UNIT – 4

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTH INDIA

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF TAMILNADU
 Tamil Nadu has a long sandy seacoast and a vast expanse of semi-arid
plains, once covered with scrub forests, grass and groves of bamboo.
 Families clustered together, to be close to each other.
BUILDING FEATURES
 Floors were most often made of rammed mud,finished with a red oxide
coating or cow dung slurry.

 Walls were made of sun-dried or baked brick or mud which were also
regularly treated with a cow dung slurry, which kept the bugs away with
its antiseptic properties.

 The potters made the terracotta roofing tiles.

 The pride of each house was the front door and this was carved and
decorated to be as welcoming and auspicious as could be.
CHETTINAD HISTORY
 Chettiar houses are found today in seventy six villages located in
Pudukottai, Pasumpom Muthuramalingam and Sivaganga districts.

 The Chettiars originated from a place called Nagamandu but later moved
to Kaveripoompattinam.
 In the later years they had a feud with the Chola king who was then ruiling
that place and decided to move to the Pandia kingdom.
 They settled down in Shivagangi which later came to be known as
Chettinad
 These ‘chettinnad houses’ are a real piece of workmanship and a feast to
one’s eye.
 They are a sign of successful joint families.
 Most of these houses were built 100years back but are still standing strong.
CHETTINAD ARCHITECTURE

evolution
  The basic floor plan of a Chettinad house consists of an outside verandah (thinnai)
for guests, with a room for conducting business on one or both ends; an interior
courtyard to be used in ceremonies, with a raised seating area at one or both ends; a
series of small double rooms opening off the main courtyard, for storage, prayer and
sleeping and a small courtyard behind for cooking and for the women to socialize.

common space

Basic rooms
floor
plan courtyard

Living room (valavu)

Thinnai (mugappu)

 Most chettiar mansions comprised of a public reception area abutting the

street.
 An enclosed area or built-in courtyard immediately behind the reception
area surrounded by corridors and small rooms
 leading off them served as the living area and for functions and rituals.
The front corridor sometimes broadened to accommodate two benches like
structures closer to the ground on either side of the doorway.
 Generally a long hall ran along the length of the house. This was used for
dining; in some houses with larger families, there sometimes were even two
dining rooms.
 A second courtyard generally comprised of a kitchen and cleansing area
very much like the previous courtyard in broad concept. The living area
with the personal rooms was replaced by storerooms and kitchens.
 Carved wooden pillars in the more ‘public’ areas
 Elaborate carving on doorframes and lintels,
 Masonry balustrades over the reception area.
 This first floor was usually a long, multipurpose hall with pillared
verandahs on either side.
 greater use of the famed mirror-finish to walls and floors called madras
plaster or egg plaster.
• Insulated from the sun: high ceilings, special wall plasters, athangudi floor
tiles and open courtyards were characteristic of chettinad buildings that
helped the inhabitants stay cool
• "the chettinad houses - locale –built in.
• huge houses -high ceilings - open courtyards - excellent air circulation“.
• chettinad houses have two floors and huge ceilings, which mean that the
ground floor and the inner courtyards stay cool always, insulated from the
sun.
PLAN OF GROUND FLOOR OF A "SIMPLE" NAKARATTAR HOUSE

FRONT (MALE) SECTION OF HOUSE

• 1. MUNN ARAI: FRONT ROOM.
• 2. MUTRRAM: COURTYARD.
• 3. TALVARAM: CORRIDOR.
CENTRAL, CEREMONIAL SECTION OF HOUSE
• 4. KALYANA KOTTAKAI: MARRIAGE HALL.
• 5. PATAKASALAI, TINNAI: THE "PUBLIC" ROOM IN A HOUSE.
• 6. BHOJANA SALAI: DINING HALL.
• 7. VELIARAI: OUTER ROOM.
• 8. ULLARAI: INNER ROOM.
• 9. IRANTAM MAIYA ARAI: SECOND CENTRAL HALL.
• 10. MURRAM: COURTYARD, ROOFED OR COVERED WITH GRILL WORK.
BACK (FEMALE) SECTION OF HOUSE
• 11. MUTRRAM: COURTYARD, ROOFED OR COVERED WITH GRILL WORK.
• 12. TALVARAM: CORRIDOR.
• 13. KALANJIYAM: STORE ROOM.
• 14. SAMAIYAL ARAI: KITCHEN ("COOKING ROOM").
• 15. PIN KATTU: BACKYARD.
• 16. KENI: WELL.

 Ground floor- the architecture is typically tamil, while one can see western
influences on the higher floors.
 This reflects the way of life of the chettiars, who knew how to combine their
vibrant traditions with the global economy.
 In order to build these palaces, materials and expertise from all over the world
were used, adding to the cultural glory of chettinad.
 precise and sophisticated rules of urban planning (orthogonal streets, specific
water management, technical innovation, artistic creativity, etc.).

