QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE I

IN

FORENSIC 1: FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

BY:

MELANIE P. LUPOG-FULGENCIO
Instructor

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

Module 1 Forensic 1: Forensic Photography

Competencie  Historical background of photography
s
 Personalities
 Important dates
 Principles of photography

Discussion INTRODUCTION:
In our Modern Criminal Justice System, the investigation required of an
objectivity that can only achieved by scientific means. Photography is one
that plays a very important role in both criminology and civil cases. The
usefulness of forensic photography in criminal investigation is very
extensive.

Small object but of great importance in crime commitment may escape

in the first place of examination by the investigation but may be seen and
recovered only after close examination the photographs of the crime scene.
Investigators are sometimes compelled to reconstruct or describe in court
some of the details of the crime scene they have investigated several months
ago. With the bulk cases the investigators handle, perhaps he could be
confuse or may the not exactly recall some of these details or exact location
of objects. However, with the aid of photographs taken from the scene of the
crime, investigators will not fine hard time to refresh their minds and will
able to describe or explain exactly the details in court.

A good photo of the scene is a permanent records which always

available, especially in court presentation. In court proceedings, judges,
fiscal land defence lawyers have generally never visited the scene of the
crime. Photograph generally facilitates them in interpreting the scene.
Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain a normal, sharp
and free of distortion photograph. As a general rule, “Take many
photographs of the crime scene and select the best”.

Photography can be used for identification, record, presentation and

substitution of evidence of the crime. It can discover things that could be
seen by the naked eye as photography extends man’s visual limitation. Take
for instance an obliterated writings, written words under super imposed ink
which on the same color to the eye could be separated and down singly by
infrared photography.

The criminalists or forensic examiners and investigators could not rely

on their memories in which photograph would serve as sort of artificial
memory for them. Remembering all the things they have examined and
investigated would be impossible after several years before the case is
presented in the court. They need photographs of the things they have
examined and investigated for future references and court presentation.
Police photographers should know the complex technique and knowledge of
the subject for his work is not limited to the production of good negatives
and photograph. It goes more than that; he has to fight the case in court as
well.

Every forensic examiner should know photography. He may took the

photograph himself or let police photographer do it for him, he could answer
that the photograph was taken by himself for it was taken under his direct
supervision. How can be supervised if he does not know photography?

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and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

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 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

Photography is indispensable to the effective presentation of certain types of
court testimony. Exhibits of hand writing and finger print for comparison
are integral parts of the court testimony. Always remember that the opinion
of the expert witnesses is always susceptible to ocular inspection otherwise
his testimony would have a lesser weight. Photography is not merely taking
of a few snapshots and the processing of the same. From the scientific point
of view, one must have a complete knowledge in chemistry, physic, and
optic of laws and mathematics. And it’s application of view, one must be
armed with experience and the basic fundamental of the trade or science to
which would be applied.

The role of the photographer at the scene or in the post mortem room
plays a vital important role as a member of the investigating team. The
responsibility that rests with this expert for the production of record
photographs cannot be overemphasized to strongly. These must be at the
highest quality with respect to accuracy of exposure focus composition,
magnification, viewpoint perspective and rendition of coloring regardless of
whether the photographs are put before the court in monochrome or in
color.

PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOGRAPY
A photograph is a mechanical result of photography to produce a
photograph; light is needed aside from sensitized materials (film and paper).
Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach the sensitized
materials while all other light must be excluded. The exclusion of all other
lights to be recorded on the sensitized materials inside a light tight box is
controlled by lens.

The light mentioned may be visible or invisible. Visible light refers to the
light that can be detected by our naked eye. Invisible light refers to
radiation, which are either too short or too long wavelength to excite the
retina of the eye.

Photography 
- Is the method of recording images by the action of light, or related
radiation, on a sensitive material.
- The process or art of producing images of objects on sensitized
surfaces by the chemical action of light.
- The word photography was derived from the Greek word "phos" -
light and "graphed" - drawing.
- The word was first used by the scientist Sir John Frederick
William Herschel in 1839.

Police Photography
-It is the study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking
pictures of the crime scene, physical things, and other circumstances that
can be used as criminal evidences or for law enforcement purposes.

Forensic photography
- It is the process of photographing or recording of crime scene or any
other objects for court presentation.
- Forensic photography is that field covering the legal application of
photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal investigation.

It is that branch of forensic science dealing with the:

• study of the fundamental but pragmatic principles/concepts of
photography;
• application of photography in law enforcement; and

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• Preparation of photographic evidence needed by prosecutors and
courts of law.

Photograph  – is an image produced through the action of light.

Picture – is a representation or image on a surface, e.g. a painting,
drawing, print or photograph, especially as a work of art.
(Webster Dictionary).

BRIEF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY AND

EVIDENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Johannes Kepler was the first person to coin the phrase Camera
Obscura in 1609, Kepler further suggested the use of a lens to
improve the image projected by a Camera Obscura.
2. In 1664-1666 Isaac Newton discovers that the white light is
composed of different colors with the use of a prism.
3. In 1727: Professor J. Schulze mixes chalk, nitric acid and silver in
a flask; notices darkening on side of flask exposed to sunlight.
Accidental creation of the first photo-sensitive compound.
4. In 1826-27, Joseph Nicephore Niepce took eight (8) hours to obtain
the first fixed or permanent image combining the camera with
photosensitive paper.
5. Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre inventor of the first practical
process of photography (1838-39). Daguerre developed a more
convenient and effective method of photography, naming it after
himself the daguerreotype. This process takes 30 minutes of
exposure.
-On January 1839 Daguerre announced this first complete
practical photographic process to the French Academy of Sciences
and the news quickly spread.
6. 1841 – Paris Police begin “Rogues Gallery”, precursor of today’s
mug file.
7. In 1840-41 William Henry Fox Talbot patents the Calotype
process (Greek for beautiful pictures) the first negative-positive
process making possible the first multiple copies.
-Father of photography
8. 1848 – Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, introduced a process of
negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding medium.
9. 1850m – Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evart, introduced a printing
paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.
10. In 1851 Frederick Scott Archer introduced the Collodion
process. This process was much faster than conventional methods,
reducing exposure times to two (2) or three (3) seconds, thus opening
up new horizons in photography.
11. Tintypes, patented in 1856 by Hamilton Smith, were
another medium that the birth of photography. A thin sheet of iron
was used to provide a base for light-sensitive material, yielding a
positive image.
12. 1859 – Luco vs United States – First U.S. case involving
photographs as evidence. Enlarged signature on land claimed
documents ruled admissible as evidence.
13. In 1861, Scottish physicist James Clark-Maxwell
demonstrate a color photography system involving three black and
white photographs, each taken through a red, green, or blue filter.
The photos were turned into lantern slides and projected in
registration with the same color filters. This is the “color separation”
method.
14. In 1871, Richard Leach Maddox invented the gelatin dry

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plate silver bromide process – negative no longer had to be
developed immediately.
15. 1875, First Traffic Accident photograph used in court – Blair
v. Inhabitants of Pelham.
16. In 1877, Eadweard Muybridge paved the way for motion
picture photography.
17. 1879, photographs of injuries allowed as evidence in Redden
v. Gates.
18. 1881, Rockford v. Russell – Stereo photographs considered
admissible in court.
19. In 1884, George Eastman is particularly remembered for
introducing flexible, paper-based photographic film. Four years later
(1888) he introduced the box camera known as the Kodak
camera, and photography could now reach a much greater number
of people.
20. 1891, Thomas Edison announces Kinetograph or motion
picture process.
21. 1896, X-ray pictures admitted in court in Smith v. Grant.
22. 1901, Assassination of President Mckinley filmed by motion
picture camera (not used in court).
23. 1902, Photographs used to illustrate firearms identification in
Commonwealth v. Best.
24. 1911, Photographs of fingerprints used for identification
People v. Jennings.
25. 1929, sound motion pictures of confession held admissible in
court Commonwealth v. Roller.
26. 1930, flashbulbs placed on the market.
27. 1934, Court approves Ultra-violet photographs of footprint in
State v. Torp.
28. 1935, Kodak introduced Kodachrome, first commercial color
film (ASA 10) – Infrared Sensitive Film introduced.
29. 1937, Minox “spy” camera introduced – Dr. Harold
Edgerton demonstrate first electronic flash apparatus.
30. 1939, Exacta introduced as first 35mm Single Lens Reflex
camera.
31. 1943, color photograph allowed as evidence. Green v. City
and County of Denver.
- ASA system of film speed measurement introduced in U.S.
- First Infrared photograph begin to be admitted in courts across
America.
32. 1967, Videotapes begin to be admitted in courts across
America.

PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPONENTS
1. A subject
2. A light source
3. A camera
4. Photographic film
5. Chemicals for processing film
6. A printing device
7. Photographic paper
8. Chemicals for processing paper

I. SUBJECT
The subject can be anything. If it can be seen, it can be photographed. Just as
there must be light to form an image, there must be a subject from which to form
the image.

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II. PHOTOGRAPHIC LIGHTING

Light, or visible light, is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is

visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm). In a scientific context, the
word light is sometimes used to refer to the entire electromagnetic
spectrum. Moreover, in optics, the term "visible light" refers to
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths of ~300 nm (near UV) through
~1400 nm (near infrared). [1] Light is composed of elementary particles
called photons.

