nso, wll rely mani given expression oil we ee ers we copie rene Laplace tnser ale. This asl) aber scheme nds ne iat ll ‘fsane more tina with prac. Not that knowing he ROC rea to prorming a averse Laphce ansfrm. or xan ee MD = eM) ROK: Res} a woe, 3 ey een) ROC: Res) 16 Signal nc Spots ade Ricuiunly Simple ours The Laplace Transform More compe rasa abet by ist ping the wasfrm no simpler expesons singe [poczs ol part ston expansion (PFE). See he Appt fra sor review of fas iporar maim {Zrnigu The following example uae simle PPE and the imporance of ung inflation abot therein of convergent Example BesS ROC: Bema) ct Fn rey « ° a= ‘steam masthave ROC of Rel} <-1 Sieg wigee wo yet aos cmap eeu ae hs temn must tare ROC of ele} >-2 ne Sometimes however, fring he destroys th et ing to do Inte cas of second oder ‘ulgoomilwith complex oats colin te suas ir general the best procere Obsene: me Norgetcg NOM? Hata ; Forrerre Maree 47 Initial and Final Value Theorems ives ony ational transform X), he ll nd fal valae horas allow ws to determine he aes of fra") and (er) tos having tog Back othe ine domain ough an iver ansform. Be sae 19 ‘spin mind the condone under wih thes thes ae vali = 0,10 anno impulse Ini Vate Theorem phere singulier ria Xt) han poles in Rel e120(008 Final Vue Theorem xm) = isk) aa pale ator ok; ROC igh dod Sigal and Systeme Made Reuously Simple 17cuapTeRs CT Systems Analysis . CET SUF UEpeppevuyrenserrersseeeneerneerseree ened Overview ‘This chapter presents the underlying concepts and methods in the anal- ysis of continvous-time LT systems. A systems entire characteristics can be captured in a single function Hl), appropriately known as the system function, This chapter defines the notions of poles and zeros and illustrates how they govern system behavior. Example problems ilus- trate the use ofthe Laplace transform in determining the ZIR and ZSR, the two components ofthe solution to any CT LTT system, Finally, the ‘impulse response is briofy introduced in an effort to begin an apprecia tion for bow niesly everything really does ft together. 5. The System Function Rec fen he inverse Laplace warm formu tha sige) can be ropes he nite sum Aimegal of appoint cle complex exponents We wl wow ius whys makes the Lace ‘nefom «powell for he alysis of CT systems, Nothing materaealy ict let eve he inverse Laplace wanton negra ar Riemann sm 0 Sf aneten (ati ge one ase ae ‘Nom recall that complex exponen of te form ar eigenfunctions of continoe-ine Lt xgjet el crn Le nme alzing is propery slog wih neat allows us tree). the up of an LT yee te np x) ssfolows = FE sue PMG Me MEE s+ ME DRED sto gif moniners = 2 f runente 18. Signe and Sytems Made Aisutouly Sipe ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple by Z, Karu rscurtens CT Systems Analysis You may not have ize it but weave ust evel ofthe mos Fundamental concep ier sen theory. Theft ith HU) sa comple cancer ofthe system. That's why HU) is commonly ‘eral to atest ection (etines calle ner fenein). Ht we ow Bs) fr al values ot feosile compet feels" hen we cas fd he repose fo a potble complex exponential pu ce pactaly any CT sgl can be broken da inate sun of lmpex exponen by wing he [Laplace warsfoo, given 3) we soa te bef th onpt respons fra) posse pat sige. The ‘Second futamental concept we fave covered th hs opt sig an be chained toh he snple relanship 15) = HONG). 14) the Systom Function ra mo Lom x0 t t xo His) = HX) M9 Hs) = x 52 Poles and Zeros “The concept of ples an eos est nrc! ouph nex, Consider the flowing system “0 a wo" 100) 6 Remember, =a Lets te what hgpens when we po MG venus whieletng =. sate (mee 169 = NED (olage divide vo ks is Vin VEO "RG 0 “10 ° : ‘he teny =-I0‘e x pole of HE) sae Mi eine a at pois sine high Tn he plot shown shove tok lie tre rs ack le) poe! st = Dolla wp the ap Snr, he equa =D Inu sen ser of H() since Hi) evans taro fh pb Poles nd 2s spe the st of olen frequencies fori the sgefenton rene ale or 20, respectvly For example, te above 20 Sigas and Sytem Mae lcleuovsy Simple ourrens CT Systems Analysis yes espone to 6 hich isthe sae she steady ste reponse ta) is init ating Ke (2 inp imo them wll el nan opt ofa, but at Sad have ben ebviou om oko ‘he creat anyhow. Not that puting Ku) ne the eye wl nly pode a atset opt bu fe ey sates) oat ial eo since uf) Toke Hke DC int ae aon pr tne {pate eo plot sms ations of the ples (exon sig X's) and aes (even sing O's) onthe plane ‘Topo nero plot othe previa exer cat etn Belo Pole Zero Pot nts) <9 ret "Nove that ples and ato can ocar anyare inthe sane. Whenever the poles an 208 te the os of ‘lwo with el occ he ole and sre ithe ral ac wil evap cet in compen compa is Also nate hat here can be more thn one pole or 2 atthe sue eas, bt obviowely 2 ole and ero a the sume place mer cans ach oer ot (numero enon cnc). ive oly the ear plot poets reonaret HU) bat oly o within a conta sling act For xa: mie) Rant He ree 0 (dob) pokes 1) ‘The mater of pols ina system wil always conespond tothe number of nkpenent sine varies ia the system Le. how may inl condins must be pei. The mmbe pole x own the one fhe ‘em Note he mmber of ato does ot allt sya rd, stir we si that diet euation sone way of describing astm. Wehave sca hat Ht) i ako 3 empl characterization of ystems thre mus Be an xs Way of ante betwen ese two forms ‘Alitevlveris taking the Laplace wansform of bth ie ofthe eqatn (ing the dsvatve prope of te ‘efor where appropiate) and manipuling te reultt find an epson for Ml) /Xs)- vena Hl), Signate and Sytem Mae Rcesounly Simple 21currens CT Systems Analysis cwerens CT Systems Analy: the dierent eqn ca be rove by cs-iying and dong an inven wafor. Fer patie 55. Zero State Response {ying the foiowing examples bth detons. ‘The Zao Ste Response (ZSR) i the up ofa sym when present with an gpl suming that al Soy De Wonaiueuke Intl sie vals rest to 20 (ee system i" Tex). not sigorward meted Example 7-39 45) = 1057 dere ‘hesinng te 2SR and ths svng te system's fleet eatin) two we the frvand d invene Lipa transform in cosjncton with he ate fncton malo 22NO)—3H)6 SHE) = HEAL) TA) ake Be Laplace wansfor ofboth sles Finding te 75 4 gy = MD = N87 MO) i) =e simpy and sve fer NE) Ho = mom) (Me at)) = 2SR 54 Zero Input Response ‘The Zero lp Respunse (ZI) is he term given he opt of ym when therein ap gel resent Tis mean te IR corresponds th mane a Which hy ia onto present ey a¥3) Example 5 + was oo Rk) Hef eSY, RA Se uC How were we ale find the form ofthe ZIR fo the hove cit? Real hat ti ays the ese hat Mo) © MEIC) here no np hiss tht XD. Dest memati mea hat Y's) wast be 2109 No! A Bie vase f 7) when XG)0 is pssBle nl if HG) is infiely Ings, meaning hat te Signal) conans acomplesfeocncy tat sole of HU). Tus, be ZR can aay contain eens thx [Me poks of Mt). Thee quencies refered toa he natural euenctes of he stem since he ses ‘ney toned to oan Soay st we feacncr in he sree of am net Sigal The eaten ‘Shained by sting te denon te ye nto el 2 i known he character ea Tom ce ote he poles of he ten) charade em behave “To ind the ZR or sy rope ronal syste, flow te allowing eps 1. find the denominta of H() 22s L/deeoinwor in inven Laplace afore ces 2 vee transform ech part ha wil oly ve yo the form of be AR “A acu! IR found by plein in given nil contest ge ves fr enknown coasts 24,8 A=2pe sg Be (600183499 ; Jor fenninern)eo Note athe € em in the 2 loos ie smhng ht woud aloe par of he ZR. Ti ot i: ‘ese! The input the ove system isa ie mae suddenly ted ona timo. Sch a sud jot 8 Sanne aT enmity yn ed ae susunrieen ‘log tine tape ess ate wns be poses oe pt Wt ZR ATi ks (24 10)48420 te ws egeatcsen Telomere tat Zk wi ma oon ; nen (ihre erm eR) se le bts pamtasey * oop re ee tay on pro elnino Be ZR nd 758 R= Area Be) + Cem ‘Toe sytem reponse © ZIR + 25K 22. Signate and Sytame Made hleuouly Sine Signals and Systeme ade Rewously Simple 23ourrens CT Systems Analy: 5.6. The Impulse Response “The out of system whe einai en imps incon (sn Chee) hse speci sei Tce nln ew ay. We nw at YE) s=BD en MG Cake be apace on ZO LL Tine Yosef seen 91 tate fncton Mo) coulety barca» SSnem is wat mesa Be cup) now aoa couleeCarertatn oe jt wen he eauaninpe Yew aig sperilovgt st) pow ss Be peeps essa 3. ne oem ncn ne Late fase Siwy eergeiog began 0 ope Caper 10 coi me eed eosin be pe repeat ‘hal ai be apr a be inp pons heme om be IR se i sip eine Litt mre ilve Spee sins hp extol ol eps canbe usStae sont sting ope ntl connor ade eng em yaya aa Tequesta 5.7 Combining Systems ‘The ice hing about systems that they cn be combine ogee 1 form ge ystems. The following ingrmsila e euvalet sytem fc fortwo pes of comets xy oi} +g} ‘series Combinaton same ouput! «9 —-[ moan oe Paral Conbination a aes 10 — [orn } same output! 24 Sinae and Sytoms Made Aeloul Simple CHAPTER 6 Bode Plots Overview Bode plots aro graphs of the steady-stato response of stable, continuous. 6a ‘time LTI systems for sinusoidal inputs, plotted as change in magnitude and phase versus frequency. Bode plots are a visual deseription of system; they are one of the most commonly used concepts from linear system theory. This chapter explains what a Bode plot is, stops through the mechanics of ite computation, and then provides a sot of rules for ‘quickly graphing them. There is also a section on how to handle complex poles and zeros that diseusees concepts ike "Q” and resonance, Finally, there are examples of typos of Bode plot problems and a discussion on how to determine frequency response experimentally, SS ‘What is a Bode Plot? ‘A Bote plo, named ae Dr. Bode isthe mane gives oa lop og poof the fguency apo of acm us ime system. So then was reueay response I descres the salsa response of ym 03 Susi fs paral fequency. Real ht nil function (complex expos an eigentuncon ‘ofaCT sytem, meaning i e™ goer in, Ke comer where K ra compen mb. A Bode ting ‘ gapholK we a Sice Kis compe, we wil havets represent the ego responses tee rap: We ‘tld pit th ral pat snd agin part sep. ts much enti fo pl ngs mage tnd nse ess You can se hs by renning Kas Ae. The ott then comes Ae ich as ‘became foqeary ashe input bt wih pase chang ia mage ant pe of th snus tn ber ‘ors sn (a) Asin (or +g). Teor 4 Bae lt simply a paphot Avs and ve Single? ‘Plante tht things ar plowed ess (ainsi: otf (Henao eles) nesta th eaves The Big Picture In gear oe angen (x = 648) of CT sysems as follows: et ef arse | mine ere) isthe fair ease fnton hat weal 2 and love. So, fom be previous cation, you ‘oul realize tht he Boe plots noting more than a graph te waster er ay fenton Ht) eve long the oasis (fo). Tn ther wor the Bode plot a eptesenao fhe eater anton fs oti ‘robe Tyre for steady-state snd inp. ‘Bode plot =H) evaloned along oars (jo) ‘Signale and Systeme Made Ridiculously Simple - by Z. Karu 25cutee Bode Plots 62 Caloulating the Frequency Response Ls ilar te mechs tend gaping a equney respon with single example, Given the H3) ‘oun bet, plug ifn vals 6 8 aod conpur the rgd ed pase of HU), 1 wo= sp Hue ooo i = apne, ho 6) =p mp of nit acide) = LTB ‘io ae peoably ed pling tins ona ak sae, ut emthng very ineresing happens if you pot {be ging ofthe feunny response on lain tale Using og Sale for allows yout cover 8 ‘Te tae ef pombe put eee andl ale fore mapa compress big changes a phasic malchangeo provide beter bg pete tov espns. The eit of ce fe pot ig meget iste Sel sbeeited 6B i deed as 48 = 20g amplitude, Furthermore be ‘ranage of rasing ngs on logo soe rat the Boe plo Secret much eases sketchy Band, ‘eerivs in Secon 63 Te following two gaps show te stove [jn vs. 2.0 bt ner ad og . Urea Seale ogee Scale 6.3. The Asymptotic Approximations ‘oun examining the able ad op tog plt in Seton 6.2. sems ht tee shoul te sme sai tne ‘proxinainsofclite quik but ltiy scare hand-drawn sets ofthe Ble plot. Wel, there eitee eamrente marine poe oly change at teapot (he esion of «ple oz), The base ploechange slop onda ado UOsmeakzis. At brealpenel the actal magite oer rom the aprexinton by nr of 20g (17/2) “SB ad the actual pe lt bas aged by 45" an nce te soya aproimatio le, Note th hse mimes cle for mile eet tela actos Tor singe poe sysee, he beigit (4B ole) is also Known as th bal power (unt Lnce [joy (gowe) shal a le Toe asymp apoxinaion techni i ated wi he {Blowing example wing ese) ac above 25 Sina ancl Stems Made idelouly Sime quetens Bode Plots ‘Asymptotic Approximations Maniwe "7 Pas. @ my fhaor > LOspole > je) =755 90° pole 190) = ortega Magnivde matty 64 Relationship to the Pole/Zero plot ‘Sie the Bode plot ie essentially a raph of i), we can esl rele iw the sytem pole dagen magne surg ot o=0 and slowly siding up he eas The changes nthe length and ple of te vector ‘fom he poet the curentlocaton thai ae elated tthe changes inthe mghie al pase ‘ofthe Bose pt A camo mistake ssn “Wel the pole at 10, then {shold pag in 10 for ‘Reso o! You shoud plugin oly postve vl f@ when rpting te Bode por Ht pte sa 10 ‘tenth reatpit ae curve wl ecu at 10 nde. Btwomn w= ad O10, he o-magatde of he ‘ect lngh aye owl cons, wich acco fr the fa pti of th Boe lt sown ve Hope {lye felon agra wil make things lea Hy) = 1 WO 7 jar Asinrees, Ys rete al dees Sloat and Systems Made Reeuousy Simple 27Sass ourrers Bode Plots 65. Dealing with Multiple Poles and Zeros. ‘So far we have only techs Bose plot with single pol bathe etoelogy devekpd eal exten 0 ‘Sct wih motile poles dre Siace we ae ploting log-magide we can se theft ht he og of ‘flac the ut ofthe log. Aa fo ghase,th pe of» proc (vison) sth wn (ference) of he kisoe We cura ths concept with the ypc sprximatins in he following example Note ht be {in of te asmpotc ypu Harts to beak owe whe he ovo arto cle ogee (within ‘actor of 10ers 6.6 Summary of Bode Plotting Rules “Te felloing st of sappliso deawing Rade plot ots with all les nd Zs on he el i ‘Dread ican fr apr coo facor of 1 cr mere) Fardermoe, we wil sume hat Hl) i cual, {Zin nnimumestse sytem, mearing th ll ples ad zos ae ine Het Dal plane, Cana ad ably wil be icine dell in Cage 14 Ploting Magnitude [0 Tieton and ede (how many) fal ples and