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERS

 Vast spaces, high ceilings and courtyards- mansions, mostly. These houses
were built on rectangular plots.
 Stretched between two streets, the front door opening into one street and the
back into the next street.
 Linearly designed, that if you were to enter a Chettinad house, the
architectural design compels your gaze along a straight line from the door,
through a series of inner courtyards, ending at the back door. Thus, the breeze,
whenever there was any, never got broken.
 The Mangalore tiled, double layered roof, and the high ceilings insulated the
inside air from the scorching sun outside
 Athangudi tiles gave you cool floors to walk on.
 "Forget air conditioning, inside a Chettinad house, you would never feel the
need for even fans“.
AGRAHARAMS

• Brahmin houses in
the various regions of
Tamil Nadu differ courtyard

slightly in style,
technique and
materials, depending kitchen
on their location.
• However, they are
almost always room
connected by a
common wall and
tend to be narrow in
hall
width and very long.
• They are often
pooja room
without an interior
courtyard, but have
open spaces in the stairs leading up
back. Light and air
frequently comes
from a clerestory thinnai
which substitutes for
the open courtyard in
the flat-roofed
houses Basic
plan
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF KERALA

 The factors that influence the traditional architecture of kerala are

 Climate
 Building materials
 Culture
Climate
 Kerala has warm humid climate with heavy rainfall, hence it is essential to
achieve good ventilation in buildings and fast draining of rain water and
prevention of dampness
Building materials:
 Clay and laterite stones are available
 Good quality timber is also available in abundance, besides these lime is
also available
 Therefore traditional houses have walls built out of mud, brick or laterite
stones and plastered with lime
 Roof are made out of timber rafters and claded with terracotta tiles
Culture:
 Kerala is a narrow stretch of land bounded by arabian ses on the west and
the mountain range of western ghats on the east.
 The land is quite isolated
 This in the past had reduced interaction with the rest of the country
 The state has ample back waters, rugged mountains, narrow fertile valleys,
all in close proximity
 This gave scope for the evolution of many occupations and generated a
colourful and distinctly different culture, the people are consious of their
cultural idendity
 The impact of these aspects could be seen in their traditional residences
The house form:
 The house form of a typical kerala house was essentially evolved to suit the
climate with the building materials available there, but in course of time
the form was evolved to accommodate the beleifs, values of the people and
their resultant behavioural pattern
 Since the construction of the roof involves extensive carpentry works and
the roof form was given greater importance, their building construction is
be of high carpentry works – tachu shastra
 The tachu shastra has laid down certain design principles
 The sizes of the easily available timber / rafters would have been the
determining factor for the sizes of the rooms
 Easy to build and stable forms of timber would have been considered as
ideal forms
 Generally the typical houses are nallu- kattu houses or four bay houses, big
houses can be eattu- kattu or eight bay houses
 East or west facing houses are preferred depending upon the region
 Usually the living room is referred to be located in the first bay in the north
or south
 The bay next to the living room contains the court yard
 The pooja room is located in relation to the courtyard
 This forms the focal point of the house and all other rooms are located in
relation to this
 Location of rooms vary from region to region
 Traditional buildings have verandah’s all around the buildings, which also
protects the external walls from rainfall and sun ray’s.
 The width of the verandah may vary from two feet to as much as 12 feet. It
may be different on different sides of the house.
 This feature is not found in later period of the buildings mainly due to the
economy.
 In a warm humid climate the use and control of the wind is very important
for comfort.
 the more the wind movement the greater the comfort.
 Since most houses are situated in the middle of the piece of the land, there
is noo interruption in the wind movement.
 The design of the house was to catch the wind. In rooms where people
spend most of the time in day the window openings were brought in at the
ground level.
 The entrance is open atleast on two sides.
 Cross ventilation is hindered because of the small area of external
openings, this might have been so because of the need for privacy or
security.
 The courtyards bring more comfort to the traditional buildings.
 Generally, atleast two wings of a courtyard house will be open, raised
platforms.
 Both the tiled and thatched roof are light. Moreover they allow free flow of
air between them.
 Timber was the most predominant building material in kerala.
 It was widely available and many varieties were very durable.
 Teak, jack wood, anjali and thembavu were commonly used.
 In typical traditional architecture, timber was used for walls, doors and
windows, intermediate floors and roofs.
 Buildings with timber walls were built in travancore until about 70 years
ago.
 Timber was getting scarce towards the end of the 19th century, although
there were many private forests, in course of time the government wanted
to have monopoly on thekinds of wood generally used for house building
 Laterite came to be used for walls instead of timber, because of the
prominence of wood in traditional kerala architecture, the carpenter was
the head craftsman.
  Since there was little masonry work masons were of negligible importance
in the olden days
Sloping roofs:
 Roof is a symbol of home and kerala is known for its decorative roofs, sloping roofs.
 The traditional architecture of kerala comprises temples, palaces and houses built
which reflects the unique wood construction system of this region.
 The ridged roof is pitched at angles between 30degrees to 40 degrees forms the
main visual and functional element that renders a distinct identity of the regions
architecture.
 The roof was embellished with intricately carved gables protruding from the roof
and has generous overhangs sometimes supported by wooden brackets.
 The style of the roof has a lot to do with the climatic conditions of the place.
SACRED ARCHITECTURE:
 A specific city type common in the south is the temple city
 Element of temple city – a river, a temple tank and a rectangular or square walled
city plan whose core is a temple complex with its major entry facing the east.
 The temple precinet itself like a miniature city with a number of concentric paths
for circumambulation ( prakramas )
 The cardinally oriented axial paths leading from center to the city gates are
accentuated by tower like gates ( gopuras )
 Kerala does not have many large scale religious buildigs but planning skills and
craftmanship are evident in its domestic and palace architetcure, such as nair
house and padmanabhapuram palace.
VASTUVIDYA:
 Traditional kerala architecture ( vastu vidya ) which is derived from stapatya veda
of adharva veda, mainly deals with two types of architecture
 Residential architecture ( manusyalaya ) coming under functional architecture
 Temples coming under conceptual architecture
NALUKETTU HOUSES
Construction style based on: tacchu shastra (the science of architecture)
 The nalukettu is the traditional style of architecture of kerala, wherein a
house has a quadrangle in the centre.
 Originally the abode of the wealthy brahmin and nair families, this style of
architecture has today become a status symbol among the well to do in
kerala.
 Nalukettu is evident in the traditional homes of the upper class homestead
where customs and rituals were a part of life.
 The mansion is created using wood and tiles, central open courtyard and
wondrous architecture.
 The interiors of the house are tastefully decorated with a wealth of antiques
made from teak, sandalwood, mahogany etc.
 The glorious examples of nalukettu
 the 'tantrasamuchaya',
 'vasthuvidya',
 'maushyalaya chandrika' and '
 silparatna'
are the celebrated treatises in the field of architecture that
kerala has contributed to the world.
 The nalukettu of kerala is famous for building along with the rules of
'tachu sastra' (science of architecture).
 The padmanabhapuram palace, the dutch palace at mattancherry and
krishnapuram palace near kayamkulam are some of the famous palaces of
kerala.
 The rock temples, woodcarvings, and metal cuttings are excellent pieces of
works of kerala.
The evolution of nalukettu
  Essentially, nalukettu can be explained as an expansion of the concept of
'sala' enshrined in the 'vaastushastra', the indian science of architecture.
 A 'sala' was a square or rectangular living room with verandas on one or
more sides.
 An 'akashala' or single unit house was affordable for even the poorest and
the lowest in the rigid caste hierarchy.
 The addition of another l-shaped hall made it a 'dwissala' or two-
structured abode.
 Further economic advancement and familial needs led to the addition of a
third structure, making three sides of open -ended square -a 'thrissala'.
 When the fourth side was also hemmed in by the addition of another 'sala',
the resultant square became 'chatussala' or the 'nalu' (four) and 'kettu' (built
up sides).