The speed of light in a vacuum is exactly 299,792,458 m/s (about

186,282.397 miles per second). The speed of light depends upon the
medium in which it is traveling, and the speed will be lower in a transparent
medium. Although commonly called the "velocity of light", technically the
word velocity is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction.

IMPORTANT TERMS:

A. Reflected light vs. Transmitted light

If the object is transparent, then the vibrations of the electrons are

passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and
reemitted on the opposite side of the object. Such frequencies of light waves
are said to be transmitted.
If the object is opaque, then the vibrations of the electrons are not
passed from atom to atom through the bulk of the material. Rather the
electrons of atoms on the material's surface vibrate for short periods of time
and then reemit the energy as a reflected light wave. Such frequencies of
light are said to be reflected.

B. Reflection – the bouncing of light from matter.

Incident Light - Light falling on a surface - not the light reflected

from it.
Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence formed by incoming ray of
light is equal to the angle of reflection formed by the outgoing ray.

Diffuse reflection vs. Specular reflection

When a ray of light shines on an ordinary surface such as a piece of
cloth, it bounces off that surface in every direction. The one bright ray
coming in becomes many not-so-bright rays going out. This is called
Diffused reflection.
Some surfaces, especially metals, are smooth and shiny, when a
bright ray of light strikes a shiny surface, it bounces off in only one
direction. If the ray strikes the surface perpendicularly (head-on), it bounces
straight back in the opposite direction. This type of reflection is called
Specular reflection, and the reflecting surface is called mirror.
(“Specular” is derived from the Latin word for “mirror”

THE LAW OF REFLECTION

-Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray of
light could be observed approaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror, then
the behavior of the light as it reflects would follow a predictable law known
as the law of reflection. The diagram below illustrates the law of reflection.

C. Refraction Vs Diffraction

Refraction

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is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed or it
is the change of the direction of light when it crosses a boundary from one
transparent material, such as air, to another such as glass, unless it is
travelling exactly perpendicular to the boundary.
This is most commonly seen when a wave passes from one medium
to another. Refraction of light is the most commonly seen example, but any
type of wave can refract when it interacts with a medium, for example when
sound waves pass from one medium into another or when water waves
move into water of a different depth. Refraction is described by Snell's law.

Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes the edge of an object.

-Scientists had noticed that objects with sharp edges cast shadows
that are not as sharp. Light seems to bend a little bit around the edge of the
object, producing a fuzzy boundary between light and darkness.

D. Photographic Rays/Types of radiation

1. Radio Waves
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio waves were discovered by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz in
1888 and were at first called Hertzian waves.
Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size
(according to the principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from
hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission
of data, via modulation. Television, mobile phones, MRI, wireless networking
and amateur radio all use radio waves.

2. Infrared radiation/light
Infrared light is light having wavelengths greater than 700
millimicrons. Its wavelength ranges from 700 to 800 millimicrons. Infrared
is not a color or any kind of red. It is an invisible ray detected by the skin as
heat. It is so called infrared because they sojourn the red spectrum. Infrared
means below the red. This ray of light although invisible is important in law
enforcement photography because it permits result to be obtained which are
not possible with only visible light present.

3. Visible light
The range of the visible light produces different sensation when they
strike the human eye. Colors of different objects are usually mixtures of
light of various wavelengths and not a special color. The wavelength of the
visible light is from 400 to 700 millimicrons which produce white light.

4. Ultra-violet light
The ultra-violet light is divided into the near and far ultra-violet and
ranges from about two hundred (200) to four hundred (400) millimicrons
wavelength. Thus ray is invisible like the infrared. The position of the ultra-
violet region falls between X-ray and visible wavelength. Since ultra-violet
radiation can kill bacteria, it is sometimes used to sterilize foods and water.
Police scientists may use ultraviolet light ot detect bloodstains, forged
document, and faked oil paintings.

5. X-rays (Discovered by a German physicist. Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895)

After UV come X-rays. It is an Electromagnetic radiation similar to
light but of shorter wavelength and capable of penetrating solids. X-rays can
fog photographic film. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-
rays. X-rays are used for seeing through some things and not others, as well
as for high-energy physics and astronomy. Neutron stars and accretion
disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable us to study them.

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6. Gamma rays
After hard X-rays come gamma rays. These are the most energetic
photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. It's uncertain
what the physical lower limit of their wavelengths would be. They are useful
to astronomers in the study of high-energy objects or regions and find a use
with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production from
radioisotopes. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high
accuracy by means of Compton scattering.

Gamma rays have frequencies of about one hundred million trillion

cycles per second and can easily pierce through materials like concrete and
steel. Nuclear explosions release gamma rays that can destroy living cells
and cause radiation sickness. However, they are also used by physicians to
kill cancerous or diseased cells in the body.

E. Lighting (outdoor lighting)

Lighting is critical in photography. The direction from which the light
comes determines where shadows fall. Sometimes these shadows completely
obscure details in the picture. On the other hand, shadows may reveal
details which would otherwise be invisible. Here are basic rules that will
help you to understand lighting and judge how each scene should be lit:

1. Back lighting: Light directed at the subject from behind the subject.
This has little value in crime scene photography. A light directly behind
the subject creates a silhouette. The subject may be entirely concealed by
its own shadow. Furthermore, any light shining directly into the lens can
cause "FLARE". This may make the whole picture foggy, streaked or spotty
in appearance.

2. Side Lighting:
This may be very good or very bad, depending on the situation. Side
lighting puts shadows on the unlit side of the subject. These shadows are
often essential to bring out the fine texture that is found in a cloth sample,
a footprint or a tool mark. Try to use side lighting in all such situations.
On the other hand, when you shoot into a subject, the shadows
obscure important interior details. When subjects such as automobiles,
handbags and closets are side lit, even large objects inside them may not
appear on the negative. You usually want to avoid side lighting in these
situations.

3. Front Lighting: the sun is in back of the photographer

This is essentially shadow less. It, therefore, gives the best
representation of most crime scenes. When you do not have a specific need
for shadows in a scene, you will normally be wise to light it from the front.
In daylight, be sure that the sun is behind you or at least over your
shoulder-- Right or Left, it does not matter.
This over-the-shoulder    lighting    was probably    the    first
photographic advice you ever received. It may seem to be a universal recipe
for good photography, but it is not. The case against over-the-
shoulder lighting is that it produces a flattened effect, doing nothing to
bring out the detail or to provide an impression of depth.

Classification of natural or daylight according to its intensity

1. Bright Sunlight
- The subjects will produce a strong shadow, because the source of
light is not covered and the objects or subjects appear glossy in

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open space due to direct sunlight and reflected lights coming from
the sky which act as a reflector.
2. Hazy Sunlight
- The sun is covered by thin clouds and the shadow appears bluish
because of the decrease of light falling on the subjects in open
space.
3. Dull Sunlight
- The sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadows are cast,
due to the uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects
in open space.

III. CAMERA
The camera is essentially a light tight box with an optical system at one end and
an image support at the other.

- Additions to the basic camera have been made to improve focusing the image,
viewing, controlling the amount and duration of light entering the box, film
changing or rolling and range and exposure calculators. While these
improvements are valuable, they are not absolutely essential to the photographic
process.  A picture can be made with a coffee can if it has a pinhole at one end
and a support for film at the other.

- A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually photographs), either

singly or in sequence, with or without sound recording, such as with video
cameras.

- A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a photo camera to

distinguish it from a video camera. The name is derived from camera obscura,
Latin for "dark chamber", an early mechanism for projecting images in which
an entire room functioned much as the internal workings of a modern
photographic camera, except there was no way at this time to record the image
short of manually tracing it. Cameras may work with the visual spectrum or
other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Camera - is a device that records and stores images.

Video or Movie Camera vs. Still or Photo camera

Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie/video cameras or as
ciné cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras or photo
cameras. However these categories overlap, as still cameras are often used to capture
moving images in special effects work.
Modern digital cameras are often able to trivially switch between still and motion recording
modes. It can record images singly or in sequence.

HISTORY OF CAMERA
Mo Ti
  - 5th century BC Chinese philosopher who noted that a pin hole can form an inverted
and focused image when light passes through the hole and into a dark area. He is the first
recorded person to have exploited this phenomenon to trace the inverted image to create a
picture.

Aristotle 
- in 4th century BC, described observing a partial solar eclipse in 330 BC by seeing
the image of the sun projected through the small spaces between the leaves of the tree.

Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) 

- an Egyptian scientist who wrote about observing a solar eclipse through a pin hole
and he described how a sharper image could be produced by making the opening of the pin

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hole smaller.

Roger Bacon
 - English philosopher and Franciscan friar who in his study of optics, included a
discussion of the physiology of eyesight, the anatomy of the eyes and brain and considered
light, distance, position, size, direct vision, reflected vision and refraction, mirrors and
lenses.

Johannes Kepler
 - a German mathematician and astronomer who applied the actual name of camera
obscura and later added a lens and made the apparatus transportable in the form of a tent.

Robert Boyle
 -  a British scientist who, with his assistant Robert Hooke developed a portable
camera in the 1660.