ros these ae he reskin. Draw aes, No that itis imposible to ice =n Tog scale. tt witha sal ie 1 (DODO oc watever apport tls we to aw vertical dashed lines treatin. ‘Suing ot he et the magne plot ar at less theres aol at 0 (star plot nth slpe a SMEs fr each pole a ein) oe ere razr t= (at plot with lope of «20D for ‘he tig. Conte dawing asymp la aight ine nil ou each breakin (plete) 28 Sinae and Systems Made Ridclousty Sino Forza oe encountered, decree slope of eyo by IMB, Forcch no, nce Spe ty Hdl Goo ep tunes there eno more ekg, Late oc pit on te ysis by pgseg na value of no HY) fom any Sat rele of he ‘ot there are no ple or aero a he ri, ing =O isthe simplest choice Conia beng Spats sing hopes rym pie 71 Ron cores nearby 4 348 fora ore acute magni pl Plotting Phase 210) 2. enti oeatons nate (how many) fl poles and ote are the enki 2. Draw ates and vets dated lines t resents 3 Staing ate ett pas plot sats 11-0) (sly) Plot sar a 90" foreach 0 ‘arian? foreach pola the rg, Aang mis ig il ad 10 othe ae Pg js jo=very_salliainry umber and evalu e pase anal if you'e conse. Aso ener fing the pase curve up or down y 30” ces’ change ying. 44 Tepe plot continue il ine wil esching 0. erekgiat 5 Each ple rac 90 ders tom the plas, seal ove a distance of 0.1eple actin 0 TOspoe locaton. At he pole sao, Be pase has dopped by 4 degrees haley thee). The Sitoton eh ame fr or, bt eine pace aed Watch ot for makiplepleveres Go tack tp ules there ae no more eatin Round lt core o serbia an scan cre (hts hw ple clue) fr move aate ting he plas rods by bow 6a Deeeapoit and at Tako ample ‘omeitvak sno = 1012419) Mo = Se Fb cee it [Note about Slopes ie defeat a facta of 10 equency. An eta i defied sa ator of in egueny (ot 2 faeorof 8} A sometimes sal conversion 20 dBldecte~ 6 dBlocae can be deeds follows 201g (22) ~ 20289 200g 2+ 208x204 = 20802 = 602 ‘Signals aed Systems Mace Piolo Sipe 29,ourters Bode Plots currens Bode Plots The econ method is intimacy clad, bt involves a more pragicl apron. Leck a he pole 6.7 Dealing with Complex Poles and Zeros ing plex Singram. Now, apie placing a hig uber bet vert enter ple. Each ple repress et ple ‘he nane “Bode plo” is sorely for pa of he equeny repose of sens that have poles and 08 nly onthe eal tx But thn Gort mean yu cant lot equa response for a syn wih olex [irs However is ificocome wp wha eo es or regan acct lt. I acu ‘ected pla nombws ino HG) erase MATLAB, Neves, you shal lt aie lo rovie aver aah ‘Kc of he Feqency sponsor at est esl t sk othe cares lat in ripe choie gestion. Jt to give you mn Hes of wha hese pe of plo look He, hr am example of Bode ike lt fra ‘ue th pu of emo oles 1 Fae He kes rea -024 1 | React ieericioe tant ve he fe fe po ae ‘el crac oul egy A “peace OS = ‘Sketching the Complex Pole/Zero Bode pot: ‘There ae two was of ding a “tckofhe-emeop” sketch of complex pee Bode pot. For oth ‘Mods et rw peter inva, Te ft mobos tse llowing etc relatonhip tas (re when raping any frequency spose: ie ie t90) = (cg, 0 0) -" (ade pe 0) “Tce you finger lon he ov ase and mental approtinate the above rece. “Tm pting ease {othe pole soe magia ate going ope” Nove at all angles are eased eave othe pave 20, Sigal and Systems Made Rcuouty Simple ine high, oling wpe see Each ao represents sal ding he rater set othe red. After You've appeal down each ple, jou shuld be Ich wth cies elite suc. Now, emeber a he Bde plo) eval a jo? Wel the Bote magia lt is then the shape of Your test slong the frat theres ple near th as, thet get relly highs Hee, there i 20 tat tha, eet relly low Gf you kee oar, hen ely cet). Another meted of dawing the oquenytespose for cele oes nd zero eto ea what sao 2 ‘esonnce curve This eset he mane ws «Bode plo bt dna sng near sale on bh sen The ‘son eqn she input egueny tha proces be asia utp Somme soma ged ‘ke whee eying to ten no ata rad ration) osmeies onan a ikea egies Stars viaing oly whee gets ers art RPM). Tera ew relaonhie ba in amore se ‘ae sketh of reson cave, egecily when the poles are cles tthe foals. For oles lorsted ap) with cB he plot pels a dpeqnB and eh power andi rm, Anodet way of dese 2 resonance cove io die the shure of speak now a "ofthe stem A Opal sence Resonance Cue 4) * Fae eonintor= +2003 Taso f ' Opa Beep fax ry 6.8 Sample Bode Plot Questions “Thr ae peel foe pe of Bade plot robles 1. Given an) th poles ad zero ty on the real ais, scarey sth ts Bade pit, Noe youre sien the ple diagram, youcan sill seach he shape ofa Bae plot bat the eae ‘magia swale) wil be inp o ermine (you cn sys pl e208 Tomer than is oher poat bal th precise ner vos alow} 2. Givena Bode pls, cover the tm function Hl) Tis bits lok fr beaks ce ions and slopes of ies, Do ot og tolok fra pose constant ot of HO) in oir ‘ord, vei the aus vale 0 he magnitude plot ace ths with your rnd! On pron {tt atc ding Bode plot, the er erste patie enacting HC), ‘Signals and Sytame Made lceuowey Simple 31ouster s Bode Plots | Mp coe: gives an), mach it wih he propia Rode lax vice vere). This pe ‘of grston especialy common for systems with complex pes ant ee, Wat fr sees Tike hopes of es, ats vale, cation of oan peaks. 44 You should not only knowhow wo daw 3 ode pet bal be abe oad one nd understand ‘at ifomaton it rvies Am example oem ss below ‘What sth sendy sae cup of te falowing yn HG) ands Bae tae ven 2s 1006 65) 49) wy Lie om Sa how would you doe? Meta I: Take he Lplce asform of te inp, py by HL). tke vee ‘ansfom, an let +m. This mend dee work to upped snes ummeses Sail to comptes. Ne, ithe input wae en (100+ 65) without he ni ts the itera apace ranfoon weal ot crit Method 2: Use seats anatse wigs, Ie shown in Secton36. Fd te ‘plex euency of te np signal an plg it oH), evaluating ts magi ab ae Find the util by sling he pty VK ding 1G) tothe hase Meth 3: Since we ae ealng With Sousa nga ae looking for he sedate ‘gt, we would bt by reading he never dey of the Bae lt Fd th mag ‘de ard se response ar @=100 on th Bode plot The Opa signal i the too (oor 65° + 111009) 6.9 Calculating the Frequency Response Experimentally ‘Suppose you've jst designed the wos grate ste ampli. You show i to your boss and she ass, a's frequency repose?” Wel, you cul thw het the Bode pe fo the terete! 4 wing (MATLAB, bt tars not the eal worl. Wha xn you do? Get your a fnce generator and ail, ‘ope apts sins of april tegen and ply bt the ap snd aus ma ‘only on your sop. VU the ato of he ep fo input apie and 1AJo) ste pace ieee betwee th ouput an ibe input Note tht paz pave when the et assayed venion of te inpat Contin ecoring these mags and pare repotcs Your syste fo sls ‘ane of input requencie. Remember, you're uyiag a itpt + o-100 sinewave, at eas ol ae to ‘al you fection generator to 19-15 He (o = 2) A acu pith spain nat eee sng he 1123 methad (12510205000, 20050 0) rndaces cy eal Speed poison ogres Scale Now lt oarexperiental rest a show io oar bes? 132 Signate an Sytems Made Risutoul Simple — cuarTteR7 Discrete Signals and Z-Transforms — Overview ‘This chapter introduces tho concept of a discrete-time signal These signals consist of values that ooeur at diserete points in space or time, and are often samples ofa continuous-time process, The Zetransform, # ‘tao for diserete-time LTT system analysis is introduced. Severel exam. ples Mustrating forward and inverse Ztransforms are provided, while paying particular attention tothe notion of region of convergence SS 7A ANew Type of Signal ‘Wena deste new ls of sgh, known a dirt time (DT). These peste const of wes ‘a occur at dete pois in pace one. The coin Dow ones Indl Avtge se ad oo) ay, the piel vals in an nage oft moo, ad the utero ses pe oat ging dows Main Sect al xamples of dee signal Dire signals te not pled vers ne bu rab vere a inde sd ‘xcnoaly dawn asses flops” wt ehh abel, ‘Some Baste DT Signals Stn) a “ta ‘ttt weeny $9. ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple by Z Karu =ourteny Discrete cur Discree y————e—e—e—rxr———— 72. The Z-Transform “Te dso inecouneps of te Laplace sor he Ztransfonm. You can ik of the Zransorm os ‘Tish sermaive ay of epesing DT signals ANbough inal i sems mare comphste, wing Aiscce sgn he Zoran pea sing paoing ugh TT stn, petition: X(2) ce rntuship betwen ngts adopt fo gals Lae Examples () rezumiomat LY s ©) mezamseomet sf) «(!Jata) @eldco) 7.3. Region of Convergence ‘ust ke with Lapice Transforms, Z-asorms the asf for wish te Zsrafors som i Note tat he ain the plane maps thew plane. Siac the ROC fer continuo ie sia ok keh laneso si Tok ie ces, hls o donut. plane vo hae region of convergence (ROC), The ROC dens coors it cic inte lene wing te taaforaton ¢ = wo a EN mime pth ROC in the plane severly Wy y % ao Y-~Gg Z| aw Ly i, Wl % a ‘4 Signals and Syeteme Made Rideous Single ‘Types of Signals ‘The folowing defion ply o bth connuous and dicot sgn lef sided signal (aan membre, ede =) right-sided signl stn) tworsided signal (oor ate ==) finite ration signal (vaca eee cab one) ues forthe ROC ‘The ROC never conan any poles (he ae of at make Hi outcry Discrete Signals and Z-Transforms st igi be ROC eth ah oie a ci, >a, wher wis the lovee po af set sie, he ROC these inde of ke, Le, el Ste) = etrtene i) Roce ll le xin) otutn} c€-otu[=n=1]?Ifwe meld ht te ROCis fb thes we now tat [nl =o cls we sd ave bcm hl hat] a pied orca) Now for several examples Example ge clear ale) =? Byiapeson, s(n) = Bin=1) 438M) -26(0e1) | “]" 36 Signals and Systeme Made Reus Simple cmern7 Discrete Signals and Z-Transforms Exar ic = HRS? ada gheniiitee Met to = hy - PS win =24(n= M1 34t0-21 M2 Leela 1 cetact es alah = Ste) -Bt0-t aut same noc Sette? Finds Liyouhne adn cei ot “2e7 ROC eth magia eps Tele T-aet come oe ow sai hie “poche icine? ta -Sayatennd ‘Signate and Sytem ind lcevously Simple 37ournny Discrete Signals and Z-Transforms ourmn7 Discrete Signals ee 7.7 Initial and Final Value Theorems Sut swith cones ine signs ne cna detente inl and vane of ist Kime signal tine nto Zirosform, Notte ee fe til vale cre asses th xf ne. tras vat Theorem Final Value Thaorom 10) = neo gato = tm che eo 38. Sinals and Sytome Made Accuoul Snple cuapTeRs Discrete-Time Systems Overview “The analysis techniques for discrete-time systems are very similar to ‘those used for CT systems, Some ways of describing a disrete-time system include difference equation, system functions Hts fdder-gain block diagrams. The concept ofa frequency response fr a DT tystem is also discunsed, Finally, methods for converting between contin ‘ous-lime eystame and discrete-time syotems are provided. Hee ee ce a ec eee mm 8.1. Difference Equations and the System Function Coninaustine systems ae dese ty diferenil equations. Discretes LT systems ate desrbes by Ter const cout difference egetons such pioh ebyte-t) fp taoa) = xs}o2ete- i nis pole wo convent is iferenc ution sytem fin representation by ling the Z-ransorm bath ides sd ilaing he ine ely ope. fas hetho- ing = 12), 122! 1 iy = 12 nocd» xo asus) Fee = eo te topierwith te ROC, compe caeceraon ofthis rete LT ys. Dustin conn e-toc ofthe tse te values Of th make the denise aed manera £0 {oer ho] ict nvene Z-caaform of ) asdis known asthe imple respons of aDT ster, CCorplex exponent of the foo zr eienneson of dcete-sine LT ystems. That ii oe in ie comer oot For example » DT LTTSyem i “| te a Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple - by 2. Karu rycurtens Discrete-Time Systems 82. Discrete-Time Frequency Response cage Areocay response of contimoustne ren by evshatng the Im Chapter 6 me plot he Bode plot x fegpecy respons of by te Trsenss tropic HO) aloe the oss Rec or Seon 73 ate joans maps the ui He eiae ecoreiispnble plot the fueny reponse of «DT sytem by evduating he mag ‘ecact ite ot Me ang be oi cele which ae: =e fr O:/@-2n. Js ike wit Bade pl, the folowing ne Bt: leeds FT enim mane TY enter e Ae) =F nate tom 20,100 "Salem pol 0 ont lange earl til ves pining ote ih Fa fo moe ee Ser dErcane eae wow even al Se Secon 33 ofc Ti ‘Sipe Pcs by Opps so Scher O90). 