The style of construction

 The traditional 'nalukettu', barring the foundation and floor is made of

carved and slotted wood and has a close resemblance to east asian gabled
and thatched structures.
  In later years, tiles replaced the coconut fronds.
 The enclosed courtyard or 'ankanam' is usually sunk and therefore called
'kuzhi (pit) ankanam'.
 The protruding roofs of the 'salas' formed shady verandas and protected
the rooms from direct sunlight, keeping them cool even on the hottest of
days.
 The inner verandah around the 'ankanam' is open.
 The outer verandahs along the four sides of the 'nalukettu' are enclosed
differently.
 While both the western and eastern verandahs are left open, the northern
and southern verandahs are enclosed or semi-enclosed.
 In the middle of the enclosed southern or western 'salas' is the 'ara' or the
storage room, flanked by bedrooms.
 The floor of the 'ara' was raised even higher than that of the other 'salas'
to accommodate a 'nilavara' or basement.
 Entrances to the building were provided at the centre of the east, west,
north and south sides depending on the
position of the 'ara'.
 As the families prospered and grew in size,
other squares of 'salas' were added to make
'ettukettus' or mansions with eight 'salas'
around two courtyards.
 On the firmer grounds of kerala, the
'nalukettu' rose upwards into two or three
storeys, the upper floors being reserved for the 'karanavars' (elders).
 By the time multi-storeyed mansions evolved, the wooden walls had given
way to laterite ones plastered with lime.
 The ultimate development in this line was the 'pathinarukettu', or
structure with 16 'salas'.
The tradition preserved
  the 'nalukettu' tradition was preserved by the 'thatchans' or trained
architect-painters, well versed in the science of 'vaastushastra'.
 Much of the rules of construction are codified in the 'manushyalaya
chandrika', a treatise on architecture by the famed architect, mangalathu
neelkantam namboothiri.
Nair tharavads of kerala:
 The nair are a race of people living in the state of kerala and costitute 16 percent of
the state population
 The homestead ( tharavad ) houses joint families comprising as many as 30 -40
members living in a matriarchial system
 The name – nair is said to be derived from the sanskrit word nayan ( plural –
nayar ) meaning leader of soldier
 Head of the tharavad was the oldest male member ( karnavan )
 The number of such module classifies the courtyard and wings surrounding it from
a basic module and the housetype – nalukettu ( nalu means four and kettu means
chambers ), ettukettu and padinaramkettu meaning 8 and 16 chambers
respectively
 The priciple of sitting, spatial arrangements of rooms, materials, measurements and
construction details were based on vastu vidya and tachushastram
 The main element of nair tharavad are fortified entrance gates ( paddipura ),
Temple ( kshetram ), bathing tank ( kullapura ), well ( kupam ), cattleshed ( ghosala
), and an undisturb thicket for snakes ( sarpakavu )
 The dwelling unit in the east, kitchen on the northern side, well near it, the bathing
tank in the northeast part, the temple and acttleshed in the south or southwest
 The length : breadth ratio, the perimeter of the house and the location of the
garden and trees are determined by tachushastram
 Upper floor built above the western and then the southern wing
 Steep puramidal roof with a 45 degree pitch, deep overhangs and shaded
verandahs used due to shun heavy rainfall and humidity
  locally available materials such as stone, lime, wood, thatch and tiles were used for
the buidings