Johann Zhan
 - in 1685, built the first camera obscura that was small enough for practical use as a
portable drawing aid because the only way to preserve the images produced by the camera
was to manually trace them.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce

 - was a French inventor who is noted for producing the first known photographs in
1825 by using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles and Vincent Chevalier in Paris.

1920
 - the electronic video camera tube was invented, starting a line of development that
eventually resulted in digital cameras which largely supplanted film cameras after the turn of
the 21st century.

William Henry Fox Talbot

 - a British inventor and pioneer of photography. He was the inventor of
calotype process, the precursor to most photographic processes of the 19th and 20th century.

Lumiere Brothers 
- introduced the auto chrome, the first commercially successful color process.

Kodachrome
 - the first modern integral tripack color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It
captured the three basic color components in a multi-layer emulsion.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAMERA

CAMERA OBSCURA
-A device used by early artists (centuries before Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an
otherwise-darkened room so that it could be more easily copied. In a manner to the pinhole
camera, a small hole placed in an opposite wall permitted light to enter the room (the
“camera”) and the scene outside became transmitted inside, and was shown invented on the
rear wall or sometimes on a screen.

-The camera obscura is the origin of the modern camera.

CAMERA LUCIDA
-The Camera Lucida, designed in 1807 by Dr. William Wollaston, was an aid to drawing. It
was a reflecting prism which enabled artists to draw outlines in correct perspective. No
darkroom was needed. The paper was laid flat on the drawing board, and the artist would
look through a lens containing the prism, so that he could see both the paper and a faint

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image of the subject to be drawn. He would then fill in the image.

CAMERA TYPES

1. Box Camera
For more than several decades the box camera (viewfinder camera modern) was the
instrument of choice for the casual amateur photographer.

- Inexpensive and simple.

- Box cameras were normally fitted with a single-element lens, a limited range of aperture
control, and a single-speed leaf shutter. 

- has a simple optical system, often only in the form of a simple meniscus lens.

- usually lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of aperture and shutter speeds.
This makes it suitable for daylight photography only.

The box camera is, with the exception of the pin hole camera, a camera in its
simplest form. The classic box camera is shaped more or less like a box, hence the name.
In the 1950s, box cameras with photographic flash were introduced, allowing indoor
photos.

Viewfinder Camera
- Camera with a viewfinder that is separate from the lens used in taking the
picture. A simple point-and-shoot disposable camera is an example of a
viewfinder camera, but not all viewfinder cameras are simple.

- The viewfinder camera is the most popular type of camera.

Types of Viewfinder Camera

a. Compact Camera / Instamatic Camera
- Commonly refers to a point-and-shoot camera. These cameras are usually fully
automatic.

- Point and Shoot Cameras are a viewfinder type camera with added focus
abilities that make it an ideal camera for vacation and travel snapshots. Most of
them use autofocus or focus free lenses for focusing and automatic systems for
exposure as well. Point-and-shoot cameras usually have a fairly wide angle lens
and require you to get close to the subject to make a dominant photograph. For
doing a group shot or a scenic or snap shot where there is a lot of material to
include in a frame these cameras are ideal. For a quick photo these are tops.

b. Single-use Camera (disposable)

- Camera that is used only once. It is disposed of after the film is removed for
processing.

2. Pinhole Camera
is a camera without a lens but an extremely small hole takes its place (pin hole)
which should be in very thin material. An image's light from a scene passes through this
single point, and because there is no lens, the image will be clear at all distances from the
pinhole.
The smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure will be required.
Also, in order to produce a reasonably clear image, the ratio of the pinhole, or aperture, size
to the distance between it and the screen should be 1/100 or less. The shutter of a pinhole
camera is usually manually operated because of the lengthy times, and consists of a flap of
some light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole. Typical exposure times range
from 5 seconds to hours and sometimes days.

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3. Folding-Roll Film Camera
The Folding-Roll Film Camera Second in popularity only to the box camera, the
folding camera was manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically, though, it was a box
camera whose lens was incorporated into a movable bellows that could slide back and forth
on a rail, allowing the lens to change focus. Lenses and shutters were often one-piece units.
More elaborate models were first-rate instruments with high-quality optical systems and
precision shutters. Many were fitted with coupled rangefinders. The most significant
advantage they have over the box camera, however, was their compact design when folded,
which made them easier to pack and transport.  There has been something of a minor
renaissance in folding-roll film cameras in recent years, with appearance of several new
professional instruments. They are appreciated for their large negative size and compact
design.

4. Range Finder Camera

-A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a rangefinder: a range-finding
focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to measure the subject distance and take
photographs that are in sharp focus.

Does not use a lens to view the subject but instead relies on a separate viewing
system in the camera for aiming and for focus.  The range finder camera allows for accurate
focus, however, by using two views of the same subject to adjust focus. In this camera there
are two images in the viewfinder. One is usually only a portion of the viewer area and is
usually slightly yellowish in color. The photographer adjusts the focus ring on the lens and as
they do the two images move. When both on directly on top of each other they blend together
and almost disappear signifying the camera is in focus.  The rangefinder is accurate and
usually very quiet and very light weight.  It is useful for taking pictures in low light
conditions or for candid’s when quiet is important. These cameras can easily be identified by
their double view windows in the front. 

5. View Camera
-A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that produce an individual
image size of 5" X 4" or larger. It is most often found in a studio, and is sometimes even
called a "studio camera," although the view camera can be transported and set up in the
field.

View Cameras and Technical Cameras 

Cameras in this category are used almost exclusively by professional photographers.
The most common film formats are 4 x 5 or 8 x 10 inches, the latter often used in the very
large cameras found in portrait studios. Film for these cameras is loaded in the darkroom into
two-sided holders, which are inserted at the back of the camera. Both the camera's back and
front can be tilted in various positions, to permit the photographer to make certain types of
corrections in the image. By raising the lens in relation to the film plane, when
photographing a tall building, for example, the tendency for parallel lines to look as if they
converge is eliminated. 

6. Instant Camera
-An instant camera is a type of camera with self-developing film. The most famous
are those made by the Polaroid Corporation. Polaroid no longer manufactures such cameras.

The invention of modern instant cameras is generally credited to American scientist

Edwin Land, who unveiled the first commercial instant camera, the Land Camera, in 1947,
10 years after founding the Polaroid Corporation.
- Produced a finished print in from 20 seconds to about 4 minutes.

- The film after exposure is passed between two stainless steel rollers inside the
camera. These rupture a chemical pod on the film and spread developing agent
evenly the film’s surface.

7. Miniature Camera

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– This group consist of a large variety of makes and models taking very small
pictures. The miniature cameras are small, compact ones, with size measuring as small as 3 x
1 5/8 x 1 ½ inches and a weight as low as 3.3 ounces.
Generally speaking, the term “miniature” includes cameras using films in size from
8-mm, 9.5-mm, 16-mm to 35-mm film cartridges.

8. Disc Cameras
  Since its introduction in the 1880s, flexible film has usually been rolled onto a spool
or loaded into a cassette. In 1980 the Eastman Kodak Company introduced a new format for
mass-market cameras. Fifteen images, each 5/16 x 3/8 inches, can be photographed on a
piece of circular film about 2 1/2 inches in diameter, which is housed in a thin, light-tight
film disc. Disc cameras are exceptionally compact, and most are fitted with an electronic
flash and a motor that advances the disc after each exposure. 

9. Reflex Camera
- A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of light traveling through the lens
that reflects the scene to a viewing screen.

Two Kinds:
a. Single-Lens Reflex Camera
b. Twin-lens Reflex Camera

A. SINGLE LENS REFLEX - (SLR)

A camera with one lens only for both viewing and picture-taking. The image
is reflected onto a viewing screen by a moveable mirror in the camera. The mirror
flips out of the way just before the shutter opens, permitting light to strike the film.

Single-Lens Reflex Cameras One of the most popular designs available

today, the single-lens reflex (SLR) both views and photographs through one lens.
Light passing through the lens is reflected by a mirror and brought to focus on a
ground glass. The mirror causes a reversal of the image seen on the ground glass, but
the addition of a pentaprism mounted over the ground glass allows the camera to be
used at eye level, with the image seen upright and in proper left/right orientation. An
instant before the exposure is made, the mirror swings upward, and the shutter is
activated. A single control cocks the shutter for the next exposure, advances the film,
and returns the mirror to focusing position. 

B. TWIN LENS REFLEX - (TLR)

A camera having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one for
viewing and focusing (upper lens); the other for exposing the film (lower lens). The
lenses are mechanically-coupled so that both are focused at the same time.
Twin-Lens Reflex Cameras A medium-format camera--one that uses film
larger than 35mm--the twin-lens reflex was immensely popular after World War II.
It is fitted with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop the other. The
lower, or taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film, while the image
produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected through 90 degrees by a mirror, and
brought to focus on a horizontal ground-glass focusing screen. The light paths to the
film plane and the focusing screen are equal, so that if the photographer brings the
scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on the film plane will be
equally sharp.    

BASIC PARTS OF CAMERA

EVERY camera has these basic parts:
A. This first and main part is called the body.

B. The second part is the shutter which might be located in the lens (leaf shutter) or it
might be located right in front of the film (focal plane shutter).