83. Delay-Adder-Gain Block Diagrams isc dme systems sometimes ei raphicly by delay lack digas Aer map Thing ic foes eqeson to» star forte lock Sapam can be easy dan by simply ig in Uehoorne cccens I trp shove below. Ths canonical form ofthe dele in Wack ‘Sogn dened on pages 316218 0f Ces, Sia nd Stes Ser (198) Soviet = Dotan x(n] ir ‘mes iy a4 36 courts Discrete-Time Systems Describing a System ‘one ofthe, is pont to grace ne te foe Some of tse omc hae ot cen fal indore ye bt are shwa here ju so th ou cn bein hiking about how ry rented + te dierent or erence equation (nd wheter th out ie, i oF wosided) + theeytem fonction HG) oH) and ts ROC + the impale espe Mi) Me + the sep response + the ime or day ade gln Wook diagram Aso, gen ut pol gam andthe OC yous beat ora aya he evi ve Converting CT Systoms to DT Systems Thee are a riety of ways converts coninous ine system a dace sytem. The impli va ‘ce meted sist on sampling the CT impulse response. et metods are bated yon acre ex Imation ofthe devatve. Some of tee tanfomatons ae sumarzedtelow adil esibed Seton TOS of Signs and Sens by Oppebei tl (198) Dot ela Fn the ste fncion with the trproprn exenon to conve fom CT fe DT or vie versa Te ral Tis he ng fine ences ‘Simple pins Please note tha tee areal eprximanion, cach ving its own lian, Impulse lwartnce ackwar-Diterenco = LE near Transtomation pea ‘Combining DT Systems Discreesime stems combine topte in he same manera commu tine systems. Te following inra Moraes the equal sysem fonctions os nd parle omens. «0 —[ie@}—-[ie}-- @ © —Dieie }~ ie ww © 0 —[iorie be 7 ‘Slots and Systems Mace seously Simple At i42 Sina and Sytem Made ilclouty Simple cuapter9 Generalized Functions Overview Tris chapter defines and describes the behavior of some basic, but crit continuous-time and isereto-time functions used in LTLeystem analysis. LL 94 The Impulse ‘Tienit impute, denoted by (nating more tha mates ety ht. eso any ber scteic hing, does ot exit intel word, However, wl rove immensely weal forth ales of conan tnd dct ne systems. The gapial dentin or bd contnoesine and sree ui inpules tse shown below Nott in he CT cuss he imp ar init ample te arene ta ‘inal wi is convention ewe the wes of Be inpue next the rows, he eng of he ‘sro propornal ote nul se. Asa a he real word concerned you can oie he pal tea en ver short pose fer example pale of ser ght orth force whe iting sas ith at can ‘emoveled wt impulses Sac he tlatonsip between an npuse and shor ples known is bth ‘ime an freaeny domains (ee Cape 6) tes} Ie comedy jour egal nasi to 3) = s20( “A.) =| om Bln) = fea eee 9.2. Derivatives of Discontinuitis ‘The impale canbe rd t represent the derivative of funciona discon. The area ofthe imu palo te hight he scotia Be ret wach orth cos. An exanle: ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple by Z. Karu @ournne Generalized Functions 93. The Doublet “The dbs an exeasionof te detonate impulse fant. has we a dilation oper, at willbe clearer Nae tht th coniouus ie dul the dvvatveo hunt ial u , cr douse be = ao va . +L "2 praeuset sin = tp 94. Step Functions “The cnimous and arene ui tp faction and fe] ate Sef shown below wo, te) ste at ro} 9.5 Properties ‘Generis fonction it the mple ad doubt eb deserted ot by what ty “ae bat what hey“ isi) ‘Maing ine fin by nti poeces a imple wi a8) en pen by he bg of ine facta tte lection fe inp. [exnste—iyar Multying by «uni ings ad inarting picks out he ve of he oa ‘iil fncto te ation a he imple Mating yo wn aig ote mene fe ity = [abe —todt eS een un te eion fe doula bec te iste le pa Ban = eo Tin saga CT impish sano caging we. as » foe “oe nt tp oon st ing oft a oon. 89 = fain “he data cons dente fei pit 44 Sinaia and Sytome Made Rul imple cHAPTER 10 The Impulse Response and Convolution Overview The impulse response A(t) is one of the fundamental concepts of LTT system theory. Its a complete characterization of «system and is inti ‘mately related to He), the system function. This chapter defines the Impulse response and derives the convolution operation, tool for the ‘dme-domain analysis of systems. Finally, the link between time domain. land frequency domain analysis is complete, The chapter concludes with ‘several properties of the convolution operatar, which provide further insight and tools for block diagram analysis and simplification 10.1 CT and DT Signals are Made of impulses Al continsustime and disctetine signs cn be repress the som of sled and sifted unit impale. Til obvons for dart senal by rewriting] a: cle and hited wit mgs | leca— dyed etey. Favse—ove Se Seon Sia ond yey Open (9) fri ion, ineardrtose, tat te concetistesame: i) 10.2 Definition of Impulse Response ‘We wl ow dfs Wi) a] ob the ouput of a8 LT stem when te np is a ait impli, ence the tine inpase responce Since the yen ies ne nine eponeto any Hae mp ated ‘yster inne tained by merely sein nd sifting i or A.B snce me fave Shown a ‘igmtcan te broken down nto ae imply, he spore of an LTT ym an ey Spt sal “ipl he sum of eld and sie ule response his concet la to the me dma cage {tae as contin Note tats inpropero deme nimple pons or oe LTT systems ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple — by Z. Karu 6curteno The Impulse Response and Convolution 7h) and Any are known as the impulse response cemieuoe ine arene iretetine sms wo—eimt bem aim—ef i eam 103 The Convolution Integral and Sum ‘Te impute respon oN ie acento compel characte aa Lys, Once itis now, the syste respons oy pt ca be fond hough he ctaon formule given teow ‘Continuous Time ConvolitonIntagra Ks 7 Discrete Time Convoition Sum ‘tis common name systems (Le Mocks in ck diagram by their impale espuse a shown below. The asters («sts symbui the conoluon pean. cominoe ne systems Sete tie systems xo—{_ of exo tm—e[ tm Lyte ye 104 Eigenfunctions Revisited We is inode the concept of egeafnctions in Sena 3.3. Now we hve the tos nce demon ‘ae why complex exponents of th frm ended egefunctons of Ctinou-ne yen, ceatmouinecootaionforuls = [Met -adt teint Mapa 0 = f_Moe-a eve Memite temps = af Neat we dete Lapeer x)= Mae {6 Signate and Systeme Made Plutus Simple curren0 The Impulse Response and Convolution 410.5 The Link Between Time Domain and Frequency Domain “The canon operation i ou ol fr the te domain anata of tems. Lie eveying ein te ‘ord signals an systems i is quite nicely in tig pce, Ou cd end 1) the sytem con ply he Laplace frm ofthe impel response MO). Sealy, Ht) he Zana fH. Take 2 tement lw Bato ak “This momentous concaon allows ur derive the atop eevee he tne domain ant equ: hain anys eysems, Consiga 31 eye vith iapu (0, pe expose MO) and Outpt cotton = ON teLapiceemitem—)= Lx) = [fC [KON ectmpntrtineptin 9 = fama} tneainpopey 1) = Paine = Mofo a cottages 1) = OKO) So from the above dition, we can ave atthe following convo: OMI EM) 6 HO) = HUM) —convol nin ine = mpc in frequency Novy nly tings at eon 0 come fulcire, Convolution provides the Hnk between te dw dain {hd feuency-dorain aay of LTT rem By nov jou shoud veal th te are wo Wao ase the qetion “Whats the cupet of he yt whose Inputs) and whose Impulse spose 6M) 1 Conve and iret tod sing mabe ox rpc means. The mechanics ‘commons tine sd nr tine convaaton are dessin tbe folowing Wo chaps "the eb form ote ward -covalve's "cool" a many tients ave italy 22 Find XG) and HE) by aig Lalce (Fourier = ee Chr 16) ensforms, mulily er {ogee ad then tak the vere wanform o get back to) Altwaph seemingly ngs he ffequcaey domain metod i fen ear to compute Hower always keep in mind he diet Inethe of conan nth ie dam trois nih on lot with frequency Soman ‘eth sd wil cone i ute handy sometimes. 10.6 Relation to Step Response Some other ek especialy contol ery ens the sep epost of sytem, wich we wil denote {stp orate. The wep epee a expected he capo he sytem mene apt iwi ep. Noe at the unt sep nthe nepal of the ips, and convaition i ex peaon Tis ips tat te ep ‘espns ie tpi the ngule response, Inner, th rlatonship een he of: Hoo «Mo sn) = ato} «Ua 0. [aoe sim = Sat 9 = 440 Ato) = sa} -atn= Slgate and Syren Mace Rcctounly Simple 47curteao The Impulse Response and Convolution 10.7 Proper ‘of Convolution Some mathemati properties ofthe conoltion operon which are era oLTL estes ayes ant ‘ef for inlyng ck diagrams se shown owe Linearity Teme-tnvariance Commutative Associative Distributive (Conlon incr opzater. Any incr operation om cir) wil ‘roduc the sme linear peton ote ott In oder words douing the Input wl Jobe te op iaking he derivative of MO) wil rae the de he otthe oop ee ‘Ay shits time of iter x) or A) wil produce he corespoing si in the out In oker words, delaying the inp wl ely the opt te ae ‘Te alr in which convolution sperma docs mater: «is he sane af) +x). This means you could pus x) rough system with ingle response i) o pas hough item wih impulse response) nil get the exact came sewer Another inept x0) ao} xo eno} +} ‘The manner in wich convation operons re owpd oes’ mate Sys (teks) i secs cn be ned per Gaoagh como. 2+ Th)» B(0) = [a+ A)» hy) A apc tert: a) Da] x} 4 —e [homo] +o same output! 1) —+[ a} fon} same output! Systems log paral pts an be combine rogh ablion i) (+g) = a) © RL) +A) rapa itepetaton: ne, 0) 2 ie same output! a) —o [ae] 48 Signals and Syrtome Made Rdelouly Sine cHaprer 1 Discrete-Time Convolution Overview This chapter describes the mechanics of discrete-time convolution. A stop-by stop procedure derived directly from the convolution sum is ‘explained and ilustrated with examples. Other moans of convolution ‘explored include the signal decomposition method and directly summing the equation in the cage of infinite length signals 14.4 Graphical Flip’Shift Method Ati ip yi =D wala sin —L at Le vn ones = an) «Ain ‘exking athe egaton or conoition, me ca ave a the fling ep byte proce: ‘Coors oe sgn tobe xn he ter then Mp daw tem Both on the axis FUP Ki about. SHIFT ged version of ho the aby [MULTIPLY aby the Ripe version of MI] an ADD aera values of “he summation in ep 4 ves you yl acon on ale Repeat ep 3 for al posible vanes of ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple - by Z. Kara °querer 1 Discrete-Time Convolution Example ‘Gen san id a] = x] » A] Pin full wae. “de. "Now by shin M8] trough , mupying ad adding, ween he following resus sft} shit by 120 ANSWER: yO) =dow' shit =0 Sind forncd =o oeap = 0 32) aise y2= O90 = 2B1=@x0)+ OX) =8 1+ EN #092 ne) +()=0 316)= (000 2-1 nl for m>e=0 11.2 Convolving with impulses ‘Convoving ay signal with an inpute So) proce the same signal at the pee. sn) + Aa] = at Fate he impulse a str oo uni bight rel fo] = ABln-L] imply At] Io ‘fer word the out spl a shied snd led veson of ss}. I You have any dub uggs ve ‘ing te foowing campsite he cong iti mead, deel 11.3 Convolution Through Signal Decomposition tose an He] re eave shorn length, thesia decompoon meta provide an ety fast tnd easy way clube ye) wile completely avon he aie psu ros. The den ito beak ‘eit inal impute (ek te sorter inal tobe An). Each inp hn ces copy se. peroprly vealed sd hited a deserbed in Seton 11.2, Since Mr uta ftp wl 50 Siyate and Sytems Made Ridelow Sine simply be the sum fhe sald ad sie cope of or erty ae comparo proses, we wll [ise ts proves ring the same xe and Me] om te Fal in Son 11 aileniy= ile T, +xin}s TL , peg Sepa ee ‘SAME ANSWER! 114 Convolution of Infinite Length Signals. ‘When ste] rn fie lenght i fen cesar to employ arly algebraic ehnigus 10 fd he ot seal). ramp sis =(Jun OY Toe vowing ME fren = Gye Some Ustu Formulas: Inte CeoneicSeies a) eajsereayoayrs Fie Gemericseier ort asters tie Sethe Appentis for amore compete discuson of sequence and eis. Signs and Sytere Mae ceounly Simple 51ourten: Discrete-Time Convolution cHaPTEeR 12 Continuous-Time Convolution 115 Useful Checks For yn =] +A]. eng fhe up signa] ener ul gta + lene 1 ‘Teng igal wil begin starter) and Sh ten renin. Nott wth some Tectia the apt signal igh actly be srt than expec, bt it wil ever Be lnge Also tow fats yeti sig convolved witha yet siga wil alaye il symmet cupu ea, Overview This chapter describes the mechanics of continuous-time convolution. It offers a step-by-step procedure derived direely from the convolution integral. There are also hints and shortcuts provided for developing a Bynum as a nai yon Sea more intuitive feel for the convolution prosess. ‘The chapter conchides ‘hat signal, Jest imagine Mijpping and sliding ln] through the inp ~ what's happening? If yoa can look at o¥0 peels lees oe es any acca sa Signals ud ogy sketch ht he el of comeing em would be ben youre on Your ay gal inl Tifton Input Sumer (DT erator) dja ee onl eerliine 11.6 Convolution intuition 12.1 Graphical Flip/Shift Method Dr Diperentor ites caret outta i t-2) 3. py ea ‘Looking atte convolution equation shove, wean aie tthe fellowes ep by sep proces 1. Choos on siglo be the oerithen Mh rate Both the ai FLIP ms) abet and SHIFT gal eight byt ‘Wen the diferent repos of negation (ook for reskin in the signa), [MULTIPLY 20 by Sipe veson of) nd INTEGRATE using cet iit 0 integra ‘Sep 4 pes the equation of over the specie reo, Repeat tp foal posse elon of nee. ma i = 0+ Mong Average Fier copa sven of pa ins Steet elected exit este2y/3 52 Sinae and Sytame Made Rieuousy Simple ‘Signals and Systeme Made Ridiculously Simple by Z. Karu =curt: Continuous-Time Convolution oo momen mae se he reap” (and Mi o eatly he ifeeatrepons of ingraion. Complete the tas shown belo ideation fr Region: #3<0 x0 fe) Regin2: +5>0 x0 = feed ere Ragin 35155 90= fame fC Oe Heres antes ample robin: Exempla a wo Kae Region <1 x =0 Region? c1>1 x= f (Zeon pl Cee ees 5 Sinae and Syteme Made Rioloosly Simple cuter 2 Continuou: -Time Convolution 12.2 Convolution with impulses Contin with an impulse spl roe acopy ofthe sg sca and shied bythe sie a ton of ‘te impulse. Tas all No fipng, no sing ointegato, ust we the answer dove! Sir when evolving witha double, jut ete dow the eave ofthe oii gal props shed), 12.8 Convolution by Inspection ‘Asie fam convolving wth ipso dubs, there are ote times when i ie sctly quite ey tut ‘rite down ie reso conven, Ts meio recs on a renal pcre of fiping ad feng ad works purlary wel fo sigs wih "ox-ie™ shape. Stary visaling ping nd Slag oe of be Signals (bse te simpler long one) tough the eter sgnal Sopa appropri trent (eg ep ‘eansidonin be sins mel thesis nd hen comput te aso he dat Nowe, hn pet [NOT, the same ting at ekg forthe aren of he overlap Plt terest aig pinto he aes for be answer Repeat ths proce fr all appropiate wastes pints and snp) comet he JO si : es i {ares of product) . es : $f} Answer Poe Sioate and Sytons Made Rleuously Single SSoueter12 Continuous-Time Convolution | cuaptTer 13 Deconvolution 124 Useful Checks ‘The result of convolving cominuousine inal (with signa BC) eeerlly prods inal CQ) tae ‘ne lng of AC) pls gh BI). Farber signal CU) wil at tart) » tr) ad end enif() enl 0). Tis a Simple way to pally check yoar woe when ing convo, Ante: t ‘el pi tars symmetric signal conaved with asymm signa swaye rosacea symm lal. Overview the process of recovering the input signal when given se oe on ee ay There are often situations whee you would like to “pick out” or ides the location or existence of a paricalar i e tn eo ety ene api acer amici, orga es rears ens cee eee ee a ery Tren, ES at Eocene | eee iShekcnwonrmenensntoceeeeeesrete | seotet cantatt ee etoerrns ratge ears na Epes oeneary eore eet re eae a ee a eS pcm ace Eee et aoe Saami 18.1 What is Deconvolution? ‘The prose of is examples ty and enh lato in time ofthe wnle-saped QRS complex ta Deconvolution isthe pres of undsng” convolton operation. Tha gre he ut ofa system and spa f each heartbeat The oaolton pode asap pak athe tine of fe QRS even inthe presence of is mole response MO) ox wafer anton Hl) 0 detemin wa th input the yer as hae ani amoan of wae (baseline Jif, xranou kale muse contacdon, et). Not single ‘een to proce ht up ‘hreshoking sche can be wed pi of he exact rato ofeach heart on 182 Ho to Decoreton cheep. Sct ere ee eee ee footie 0G data wih Ade Sol an Rano Ne CComvoution Deconvekiton adage Pag Wen ie 01d] +90 0g +10 i)? Wl, fom te shove oc dig, we