Materials and construction techniques:

 The foundation of existing buildings were usually built with laterite blocks. Laterite
can be called the – blessing of ketala – since 80% of kerala’s surface is covered with
it
  In many large buildings mud was used, sum dried mud bricks were often used for
ground floor, mud mortor was used in many buildings constructed with laterite so
as to reduce the cost of construction
 Lime made form shells was used as mortor for the super structure
 The most common of flooring was that beaten earth polished with cow dung at
regular intervals.
 Polishing with cow dung was the duty of the women
 The black coloured traditional flooring used in the more expensive buildings was
done with a mixture of lime, sand, coconut shell black, white of egg, jaggery,
coconut water and other various vagetable extracts
 The smoothness was achieved by polishing the floor with a particular variety of
banana
The vanishing nair tharavads:
 The kovilakom of the ruling class, the illam and mana of the
namboodiris (priestly class), and tharawads of the nair
community (administrative and warrior group) are the major
upper class housing types that formed the settlement of this
region.
 The tharawad, though it now stands generally for the
ancestral home, gains its name from the context of which it is
a part of.
 Thara is a neighbourhood, mainly nair dominated.
 The namboodiri dominated areas are called uru.
 Many thara formed a desom and many desoms formed a nadu and many
nadus formed a swaroopam.
 The inhabitants of thara formed a government under a karanavar (elder
one) - a feudal group that ruled the region.
 Thara as a political organisation ceased to exist long before, but still is
lively in many places as a community group.
 The many nair houses associated with a temple and its surroundings called
thara is a common settlement cluster in the region.the tharawad now
stands for historic association with generations of ancestors.
 It goes back several generations.
 Overburdened with inhabitants, the tharawad split into manageable
matrilineal groups that stayed in different buildings.
 Some tharawads comprised over 200 inhabitants!
 The nairs followed the marumakkathayam - a system of matriarchial
descent while the namboodiris were patriarchial.
 Nairs took land on lease from the namboodiris and cultivated the same.
 Among the namboodiris only the eldest one could marry.
 The younger ones could have "relations" called sambandham with nair
women.
 These women stayed in their own tharawads and the namboodiris visited
them from time to time.
 Even nair men never stayed with their families.
 The relationships between husband and wife, father and children were not
recognised.hence the namboodiri illams had spacious public areas while
the nair tharawads had more bedrooms.
 A tharawad consisted of the karanaver (senior most male member), his wife
- ammayi (aunt) and their children; his sisters and their children.
 Senior male members managed the property on behalf of the women.
 The karanavar had the absolute powers to represent, possess and manage
the tharawad and its properties.
 The karanavar provided everything from pocket money to clothes to the
members.
 No marriage took place between members of a tharawad as they are
considered related by blood.
 These tharawads were "urban clusters" in themselves.
  Functions and rituals considered sacred among the nair community that
now take place in temples, like naming of the child, ear boring ceremony,
initiation to letters, first tonsure of the new born and so on used to be
conducted within the tharawads.
 Festivals like onam, vishu and navarathri were celebrated with pomp.
 Many local festivals associated with temples in different parts of kerala are
even now conducted and managed by the respective nair tharawads of the
region.
 The traditional building types of these tharawads were nalukettu (four
blocks), ettukettu (eight blocks), pathinarukettu (sixteen blocks) - the
multiples of a basic chatursala type.
 Chatursala, according to texts, is an interconnected four blocked building
around a central courtyard called anganam or nadumuttam.
 The lower class types mainly remained ekasala - the one sided.
 The four blocks are the vadakini, thekkini, kizakkini and padinjattini
according to their corresponding cardinal locations of n,s,e,w respectively.
 Vadakkini houses the kitchen and dining, padinjatini, the bedroom and
granary, thekkini and kizhakkini are halls and rooms for visitors.
 These buildings were laid and constructed following elaborate rituals and
principles according to the traditional texts on vastu vidya which were
highly articulated prescriptive building guidelines.
 The guidelines ranged from selection of site, nature of soil, orientation
buildings , position of buildings and rooms according to mandalas, to the
perimeter of the building, dimensional system, kind of motifs and
decorations to be used and so on.
 These buildings demonstrate excellent craftsmanship in wood and a good
understanding of construction and building material science.
THE NAMBUDIRI ILLAMS OF KERALA:
  The remaining illams of the nambudiri brahmins of kerala present some of the best
examples of kerala’s domestic architecture and remain a fascinating document of
the social customs and belifs of earlier kerala society
History:
 Kerala has two major sects of brahmins, the tamil brahmins who were more
nuerous in travancore and the nambudhiri brahmins who settled primarily in the
malabar area.
 The nambhudiri brahmin’s unique role in kerala society is evident through
inscriptional and textual evidence over the last 1200 years.
 They were not only the ritual leaders of the state but also its powerful landowners.
The nambudhiri illam:
 The nambudhiri homes are concentrated primarily in trichur and palghat districts
in south malabar, but area found scattered often in small clusters, as far as south as
kottayam in travancore and in morth malabar up through cannanore.
 The nambudhiri houses in south malabar are an excellent reflection of norms of
their social systems.
 These houses also reflect the prevailing ritual norms and cosmic beliefs which were
common to all hindu, and to some extent to other communities in karala also.
 The segregation of spaces, the emphasis on rooms for rituals, the large tanks for
bathing and the combination of buildings in each compound area some of the
distinguishing features of the nambhudiri illams.
Description of the nambhudiri illam:
 The nambhudiri illam, particularly among the affluent nambhudiri families of the
trichur area presents a self contained complex of buildings in a wide, secluded
compound.
 This consists of the main house a one or two storeyed nalukettu building, an
entrance gate – padipura , one or more tanks for bathing, of which one is generally
linked to the house and the following optional buildings, a granary, a kitchen for
feeding guests – agrasala and a shrine, or a temple itself
  Except for the granary, which has solid walls of laterite or most commonly of wood
and the bedroom the other rooms often, have half walls, topped with slatted wood
to close the space in to a room, have half walls, topped with slatted wood to close
the space into a room
 Traditionally the northern and eastern sides are considered suitable for ritual and
earlier were not permitted to be built up, for both practical and ritual reasons.
 The kitchen with its adjacent well is always, absolutely without exception in all
houses on the northeast corner
 Since the wind comes form the southwest in kerala, this is the most logical position
to ensure that the smoke leaves the building directly.
 The northern side next to the kitchen is used for the performance of shredda and
the human ritual of pouring ghee on the sacred fire, the most important ritual to a
nambhudiri
 The puja room is often located on the north, or in the east next to the kitchen, but
this varies from region to region
 The traditional nambhudiri house appeared to segregate its corner rooms from the
main blocks.
 These rooms are seperated almost consistently by corridors, stairwells and doors
going outside.
 Vulnerable to spirits and cosmic forces corner rooms are also seperated from the
main structure by a special wall plates.
Women spaces:
 A distinguishing feature of the nambhudiri house is the numerous corridor and
spaces provided for the nambhudiri women who were considered ritually inferior
to man and traditionally not allowed to set foot in the area surrounding the main
courtyard except on their marriage day and at death.
 Where houses had only courtyard, added spaces to the back next to the kitchen
which was also the womens domain gave the women a place to sit, chat and work,
and even perform puja.
  Passages offered them backdoor access to the main puja room which they could
watch only from the window.
 Access to one or two bed rooms in the house, which usually occupied marginal
spaces such as a corner room, was also through a back corridor and a back door
KOYIKKAL PALACE:

 Koyikkal palace, the royal seat of the perakathavazhy swaroopam, a

collateral Branch of venad is a living symbol of the pinnacle of traditional
architecture which Prevailed in kerala during the seventeenth century.
 The palace renowned for its Unstincted use of wood has a nalukettu
structure with central courtyard, gabled Roof, ornate pillars and long
corridors
 This two storeyed royal residence symbolizes the stylistic perfection of
mediaeval Architecture of south kerala and regarded as the most ancient
palace built by the Rulers of venad.
 The palace is square on plan.
 The nadumuttam or central courtyard Is paved with granite.
 Like other palaces of travancore, there used stone pipes for Underground
drainage system to letting out water from the nadumuttam.
 Beautifully Carved granite pillars in the four sides of the veranda around
the nadumuttam are Wonderful specimen of craftsmanship of the bygone
era.
 The nilavara or strong room
  In one of the rooms of the ground floor of the palace, which is said to be
connected With an underground passage to another palace at karupur.
 But there is no archaeological evidence to prove this
Assumption.
 One of the rooms near the entrance of the palace was used as a puja Room
where a traditional diety known as ‘mallan thampuran’ had been
worshipped.
 Like many other palace of the rulers of venad this palace also has a temple
attached to it, the entrance to which is at presently blocked from the palace
side.
 All essential ancellary structures like padippura, kitchen, oottupura,
urappura, kulappura etc. Are completely vanished.
 A small pond which has survived through the onslaught of time, nature
and men is preseved in the compound.
 The old type well in the palace compound is still remains useful.
 On the first floor, there is a wide gabled balcony with ornate wooden
trelliswork, facing the east.
 The entrance to the palace is from the east through a narrow simple gabled
opening.
 Though there are no windows in the rooms, a veranda enclosed with
wooden railing in all the four sides of the palace in the ground and first
floor controls the air circulation inside the palace.
 The thick walls built with laterite blocks set in lime mortar with finely
plasterd surfaces enhance the elegance of the palace.
 Within the palace, the department of archaeology has established a
numismatics museum along with a folklore museum in 1992 for exhibiting
rare ancient coins, musical instruments, occupational implements, house
hold utensils and the models of folk art forms.
 The object displayed reflect splendid cultural heritage of the past.
  The numismatics museum on the ground floor established to collect,
preserve and exhibit coins provides valuable information on the origin of
the coins, related historical events, trade relationships, other socio political
relationships and the cultural heritage of the country.