C. The lens lets in light. It draws the light into the camera and focuses it on the film

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plane. The larger the lens the lighter. The lens also effects how large the image
appears based on the focal length of the lens.

D. The aperture is located in the lens and is a set of leaf like piece of metal that can
change the size of the hole that lets in light.   We consider the lens to be part of the
shutter as we do not actually need a lens to focus an image if we have a small enough
hole to let in the light.
E. Finally, we have the third part is film holder inside the camera. This must have
some attachment that allows for the film to be moved which can either be a lever or
a motor. 

IMPORTANT TERMS TO NOTE IN PHOTOGRAPHY

1. EXPOSURE (SHUTTER SPEED AND APERTURE COMBINATION)

- Refers to the amount of light recorded on the film or sensor.
- Balancing shutter speed, ISO and aperture to get the correct exposure is the key
to great photography.

3 exposure equation:
1. Aperture
2. Film / sensor / ISO speed; and
3. Shutter speed

2. SHUTTER
 A movable cover for an opening.

 It open and closes to control the length of time light strikes the film. In
photography, that opening is the lens - more specifically, the aperture. The
shutter blocks the passage of light traveling through the lens to the film when it
is closed, and allows light to reach the film when it is open. Shutters are
composed of blades, a curtain, a plate or another movable cover.

 They control the amount of time that light is allowed to pass through the opening
to reach the film.
Controls how LONG light enters the camera. This is TIMED by the shutter speed dial,
usually on top of the camera. The larger the number the SHORTER the time. A short time
lets in light quickly which will stop the MOTION an object might have as it travels across
the film while being exposed.

 It blocks the passage of light traveling through the lens to the film when it is
closed, and allows light to reach the film when it is open

 This is timed by the shutter speed dial.

3. SHUTTER SPEED
- It refers to how long the shutter remains open to allow light through.

- Controls the duration of an exposure - the faster the Shutter speed, the shorter
the exposure time.

Shutter Speeds on the common camera

1000 - 500 - 250 - 125 - 60 - 30 - 15 - 8 - 4 - 2 - 1 - B
Each speed is a fraction of a second - like 1/1000th of a second or 1/4 of a second. B stands
for bulb and holds the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held down. This used to
be attached to a long hose to a bulb held in the photographer’s hand, thus the name Bulb.

Note: You can reduce blur by using a tripod to hold the camera steady when you shoot,
which lets you use slower shutter speeds, but if you’re shooting sports and you don’t want
blurry players, that only helps so much.

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4. APERTURE
- A circle-shaped opening in a lens (a hole, really) through which light passes to
strike the film.

- The aperture is usually created by an iris diaphragm that is adjustable, enabling

the aperture to be made wider or narrower, thereby letting in more or less light.
The size of the aperture is expressed as an '-number, like '/8 or '/11.

- The aperture controls how MUCH light enters the camera. This opening is inside
the LENS of the camera and is adjusted by a ring on the outside of the lens.  The
larger the opening the less sharp the final image will be, much like in our
original pinhole camera. The larger the opening more light is allowed into the
camera.

Apertures on the common camera

1.4 - 2 - 4 - 5.6 - 8 - 11 - 16 - 22 – 32

Or
f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64, f/90, f/128

Each of these represents a fraction again, thus 2 is 1/2 and 22 is 1/22 representing the basic
size of the opening in relation to the focal length of the lens.  An aperture of f2 on a telephoto
lens in the same amount of light as on a 200 mm telephoto, yet the size of the opening will
not be identical.

Understanding Lens Speed

- a lens speed is determined by the maximum amount of light the lens is capable
of transmitting- the largest f-stop value.

- When a lens is capable of transmitting more light than other lenses of the same
focal length, that lens is referred to as fast (example, lenses with maximum f-
stop values between 1.0 and 2.8)

- Fast lenses allow photographs to shoot at higher shutter speeds in low-light

conditions.

5. F-NUMBER AND F-STOP

- F-NUMBER - (ƒ-number) A number that expresses a lens’ light-transmitting
ability - i.e. the size of the lens opening. Usually found on the barrel of a lens , f-
numbers indicate the size of the aperture in relation to the focal length of the
lens. A smaller number indicates a larger lens diameter. ƒ/1.4 signifies that the
focal length of the lens is 1.4 times as great as the diameter. All lenses set at the
same f-number transmit the same amount of light.

- ƒ-stop - (f-stop) A lens aperture setting calibrated to a f-number.

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F-STOP is simply the nomenclature that photographers use when discussing different sizes
of aperture.
f-stops are usually given as “f/8” or “f/22”. The number can range from less than one
(only a few lenses and cameras are capable of f/0.95, for instance) to f/128. A higher
f-stop indicates a smaller aperture and less light getting through. Usually, f-stops are
indicated on a standard scale in which each increase represents an aperture that
allows half as much light to get through. For example, f/8 allows half as much light
through as f/5.6.

What is Reciprocity in Photography?

-The relationship between the aperture and shutter is known as reciprocity.
-For example, opening the lens aperture by one stop and decreasing the shutter speed
by one stop results in the same exposure. Closing the aperture by one stop and
decreasing the shutter speed by one stop and increasing the shutter speed by one stop
achieves the same exposure as well. Therefore, f4 at 1/90 of second is equal to f5.6
at 1/45 of a second. The reason is that the camera’s aperture setting and shutter speed
combine to create the correct exposure of an image.

6. APERTURE PRIORITY VS. SHUTTER PRIORITY

Aperture Priority
- A function or shooting mode of a semi-automatic camera that permits the
photographer to preset the aperture and leaves the camera to automatically determine the
correct shutter speed. What does that mean? You select the aperture setting you want and the
camera then automatically calculates the appropriate corresponding shutter speed for proper
exposure. It's like a fully-automatic camera except you totally control the aperture.

Shutter Priority
- An exposure mode (in a camera with automatic exposure control) that permits the
photographer to preset shutter speed while the camera automatically determines the aperture
setting required for proper exposure.

7. DEPTH OF FIELD VS. DEPTH OF FOCUS

Depth Of Field
– The zone of acceptable sharpness or the area or 'zone' of a photograph, from front
to back, which is in focus or the range of distance in a scene that appears to be in focus and
will be reproduced as being acceptably sharp in an image.
Depth of field is controlled by the lens aperture, and extends for a distance in front of
and behind the point on which the lens is focused.

Depth Of Focus
- A zone of focus in the camera. If an image is focused on a ground glass screen in a
camera, depth of focus makes it possible to move the screen slightly backward or forward
and still have the image in acceptable focus.

Factors that effects of controls the depth of field (DOF)

1. Aperture – this is the primary controller of the DOF wide opening or fast lens
(smaller f-number) = shallow depth of field. Small opening of slow lens (greater f-
number) = greater depth of field.

2. Distance between the photographer or lens and the subject. The farther the
distance, the greater the depth of field. The closer the distance, the shallower the
depth of field.

3. Focal length – the longer the focal length (bigger number), the shallower the depth
of field. The shorter the focal length (smaller number), the greater the DOF.

8. FOCAL LENGTH, FOCAL POINT AND FOCAL PLANE

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- Focal length is the distance between the focal point of a lens and the film plane when
the lens is focused at infinity. It is used to designate the relative size and angle of view of a
lens, expressed in millimeters (mm). A particular lens' focal length can generally be found
engraved or printed on the front of the lens.
The focal length of a lens is defined as the distance in mm from the optical center of the lens
to the focal point, which is located on the sensor or film if the subject (at infinity) is "in
focus". The camera lens projects part of the scene onto the film or sensor. The field of view
(FOV) is determined by the angle of view from the lens out to the scene and can be measured
horizontally or vertically. Larger sensors or films have wider FOVs and can capture more of
the scene. The FOV associated with a focal length is usually based on the 35mm film
photography, given the popularity of this format over other formats.

-Film plane / Focal plane – the place in a camera where the film is located in readiness for it
to be exposed to light. It is sometimes marked on camera body with the “O” symbol where
the vertical bar represents the exact location.

Focal Point - (1) The central or principal point of focus. (2) The optical center of a lens
when it is focused on infinity.

9. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE VS. HYPERFOCAL POINT

Hyperfocal Distance
- Technically, it is the distance between the camera and the hyperfocal point. But, in
practice, Hyperfocal distance is a lens setting technique that allows you to shoot sharp
pictures within a certain distance range without having to refocus. When the lens is focused
on infinity, the hyperfocal distance is the distance of the nearest object in a scene that is
acceptably sharp.

Hyperfocal Point
- When the lens is focused on infinity, the nearest point to the camera that is
considered acceptably sharp is the Hyperfocal point. By focusing on the hyperfocal point,
everything beyond it to infinity remains in acceptable focus, and objects halfway between the
camera and the hyperfocal point will also be rendered acceptably sharp.

10. FOCUS
- Is a function of a camera’s lens and the current aperture setting. An object that is
in focus in crisp and clear, while one that is out of focus will appear blury.

Two (2) ways of manipulating and disjusting focus:

1. Manual focus
- Using the focusing ring
2. Autofocus
- Which is a system that lets a camera’s sensor detect the subjects distance as a
motor automatically adjusts the focus. Point-and-shoot camera users often rely
on this.