ee at i mse case a (Senay thane Fee 1xe) «= 8 lace x0) +) = (0). So, noe gueney dma Gas means Ua HB) = 1 Tha vrecan indi) by king theives warsform of 1/H) Repeing nce more, he wasn of the A ‘ipa of oe tantorm of MO), Inst ine, we have the sn reas of An] «hie Bn) oc UMD) = 1. ess Conlin wih Matra Fer vena on tai 13.3 Why Is it Useful? i econo has many practical wes, expecially In image prceting. Note at working wth images Invaves dig two-dimensional comvolaton, bt the cone lentil the same. For example stone 56 Signa nd Systeme Made Ridcobusly Single ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple ~ by Z. Karu Eacurten:s Deconvolution rere ho have ood mode of atmos effet (Know Is 2D impale response "point spend fae ton) can pero decovoltion ark on Earth sharpen ap heiimage. aoe ee ace te a ao | > Cher ats of deconvolition inde removing the Hear ring tat ocars when ing plete of « ‘poding ice car and tying coer sere commana firs ben deters gue by {Tconralton. Note th inal of thesz cvs complete reconstruc ofthe rg! signa rues an exact couse of thai syem freon Hu). However ithe al wor tsa i ely theese ‘Therein shewisic einer Kaown alin Ssooolain”o help overcomes problem This tet ar is mane imps, 2 may of Jing he devomohiine show owing be ext equation of te epi inpeae respons, To een mote abst Bnd deonvaton ad eter image rocesing chair, fe Tio Dinentiool Sigal ond image Proczsing by Lim (1990) I jou bec a Seonrlaton expe CTA ‘il bea down your doo hie yu, image of Sate ‘om pace 134 Potential Pittalls Noise ‘Lats et ote Stun expe, bt hs ine nde the very el posi of atv oie: ise ding taneision imge ot sium __, amonhatie [xcovcvng |e sz inage of Satan sec fsa] ats fury Stam fey Seti with aoe 1 your onal yt ftios H() performed sme srt of ootingo uring on yor dala ithe case tt th mary of yen) hen convo io mek, ims enonanh sharpen dal IF re Foie presen he sap taclans sca with he ve noie wil by ampli by deconoain. ‘aking Jour image okt wore, The moral ist hin cefly abou else wher og devonvlaons stabaty Since A) ithe rsp of Mitsui e obvious ta tes of HG) become the poles of Fs) (ant ‘ice ves) Ths if HG) fas ao a eight pln, vee fer KE becomes ante. Or ou ‘nent sl version ofA) ten Sanat te causal ~ which dows’ make mach sence inte reel wr landing desoroleons on ters at ave eo ne pal plane roe ei cle thease tt dict tine reies move opted echiies Alb remember th in crete ine, longa tbe con be poset fine (notin elie) cabal emt of coeur {58 Signle and Systeme Made Reus Simple CHAPTER 14 Causality and Stability Overview ‘This chapter covers two important LTI system properties: causality and stability: Aer deGining these terms, the appropriate criteria fora system. tobe causal or stable are presented and explained. 14.1 What is Causality? Cus ica propery of asym Aa LT ystems cazalif the ott is dependent oly 0 the caren sn ‘pt vs othe nt isa lel spealing te Sint caus te ouput In oer word, ia cal ‘Sete cnet ous valu st dpeadest on fete vais of he input te system eamot ate ‘thar is coming ap ex sere ons nsodingy Intake, sboald seem cle that ay rel wod ‘Seta or mechanical sytem einen ene orexampl, the ouput wl hanes Seon S| ‘tag aes henge ples ut eer before or ear wil bane nal these at tine, reals (Fw you plan shim he bake ror coders a ine Tesounds ke pracy every stem is cabal 0 wha the Big fn boa? Casi is mre of a sein ‘reine em For etapa ie proesng oieatn of he creat pic! vale may depend ‘buh tre ppl valies. This not poten since be daha aleny been ole and re ‘no real ston of "ne As for continuous ine, you've probly nocd tht some books define he {apace transfor fom = } A) BOS) ye) Ae) sed, no. Trae x92] ae | +[ 29 | 0 ra 10" a gone Hs) = 48 29 * = x) ce, es) 9 = x0)-aQ0m) 7 Shou you re frp Black's nl crs pin ere oni, you cn aves est he ong, bot =| 19 = 3B - rane Spiswed mel fe wing Sve poole enone eaing 0), any ee He) = nanan te) * TAC) Singhs) at ae wee To ep eect ean ogee wl aon 9 = (at) ceore9 ABD ‘Speman andy fund Gus Wee te te at of cto). (Sigal and Sytem Made Rdculouly Simple Slate and Sytame Mace clout Sinple 65ourterts Feedback 15.4 Loading Ettects ‘Atte it scons sighfacrnd to cee lage set (ever oes) no singe Beck, We cant ‘Hondo be sn cae witout consider loading eet: In er wade, he races of «pric ‘yam maybe ete by wnt pecs o flows This pene nota oud feature ds th sign of ‘er desig Leal, box show behets earns of wheter box #2 theo ot. Ang he ‘Ero bor shel nt on rick caren uf the rat box Thiscanbe achieved neo wo ways (1) second oe has very high aptinpedane~ meaning ies cure ino (test bx as 20 ‘up impedence ~ ecg ca ply a nie amount of urea tees). I eet of ese ondionsaited, thn we fret combine one togethers the sdonal sei ston. 7 ar} aw = am} = ‘we only flan eects int an se ‘A conasteexanpl ofthe dangers ofcarcesly cmiaing boxes ogter: “Tree # [ae Fe aR) “FHS 16.5 Using Feedback to Invert a System ‘Fecdack can alto be vedo prose hiner of yen. Watch wat happens when asysem Bs) i pt ‘rhe mi feedback loop, mh he op gain Ktmed up Ge xo—r% K nye Ma ()—P@- 30 y= HB a oR Be) irae Hogs ‘Using Bc’ fol an leting K+ =, we 0 tate resin overall raster fon 0 1/2), oF {he nvese ofthe orginal sytem Soemembey ne vay aver x sytem eto pte sytem ma eda Sop simple ys pomefal Noe ht ise 1780) fe table le nero of B() mat be the eal plane ing causal sytem). (66 Signate and Sytem Made lceuowsy Simple ‘currents Feedback 15.6 Accounting for System Fluctuations Feedback can als be used to move he tle fete uncertain. For example, e's sy you've bull {rat sero per emplifer Unt pps! obave gain of ne Howevt, for same reson he gin ais ‘leven 0. and 10 dpeding on the one temper. Tis polen canbe fel by wing eeback ‘uthine wi sigh aim rapier as flloms: = gine? oe es a x) 1), KP. Xa)" Tea 15:7 Removing System Nonlinearities Lets comine wth the previo exaple and sme tat not oly isthe gain of te power ample a bit predicate at sale toni oni Ts pia ef many power anplier sages doe {alte tum wolupes cesar for sas and tase, Not fer bowen, sary ul als fhe {lowing Sec gram wing Black's formas convince you itck canbe sd ein oF ft kat San eps ponem See Example 2-3 of Cay, State and Stems by Sib (198) fr 3 ‘ore dead elation rontnaspower amp ie | +> yo wa wot pn 18.8 Using Feedback to Stabilize Systems “Te fllowing caus yatemn clay unstable: matey p30 fen Nevers posi sabe thy ping tin frock oo alin xo—>| yet) Koo racer MO” YG) * EER clr) lai and Systeme Made Rideout Simple 67ee currents Feedback a cuapTeris The Fourier Transform or what eso iste ae? Rel ht we wt al syste ples in et a ps we RRR Ee eee eee cee cee eee eee et un fo ete ol eps ove tte et The met nich he atm a oe eso a taco fe eck ur spon te oe Thes fol oven We aa yang ont of wel dene fle Knowing th ple eatin a opinion a esa bi abut nto suche ens es esnant eserces sre gir by irene wy aes iy of elo spss dvs i att | . ee an sone eas tones eye nen eso Overview “Tuatonm undrm iecne of Oe moet oeuncely und todilgees a rt of eying Ct tp sy Sroine wat Kowa ae pond Signal processing It is simply mathematical transformation that ca at eat tof clip tase acon Fors move ergs Sw of Se ee eat meer, a i shi ceran /ce mi redone Cape Sa ad Gaanin eprivntaton, allowing one to antiyze the “requency content” ‘Spon Opreniema(98), Sa signal Ths chapter fiat provides an intlive overview ofthe trans ‘Grn and shen pct rte any os mathematical opti tld inte computation and understanding. ‘Try not to ge? ln inthe 15.9 A Sample Problem ‘math; processing a signal in the frequency domain bas oe nus PAC: For was of te fling ct cop deine ye sa? Tal advantage, ae wl bocome clear in later chapters. —_—_—_—_—_——————— om | yin x 16.1 What is the Fourier Transform? “The Furie: Transfom soe ofthe most commonly wel tele in signa procesing This frm Tnibemicl wunsfration that changes me fiction x) no afeqency domain representation X). ' (Once i the equeney domain, ie ear To saya the “equency coment of inal. ting te Feuer (icon slows or woul detemine he lative propor of diferent fequences present inthe apt ‘Wd he ant sow quency, no tine) Fr example, te tensor fa sine ware woul ok ikea ‘ee apkeintcatog hat ony one eoency ws present Te arform of cis oaths plage ab nous fom fren igs woul ey havea notceste peak a OH. Simian. be ator of Ihe vote of igh phd oper singer woud Hil be concentrated around 8K “The ominous tne Foe nsform and then transform formulas re given belo rng neues abigail fae eres J foebt siya ai cr nstom Four Some tatooks deine the Fuse tneform io tmnt of w (aie), instead of fH), We wed whee ‘eetis Bove pr bras made ings eto dw homever kis more ii and simple wre ‘Tih Fouter anor To ary case, yu can omer between he toby wing the form = 2: be kT Wesieeakss | aL a Raed Locka the Fore tasforn formal. Ati seas compe (0 punta), he wansfrm of many 3 ‘ramon tine futons ae easly fond by Hoking them apie «ble Honever, to beter undead what Ket Ke ‘See formulas scusly ean, it wea toad te inverse wafon formula expresed aa Reman som: Iathestton I} <3/4 ore 83/4 Ke3/87 1 = 0 solves te nega, the solton at be a= (oo AMIDA SVEN a YIM AF ware if frat eae ms “Signale and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple ~ by Z Karu 3ourras The Fourier Transform joe ee | curtens The Fourier Transform “The inven orl sas hat any tne ation (ca eerste a he wee sum tera of many | {Tern compls exponents (isos) Ter a iferet wepht X) foc exh fret eqn: sw Sid. Thescticins Xi) ae general compe, ging he iso magtude and pase Since XO) ‘Ttoaplexqony, te Foun taf most be gated or splayed aso spre pr ier ell on ee Fouaginey or agian Fara quick sec ofthe query coment sigan ut he agit i ie Tow proper a oo ch Fol ston Wie tis fen safest praie ppmeep nid a tis ion al be te. ' nest ewe Boch the magi ad phase information mast be sue if the rg signa sto be recovered ro¥gh ah | odd A) 9 ape Settee cee Iheene unr Whe cing shut be Foerster rma nt ude | Seite tear ‘Stig of spec, obese, yu i yp tard nae Gets nd wl al © ' ‘cet tpl pcos | conjugate N= XTC) Rem f= Den 19234 I emer 16:2 Relationship to Bilateral Laplace Transform ‘sna tewen the Fores uns ate ila! Lagi tar can be ted ieee ‘ince toma ed ade by ate As, hat any funtion canbe ken up no is ve andl prs ung the following fal: pee) Wo ay 0 OSD : Fourter Transom ‘lateral Laptace Transom A pict exam: 0 “ reefer ja ah. Se AO) = AU, ay = 22D ij “The Foie wai equivalent fo the bite Laplace transform evahte log the oats (224) Te ule of bsc Fier afr vaueymmeties ad tr roa ae shown Below: ‘Hovever this only valid if be po-ae ie herepion of convergence (ROC) ofthe signal's Laplace wane 1 {em Tor example (ha apace wansform, ut des hot havea Four asfrm. Alo otc ha a = ‘nen etn to Fourier tanafrns we op the 2 and dente X24) a8 XO 0 (real) 20) rola soem ‘neigh sh, "Why do we we the Fourier tensor when sem oe st subse fhe itera apace I ming comelen op metic ‘tac? ican be Son tat any ton inion at asa apace vnsform wl ave a repon of = al = Converge tnt neler he oats, In hates, te fen ea speak abot the Fore ans (20 { sar ‘2Edo ae with ROC), Als, can be shown tht bounded uncon ht exis fr al ine, esas, oa rey main oat [ive Four ars. tc do not have © Laplace tanto, The Fair tafeo extends the ls of ‘ia tht ne com aay in the fregueey domi, ‘Prev, we adhe Bode plot i graph ofthe Laplace wanton evante log the jas. Now, ‘rere syg bt he Toure tensor the apace anor vated slog the joa. Wha e fer Thee? Bode pos are general ied to deerbe ston. Fowler tarforns ae general wet dscibe ‘Has Bu js te ee ily the ame Bode ps re maa ad phase pls on og sae. erie ‘Pasfoms we penelydeserbed eRe Xf) al (2) pled on nea sae. The lope gn ‘ecefpe p o the Fos tansorm of system's pu esponce HO) is eae te sane as daming « ‘depo of he yt fncton M3), Read tat ast senence api slow PROOFS: Geum x ra) conse ommery Xe [ane rma = [fl aoemeal) = x9 mans A = faves = fate 29) +a 20) x= [sosin any a 16:3 Fourier Transform Symmetry fa iseven then he sn to iterate 2 (ies (is evencven mes od {Sod 83 fncton integer om async interval). This aes he corn tem Basel won varios pope he sgn (), the ae few peicablesymmeis and charceiis of paraplegia rear) ater {sain Fore wasform 2) Frou Gio we wil astume 2) ia. I You fod yout ee eae ree Eating he proper oh For tanognof a ghar sgl jut een el an mally he ‘Sil if is 08 the conn erm tps to zo, ving an XI) tht spares trate by athe ea ‘img do 70. Signa and Sytems Made Rdewlousy Sime and syeteme Mae ncurtis The Fourier Transform Th summary. arn he following Hes about Four nsfoms, The Si ew ae singly restatement of oa te symm 0 here ely that och oem, 10 isa. + XU) isabysconjrte symmetric + DRA ie atnayeven + AU) isaays od + Rea) isabenyseven + Imi} ieabenyso88 + theeven prt) tnsforms to he el put a ) + theca part of 9 unsforms tbe imagery pat of XU) ‘seep nin “+ mapitd(a+ # agitate) + magnum not near operation] + plead) phateta) phase) hase mt nea peraon 16.4 Fourier Transform Properties In ato to symmetry ee a vation te rope ssn wit te Fore tranform. Thee proper ty ae ely val tm maniplaton of the forward a inverse Forex tas oral. See Seton 116. Sigal nd Suter by Opps e198 yo want osc the devas ex st ocd more fat ‘eplnaton. Te elloing able ie ot common ropeize of thereon between he ine and iene Proper Py x Tima | entoetn|_ oxinsangn ay x0 “ contain | ae somo a wom wo ‘Time Shift att) gy Frequency Shift omy Mf a @ PK 72. Signal and Sytem Made Reutty Single curren The Fourier Transform “Telit pop tit de a eres fier iesion. Start with signal) and ke swans farm to ponce XT, pce ht sina fs Gnespnal (0) ad kes waasor again You wil ‘wolac something tht tel oth signal you started wi exept sieeve This mean a if Sou ld sito tke Fourier nsferms You can wee sane Sait For ling inves Wanton Tong you srecarfl tou ine ever, Altough cis potbly prety clear fom he ble, le so eect the comlaton and proc! properties. ‘Tretmofor fhe comeluon fo signal te pot fendi wanafrm Say he 05 Ferm ofthe prt fo signal the conoloio fh nda ensfons sw be sie Yon tI XO= MDM) = = MOXY) convoltion nthe tine domain maipletion inte frqueny domo HO = KOK > WME mulation