PADMANABHAPURAM PALACE:
Historical significance
 Travancore was formerly known as thiruvithamcode, vanchedesam,
velnad, venad and vanavanad.
 The rulers were known as vanchibhoopathis.
 The prefix vanchi indicates that the ancestors of the rulers were chera
kings whose capital was thiruvanchikulam.
 It is said that venad was in existence even before the beginning of
malayalam era.
 The first venad ruler was ayyanadikal thiruvadikal.
 The west facing palace dates back to the days of veera udaya marthanda
varma.
 The kalkulam fort (udayagiri fort) which encompasses an area of 186 acres
was built in 1601 ad.
 The last to rule venad from padmanabhapuram was marthanda varma the
great.
 In 1750, he surrendered his kingdom to lord padmanabha
(truppadidanam) and ruled on his behalf. Since then the rulers of
travancore were known as padmanabha dasas.
 In 1750 marthanda varma found it necessary to change the capital to
trivandrum.
 Then his successors used this palace to spent short periods (holidays).
 Gradually its historical and cultural significances faded.
 It was sree chithira tirunal who ascended the throne in 1931, took the
initiative to revive art, architecture, sculpture and other fine arts of
travancore.
 Thus padmanabhapuram palace, its congregation of typical kerala features
in architecture, roofing, carved wooden frontages, doors, corridors etc,
makes it a complex of artistic eminence.
 Padmanabhapuram palace cover an area of
around 7 acres.
 The complex consists of individual structures
linked by a maze of corridors, colonnades,
verandahs, courts and constructed of teakwood
and granite and stands within the massive
stone walls of 30 ft which kept tipu sultan at bay
in the 18th century.
 Exquisite wall paintings, fascinating traditional kerala architecture, floors
finished to a high polish with a special compound of crushed shells,
coconuts, egg-white and juices of local plants; sunny courtyards with
carvings and sculptures are some of the outstanding features of this
sprawling palace housed within fortified walls.
 The palace has its main entrance from the west.
 The 'padipura' or the main gate reached after crossing a large courtyard,
displays an ornamented gabled roof.
 The 'pumukham', inside the second court, has a profusely carved rosewood
and mahogany ceiling with 90 different inverted flowers, a polished
granite bed in one corner and an ornate chinese throne.
 There is an audience hall on the upper level of the two storeyed building
with circular wooden columns and angled timber screens to let in light and
air.
 The third court marks the beginning of the private zone of the palace.
  Here, on the north of 'pilamottu kottaram' is 'upparikka malika' (upper
storey) or the perumal kottaram.
 Its four chambers, arranged one above the another, connected by steep
steps, served as a treasury on the ground floor, the royal sleeping chamber
on the second floor, the royal meditation chamber and shrine room on the
fourth floor.
 On days of penance, his highness took rest on the third floor, which also
served as his prayer room.
 The 18th century kerala murals on the walls remains unblemished even
after centuries and surpass even those at mattancherry palace in kochi.
 There is also a four poster medicinal bed of 64 ayurvedic healing woods
here, many presented by the dutch.
 Each room in the palace has its own characteristic style.
 A guided tour through the maze of 108 rooms leaves one breathless at the
artistic expression and sheer opulence of these magnificent rooms.
 Painted mahogany musical ceremonial bows adorn a wall, a huge brass oil
lamp hangs from an ornate teak, wooden ceilings profusely carved etc are
a feast to the eyes.
The architecture
 thai kottaaram is the oldest building in this palace complex.
 The remaining blocs were constructed by different rulers.
 Construction continued till the reign of swati tirunal.