IV. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

FILM
- A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate composition made in thin,
flexible strips or sheets and coated with a light-sensitive emulsion for taking photographs.

BLACK AND WHITE

The basic structures of a black and white film are the following:

1. Top Coating
– is an over-coating of a thin layer of hard gelatin which helps protect the silver halide
emulsion from scratches and abrasions.

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2. Emulsion Layer
– is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paper that records the image. composed of
silver compounds which are light sensitive, but for photographic purposes, halogens such as
bromide; chloride; and iodide (used in small amounts, seldom more than 5% with silver
bromide in fast film emulsion) is added to silver halides, a rare compound that forms a latent
image.
To be useful in photography, the silver halides are suspected with gelatin; a colloid
extracted by boiling animal bones, hooves, horns, and hides. The gelatin used in films
generally comes from the ears and cheek section of calf hides because hides of calves and
cows contain sulfur compounds, which aids in the photochemical reaction that creates latent
images.

3. Film base
– commonly made of cellulose acetate or other materials such as paper, plastic, or glass
which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curl anti-halation backing.

4. Anti-halation backing
– a black dye applied on the rear surface of the film, its function is to absorb light that
may penetrate the emulsion layer, thus, preventing it to reflect back to the emulsion
(halation). The dye is removed during processing by one of the chemical in the developer. Its
second function is to control the film from curling towards the emulsion layer.

COLOR FILM
Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as black and white film except
that the emulsion layer consists of three layers, stacked one on top of the other.

1. Top layer
– is sensitive to blue light only; green and red light passes through it without exposing
the color blind halides.
2. Yellow filter
– known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in gelatin is coated between the top and second
layer to absorb any penetrating blue light but freely passes green and red light.
3. Middle layer
– is orthochromatic, which is sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and green, but not
to red. So the red light passes on to the bottom emulsion layer.
4. Bottom layer
– is panchromatic, sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and red. It is also somewhat
sensitive to green light but to such a slight degree that it is not important.
Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers, each layer responding to one
and only one of the additive color primaries. After exposure, the yellow color of the filter
layer is destroyed during processing of the film.

FILM TYPES ACCORDING TO COLOR SENSITIVITY:

All photographic emulsions are sensitive to the colors of blue violet and ultraviolet.
The film’s sensitivity to other colors is obtained by adding dyes to the emulsion during
manufacture.

Non-chromatic
– sensitive to ultraviolet and blue-violet colors only. This film may be used when
natural rendition is not important. For example, it is used to copy black and white originals
and to photograph colorless subjects when extreme contrast is needed.

Orthochromatic
– sensitive to blues and greens, but not to reds. Reds are recorded as dark tones,
while greens are light tones when printed.

Panchromatic
– sensitive to all colors and are further subdivided according to their degree of
sensitivity to each color. This film is most commonly used in investigative photography

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because it produces the most natural recording of colors.

Infrared
– sensitive to blues and infrared radiation, which is beyond the human eye’s
sensitivity. It is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelengths. In investigative
photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents; in the discovery
of old or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin; and in the
construction of camera traps.
Others
e.1. Color negative – for prints, ends in the word “color”
e.2. Color transparency – for slides, ends in the word “chromes”

FILM SIZE
110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras
126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type.
120 – variation of the 2 ¼ inch –wide roll film that was first introduced for box cameras
decade ago, and now used into professional medium format cameras like the Hasselblad or
Mamiya.
135 – commonly known as the 35mm, so named because

FILM SPEED
It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, which is measured and expressed in
a numerical rating called ISO formerly known as ASA/DIN. This means that the higher the
ISO number, the more sensitive the film is to light, and that pictures can be taken indoors
under dim light conditions.

One film may be rated ISO – 100 and another film ISO – 200. This means that the
200 film is twice as fast (twice more sensitive to light) than the 100 film. Hence, would only
require half the amount of light to produce a satisfactory negative. Each time the film speed
is doubled, it is equal to one f/stop in exposure. For instance, in the example given, if ISO –
100 is exposed at f/8, then ISO – 200 would be exposed at f/11 to produce the same negative
quality. Any film above ISO – 200 can be considered high speed and anything less is usually
slow speed and fine-grain.

The suggested uses of the following film under varying conditions are:

ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit for best color and sharpness
ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose
ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions

DARKROOM TECHNIQUES

“Photographic processing” can be defined simply as a series of chemical changes that

accomplish the following goals:
• Develop the image
• Stop the action of development at a desired point
• Fix the visible image to make it permanent
• Wash away all traces of chemicals used
• Dry the photographic material

PHOTOGRAPHIC   SOLUTIONS
1. Developer
When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the silver halides (usually
silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in the emulsion change chemically. However, no
noticeable change can be seen until the film is developed.  The developer causes the affected
silver halides to change into metallic silver while having no effect on the unexposed silver
halides. The result is that a subject area reflecting the most light will affect the most silver
halides and will be the darkest part of the image formed in development. That which is light

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in the subject is dark in the processed image and inversely, that which is dark in the subject is
light in the image.

Most all modern developer contains the following ingredients:

a. Developing agent/reducer
– the basic and most important ingredient in the developing solution is the reducer,
Metol-hydroquinon ( M-Q) is the most versatile and popular of all developers.

Other agents: Amidol, Glycin, paraphynylene diamine and pyro.

The reducer agent reacts with the exposed silver halides and develop it into metallic
silver which forms the visible image. However, if used alone, this reducing agent will have a
very little effect or no effect on the silver halides since it has low rate of oxidation.
Therefore, it becomes necessary that an accelerator must be added to the developer.

b. Accelerator
– Borax, sodium carbonate, Sodium hydroxide are some of the alkalis used to increase
the rate of oxidation of the reducing agent, softens the gelatin of the film emulsion, and
speeds up solution penetration.
However, a solution containing only a reducer and an accelerator will
oxidize quickly and act too rapidly. Therefore, it becomes necessary to add a restrainer to the
developer to prevent chemical fog (a veil of silver depositing throughout the entire emulsion)
and rapid deterioration of the solution.

c. Restrainer
– the chemical most commonly used as a restrainer is potassium bromide. Without the
restrainer, most developing solution act too fast and developed unexposed silver halides near
the surface of the emulsion which causes fog, steaks, and image lacking in contrast.

d. Preservative
– all organic developing agents in an alkaline sate have a strong chemical attraction to
oxygen, so, preservative such as sodium sulfite or sodium bisulfate is added to prevent
excessive oxidation thus prolonging the useful life of the developing solution and prevents
the formation of colored oxidation products which causes stains.

2. Stop Bath/rinse bath

- It has become common practice to rinse film in running water after development to
retard development and to remove excess chemicals. With prints, it is equally common to use
an acid bath to stop the action of the developer and prolong the life of the fixer. In either
case, the bath is referred to as a stop bath. Acetic acid diluted with water is the most
commonly used stop bath.

Three (3) General Types of Rinse Bath

a. Water rinse bath

- helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove the excess developer
from the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing bath. A water rinse is suitable and
sufficient for most negatives, however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if used, it should be
followed by an acid bath. The same procedure applies when processing prints.
b. Acid rinse bath
– sometimes referred to as a stop bath and is more effective than a water rinse, as it
instantly neutralizes the action of the developer and stops further development. It also
neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life of the fixing bath. To prepare
an acid bath, mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.
c. Hardening rinse bath
– use only when it is impossible to control the temperature of the solutions, particularly
the wash water, or when development is done in high temperature or under tropical
conditions. A typical hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz. of water; 1 oz of

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potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz sodium bisulfate ( a solution containing potassium
chrome alum is very unstable and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use).

3. Fixing Bath
- The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the developed image permanent by
removing all the unaffected silver salt from the emulsion. These silver salts are still sensitive;
and if they are allowed to remain in the emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and obscure
the image, thus, making the negative useless.

Fixing Bath Ingredients:

a. Fixer or fixing agent

The fixer is sometimes called “hypo” because the conditioners to shorten processing time or
to preserve other   solutions.   The   solutions   commonly   found   in main ingredient of the
fixer formula, sodium thiosulfate, is also known as hyposulfate.
The purpose  of  the  fixer  is  to  convert  the  silver halides not changed to metallic
silver in the developer into a soluble form. These soluble salts diffuse out of the emulsion
and into the fixer.

b. Acid or neutralizer
After development, the pores of the swollen emulsion retain a considerable amount of
developer and if allowed to remain it will continue its action causing uneven stains in the
gelatin of the emulsion, rendering the negative unfit for use. Acetic acid is added to the
fixing bath to neutralize the action of the developer remaining in the emulsion when the film
is immersed in the fixing bath.

c. Preservatives. Sodium sulfite

is added to the fixer as a preservative to prevent oxidation of the developing agents that are
carried over into the fixing bath by the film; prevent decomposition of the fixing bath;
prevents discoloration of the solution; and aids in the elimination of stains.

d. Hardener
During the development, the emulsions become soft and swollen, frilling and scratching
may occur if processing is continued without hardening the solution. Potassium alum is the
hardening agent used expanded but firm for the washing process.

4. Wash.
Running water is not actually required but greatly simplifies the removal of all the
chemicals previously used. The wash step is necessary if you desire a permanent image
without stains.  Wash films and papers with fresh running water for about five minutes.