nthe ine domain © convolision nthe fequeny domain 16.5 Parseval's Theorem and More ere ae few mae proprio Fourier eansorms that you wil id we: : ‘his nang moe hn he Fete eaintime —x0)= fxn hm foe Sano when fo Th of ‘Oe oes t 10 wide rene te cio : seg hese fon er prainFeegeney —x0)= xg teen rr et foe ! Siaovaecmeent cn) Ae pavers roeren Sutin uu Tagine etm nee ~ een” equa domain. Signs and Systane Made Rceulously Simple 73curries The Fourier Transform 166 Basic Fourier Transform Pairs ere ata ituring some ofthe more common Furr tasfom psi: 7A. Sgnle and Systems Made Rluloul Single curries The Fourier Transform {ni tok, we wil feo ne ncn ae anything ofthe form sine The extn: Furr tant fis away ce 0 gv pope the mot ily. They ae ear lo rmenber fou aoe he fawn {es Pave few borewic tasfrms ith your fiends ntl you fer comforale with te, Wien ing te sie + Thetigh ofthe sn always ul othe aren of he box (ee Sesion 165) +The fin zr crosing of the sie ave tt wi of bon. +The sie fnctonisalmays fhe form (eight fx) sn (with of box EX) here Riveter tor ca ‘When fing he box: 4 Ive the equation of te sin ft, just ead ff te height nd width of he box ing te emp equation gen sbov. + given the gh of in fnction he with ofthe bo i egal to it ero rosin point of hes) and te bx eight is alo the asf te sine fnton {sce Secon 165). The alae underneath sins finn egal tothe ares f the "ngs formed y tk the flowing tee pis: the peak of ese es ‘eater roning, he Sr piv eros 16,7 Duration-Bandwidth and the Uncertainty Principle ‘All Fut masfon pis ont! bythe cert prinile, This cone sates a tis impos: ‘Sle to ei sgn tna ably sal is te inetd quency domains. In ober words iss ‘ts aria theme domain ts bave nde Foe tester Info afer appropriately deing the duran (ve din) and the Bandidth equeney doo) of» sigan tems of saa ‘meme posible to rove tht ala wavefomt art ast the flowing compact eadonstp. (uc) (omni) “Tis semen ft ancerinty peopl la ely of trea significance: see Chapter 16 of Cie, Sit nd Syms by Str (1986 fo ke devon. What ely imporant however st remember the following sepcabons os owe. + Sigua narrow" in tne domain eines) “wie” in he egency domain Tie). + Sigal “wide” inthe ine domain. tie) are “narow" in the fequency domain ings) + Sil rte ne ine dome. box ae sil login the fequeny domain in) + Signs intel long inthe tine dona sae) ar teint in he fe, domain(s). 1sineresing ont tht Grin facions fhe forme have the sallest rte bandh pode ‘Toe uncertain pinple allows oo answer bak queso Ue, "Which Sigal hs» higher Bah: tin (71 0 sin) (207 Aner the secondo ‘Stgnte and Sytome Mace Rideout Simple 75curse The Fourier Transform 16.8 Fourior Transforms of Diserete Signals 1s alo pone otk he Foti tranfor of a cre sgn. The elt is own asthe sree Fourier eusfom (DTFT). Toe DIFT, hte ts contoous-me coup, sa comtinwous fonction of Frequency. However it ema conenon dics te DFT, which is ost ell Spaced samples of the DIF thu canbe implemented on compu A conpurationly fice alge bs bon designed wo speed he [rocesing of DFT bi agin Koown the mock oleh Fas Fore Teno, o FFT for shor. [evs potbty oe ofthe mast commonly wed alg in the wo today. Se Cape 5 of Dee Tine Sia Pr by Onin Sale (919) foe si Fo rs nore tine ipa 16.9 A Sample Problem Given the allowing rig. f= mn far 9 © x0 2 1 om © Jourr Jt saaeieat news 0 WE 0 @2 IO 76. Sgnate and Sytems Made Ridlesouely Single a cHapTer17 Filters a LT Overview _ Fittering is the process of altering the frequency content of « signal. It is probably the most widely used signal processing operation. Filters are Ubiquitous in the world around yo, with the most common examples being in your home stereo ayetem. This chapter describes the various ‘lasses ofilters and the processes involved in designing them. Practical Considerations such s phase distortion, digital filers, and switched. ‘Capacitor implementations are alaa discussed. After reading this chapter the phrase, “Crank the bags, man! should take on a whole new meaning. 17 What Is Filtering? Recall ht the Fore tanfoon sows the fgueny conte of sgn Filing ithe proces sletvely ‘Ring or alerng pre of equncy content 0 reste ne sighal A common type of er ht yu ‘Soule tanta nh he bs nde nob on ome ae stereo systems, When trig e kos Sort aring Be fequency coment of thea pal by bsg or edn igh ow rence ri so Lan fs was wi ‘Chose shape fH) tapes ar X) in desire memes, ‘Tet contig HU) is krown ashe fier. roses) 172 Types of Filters Filters both in cominocs ad discrete-time, a be groaped sl iat one of four eli: lowps, hh fs bandpass ao mack which we sted the fllowing abe, Now ta ony the pve side of te ‘ges isdn templets Fourie transforn mance symmetric sac te er sre, We will ‘Eaatycoly cus he magne fete, pave spose wil beaded in Secon 17.9. The rox talc nde shapes te Here eter nerstoo you Kep in ind tate onpt of the Site ithe {Epo XU) matinee H(), The ead Biter maple w-be-emovabsectons by zo, Te names of 1 cite ype of este sao te inane = lowpass ie pases low feqotses, Bt stops Neh fegcacies A undp iter pases band of fequnces, bat soph regan “Signala and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple ~ by Z. Karu 7cura Filters ours Filters 17.4 Filter Terminology Filter Types j Since we tow ht ie ers camot xs then wt oh ey pons ofl satay ‘Rev basal. nt dvs oy ae nt a or ae he estos peel Sa The ‘Type Typical deal HY) Description Example Uses fen fmf an onl ops er wn below a removes fqeeey sis eran, L anak eee amen | —% | rcmoreat seoving DC et, i Highpass ‘Homan ow]? ged arcchunseent | — , removes fequrey ting int oe rai ston, i Bandpass scoala Bc, “sake gph gene | on remewsl query rein sie pair J, tt t Na salsmateancencos "“mmtcy en Ole c + Passhand: the feqoeny range you ae interested in preverving inthe oat sgl + Stpbond te quency range ou ae interesting elidnatng in the ouput signal 17.3 Noreideal Filters (the real world) + Trams band: he band over which he eqeency respons aston fom the pashan fe Hobend; wel ie ote ssl os pose “Te ideal fies shown a Section 17.2 ae ex that ~ idea. However. thy cnn exist in the el ee eae emer ene Work Tebelpundcstand why eta the dello ier as an example, The magni ois feqoeny a reepotsirsbown bow 1 Stophand adenuetion te Gif in B between he passband gun and sober gin 1 pmaband pple: he asimum Puta in file's eqn espese athe pashan: way dea Lompass Fier peel ' + Stphand ripe: te atime fctton nthe eqene sponse inthe stophand: esetly | ‘elvan aloe he sopbandatewation met 0S + Rolf rae he steps ofthe lope inthe eanston band sel mips of 205Bete ‘ 7 | ot bce = eB, where an cae in dubig in fen) ‘Recl fom Seton 167 inthe Force asim cpr tht sy fneon that i of fae leah in he I + Onder: he suber fpls inthe tem fntion 2): the bigbrother hol off regency domain must be off leet ia he tine domain. Besse HY) i ie, hs meas that be ‘rand the sbre th ron and ger oder ters are more compli o Dll ‘oneponding A) cul pt pst be eal (Mp0 fort even made wo te casl by shine in | + Cut fequecy the ge of he pastas so ksown athe crzerfeaneey or MB point since time, cei isolate engl owas ses cama te alae by pyle sens (eg acu. I isthe ore" in te eyo Bode lt and geeally SB lower ha te peak aban Srey to avid there word and ileneat th ler digially, where ually i ot much of «cone ein (ines you can eal ta tot negative me, completly ie fiers we sil wt possible ease of ther \ + te sharps ofthe pea in tandps fier, define cetr eqn divided by te al {tnt engt-The Sse woul ei anil long cee ine cnveluton oper the fering power bani (rom M8 pit 03 pos areas of bow oe he ols aro ats ‘See Chagecr15 of Creu Sia and Sse by Seber (1986) for moe sforaton om the ses ‘conering nid ers. 78. Signals and Syeteme Mace Rsevousy Sipe ( ‘Signals and Stems ade Rtesously Simple 79curnai7 Filters 1755 Designing a Continuous-Time Filter Designing ter invlves ashing soe tan fang sytem Faction Hl) that hs he dese fequeney ‘esponse Bae plo). Tis wastes placig the pes and es of) inthe apport place in be [pln nner chev the dese shape of 4) How many ples? How many eer? Where shld ey {2 Dn’ pic! Someone hs already come up mh tf palynomilependag om what rer ker You ‘rant uber ote ar ie appropiate ple oeatont. For reaons hat wil beeen shor, we inital foes only on Yowps er sig. The Gvgn procedure i et pick your cu freuen. the cin iter ore andthe "ype of owpss er Gee telow) A compute usally wed wo determine he ‘ro pollens) fhe appeal chosen ply, which an be foun in vray al fier ‘asgn or opamp texboks (¢g. Operation! Amplifer Ciel Theory and Applicaton by Kennedy {aks Depending on your eaepter program. you may have Yo manually pc ot ot the ot ne et ‘al pln nsre tb. ol, you have youll 2 See. There re many diferent “ype of Yowpse ‘ties pening on you eer nt, Teo te me comnon ae Buterwoth, Chebyeh,an Eipca ‘Type ‘Typical polelzero Typical HY) ‘Comments * ples be slong 2 ee; Bue: Buterworth . Soh ites are minaly ft a (eno iptes S ee leslie aloes an elie: siple is in eter pssand (pe or spband (pe stone an ‘hic tad a Barwon Crdystey ‘me oder Ser A ele exists ib passband ant Bllipccal ‘sopband hone eanston band than Chebyater for same der Designing Other Types of Filters ‘What about designing ers that eno owpas? No problem it, ig lowpass Ml) tht as aca Freeney of = tard hen spply te mathemati anfortos shows ae following Ne, relaing “withthe appt expression. Thr procedure canbe seo generat gps, bandpass, Ah les withabiay enor cater feguenee 20 Sinaia and Sytem Mace Reuowsly Smee cur Filters CHG) isa lowpass filter with cutoff frequency a = 1 then. Highpass = Ht0,/2) ce desired cael thighs er ay desired emer fequeny of bandpass or notch ier BW ot) desired wd of andpes crm ier Notch = ($80) Aiea 176 Circuit Realizations of Filters ‘Now tht eve he desired pe lations bw do we aanlly build a ker? Recall tt impedance of asc ‘cul lemen ane pies ger to eee wba wane fucone The pa om io come wp with the came licen and ales of reitor capactor, indo, an posblyapanps o cans he ‘sired Site's MTree two bad caifenons of fer tp erie nd pave Panive ters cont of purely unpre cic clement, sch a R's Lis and Cx. Some advantages of fv Fer ae they dot ed power supply, and hey ean be ie cheap to bul i ter only ‘tor second ode td high scene ret nd, advange cle: the iyo ding he exact ‘alee capacitor or incr for acute ple placement; ing enpomeed means he er cant provide ay leo ia gun and tir np ipedances ae ox ater ts sometimes ca aang ‘obese whe ued at prt of» lager sci For example, he coke shown bow leat he fe of ‘cain wo fstrder passive RC fry, The cc on the Je ha eta euency of 10 rae. By ‘ingag0of ham together can we ke a second oer ops er with same co feauecy? Not Irs potbly» poo exerte to Bd the system fenton of he second cet you're aa conned The ‘Problems ut hep ngedance of We srand RC tag none, sealing cen fm the is age ‘canting in behve ileal a i were enka ‘A simple Mander psive lowpass fier Iethis scan oer owpace ‘Coot reueny = rade ‘itt wah cus = 1 raect NO! Pes esr 3. and 26 18 nt. ‘Active larson the ther tad eeive an eters power supply in oder to maitin or boost sgn engi, Advantage include the Sty to ampli signals he asence of fe expensive ad bly ine tor td an ssl ii inp inpedance (or near 2 cul impedance) Sate Badong lade the pub inrodcion of rea nie in hes andthe fact tht he mtn operning Feeney he fiers cosine the gai-andith pod ofthe rpiyng element. ‘Stone and Sytem Made Rls Slople 81curren Filters There are sverl common sive ler cucu ht av acy ee aig one mee) nds to plugin the gproprite valued compooents On ofthe oe common templates sknown as he SalleeKe) was fie, (tis can plement a arbre cnd-ner ane fon. Higher driers an he be ane by ascaling ass of Salet-Key ces: ldag eet ae eliminate since te Hel opamp hs 20 pat Impedance Exchanging the postion ofthe R's an Cnt lowpas Salles Key shown blow wil pose + ‘on-rer sytem wo ars athe rin, wich gb ker Tere areal fom for» Salen Key bndps implementation For mae nero, fro Chapter The ro Electron by Horo 0d Hi 988) Sallen-Key Lowpass Filter Circuit Yai) ov : Win ry be arty slo ; ne to ROE poeta T - x moatgtra'sel DS eomy, pinkie tie atnacaeiy Tone pene eee 17.7 Recognizing a Filter ‘Given ple sigan ote water fenton ution of» St itis elavelyseighforvardo gust {ype ecommon mpc cha est question) The way tose ese problems eo make «men sketch ‘ofthe Boe pa by eacng your ng ep te fais sarin at he cra ad thinking abot a age adber ‘Sheet yng over he pole lt Se Secon 67). Ox i you'e gen Jost theequton of he het waster faction, oe hing tha wil bls ey plugging aad > nd evaluating [Mas for rece, ca Sify ech ofthe flowing plane plop ae coming rm ops, ahs, Dandps, nth ers Se Pp i gong an min) apt mba mon sn ata ronments eons tap taken pgp eomeaoeee {82 Signas and Sytoms Made Adclout Simple 178 A Visual Example ‘Te following pa rea god visual demonseation of te effect ofvrions peo ier. The ing signals «snuid whose equney ier ince ve ie. Thi ype of dal ten ered to ry” i ‘ipa sine if you listened wit repeated, ic woul sound vague wb cape woumd The four oer ‘ots om he ou fount pes of es when penn with thi npt chp signal The onze ‘id te wanton band cle event ere Ss now Chip" Signal) ' Lowpase Far Opi yt) Bandpass ter Outpt yi) i Honoass Fier Opt) Noth ter Output) ll 17.9 Phase Response Up uni nom, we have ben emgbassng the magi espa of er. Bu iiss only af te pcre Recall hata fequency respons consis of to pre -mghtode a pa, We know what a Wed map ‘ade respons looks Ike, bat iti an ea pe espns? Leal filer shuld tv stearic respons, easing hte plot of 2 vf sald bea eniht ne: Way? Imagine sisal ape this er: he up sins wl bef the sae eqn, but potly with aire! apie aod phase t “Thc pe dilerece can be tala ints Une da a shown blow, Remo, ead oe als spper a a epatve pe dierece. Input = ASla287 +0) oe gic w iE ilece ots). 