 The main blocs include

  poomugha malika
 plamoottil kottaram,
 veppinmoodu kottaram,
 thai kottaram,
 ottuppura,
 homappura,
 udayarvilakom kottaram,
 uppirikka malika,
 aayuda pura,
 indra vilasom,
 chandra vilasom,
 navarathri mandapam,
 puthen kottaram, and
 thekke kottaram.
 Poomugham is a two storied construction.
 The ground floor has 90 different floral patterns, on its ceiling.
 The horse that greets the visitors is a unique one.
 Its circular recess forming the base edge has a fluted rim.
 At the end of which the figure of a horse comes over the centre of the
recess to ensure balance.
 Tilt or pull the lamp to one direction.
 It would come to rest in a fixed position only.
 There is a cot made of granite, a horse shoe shaped chinese chair, and
dozens of ancient ona villu.
The mantrashala
 the 'mantrashala' or council chamber is placed
directly above the entrance on the first floor and
is gently illuminated through panes of coloured
mica.
 Herbs soaking in water were put into the box-benched seats along the
front wall as natural air-conditioning.
 The flooring got its gleaming patina from a unique but an obsolete
technique using burnt coconut, sticky sugarcane extract, egg, white lime
and sand which were mixed together.
 Another amazing feat of architecture is seen in the oldest part of the
complex, the "ekandamandapam" or "the lonely place" with elaborate floor
paintings.
 A loose ring attached to a column is tour de force of the carpenter, as both
the ring and column are carved from a single piece of jack wood.
 Also close by, is a trapdoor, which once opened to a secret passage leading
to another palace a few kilometres away, but long since destroyed.
 The pandya-style stone columned dance hall stands directly in front of the
shrine of goddess saraswati and is very impressive.
 Women of the royal household watched the performance through screens
on the side and the staff through holes in the wall from the gallery above.
 Women's quarters were totally separate.
 The rajas and maharajas were equally elaborately adorned with belgian
mirrors and tanjore miniatures of lord krishna.
 A four-poster bed made from sixteen kinds of medicinal wood dominates
the raja's bedroom.
 Its elaborate carvings depict inter alia human figures, birds and a central
motif - the snake - a symbol of medicine associated with the greek
physician, ascepius.
 Mantrasala has 11 kilivathils (windows), with colored mica as panes.
 The maharaja and his ministers assembled here.
 The flooring is smooth and cool.
 SThe flooring material is made up of a strange mixture-chunnampu, burnt
coconut shell, egg white, and herbs. On the ceiling is depicted the images of
navagriha.
  The narrow corridor from here leads to huge oottupura/dining hall. Nearly
2000 people can sit at a time.
 A few steps down the oottupura, is the thai kottaram.
 This is also dharbakulangara kottaram.
 The ceiling of the dhyanamandapam in this structure is adorned with 63
floral motifs.
 All the flowers except the central one have two rows of petals. Thai
kottaram is built in the nalukkettu style.
 There is an underground passage from here to charottu kottaram, which is
2 kms away.
 There is a pond and a hall for massaging.
 Upparikka malika is a treasure house of art and architecture.
 It is the tallest construction in the complex.
 It houses the treasury, bedroom, fasting room, and puja chamber.
 The wall of the treasury hall is very thick.
 A special lock called naazhi poottu is used to lock this chamber.
 The sapramanjakattil, intricately carved royal cot is yet another marvel on
the display.
The chamber of murals
frescos adorning the walls
 The murals for which the palace is famous are alive with details, colour,
graceful form and religious fervour and adorn the walls of the meditation
room, used by the raja and heirs apparent, directly above the bedroom.
 However, this section has been closed to preserve the murals.
 The museum across the ticket counter has beautiful wooden sculptures and
displays copies of the murals from the palace
 There is a clock tower.
 The building houses stone tablets from the chola days and venad kingdoms.
 The ambarimugham, from where the king hears grievances of his subjects,
the ladies chambers with cute small windows, the navarathri mandapam,
and court sessions are definitely a sight to see and remember.
 Some of the other interesting sections and items in this palace are royal
chairs with chinese carvings, secret underground passages which is said to
run from another palace 2km away, belgian mirrors in the ladies chambers
and pictures of lord krishna, hanging brass lanterns lit continuously since
the 18th century, hanging cage through which eagles tore criminals to
death, open air swimming bath, the king's sister's dressing room with two
hanging beds.
 One of the oldest buildings in the complex is 'thaikkottaram' or the queen
mother's palace (1550) with intricately carved wooden pillars, painted
ceilings and a red polished floor, then there is the alambara bhagavati
temple and saraswathi temple, large earthen urns, room for scribes and
accountants, carved figures on columns holding oil lamps, pooja (worship)
rooms with jackfruit tree columns, fish carvings on the ceilings,
'lakshmivilasam', granite dance hall known as 'navarathrimandapam',
'chandravilasam' which served as the summer resort of the royalty to the
north west, 'indravilasam' incorporating a residence and audience hall,
partly built in a neo- classical style building, thekke kottaram (southern
palace) and 'neerazhi kettu' (bathing ghats) on the south,
'ekandamandapam' or 'the lonely place', the 'homappura', where religious
offerings were made.
 BOAT HOUSES
 The kettuvallam (house boat in kerala) is a large floating structure with
high loading carrying capacity was a part of kerala's culture and heritage
over the past years.
 Kettuvallam could sail harnessing wild energy.
 A journey through the lagoon is interesting, passing through sleepy
villages, busy boat jetties and vibrant celebrations.
 The boat glides across the shimmering blue waters with gorgeous green
and fringed edges.
 For centuries kettuvallam have been roaming in the backwaters
transporting men and materials to different destinations.
 Due to its sheer size and shape, kettuvallam can carry load, which is more
than thrice that of a cargo truck. It was the important mode of
transportation in coastal kerala just because of its accessibility to the most
remote areas.
 As time passed the scene changed gradually. Motorized road, rail and air
transportation scored over the slow and staid country boat, with people
opting for speed over charm.
 With kerala becoming an increasing popular destination for tourists
kettuvallam have been given a new lease of life.
 A cruise in the backwaters of kerala is a remarkable experience, an
opportunity to enjoy and contain an unhurried pace of life.
 Floating along on cool tranquil water one can experience at hand the
unusual representation of kerala life.
 Nowadays environment friendliness has become the yardstick gauging the
efficiency of transportation.
 Kettuvallam is not only economical but also non-polluting and
environment friendly.
  It thus became imperative that this mode of transportation be developed
further and encouraged.
 The tourist demand for an experience to get a feel of the kerala shores
brought the kettuvallam back to the waters.
 They were attracted by the simplicity and the originality of the form.
 The tourist loved the slowand leisurely movement more than the
monotonous motion of the mechanized ones.
 These were non-luxurious, non-mechanized simple traditional boats.
Basic structure
 the hull is a series of wooden planks, long
cut and carved by the expert hands of the
carpenter, tied together using coir with
coconut fibers stuffed in between.
 Kettuvallam is steered by two persons in
deep waters by means of oars.
 Long bamboo poles or 'punts' are used to
propel in shadow areas.
 Bamboo beams sprouting off on the sides are used as foot holds for the
same a senior oarsman and a helper control the kettuvallam by singing
songs and chants for inspiration.
 A box of sand, a few bricks in interior facilitate cooking on lower racks,
with storage on the upper ones.
 Food and necessary items are stored in shelves sleeping quarter is on the
uppermost racks, which have the best ventilation and accessibility.
 The interior space can also be used for the same when there is no cargo.
 Fresh water is stored in earthenware pots.
 Basically kettuvallam was designed to transport cargo to various
destinations in kerala.
 When it was used for tourist purpose, there new problem cropped up like -
no free movement was possible because the floor area of the hull was very
less.
 The space below the hull was more compared to the space above.
 There were no openings, which provided enough of light, air or view
towards outside.
 The tourist felt it difficult to walk through the length because the curved
shape of the hull with manikals coming across.
 The roof was made of thatch, which was not properly done so during rain
leakage was likely.
 Due to the low head clearance of the valapura it was only possible to sit on
the padi of the hull.
 Since the valapura was low, the airflow through the vallam minimum.
 The hull is curved and for the beginners it was very difficult to balance
when the vallam was in motion