5. Wetting Agent.
The wetting agent, usually called Photo-Flo, is a chemical designed to reduce the
surface tension of water, thus reducing the possibility of water spots forming on film as it
dries. It reduces the overall drying time of your films and prints —  a point to consider
especially on “rush jobs.”

6. Drying.
The final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative which is done in two
phases. First is removal of the excess water from the surface. Second is drying, either by
evaporation or forced air.

THE POSITIVE OR PRINT

PRINT
- A photographic image printed on paper, generally a positive image made from a
negative. (Also refers to a photograph of a model that appears in print - in a newspaper or
magazine, for example.)
After the process of producing the negative has been completed, a positive

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image is produced from the negative which is a true representation of the relative brightness
of all parts of the object and is now called print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is
coated with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is much the same as the one which
must be used to cover the film.

Basic Layers of Printing Paper

a. Base
Made of paper which must be chemically pure to insure that it will not interfere with the
chemical processes to which the emulsion is subjected. Available either in a single or double
weight paper.

b. Baryta layer
A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal to increase the reflectivity of the paper.

c. Emulsion layer
Contain minute silver halides suspended with gelatin which needs only to reproduce the total
range of negative.

Types of Photographic Printing Paper

1. Chloride Papers. Have a slow speed emulsion containing silver chloride, fine grain
and produce deep blacks, and used for contact printing.

2. Bromide Papers. Have faster emulsion speed than chloride paper, achieve sensitivity
through the use of bromide halides. Because of the relatively high sensitivity to light,
these emulsions are particularly suitable for projection printing.
3. Chlorobromide Papers. Contain both silver chloride and silver bromide halides.
Emulsion speed lies between that of chloride and bromide papers, used for both
contact and projection printing.

4. Variable Contrast Paper. Combines the contrast ranges in one paper, this versatility
is achieved with special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast
responses upon exposure to different colored light.

Printing Paper Grades

Because of the fact that all negatives do not print best on one kind of paper, and in
order to permit printing for special effects, photographic papers are made in several different
grades of contrast and surface texture. Velox paper made by Kodak offers the most and in
sex degrees of contrast and glossy (F) surface.

Velox No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast negative; the low contrast in
the paper sensitizing counteracts the high contrast in the negative, to give a new
print.
Velox No. 1 – used for high contrast negative.
Velox No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal negatives.
Velox No. 3 – use for negatives that are a little weak in contrast.
Velox No. 4 – provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak
negatives. It is useful in printing silhouettes and other such pictures in which high
contrast is desired.
Velox No. 5 – for negative so flat as to be otherwise unprintable.

PAPER WEIGHT
a. Lightweight (LW) – intended for purposes which involve folding.
b. Single weight (SW) – use for all ordinary photographic purposes.
c. Double weight (DW) – generally used for large prints because they stand up better
under rough treatment.

PRINTING

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In Photography, printing is the term used to describe the process of making positive images
from negatives (and, in some instances, from film positives). The most familiar example is
the print made on a paper base.

Photographic print is made by passing light through the negative onto a piece of paper that

is coated with a light-sensitive emulsion very similar to film.

TYPES OF PRINTING

1. Contact Printing. It is the process of making positive prints by placing a sheet of

printing paper in direct contact with the negative, emulsion to emulsion.

Contact printing is the quickest, simplest, and most economical method of producing
photographic prints. For making proof prints and small volume printing, all you need for a
“contact printer” is a sheet of glass, a light source, and some sort of padding.
For making contact proof prints and the occasional contact print job, a glass and a
supporting pad are all that are necessary. “Contact printers,” consisting of a sheet of glass
hinged to a metal frame and a pad assembly, are generally known as proof printers. If such a
device is not available or is not large enough for the negatives to be contact printed, a piece
of 1/4-inch plate glass and a soft padding (such as a rubber typewriter pad) can be used.
Quarter-inch plate glass is heavy enough to keep the negatives and paper flat  and in contact
during exposure. The glass must be free of flaws, scratches, bubbles and dirt.

Contact Print - A print made with the negative in contact (held tightly against) the
photographic paper so that both negative and print are the same size.

A contact print
is produced by exposing a sheet of photographic printing paper through a negative
with the paper emulsion and the emulsion side of the negative in contact with each other.
Light is directed through the negative that controls the amount of light transmitted to the
paper. The dense areas of the negative pass less light than do the more clear or less dense
areas. The image densities formed (after development) in the emulsion of the paper make a
positive print that represents the tonal values of the original subject.  Furthermore, since the
paper is in direct contact with the negative, the print produced is exactly the same image size
as the negative.

2. Projection printing
Generally, refers to enlarging.
It is the process of making positive prints by projecting the negative image onto
photosensitive   paper.
The   projected   image   may   be enlarged, the same as the   negative   image, or reduced in
size. When the print images are larger than the negative images, the process is called
enlarging.
When the print images are smaller than the negative images, the   process is
called reducing.
Because projection printing is usually used to make positive prints with images larger than
the negative, projection printers are usually referred to as enlargers.

Projection printing differs from contact printing because the negative is separated from the

paper and the image is projected by a lens onto the sensitized material.
• The negative is placed between an enclosed light source and a lens.  
• The lens receives the light that passed through the negative and projects the image
onto the paper.
• Changing the distance between the lens and the paper controls the size of the image.
• The image is focused on the paper by adjusting the distance between the negative
and the lens.  
• It is possible to enlarge or reduce the size of the projected image by changing and
adjusting these distances.

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Advantages of Projection Printing
The main advantage of enlarging over contact printing is that large prints can be made, but
there are several other important advantages.

The advantages of projection printing are as follows:

1. Cropping (selecting the main area of interest in a negative) can be done and

enlarged to any suitable size.
This gives you the opportunity to eliminate unwanted and distracting   elements from
around the point of interest of the picture.

CROPPING
– (1) Removal of parts of an image in order to improve the image’s composition.
Cropping occurs when an area that is smaller than the entire image frame is printed or
reproduced. (2) Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a photographer moving
closer to a subject, thereby eliminating (cropping) unnecessary surrounding elements from
the composition.
CROPPING removes portions of an image to improve its composition.

2. Dodging or burning in. This allows you to apply local exposure control to bring out
more detail in the highlight and shadow areas.

DODGING - Blocking a portion of the light when printing a photograph so that an area of
the print will be made lighter.
BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in." In a darkroom, providing extra
exposure to an area of the print to make it darker, while blocking light from the rest of the
print.

3. Local fogging with a small external light, such as a penlight, to darken

selected areas.
 For example, to darken the background of a portrait to direct viewer attention to the face.

4. Special effects
You can change the appearance of the image by use of diffusers or patterns between the lens
and paper.

5. Image distortion correction or introduction can be done by tilting the enlarger

easel.
An easel is the device used to hold the paper during exposure.

ENLARGERS
In general, all enlargers are similar in design and operation. They have an enclosed
light source, some method of providing an even distribution of light over the negative, a
negative carrier, a lens, and a means of adjusting   the   lens-to-negative   and   lens-to-paper
distances.
 
 Two types of enlargers:

1. Condenser Enlarger.
It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing light and the negative. These
lenses align and project the light rays evenly through the negative. Since all features of the
negative are being enlarged, any flaws also will be enlarged.

2. Diffusion Enlarger
The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing medium (usually a ground glass) between the
light source and the negative to spread the light evenly over the entire surface of the
negative. Light emitted from the lamp, as   well   as   that   reflected   from   the   parabolic

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reflector, strikes the diffuser, which, in turn, scatters it in all directions.
Thus, when the light reaches the negative, it is traveling in a non-directional pattern.

EASEL - A darkroom device used to hold paper flat while exposing it to light from an
enlarger. An easel creates a white border surrounding a print because its "arms" block light
from striking the print paper's edges. The sliding arms can be adjusted vertically and
horizontally in order to create prints of specific measurements - e.g. 4" X 6" or 5" X 7" and
so on.
An EASEL holds paper flat while exposing it to light from an enlarger.

V. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

Filter
- Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or rectangles that modify the light
passing through them. Filters are used in photography to change the appearance of a scene by
emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or density, generally so that the scene can be
recorded with a more natural look, on a particular film.

Filter Factor
- A number that indicates to what extent you must increase exposure when you use a
particular filter (by multiplying the unfiltered exposure by the filter factor number). Filters
absorb light. The filter factor allows you to compensate for this absorption. The amount of
exposure compensation has been predetermined for every filter, and is expressed as a “filter
factor” (sometimes also called an exposure factor, and also referred to as Exposure
Magnification or EM values).

Filter Size
- Measured in millimeters, is inscribed on the filter (left) and sometimes on the
lens (right).

PURPOSE
The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the
characteristics of light that reaches the light-sensitive emulsion. As light is transmitted
through a filter, at least one of the following alterations occurs:
• The color of light is modified.
• The amount of light is reduced.
• The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.

To use photographic filters properly, you must understand the nature of transmitted light.

White light is composed of three primary colors:
 red,
 green
 blue.  
Note: A filter of a primary color will transmit its own color and absorb the other two; for
example, a red filter looks red because it transmits red and absorbs green and blue.

Secondary colors are mixtures of primary colors.