4-4, i cpu = Hsin 29749) pees) Sno gueney Codes) "Df ‘Now if te phase reece i ea fnction ofthe nui free, he he quency canes the ‘erator and denominator adhe ne difereace emery x conta. This sn ta eit inet 8 ‘Signals and Syatme Made Rios Sipe 89oo curry Filters 17:40 constant time delay ference om the inpt fall ole pet equencies If he pase response was ot ‘tear ice dion ura woot be delayed by feet amour For example afer» ler the duns Ign te beard before he oper singers vic itd of tthe sue ine. The signal would sound Sep ‘EBS critocd" Find espero your lvoe fern system, You hl se someting cle "tal Thar purser’ 0.1%" Thi fie a mea of be depart fm linear forthe caine pase ‘ipowtes all eater fiers Also remember te pas response nen only be near in he passband ‘Banervorth,Chebyiex and Ei ave god apie responses, bt av lively por pase epases (Cltbtet ke wor of be tes and Cheyer ype lieth bes). Fr mos aplianes wrth sig of scares et mony wit nano reqeency ban, soe peasy wen" otc te pase ion. egal cou wl aon tht eu ae ute msenive pase Got when it comes toni sieeve place reponse sca in ih guy esargs, you woud be beter of wing CR ea them uch a plc te Tompn beste). These ers have a moe Tina pase SERS acc ume-domsin sp egos oinging), at a expense of «mote dull sloping trnsion band ‘otc of fies we avenge 0 dca ie aown asthe alps le, He! lps ies have» ‘Signe reponse a satel fequeciee. So wha pod is H's sed © modily the phase ofan TTEECGpta gona! we ecomecng he er pase iron emnunteed wih oder peso ers Digital Fiters: Digit ters operat on discrete sgl. ry havea ease fncin Fl) co fens, a all ence chrseses hat eine tno deer While analog ler operate meray scaling “ei Tcpag thet il gtd ites werk sang ad suring (exal he flerece betwee coni- ‘tus meconolaton ant dacete-neconvauie) Sone advatge of iia es are: cancer CE ERiy nc tnvart ot suscep to empeanre changes, ping components); ter behavior TS TEESE Shtges jot byvprorsmming your computer ited of faving rei ican the fering pots een noe ee. “Tere are baaly to types of dial Set HR Gafite mpuse espns) and FIR (ne impuse ‘epinc) fring oe lengh of he ir As een in revo cin, onouos-time ter eign SPIERSESSianA aa cookbook forms ad stndard iter tmplaes Therefore, on ay 0 sgn 1 digi IR fer sto desi the connor tne equi’ ad simply apply continue dire cage econ paces seh ample vance freackan llercoe, ote ilinear ansorms- Ae cat sccuoes) IR ters ae of fee oe ersve her sine ey are decribed ty ference TRUEe Shere we uy depends nat ony on previous ales of he np, Dur als previous ves ottte cope FR fers ate name indicts, ate itn length, The ouput vale yf depend only ona xe amber of [pevus vals of ep sf. The advantage of wigan FIR ii at he pe fer alyssa ‘Ecarpuce renponse One wy of designing an FIR ew desin te dese cpt TR Ser nd simply 24 Signals and ystems Made Rutoust Single curren Filters recat he iol respons by mulling iby 2 window: Fer arbirary lr shapes, he Pars MeCielan tgs can Herve opal ele FR Site dein mee, ut put te dese shape of he slr fenton ad the iter oer, nd ou pps th cofient of the test pose FIR le So which Sul you ‘ie? TR or FIR? Th pos dco af each a wll a therogh cussion on dct ler aig an be found in Chapter? of Dre Time Signal Procesing by Oppebei nd Scale (198), Dig ers ae bcoting mor and more omon everywhere and ut, bt a dst mea ang ers tre wide. Given analog Sigel ch sao hat weeds fing, ink about ll of he ea oven ‘eset perfor hat Seig i the iil domi: an A/D camer, «fast compu © dedicwed DSP ‘hip meaty to bold he filer ccticins, source coe to actully efor the convo, and 2 DIA Somers o op the mode signal Conta tha several ane lr sete 0 = ngl op mp er at ‘Sn fenton sever handed meats a nee faction ofthe cost Of cnn, your signal dg ‘ein with he closing Dow Jone Indust Rrerage sock inden te ougtof «CCD digi ane), ‘hen it makes neo we iia ter. ngicring al abo wa and ite dsign no excepion 17.11 Switched-Capacitor Filters ‘Asie apactor Seri ote nme of new pe offer, bt rker a ew methodology fine tein ne Henmbines the pet and convenience of anager wid he Beaty and cure oe ‘hal work The pole loans can be precy contol by merely aliring be feguency of iil Sane rave input signa. Te fir wors onthe noice ats capac rapidly etched btwern wo oat thd round bees ke scone teteee tan wo sane pts, Hah? A eapastorcan come 3 ‘ernor? An explanatn inode Conie he folowing dupe: thd Capacor Toon A, oB Reg @ Dy 2 WO Ow + = fant SFaG Wien the sich sn potion A, he amount of chars on te capac is Q, = C;¥. When he swith is thrown to potion Bde amount fear rpposed i be Qy = CV. The dfeence between hs Wo ‘hare evel thst of hag that ow if (rot souceV, Ia ter wads, every Tsecnad (he eid ofthe lc) actrge of C,(V,~V,)Canlomb selectively transported fom ols A w pe B. Net re Bong pe nt te te dlnon of coven Since we Hnow he volagedfrence a well asthe ‘erage cent lowing, we can dee O's wo the etl esstance between pois A andB. Ths Signals and Syste Made eeuloushy Single 85curry Filters ‘he swing capacitor behaves Iie a esis Big elt Why ont we js wea est and sve ourselves the ase? Tings shoud oom clear fer he lowing example Standard Inepator ‘Swiched Capsctor Implementation ra J wn Lv Wo L vo °t va 1) Re sole ith es Vp“ "ec : Here we hv ken 2 simple integrator op amp cic and shown iti its switched capacitor imgleeation ‘The advantage of th ates tha tense fncon now dependent oly onthe rai o tw eps ‘compat independent ofthese vale Small valued capac aly plemented Ses In sean whch mens he ene tr an be captred direc ide single chip. Furthermore the ole pace ‘nent is paraneal tobe exmemey acura (1) thing clack fequnry canbe governed 4 ei ‘abe pei ysl eas, and (2) albough ing capactance ae cnet be very wll contol, {be ato of wo capt cn be mae Vary pecs since capacitance dependent on he sia of te doped ‘wean sco (care oe sb-micrn lvl Greg wale acon. The witching chain fl ‘ily implemented by bonkng he pat clock sg oe pes of MOS ase to appeal conse ‘facane Be capaion “Te bigger problem when desiring an nal Stern precise esisve nd exve omens ht dln’ change in vale ith emperstie-in orde tac curt pole pnemet. The seed apc ‘tr fe anna that problem by making th sta eguency dependent eyo he ing egy oft Adiga! sje wave. Further, the same hp can pero firing at vai of erent enero aa Frequencies by merle he eqns fe eck gna Nevers, you never get somcthing fer ntin. Became he caren (chs) is tanned cos he ssh in darts br, he ouput ofa sve cpacior ler tn ook eed ie a niece, The ‘fect, however is minnid when the eqpncy of he lok signal ie mach rer han he main frequency of te int sigan ay cz, ite ey Wo romove jagged appearance by fon the ‘sith apace te wih Single lowpass lero snot ut any pee. caper is Modulation Cet S a Eseeprermeremenene ee Overview — Morulation is a part of all modern day electronic communications such ‘as radio, television, and telephony. Modulation is basically the proces of oti or Seoweneyshing th specu of « signal i «ney quency range, thus allowing multiple signals to coexist on a single transmission medium. This chapter diacuases several basic modulation ‘and demodulation schemes, SS 18.1 What is Modulation? ‘Tecate way ohn out molalaton i ws ao aos a an example Te sound hat rad stations ‘nant totam in the Freuency tang rm 20H to 2H te range of bn beaig. However if re |Simwe than one aio tation nth rhe signal fa the wo sas wl overland wil be pol ‘to ditinguish nis ty ae separated in he reieny dain soe mans at exe. sep Placed fers could pk oat e dese aio tan, Modlin ihe process of moving fears mete ‘rum oa ew enter fegeey ie BEIM inh ae of ME college ai aon, Demlason the proces of moving at feqeney scrum back ir onl Kaen, Two trad lasts of moduaon ‘hemes ar Known a ample ollie td nqueny medulaion 18.2 Amplitude Modulation Ample modulate, commonly tnown a AM, th mot asc form of maduaton. Hee he apt sign 1), which could be mae, ve, er any ode bandied wavefrm, it molped by sisal eater ‘lenal prsce the malate sigal 5 ). AM Mocdtor 0 sul?) costae) ‘A banine signal i fonction whose Four waif ese oie given rigs of freuen i yp for if> W. For snp, when dewingspora we wil den oly tev at of NU however ‘remember tht in ene has both ea nd napmry prs Te cir sig i ener ial wth Iroqureyf-» W. Theresa fr such high carer equrncy andthe mechan how molto cieves ‘fequenc ting wil soo be aparent £85 Sgnate and Systems Made Riculouty Simple ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple by Z. Karu aourrais Modulation emer a fe AZ ; Is AM modulation, he sgl 2) ie maliped by x caine in ine (he carr sgn. Ine foqcney ‘ma ta wae fo cooling X() th Fore eanfonn oa cosine wave. Real the Four ‘nsf of cn?) lok ke wo ipa in ques. ‘Mattison in ime case te ampli of the cose erie sga follow the amp of). Tis ‘wtted ine plot ole sa a) sown belo. The ele of tu covaution he quency domain io ahftonecopy of A) op tof se oe cay dono Te spectra a he medolted signal Ky is Seawn tlow Note amplitede escledby 12 fom te ine spectra mt) Kull) A pe VY vyy tue 4 . i ¢ Frequency Multiplexing Te should now seem cle hat dln allows 1 combite maple sgn onto signal tansmision ‘hare! by singly pling then ln diferent feqancy bas Tis process Koon as feoeeey al ‘lens, Plc nuance. we cull combine tr sgt by AM modsing thm with two diferent caer pets and tal hen unin th rer The Fore wanafrm of be ansmssion igh ook ve ‘hing the te lowing. a4 a RS ‘he cai eqns fan must be chosen oth ho ptr do not ovelap Alongs hs iste ‘ivr signal ca eal Oe eoveed a we shal oon sce ‘Synchronous Detector for Demosultion ‘Asynchronous eect i chee fr demos (ecoveing an AM sgl, Te proces involves mul ‘ailae nu by the same cuir sign wed inthe maine Noe al tre mst be no pase difleace Cnet modeling and deodlating sind hence the mame sychonows. Thi imo domain mul Fics cma i Oe fequey domain, wh the sits copies of he secu back wo 270 [enc unony ober ples Tela rh oles ad seals the desired copy sot he xiginl ecko Xi) mal) recovered The faloing agra onins he overall recess 8 Signa and Systems Made Rill Sine Syren A Doran Scare nfl ud) Kad ay se XD meh ws a qe ES my, ° yf oe "Te process ces gt simple bu ere i ctsh The cos) must math exact bth i frequency and inase wit he coin sed to multe signal In rato, hs ean be scomplshe i exer By {hg dvie ele a pase ck loop PLL) to oe noe care sgl presen, us ier ge ‘Sings sotaty matched demedntng carer sgn So ape SI in Seton 171 of Ce Sia ond ‘Sytem by She (1986) fora dacsin of hele of emoding with sae of mismatched ae. AM with Carter Modulation and Envelope Detection Inte tly day of ratio building sypronous dette With phase ced lop was mot simples. The farts were ot lable or they were simply oo expensive. wns covers tha sh change othe mod Thon process would makes ma simpler Gaur possible “That chang ical AM wit carer (AM.WO) amin. The nl difetecebeeneen AM-WC nd tan died AM she dition of constant (OC oft to thee spa. The modulating signa thes becomes 10 A)" Cited of 0), wc adds an imple whe nga inthe spc ofthe piel. a Ed 7 sea pe aN a i A ana? "Afermipyng bythe cosine carer sga. (inthe te an equny domains looks he rf Xu A \ mt wy 1 ‘Given tat he aie fogueney ichigh enh ste tl th pperemeloge fan AMC WC module signal ‘Sogo he engin inpetsigal3) Snce we Know th te sgnal=() avays pret hn zt we on vr a speak eto” cea fo tack he eavelope of x?) and proce an aprosimatin of #0) 018 ‘et A spl pest deta show blow const of cently ast Ure pare nd costs al pels. Peak Detector Cet aca Slate and Sytem Made cevovay Simple 89our Modulation "Nato, here mast be some ado seit with tang such imple dette One appre from he shove dagram of.) Ther ae 0 aon imple alt o ao Sppea in he standard AM spe. ‘howe sina inpies can fen have sigalcat re Mare sea ips Ul more pe (x Fare ‘Theorem sexe to wanenit AM-WC: A second tae i cori th the ew mig signal [rita #€ most be eter thn zr fr Tis ens tht cen lage ena ale of est ‘ectoen ohne all yes of apt signal () However helper Cis he more power waste inane isin, Ix) ges nea (sce he chosen veo Casto smal te cavelope of Sq) ill nt tach espe oH), eligi severe dstrtn ine pak eect oapst This condo fred o [Akhosth modern AM ras ve Become se more sophisti, the ands fr AM broadcting ‘emai eenly etme Even tony Yor faite AM ston wil rans an AMWC gal. Now it ‘olde pyre why AM elie re hsp toby Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation ‘Sing sen AM (AMSSB) i varon on stand AM design cute wi of he nated Signin hall. Sone of he apraces for geoeaing an AM-SSB sigal we ound i Section 17.3 of {ire Sn, and Stems y Sibert (1986) and Secon 7 of Signa nd Syston by Oppel et (1985) In any case, if you fat emt te bare popes of Founer easforms sad LTT eye, 308 ‘ould be stew beak down ad salyae ay sovel modnaon chew fren pe eka uesion. 