 The body due to these difficulties it become necessary to make some

changes in the form so that a comfortable cruise was possible.
 The body was redesigned and remodeled to adapt for the new demands and
functions.
 Certain elements had to be added and others removed to make it good
enough for comfortable cruise.
 Height of roof was increased to get sufficient headroom.
 A plank was laid all through the length to reduce the disadvantages of
curved shape of the hull for walking and comfortable seating.
 Windows and other openings were provided for light, airflow and view.
  The entrance is provided in the center of the linear axis with a top hung
panel, which was supported by poles on either ends of the valapura.
 Most of the latest designs have incorporated 3 bedrooms with a common
toilet, a living space and kitchen.
 Now some of them have come with lesser number of bedrooms but with
large living space and may be a deck balcony at the roof level.
 The platforms that cantilever from the hull are used as balconies.
 For fixing the toilet seats, shower tray and ceramic floor finish a concrete
slab is laid at the floor level.
 The soil outlet of the toilet seats are taken through the hull and let out to
the following water beneath, the water is stored in a plastic tank kept at the
top portion of the valapura taking connection to the kitchen and toilets.
 The pipes, tank and other synthetic materials are covered with coir or
panambu to maintain the aesthetic quality of the eco friendly materials.
 The air cylinders, which are of the metal body, are fixed to the underside of
the cantilevered platforms at the entry points of valapura.
 These cylinders helps to balance the structure on water reducing its tilting
to the sides to a minimum.
 Since the circulation inside the vallam is more in the new function more
stability is required.
Colour and texture
 the colour of the valapura is yellowish brown, which is the colour of the
natural materials like panambu, coir and bamboo.
 It is a warmer colour comparing to the colour of the surrounding
atmosphere.
 This gives a nice feeling of being inside the vallam.
Furnishing
 the interior furniture are either of cane or wood, floor carpeted with coir
mat and valapura of panambu, mula and coir all colours matching each
other but bring the depth and variations in vision.
Lighting
 Light and the patterns of light and darkness it creates can call our attention
to one a rear of our room de-emphasize others and thereby create division
of spaces.
 At night the traditional hurricane lamp is used to light the interiors.
 Usually each one is hung from the ridge of valapura one at front, one at
rear and one or two accordingly for the living spaces.
 And mostly for half of a month there will be moonlight, which gives
enough light, reflected on water.
Roofing
 Bamboo is used for the framework of the roof and splits of bamboo are
used for weaving mat for roofing.
 Bamboo poles are used for punting the vallams.
 It is strong fiber and absorbs more carbon.
 The kettuvallam has been so much a part of kerala's culture and heritage
for years.
 Although it faced a period of decline with the advent of surface transport it
has now come back to the scene as tourist attraction, it is a space adapted
for the present, from the past to be used in the future and it plays a
significant role in the social and economic aspects of the life e of the people
of kerala.the slow moving kettuvallam splitting the serene backwaters
flanked by greenery provide an enchanting experience to any visitor.
 Floating in these backwaters in a country craft kettuvallam to explore the
unusual representation of kerala through the intricate maze of canals
conjures up a surreal existence devoid of any time sense.