 Yellow, for example, is a combination of red and green. Because a filter passes its
own color and absorbs others, a yellow filter passes read and green and absorbs blue.

Use of Filter in Black and White Photography

In    selecting    a    filter    in    black    and    white photography, you can use the
color star in figure 11-19 to determine the effect of the filter on the gray scale of the negative
and the final print.  

On the final print, the result will be that a filter will lighten its own color and the
colors adjacent to it and darken its complement and the colors adjacent to
its complement; for example, a green filter will lighten green (its own color) and cyan and

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yellow (adjacent colors). It will darken magenta (its complement) and blue
and red (adjacent colors of the complement).

FILTER FOR COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY

Filters   for   color photography are classified as light balancing, conversion, and color
compensating.

1. Light Balancing Filters

Light balancing filters come in two series (not to be confused with a series
that indicated physical size): the series 81 (yellowish filters) are used to lower the color
temperature of light source, and the series 82 (bluish filters) are used to raise the
color temperature of light from a light source.  Both series are used when a tungsten light
source is used with color film.

2. Conversion Filters
Conversion filters are used in color photography when a significant adjustment of an
exposing light is required to convert the color quality of the exposing light the color
temperature for which a film is balanced. Conversion filters generally come in two series.
The 80 series of filters are blue in color and convert tungsten light to color qualities
acceptable for use with daylight film.
The 85 series are amber in color and convert daylight to color qualities acceptable
for use with tungsten film. The correct filter to use for a given situation with a given film  can
be determined by reading filter and film data sheets. If you are in doubt, seek help from your
ship or base imaging facility.

3. Color Compensating Filters

Color compensating (CC) filters are used to adjust the overall color balance obtained
from color film, particularly slide film. Without   the use of color compensating filters,
improper color cast can result. For cameras, CC filters are normally used to color balance
the light from sources, such as fluorescent, tungsten, and mercury-vapor lights, and the
“bounce” light reflected from colored surfaces. They are also used to balance lighting effects
under unusual circumstances (such as underwater lighting).  

SPECIAL-PURPOSE FILTERS
Some of the special-purpose falters you will work with include the following:

1. Neutral Density Filters

Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the amount of light passing through a camera lens
without changing the reproduction of colors in the scene. These filters are nonselective in
their absorption of colors of light and therefore uniformly reduce the various colors
of light in the spectrum. Thus white light and colored light are transmitted through a ND
filter with only the intensity of the light being affected. These filters can be used with both
black-and-white and color film.
ND falters are gray in appearance. These falters may be needed for pictures of a brilliant
subject in bright sunlight. When you have set the fastest shutter speed and the smallest f/stop
and still cannot take the picture without overexposing the film, you can use a ND filter to
further reduce the exposure.
Haze Filters
Suspended in the earth’s atmosphere are minute particles of vapor   and   dust   that
cause   a   veil-like appearance called haze. This haze is most apparent in distant scenes.
Haze is the result of sunlight being scattered by minute particles of matter that are present in
the air.  The amount of haze can vary due to atmospheric conditions.  
A haze filter
is any filter that absorbs atmospherically scattered sunlight. This includes contrast
and correction filters. When contrast and correction filters are used for haze
penetration, they may be considered special-purpose falters.  Although contrast filter can
be used for cutting haze, these filters affect the gray tone rendering of colored objects. The
contrast and correction filters that absorb the shorter wavelengths are the most effective. The
recommended contrast and correction filter colors, in the order of greatest to least effective,

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for haze penetration are as follows:
l Red l Orange l Yellow l Green The use of an infrared sensitive black-and-white
film with an infrared filter provides the greatest haze penetration of all.

3.Skylight Filter
A skylight filter adds warmth to a scene recorded on color transparency film by
absorbing ultraviolet radiation.

It does this by reducing the bluish cast prevalent in distant scenes and in scenes
photographed on heavily overcast days or in open shade.

A skylight filter is light pink in color.

4. Polarizing Filters
Polarizing filters look like gray neutral density filters. However, their effect becomes
apparent when you look at the blue sky through a polarizing filter while rotating it. As you
rotate the falter, the sky appears to get darker, the lighter.

POLARIZING FILTER - A polarizing filter ("Polarizer" or "Polarizing screen")

is an adjustable filter, with an inner ring that screws onto the lens and an outer ring
that can be rotated. Turning the outer ring reduces or increases the filter’s effectiveness. The
polarizer absorbs glare, reducing or eliminating reflections and darkening blue skies. It works
by transmitting light that travels in one plane while absorbing light that travels in opposing
planes.

Polarizing filters are used in black-and-white and color photography for the following
reasons:
1. To reduce or eliminate unwanted reflections (glare) from nonmetallic surfaces, such
as glass and water
2. To effect exposure control (similar to ND filters)
3. To reduce the effects of haze
4. To darken   the   blue-sky   image in   both black-and-white and color photography
5. To increase color saturation in a color photograph without altering the hues of image
colors
There are a number of different polarizing filters. However, there are only two main
types: one type fits over the camera lens, and the other is designed to be used over a light
source.  Since they do not affect color, polarizing filters and screens may be used for both
black-and-white and color photography.

VI. PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS

LENS
- A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other transparent
substance) having one or more curved surfaces used in changing the
convergence of light rays.
What we commonly call a photographic lens is more accurately and
technically called an “objective,” an optical device containing a combination
of lenses that receive light rays from an object and form an image on the
focal plane. However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage of the term
“lens” to mean the entire photographic objective itself. A photographic lens
will always be called a lens, even though it is not a lens, but has a lot of
lenses in it.
A camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form an image on
film.

A. TYPES OF LENSES

1. A convex lens (positive)

- is a converging lens which works much like a concave mirror.

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This kind of lens is thicker in the middle and thinner towards the
edges, like the lens in a magnifying glass.

2. A concave lens (negative)

- Is a diverging lens which works similar to the convex mirror. This
lens is thicker towards the edges and thin in the middle and used
in helping correction of nearsightedness. All images produced by
concave lenses are virtual, erect and reduced.

Classification of Lens According to its Focal Length

Focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres (mm), but older lenses
marked in centimetres (cm) and inches are still to be found. For a given film
or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may be
classified as

1. NORMAL LENS
- Lens with a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film
format. A scene viewed through a normal lens appears to have the same
perspective as if it was being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way
your eye sees it. Most 35 mm cameras' normal lenses have a focal length of
approximately 50 mm.
In 35mm photography, lenses with a focal length of 50mm are called
"normal" because they work without reduction or magnification and create
images the way we see the scene with our naked eyes (same picture angle of
46°).

2. MACRO LENS
-A lens with the ability to focus from infinity to extremely closely,
allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in frame-filling, larger-than-life
sizes. Sometimes called a "Close-up lens," although a close-up lens is
usually a lens attachment for close-ups and does not generally have the
ability to focus on infinity.
It has an angle of view narrower than 25° and focal length longer than
normal. These lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for images of the same
size as the object. They usually feature a flat field as well, which means that
the subject plane is exactly parallel with the film plane.

3. ULTRA-WIDE ANGLE LENS

- An extra-wide angle lens. Generally, refers to 35mm camera lenses
with focal lengths shorter than 24 mm.

4. WIDE-ANGLE LENS
- A lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a normal
lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle lens has a focal length which is
less than the diagonal of the film format. angle of view wider than 60° and
focal length shorter than normal.

5. TELEPHOTO LENS
- or long-focus lens: A lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-
than-normal focal length, the ability to magnify images, and exhibiting
relatively shallow depth of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto
lenses include 85 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a few.
A distinction is sometimes made between a long-focus lens and a true
telephoto lens: the telephoto lens uses a telephoto group to be physically
shorter than its focal length.

6. FISHEYE

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- Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of view
exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° - and that renders a scene as
highly distorted.

7. QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS
- The Quasi-fish-eye lens produces an image on the film that covers
the entire frame, whereas a True fish-eye lens has its circular image wholly
within the film frame.
The QUASI-FISH-EYE LENS covers the entire film frame, actually
showing less of the image than a true fish-eye lens.

8. VARIABLE FOCUS LENS - A zoom lens

- one in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a variable
focus lens shift their positions, enabling the lens to change its focal length -
in effect, providing one lens that has many focal lengths.

Typical focal lengths and their 35mm format designations:

< 20mm - Super Wide Angle

24mm - 35mm - Wide Angle

50mm - Normal Lens

80mm - 300mm – Tele

> 300mm - Super Tele

LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION

(1) Something that prevents light from being brought into sharp focus,
disenabling the formation of a clear image.
(2) Lens flaw - the inability of a lens to reproduce an accurate, focused,
sharp image.

Here are the ten optical defects and what the camera operator can
and cannot do to correct the defect.

1. Astigmatism
- The inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and
horizontal lines on the same plane. Lines in some directions are focused less
sharply than lines in other directions.
Astigmatism is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It
will appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense horizontally
or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by stopping down the lens (smaller
lens opening, larger F number).

2. Coma
- the image of a point source of light cannot be brought into focus,
but has instead a comet shape. Coma causes parallel oblique rays passing
through a lens to be imaged (focused) not as a point, but as a comet shaped
(oval) image. Coma can be improved by stopping down the lens.