18.3 Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation Amplitude motulaton sss ws te moslaing signal to vary the ample of inal cai signa ‘Anode imporan cla of wansmisson cigs fered oa agle alan in wich th medlsing ‘Sigma ead to contol the frequency or phase of sini caer. Thtetchiges ave kanw st Frequency medalaon (FM) ad phase modalaton (PM) respectively. Two main sfvanaps to these sgl ‘ace themes ae (I) he Usted igi always a2 Bed spite a eliminating ais In ‘rameter power ad (2) any soe ike up ding acai anally shows pa ample variant “fantom the ected inal his mas an AM wanunsion. he ex oo woul appear to be pat fe signa. Tiny general, PM ro tos Sound cee han AM tations Phase mulation s when the phase of the tied cai signal vases in proprion ote ipa signal 12) Freueny mao when the frequency of he tasted gna tanned vrei roo 0 ‘be iapt nlx). Nott be wstuncncos feueny of sno whose eqs: s changin nine [sthe dra ofthe pas uncon. Tus, pase edlon and equse) mada cael ele, Phase mdlaing wih (Is ena feqeney duting wih he Jae of). These esse ‘amma ew Prase Maton spl = Acs (2R,1+0,0) Teyana nn where 040 = 844,40) maa ee Frequency Mediation sf) = Accs eng oa i sod i ee me Stari pein ee n oheetmnsihiecmen beta whee SGP = 2a, +k Somme ey oa $0 sae te nn fey 90 Signate and Sytem Made Rsicuouly Simple currens Modulation An erample of fequency mallaion shown below. sani i osc tat the “nsananou reguecy” of ye pogordonl othe ample of x). The exact spec {fomof an PM moduled sia ey cat detemine| in gener ook nothing Iie te sag fe Inpuc signal's scrum. Zp) shown athe above gr is preeted oly wo depict he lcaton and ‘proimate banwit of i EM ial FM Bandwidth (Wideband & Narrowband FM) [As metoned above, he our ansform Xj) ot easly load However, iimporat wo have sme ‘Senet bandeiith sw low bow ow cent sigaals can be placed when fuer maipesng Lets {ctce f= nef the “ene deviation” The Ye! fn 24 fn oregon 1 e OFA frequency fons A) = saxo ) =n wed he np ig We cn them appre he tech ef Xi) ing te flowing expression Banded af +207 Wiketand = f+ 2 => Bandit af Namowban 22» Af-oBandwith 2" “The auc 20 isthe bund fe apt signal X(). There ar two tps of frequen) maf: wide ‘edo aortan Eacrhe towa o rny fc re dae pal, ch er. fay coneponis oe it ofthe consat fin he FM egiaton decibel earee The tect of wing & ‘re bent with FO improved ie etn, bower, he ipa then cxcepies mae space he Frsoency worl Once pain we ave «ede Fi Demodultion ‘As FM signal cn be demadutedoresover the xg anal) trough the we of phase ck oop “Ts devie lots on othe pase of te inp sgn ferences between ie expected pas an the acta ase Creqcny) othe icing sini ea nm stators em he deve Ths ee sigma esis neat the ste manera he change in eqn ing the modulate proces hss etly ‘opens oe egal sia, Signals und Stee Made Rous Simple 91cwettr 1s Modulation 18.4 Superheterodyne Receivers “The fnction of ratio reeiver ca be woken down io two tp: (1) teks ert foc oe desired Frequency tad from a feqaency mliplered chan, and) recoer (emoddie) the recived signal. The supebetroyae recive ina method ofeach th fet sag in sove proces I owed in ‘areal ale d's dios One way 0 balla erro we asap ent bandpass le th an Se tuned over aang of sve mepabert: Hower uch ter are expensive and fics fo ul, The ate ea ttn te superhero scere sto bulld igh gusty sasouy Ser much cheaper and move he ‘Senate lerinstead faving move the kes og Te ba stp ea follows 1. Uses por uly unabie bandpass er (BP inl foc o the dese sation. 2 Frequency shit be spectrum wad item freuen Apply shap.carflydcgnd BFF creed te Io rena any eminingseay spec “4 Proced wit sand! demataaon scheme Ge. syncronns detec). Again nse of moving your sap bandpass Str to he eatin, the superhero scheme move he ‘Sth o you sharp BPF For exe, let's sume at dec spar signs ave ben AM mle lng three dint are eqns. The pect of he tasted sigs mig look amet ke this For this example, we woul Ihe to demedulete signal oct at agency f wing 2 speedy ‘pstem Alok diugram of sch asym sien below o—lalay esata ae extn I eas) 7 [Notice tao bandpass ers are sed The ist BPE has wide tat ht mst bees an fp - 207 ‘where Wemasimum feqeay in sign and bis anal cent fequency dat chage in comjunctne wih {he equecy the coe ware. This ype of altuna allows the olan of single quency range. In our care, ningc= loth saa we wa. ‘The malgcaion by acos Pej) shits the desire specu afi where he cond bandpass fer dost ‘he al cleanup jb. The ek the spcrum 2), whch sow ely fr te sychrnas deter 0 conple te al Siting othe ible eqn ee ceed about 2) 92 Signals and Systems Made Rlulusy Simple currents Modulation 18.5 A Sample Problem vestion: ‘An npr signal) has Foe wansform X) whose el nd imaginary pars wre shown below, Rel3i0) imix wy 1 ‘The signa (ip by i259 an co 2850) a show bee canada x0 simesoy nuns) ‘Sitch 10, Answer: ‘Asha sto we he ety, 2in0c0r0 = sin20, a eon way n't ard eter Wath orsign ens etn) miro c * ee ° a ‘Stone and Sytame Made Ridiculously Simple 93| cHapter 19 Sampling Overview Sampling theory has become more and more critica in the “digital age.” “Most signals that we work with are continuous, bat they are increasingly being processed wring digital computers. Sampling theory gives us the tls vo faithfully convert from the analog world to digital and back ‘again, The fundamental result of this chapter is that any bandlimited tdgnal can be completely characterized by discrete, oqually spaced ‘samples, provided that the samples are spaced cloe enough together in time. 19:1 What is Sampling? Sampling the poses of aking cominsoes tne sgn nd representing it bya series of iret samples Recteacon the proce of tng tee arte samples and ereing the sociated conimuouime Soa Tne process ae led nthe flowing Nock Sagan, overa procen: ae ‘We wil eave he ocesss of A/D, DA, and igi signal processing for aoe book. Why do We reed Sling tery a al? We cul jut work with anaiog sgn ony. Ding sgl proesing inthe gia ‘eit en computer povides fr more fey, btw the expense of dco. Fie hare (Sins easly changed by repoamming few burned of having 10 change sists an apc. (em Alm We pocesng t soeniny mine, unlike the “Yrs” tut you sometimes ter on Jou ‘rice when doing snl at eign 94 Signals and Systems Made clout Sine “Signals and Systema Made Ridiculously Simple - by Z. Karu rsourtenis Sampling 19.2 Mechanisms of Sampling ‘Tene Domain {a's examine the sampling proces in cle det, stating in thet damn. The stad paradigm is shown inthe flowing pict The vale of the continous sil dd every T son yal bing by an imple tam The aa of te ples food in the sped vron is ual the right of oi. Ea unl tthe same pit x0), x) 3) ra Frequency Domala "Now lets look at these proces inthe eqn domain, Ft we assume annie pect fo XU) ‘he Foare tansform of () Remenbe, a bndinied sce one whe 1) =Ofor [> W. Te esos fer nedig 3 andinil scrum wil become cer rt, The allowing tae ft slows wt deeming the spect fo) a raped bow 1. Theteansorm of nimple tin an impule in 22 Maliplieton inthe tne domain becomes convolaton nthe feuency domain, 2X. Convovingwithan imple merely shite an uae te signa. ‘Do mot forget nto acount the salen ght of 1 a secompuies he taform ofthe impulse tis, aye ow a Se na S; 96 Sinas and Stems Made Acoust Simple curr Sampling 193 The Reconstruction Process Frequency Domain The egal conivous ne signal x is complet recovered ifthe igi spectram XV) cn bextra from 10), he spect of the sanpledsgnal By examining te pce of 10) show below, it oad be ‘eth he ingle spectum XU) can be esovere by wing an ea lowpass ero remeve he ex copies ‘hehe shuld have cua atf 21137) and a aif “Time Domain Tosechow te rconaton procs wos nthe time domain, real ha owas erin the eguency aia sinc mene abe ime domain, So malplying by "boxer in equacy i Wee convelvng ‘titans fncuon nine. Since (0) ijt a sere of imple amples of (9) flows that he eco Tine terme tse of ald and ied sins! 194 Aliasing “We ve see ht onions inl can be completely econsnctd fom is sane. However, this [pects wl at be pone fhe samples ae spaced too fer apart in ane Why? AS the imple inthe nul tin inn esd ft an ater pa tepals eancorm SY) get cloer and ose topic I temples in feieney move to doce ogden, fer oaelton the copes of the spect of Signals and Sytame Made ceuounly Single 97curren Sampling XY) wil oreap. Bad! Once the specu get sbi ied, wil be impose ove the rigid ‘centaur dine gal The ston where spec ove cnc aown alin. ip nny information fon the fie oes in ew une go te ‘man prtom inh utp unc oe bang sai ong ws ae ™ = ~t Y Overop=Alaing Inthe caso ve, he high Reuency infomation ainesfesembesooks like low eqn inemaion ‘his fects demonstrated telow with high feoencysne wave ats samp too lowly. Eve ough he ‘ine wave empl a repr ner he concn procs feo epee opal seal since {he samples wre spaced fap in tine spol loweegucncy sine wav se se data ‘sims, nich is ie drains of Bo high ern irl cn e aed na ocing ike 8 Tower begun nl 195 Tho Nyquist Sampling Theorem onder have disrtion fe zonsrcion af comnouene inl tw hing ave 0 happen: (1) the eatin nl to be sampled mast be badimicdan ()he sampler ma be lt couap ogee laine. From etaniing the speceum for 1() in Secon 93, fo prevent ovelp we matt have I/T=W> Wo 1/7 >2W, Sie Tis know se agling perdi seconds), 1/7 ied te sping rae Go Hera). Allo simples he gan vs ti order water aes eoretcalreconencto! The sanpling rat mt be grater han ic the mata reaeny prenatal ‘Te cia samping ri (2) i row asthe Nygult t. The above sent sown athe Nya Sampling Thorn ands deel one of the mos power once ever Sen by a ngnering en 98 Sigal and Spates Made Ricuousy Simple owners Sampling 196 Practical Considerations ‘ZeroOrder Hold However ce heory my seem, npc don't el exis in th real wo. Ia pace, what x commonly one for sampling prpse Known a the soc bol Har, the ald signal eembes saese (Ger emaine ft berween sample pin). Ke sil posuibl completly econsnc the ein gn, ‘owever te lowpas iter mat be slighty modified See Sacton 813 of Sigal nd Stems by Opel (1963) fr more iafomaton. Noe hat wings tana at lwp fr eonetmon woul ro ‘hip work easealy wel butt wou tbe opin. ‘AntiAllasingFiters To cvure that aliasing ds nt oeca in the satig process. pope ofa st ps the signal to be sampled ‘trogh lowpass ern order to iste dh iis appropetely bandied, Ths eri hacen a an at lag ite Fe example iyo wan sample aoa «eae I rat of SK, You would st ced toga the sound source oops lowpes ier tt ad shar cu 2S rowed od asigo any ihe equ cnet preset nthe iol sem Oversampting ‘The Nyquist theorem snes hat itis pousleo completely reconstoct a signal as oa as yu samp at arate {peter an wie the axis tegen peen in he Sia Fron Secon 9 UT = 2W the he eps f the seca nT) wl be jens aching. Sonora t eas the eri inal 08 te going 10 not very, very sup aaog lowpass lc. Such beasts ae ot er Wo espn, 20 wht i ommonly dove sto aversonple~ tuto sample at te much peat than be Nygu ate Then, ‘opis of te setae seat sain Tr apart otha ene relist lowpass le caa be sed ne Feeonsucticn process: Tiss hy some compact ic players ae averted as having ovesapling. Be Alte Teva ‘+ Thera anor sytem can ony ear sounds een 20H nd 20 Ks, *+ Campos dss conaa mi sampled ata at of 4.1 KH + Thebundvii of neta telepone in about IKHs (hither equates ae lot ding tans ‘sion, Which sl lage enough o proce an arcepabe qui of convention each 12,7 A Sample Problem (no pun intended) Ovestions: (4) Skech Xf fr T=20 mes. The el and inary pars fhe pect XG) ae sen. © ara atinun fT for whe yen Wl pte = £40. rt ese oe wide constant? Stone ad Spots Made Rul Simple 99currerie Sampling etx} [Oe REE x) |» (0) st) Anawors: (a Copies of the pec of X) are replied at-100 50,0, 0, 100, Hera, Height ofeach is 100. (b) Maxicum vale of i 40 mse. Canal pl sy slower bees of the intone lowpas fe 100 Signals and Sytoms Mace Rsculousy Simple CHAPTER 20 Fourier Series “tema, Overview The Fourier transform of an aperiodic signal produced a continuous transform Xi). When the input signal is periodic, the Fourier transform is known aa the Fourier series. The reason for calling ita seica ia that {natead of needing continuous function to describe the spectrum, the frequency content ofa periodic signal can be represented by a discrete ‘sot of numbere, These numbers are called the Fourier sories coefficients ‘They provide the weights on the harmonically related sinusoids that can ‘bo used to reconstruct the original signal. The values ofthese coefficients ‘ean be found through direct computation or by sampling the Fourier ‘transform ofjust one period of the input signal 20.1 Orthogonal Basis Functions Wis well known tha practically ny Santon cn be writen he weigh um of «st of anon func ‘hone The smo he ea of rpg» Yet a oe weighed sun of nt Yrs. TRE are ‘even diffe pone otbogonal is fncon set, bl Dt. Fret died owe ssi. Te Fourier {tonto snp) ats he weights the vacou inode tw repodace he apa sig 20.2 What is the Fourier Series? Pesndcfncons ste completey desi by the weighs on scree sto sisi sues, at ‘nae oa cominoos range of fect, a with he Furr tas for apd fnctons Tiss of ‘ss Known as te our eis coefcent thermore he usoie at go with hse cox {oe harmonically elated ech one's ency ian integer mip of he andrea equncy oe pet Sia The fandanentalegueny ete reciprocal ofthe length one perio of eps “Ths perio signa ca be completly scl using ass of eens 005,115,225, He Pi ware tl en sn i men eda ny 0 ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple by Z Karu 01ourtr2 Fourier Series 20.3 Forms of the Fourier Series ‘Sine-Cosine Form ‘Ay paid fnton x) cane writen the sum of armoire sna in te folowing manne. Nott denotes he length n secoeds of he funnest pero of espa. Teese el fords ‘or detaining te value fe costes, and bat eis mee inte wy of ohiing ese aonb we lst sry Magnitude Phase Form ‘Using he ttt vo sls of he same frsecy ca be combined in ig smci wih a change ‘of mage ad pase te cosine die erm in te above expen canbe cation ad writen a. a= Sool ‘Complex Exponent Form However, thesis an ot fl forms the exponent form give by ao Sxinone xin =} f acta 7 Fe Ven” Inge Xai er Fetationchip among Forms ofthe Fourer Series ‘The cooticins nthe varios Frms fhe Fuser sre ae al imarelted ssw elo Xtn)ieacomplerumier ay = X10) ‘4 xin) Koi) ge thettiny aim ele d= tim {xin}) 102 Slate and Systens Made Rcuoualy Single curren Fourier Series 20.4 Relationship Between the Fourier Series and Transform "Noe hat any now peii sgl canbe considered 1 be pei sgnal with ped st way. Doing ‘hs wll ane the Four ses orl tocol the ower ans foals, Fer mee inerzaon, rex Section 44 f Signals and Sytem by Oppel (98). ‘The ower seis coe of «pr signal ae popetionl to uly spaced samples of the Fosrie ‘etsforn af ve prod of te inpt sie. To Ses. et convince yoursell any peri galas te ‘esata single pro comelvedi tie wih an impue ain sown below 0 x0 5 * a} L] 0,1 find he wns of 5) We cou jst fide tanto of) ad mail itby the nse of 1A) sac covaion In he tine domain equals muilicaon ine feueny domain, Using the sbove ‘champ we can generate he folowing feqeny domain pce: eet aby “XO xp, sn, \ 3 tated mabe, ~tr- sumeary ‘Te Four unsform of any peril signa suas composed of st implies. The area of thee gles ‘ache Fore seis coeciets for he exponent om, Pater se cethlents cn be oad Sampath Fourier easfrm of oe pt fhe sig t equences wich we mules of U7 20.5 The DC Offset Note X10] othe fn term in the Fore seri, merely the average vale or DC oft of hep ‘tise Thom sigs ht have eel weigh” above an below he ronal xishave no DE ft nd teooe re pul ole rin nthe Foie transform and ae. ‘Slgnals and Systems Made Rccutously Simple 103,urna Fourier Series 20.6 Properties of the Fourier Series Coefficients ‘Thee are seve special ates of prot input nls hat immedi imply cern properties ofthe Fourier sere coefset, Some of ths fs wil sem sim the ofthe Four unser ace he Free ocir ijt spcial eof th eat, Forte bln, ese ol Xinlcoefe | ay, b, coeff a = 9 erly eal a= Description | Condition ee ee ‘thamenie | x01) = x) | ample Xe). meven cventarmonie | x72) = x) | erp Mls wot + abe DC ote rm ca be non 2r even hgh ll he ote sare 20. + Ave taro fancon ioe where te scnd fal it pro ithe mega ofthe fit ne “+ Aneveratonifneton is ne whee the secon Bal of pra is sal thse athe st ait Terre, ny fenton hts ve-tarmon stale period fanton whose Jerod ha born inkl ie what stl enter wor Bete Sthing spel shut + Shing sgn lfthight in tin does ot alfet whether ont itis ed anni + Stitng signa upltown (adding DC ofa doesnt fet wheter it rot harmonic, ote than + Axl amon fost does ache te Some Examples: ‘ven and od amoniew/ DC oft 104 Signa and Systeme Made setousy Simple curren Fourier Series 20:7 Parseval's Theorem for Fourier Series Panera’ trem equa he average “ener” inane prado he input signal wih Ks “ene” ine Sfoar = Fact? 20.8 Square Wave Reconstruction ‘As a exerci wo tet your ndesunding of he mat verity ae folowing square wave can be pre Sent bye cosine Stes shown. The approach so sti he Foret tanto of te pra sia by ‘oes te square nave arg ple covaved with an mpalse tin. The eaafrm willbe hen be St etn api ype in une Tis i pos es of np vse ero thn impulses sete Foner series coefficients [x fore exponential for (ee Secon 03). ach symm pr of ples ese seine wave i eine da ‘We hve just shown that he som of cosine waves can produc x square wave! That probably dosn't seem thoes demon val. The lowing plot show the sm of he it 2, 5, abd 20 rm a ne team SO Twotemns ee Fe tems, oo ae ee “Twenty terms | ‘Signa and Systeme Made Pilot Sine 105curren0 Fourier Series i i APPENDIX _ Review Topics The lb Phenomenon i yout cay wl me at eeu pe he of mii oe sve ng aes a ees ee fet oie, to danas teens ni po er iar Sl be ia ene ! that eit sare ae bower de al ene ne lone ome : ‘teas bns avon Ot ome Scion 880 Coat ps nd sy Sean (tal ari nes LSet on my Orpen a mone i Overview —“Wischaper is designed wo review a few basi matbematia sues you ‘willy encounter nthe study of algale and sar, Tope cover tre couplet number, nee ret tht the qiadrae els, ge ‘Some identities, partial fraction expaasion logatthms, aguentse i ‘id ere, nomial expansion, an inca algae 20.9 A Sample Problem [A periodic square wave signal is pase tough fer whote impulse repose i shown belo. Find the ‘sgoation forthe op sel 36. | | ‘AA Complex Numbers 2 co = 0) i os i Wn i complex umber? Win i an imaginary manber? Wy do we nod them? Weal know about el ‘nents eample aca 1,52, 31415926, 57, In oder dee te square oto neptve ‘eal mbes, he "uber" wa reed (lect engines wll me ised of since is imal eed > Answer: 1 ‘ecient caren) Is defisd as the pip quate oto “hs pon ic cy, Ne ht qt wn iow i an een fing meus a Foe mney ea wished fesbetanns he eayon pooner tans ; ting senby iting £0 uc ct Aer bg bop rs ke! apenas j= Fi Sinemet pitty Osun ut et pe Renee weasel peter ck ‘pete sce in a gn The system designs by) ian ideal owpas fier tat has ctf a = 3/4 Only he erin the Fruriertranfoon of te periodic sure wiv make hog he fea impulse a the oon and wo Fox ox FAT = 6. impiies nf = 17 Taig the averseuaafre, hve te imple coespnd oa ene wee wth DC \ cnet 8 = SCO = LT fit If you did’ get tei awe be sre joa wk ino zoe the bight of he ng oaae wave ab ‘well sth UT Sali ator waster fa mpi in i. Ay mamber with a jin itis own aan imaginary sumer A comple beri namber consising of bad eal and aginay pt y= 2eco cen (corr ied ends tet) C= a+bj = complex number 0 «2efou(s(=05) hinders acne we Same ctample complex numbers me 4 +2 and ~23— fj. Anatereatve way expres complex number I ‘sby wing abouts apni ad phar. Tiss bet sen by dawing te comple umber aves the complex ple. Ii algo commen o eet the eal and imaginary parts complex number epatl 106 Signa and Sytem Made idelout Single ‘Signals and Systems Made Ridiculously Simple ~ by Z Kara 107seax Review Topics : wereiox Review Topics Malad Mtl capes nb e you wee ticing we aol expressing omnes i andoatf = i.fwemmpe Gea) (ee) = Sete lyesh = 3419) coast) | Real pn = Re ' Dvn To ie wo compe uae mai bot he ner mde deni ye complex meee = If) 7, veel de emit ii ' 24, Gespep Hei, smagiade = Ie = [ina nai A = LT 808 ! pein Galea atts phase = 20 « cS) «ar 774) = 60.26% laktplication and Diss in Pola Farms mach cas opin rsipliction and vision whea aaeeer ee | ‘Sunerstmton ae ites net gle fm To mul wom ben prom, inp Phe ly epesein rans, Te oreo: deer «7 aa | ‘phe mpi nal diss When angie er megs ba ass ayant inte sof cones bray canbe vifetg es, ! cP ea ee Ree ‘oan nd erect pow deed con 7 i ers ory a Rone i xmonetitins Wit see aed you Sd (14542 Sem tea lp ight Ney. oP cos sino | Senn pic fam hr psn ces ie maple Osre wot ay ote i (ssp = (ay 2 Belew 6 (csC4n/) 4481 9)) = 8B) set ago aot ‘This gee proce of ising complex nur to power is known as DeMe's Theorem ‘The veto digram for a complex nunber a shown above togeter wi Euler’s foal esd usw the ae ge geronen acueeereee me ats Now i you rely want tongs your end at hea, “fh square rot of thn wha i th ‘Stn rot Pf at aan stp them ry his one: "Hey Jo, the wo agar roto te nanber are? Porfom } SEE. Cnet ee abet A een me to etn {5 peter plo The este ny ped beg ace a comp pase. C= atbj = r(cos8-+jsin8) = vel8 { jos nwo gue we (HVE and (0 opine = LEED 6 pase = tn! / 0) Fi omaha TB = (rant «ned WoL ete cate Rath = reo bs mt) = ra ; or Wh = (erp> = ad Operations on Complex Numbers AdiontSabircton: Toad ose wo complex mbes, merely or sub he ela ii ee ary parts epraely andthe combine Far example, (243) = (Ae) = 2+), — oe Ss tc eg sot nanny yo rg Prete SS on eae Se aka rg | Ce ee ee tetra oe of = a+ bj then C* a—bj. Note that the = magnti = ICP =a? +B, ee ale read the rest of this book. ee erent a Fantotieeetirtesetmectr ean Mada aed hned | ‘Stone and Syotme Made Pciculosly Simple 109arrewox Review Topics ‘A2 Basic Linear Circuit Thoory Se of he most tsi ier cit concepts restated ia his scion. Forme information, ont 2 Incotacony cc texook ic Engineer Creu Anas by Hay ad Kemer (56) Base Great Emons Mone Simtol Rl Cones Revita pS |g vam ‘a se snr aes power reer a | @ IR iced PR r/R Ca. aeay sedis find = osc? Gon chage er tn Coos Capacitor 0 Ch: aio = g/t pace we crams) ‘her cls© DG lage es apace Sint change insanely (op fr sepa np) Y ney sted is 034 oles ides tndocor wn Bl ay fre thor events to DC; caret gh Hees) incor caootchanye innately A (Cee fringe nat) lage i ad an ined fant Voltage Source fcr owing; oda os ee eee the. nding th the ce. per porerio tec caret cls independ of snot Curent Source flag died; roc of LV is eg Teas te inning Ga ete ses 110 Sinai and Sytem Mace Rdculouly Simple avrenox Review Topics Series Pare = eeu? ote: nds combine tk estore hile cgaciter ae oppose cae in pl at) + Wile be ie ef em fe cea eon aay ee a Oe ston ony hl the cae caning to a Senet Sey aera 30, 0 Ae “ be enmajerente onan irat papain wb oh de . od i . [ied cit with mip ndepenfet sources my baal by spe T= i+ 1A] aging te ek of ting oe atte“ at ne ae age eres of by replacing them wih ¢ et eau tm utente by replacing thm witha pea cc ‘Signi and Sytere Made ceouny Simple 134serowx Review Topics ‘Ay potion of ea ot can be replaced with single box conning sage ‘ola source ad reso combina know she Thevenn eae or 4 Single conet suc nd rasta combiaion (own she Net ct) Votage Diver ‘Curent Der im [Ele [Bet wo Ho= 160 “AY 6 TET Transiomation ae ee a wrowx Review Topics Fist Oe Responses ‘Op-Amps ‘Ax ides operational amplifier or opamp fo sor is sting more than a ‘elageconoled vliage source wis very gh alm > Chace oft ide op me: + Both the Vad Veins ave infinite fput impedance, mea that no cient emer or aves the op amp ere + The output node has sr up estar, meaning tat itbehaves ike an ied volage source sapping ae much cul neces + When tone pina ec configuration wih he up iz, he volages tbe two inp emia ace ee + Theop amp si Asif large. Not tain cel ops the pin Ai ‘pe age (y around 10), bat never own exactly. That's why o-amge tie rarily wed in fodtckcongwatot where te efecto raraon ‘ae eine, v2 A@-¥) ‘AS Quadratic Formula ‘There of second oder plyomican be found by wing te qua frmuas shown below: ‘Te tworolvion of 238454 Simotroos: — (6/2) Proctofouts e/a Slonale and Syetome Made Rciulously Simple 113srewx Review Topics AA Trigonometric Identities Here ae few ofthe more comm igonometic nits hat you may ato kgp ond you dot nw te, lent ad hem ve ad emer ht thy eit ta ou cn lok hem pieces. sos cms = 1 n26 = Denon 0220 = con 1 = 12809 since) = neces + concn 2sinasa = oe (a~-P) ~con a+) sin(a-B) sinacosB-cosasinB cos (e+) = cosacosB sine cos (4B) = cose + snesing easiosP = co6(-B) +cor(@-+B) 2einacesB = sn (+B) +n (eB) 2eosasinB = sa (a+) ~sin(a-B) s(t) assur 4) ECF) cnet aul ‘Acs (a) + Bain (2) » APT tan"(B/4)) ‘AS Partial Fraction Expansion Paral fneto expansion (PF isthe name ven othe proces of epaning thera of ply the "umef ratios of salle plynemil The fet ste ito make ae the degre othe Sommaire? Sante dee of he meat (ot grater han or pal), he tthe ce then perfor forgo onthe ffentng eon unl you hve something you san nok ith FFE Qi eefl nvr fs ons, expecially when dong Inverse Lalace or Zansforne. ‘The exis ay dese te pes treugh be folowing examples aes aed eth GEN GTD “Te vals or A and ine above examples ae kana the ides or dul How id we fn hese aes Wl. depends onthe tao: 114 Signata and Systems Made Reuously Stople arrcwox Review Topics Lear, Nor Repeating Factors Fr dominator ply tht abe broken pin simple Sat ner (non sepesing) actos slig fo ‘herein iat gute ex. The genera proces PFE for near, nor rpeaied acre hk, wri Ge IEP, [Abeays check your wor by plggng in for Ate nd rconaig ino one Senet near, Repeating Factors ‘Whit bout polyomine with muliple order ote? This becones ait more complied PFE forties repeated totors ry fe cg Mg het MO 20 Spyro” one Ta te, BO aol) Dh = iteration of te Ale zi ‘rashes # ‘The above formula some fick remember an i probably best used when programming « mp o do patil cin expansion for you. ety sete mead fot andng near epee acters ‘When finding be residual fort highs poner gm abs expansion of epented oo ote at he above mula edocs oe tna pote fron repetl rots T lst, veo an example AA A, TBE” Gea Gee GHD FT x A MED ge Be XOE#D) ‘Signa and Syeteme Made Rilo Simple 11Ssrrewx Review Topics ee Now, how ar we ig, an A? One method would e: li fr Ay and B, recone ato one frac: match coecenson appropri poves of sin he resin tat oe celina a he iia muneror of A); ad ve he ean system of eqn for 4 td Ay. Ante med st ‘suis he highs od tem Fm bh se, and repent te PFE poco se toad ‘Tae eal is ised wing he later meio owe ow a oe O° apa "tad Gap Mel GG GoD Fant" GHB Te sot KV (E42)2] ot TED anf te 2M repeat subeon proce oid Ay Cormplox Roots Sometimes factoring the desominsto of Xs) (with el cafe) wil Io comple conju ot. ‘hate he este alvays complex cones ofeach eer, Tke he following supe, 10° Sra" THUG 7 DD XO OD Gry ale Nonlinear Factors What if you dost wet fcr te denminnr of) into possibly comple rots Fr sca ede tes, completing the sue might prove seul. thers, eve the higher oder em asta wet pmcoa {ori esta (he polynomial shld be one oe sta the deni) Tale fllowing Seto 2s Ase, c e Cy standard metiod Bea Gsy Fetes TOFS CaM EDL +t x= 2A und Bby coe muipying and ching ceteris As Os4 (SA+ 8420.24 (58-4100) = 25 ASC#O SA4B42040 $B410C «25 116 Signals and Systane Made iol Single ‘AS Logarithms “Te logarithm tan extremely cormon mabe funtion tht for sme razon fen siks fain he ‘asf many sens Logins oop oshr)beeome rch easier deal wih when ou remember that they eh lave cpraon of exponen, Fr example 1 = 1000 an fog 0D0 = 3- Logs "ine wre fl fr aplifing diffrence very sal vale yet he ane tine competing items in vey large vale the difference btween logy IDI0 nd log ID) is he ue ws iflrence between logy! and log DT eres ale lustating teverereionstpbetwexn exponents ad lpi tne previo examples, th umber 10 known athe ba ofthe lop. When he as 108i ‘ite, In which ease he fncon i called the commen load: When the be i the anced ‘uber ¢(271R2TEDE..) he ncn i writen a ani Known a the aul logs. Logsdon on ‘it in any tse and thre snp way of comeing betren am But et plat the flowing core ‘elatonhip betes lps ao exponent mln Your al se the aos help You een ow Lopartns Work b> log,6°5, Properties o Lopate (Gorany tase) some data pois tone = 1 top,(0) == (a>1) fogg(1) = 0 leg oegaive num) = veined =m) _ toe), EP Tiey * ete) "fk eeconveion lg, muliptiaion ation og, (2y) = s+ ogy ison ckancton — log(2/9) « lonelony Inver operons aM ett exponents ialogs tg)» roe b _Signats and Sytem ade Pciculouty Staple 117serenox Review Topics Examples 1, eit the folowing reams tos t00 2 2olega001 = 60 2, Sole for ein te floing eqn: 2+ ree 88 am AT Sequences and Series Taylor Seren A "Tvorseriesexptsion polynomial of infiake length wed for approximating fncions sound Particular operating oi. The number of rms ed depends sce) aed i te appinaion ‘he eres expansion canbe rived cng the folowing cso, 1a fon a al higher re evans are Knows at pot hen We ns ‘neve at pot can be found by using the allowing man. The ees ‘stoa. the fower rms you ned er sete es med na 5 drive of fevauted ata Veet ete. fide ty « be w= See foehdet Ina cases he alr he ewer tems you ned ‘18 Sonate nd Systeme ade Aunty Single srrewox Review Topics Other Useful Formulas ADetnion of¢ Wer inte GenetieSeles Serna rereeteaene pre pe atta Water RostveNanbes Sin = 42sde4esy ostnanten —S 2n-1) = 14345474944 GND ow Examples with infinte Series ‘Ther of thi ston lsat few apletions of infest See bow many you cn salve witout leon tthe sles hat follow Some of them re rte wi 4. vlan he flowing opening ftine: 1, Bapes 03262432, ara facto. 2 mati ta(Jea(2) ete seaue Sats ‘Signe and Syetome Made Resiouty Simple 119