Coma is an aberration
which causes rays from an off-axis point of light in the object plane
to create a trailing "comet-like" blur directed away from the optic axis. A
lens with considerable coma may produce a sharp image in the center of the
field, but become increasingly blurred toward the edges. For a single lens,
coma can be partially corrected by bending the lens. More complete

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correction can be achieved by using a combination of lenses symmetric
about a central stop

3. Curvature of Field
- The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It is caused
by rays from the outer limits of the subject plane coming to focus nearer to
the lens than the axial rays (image comes to focus in curved shape, away
from the CCD). This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens.

4. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration

- The inability of a lens to focus all colors (wavelengths) at the same
plane on the lens axis (shorter wavelengths come to focus in front of the
CCD, longer behind). This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens.
This is normally only noticeable in long telephoto lenses. It is reduced by
the use of special glass elements, referred to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.

5. Lateral Chromatic Aberration

- also known as Transverse chromatic aberration - variation in
the magnification at the sides of a lens (this aberration type used to be
termed “lateral color”) or lateral displacement of color images at the focal
plane (CCD). Caused by different sizes of images by produced by different
colors even though the image is all on the same plane (CCD). Produces color
fringing of red or blue. Not improved by stopping down.

6. Spherical Aberration
- variation in focal length of a lens from center to edge due to its
spherical shape - generally all parts of the image, including its center;
Inability of all rays to focus at the same point. Marginal rays (at the edge)
through the lens come to focus closer to the lens than do paraxial rays (rays
parallel to the axis or center). This causes the focus to drift as you stop
down the lens. This may be part of the XL1 focusing problems. However, it's
just my opinion.

7. Distortion
- distortion causes the image of a straight line, at the edges of the
field (CCD) to bow in or out. Bowed in, pincushion, bowed out barrel
distortions. Produced by variations of magnifications over the field of the
lens, particularly at the ends of its range (max wide angle, max telephoto). It
does not affect sharpness, only shape of the image. It is not improved by
stopping down. Very common in extreme wide angles and lenses with WA
adapters.

DISTORTION
- Misrepresentation of proportions of objects or of their arrangement
in a scene. The two main types of lens distortion are: (1) Barrel distortion, in
which the straight lines near the edges of the view frame appear bowed
outward from the center, like a barrel-shape; and (2) Pincushion distortion
in which the same lines bend in towards the center.

8. Flare
- Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces contrast and color
saturation. Flare is caused by very bright subject areas and produces
internal reflections in the lens. Stacking of filters can increase flare. Lens
coatings by the Mfg. keeps flare to a minimum. The use of a suitable hood
(not the stock hood) can also aid in reducing flare.

FLARE
- Light that doesn’t belong in an image, often taking the shape of the

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aperture, generally caused by shooting towards the light source. The source
may appear in the image as a reflection from the interior of the camera or
from the lens. Flare often results in an overall reduction of image contrast.

9. Ghost Images
- Not a true defect but is seen quit often and sometimes confused as
one. Distinct images, usually in the shape of the diaphragm or a very bright
light source included in the scene. Caused by high intensity light producing
rays which bounce around in the lens and form an image. Often multiple
images appear in a row across the scene, starting at or near the source.
Ghost images can be reduced by the use of a suitable lens hood.

GHOST IMAGE
- In time exposure photography, an object that is only partially
recorded on the film and therefore has a translucent, ghost-like appearance.
Ghosting also occurs when using electronic flash at a slow shutter speed,
and a second image is captured on the film by ambient light. Some people
also refer to “flare” as a ghost image.

10. Diffraction
- Again, not a true defect, but a property of light. Diffraction is the
bending of light rays as they pass a small opening or past a sharp edge.
Common when a very small diaphragm (F16, F22, etc.) is used. Diffraction
causes a point to be less sharp.

RED EYE
- An image in which a subject’s irises are red instead of black. The
red eye effect is caused by light from a flash traveling through the iris and
illuminating the retina at the interior back of the eye–– which is red in color
due to its blood vessels –– and the camera capturing that redness on film.

Red-eye is the phenomenon where people have glowing red eyes in

photographs. This is caused by the close proximity of the flash (especially
built-in flash) to the camera lens, which causes light from the subject to be
reflected directly back at the camera. When the flash fires, the light reflects
off the blood in the capillaries in the back of the subject ’s eyes and back
into the camera lens. People with blue eyes are particularly susceptible to
the red-eye phenomenon because they have less pigment to absorb the
light.

RED EYE REDUCTION

- A feature of some cameras or flash units that is meant to reduce
the effect of red eye by emitting multiple bursts of light immediately before
the picture is taken. The intended result is a forced reduction in the size of
the subject's iris.
There are a few ways to minimize or eliminate red-eye in your
pictures. Some cameras provide a red-eye reduction feature that fires a
preflash, forcing the irises in your subject ’s eyes to close before you take
the picture. The main problem with this method is that it often forces
subjects to involuntarily close their eyes before the image is taken, and it
doesn’t always completely eliminate the red-eye effect.

A more effective method is to use an external flash via the camera ’s

hot-shoe mount or, better yet, with an extension bracket. An external flash
radically changes the angle of the flash, preventing the lens from capturing
the reflection of the blood in the back of your subject ’s eyes.
While you can also fix the red-eye effect using Aperture, there is no
way to accurately reproduce the original color of your subject ’s eyes.

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COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

Preventing the problem before it occurs is the preferred solution.

Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction

1. Simple miniscus lens

– this lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is uncorrected
lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.

2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens

– It is a combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same focal
length. This is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on
astigmatism.

A rectilinear lens
is a photographic lens that yields images where straight features,
such as the walls of buildings, appear with straight lines, as opposed to
being curved. In other words, it is a lens with little barrel or pincushion
distortion.

3. Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat)

– a lens designed to correct astigmatism. A lens which is free from
astigmatism and other types of lens defects. It has the ability to focus a
vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.
4. Achromatic Lens
– a lens which is partly corrected for chromatic aberration.

An achromatic lens or achromat

is a lens that is designed to limit the effects of chromatic and
spherical aberration. Achromatic lenses are corrected to bring two
wavelengths (typically red and blue) into focus in the same plane.

5. Process lens
– a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction
and has the ability to produce the best definition of image in the
photographs.
6. Fixed Focus Lens
– a lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short focal
length and greater depth of field.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Crime Scene
- A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence found
thereat.

Forensic Photography
- Is the process of photographing or recording crime scene or any
objects for court presentation.

Photography
- Is a science or art of obtaining images on the sensitized materials by
the action of light thru the use of camera and its accessories involved
therein.

The three most common methods of recording a crime scene are:

Note taking, sketching, and photography. A detailed record of the crime
scene and of the action taken during the search of it, help the crime scene
specialist to accurately recall events and to identify items of evidence later

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in court law. The note take sketches and photographs made by the crime
scene specialist during the search of evidence also serve as a valuable
reference concerning the details uncovered during the search and the
thoroughness of the method.

The crime scene specialists are his/her personal record of the search for
evidence. The objective of note taking at a crime scene is to make detailed
notes that will remain fully meaningful even months after the event. Often
times, a note that is completely clear to the writer a short time after being
made later becomes unintelligible.

The notes taken should begin with the crime scene especialist’s name and
assignment to the case. Notes should be supplemented by sketches and
photographs of the scene. Notes should be recorded in the order that the
observations that pertain to are made, and will not necessarily be in logical
order. During the stage of the recording process, it is important only that
the notes are complete, as the crime scene specialist will later recognize the
information during the writing of the formal report.

REQUIREMENTS OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPH:

1. CLARITY- Presenting bare facts (must not be blurred)

2. CONSISTENCY- must show its purpose, photograph must form a set
together related to the scene as a whole.
3. SCALE- determine the actual measurement/ size of the object being
photographed.

OBJECTIVE OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY:

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officers memory accurately as possible
as to where he finds things.
3. To help in securing obtaining confession, description and information
to the case.

IMPORTANCE OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY;

1. For identification of person documents, fingerprints, shoe print and

splashes of blood.
2. Preservation of evidence in court.
3. Describes better than words.
4. Proves statements.
5. Records things you mail fail to notice.

NOTE: Upon arrival at the scene of the crime, photograph the whole area
before anything is moved. Take shots from several angels to show the whole
area.

GUIDELINES IN TAKING PHOTOGRAPH IN CRIME SCENE;

INDOOR

FIRST SHOT - Forensic Photographer must establish his first shot of general
view by photographing the entire area showing a reference point.

SECOND SHOT -The exact place where the crime was committed. It must be
shown on the photograph whether it is residential, factory alleys, etc.

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THIRD SHOT - Photograph the main door and possible entrance and exits of
the perpetrator. In robbery cases, whether the perpetrator enters at the
window.

FOURT SHOT -Before proceeding to the main scene of the crime, hallways
and other adjacent rooms must be photographed.

FIFTH SHOT - The exact place. It may be a room or a toilet. It is advisable to

use the wide-angels lens in a limited space to show the angels.

SIXTH SHOT- Close-up shots are applicable to the object/s and or subject/s
attacked.

SEVENTH SHOT- Extreme Close-up- to show the extent of damage or injury

caused by the suspects and to show other vital evidence.

OUTDOOR

1. Geographical conditions of the crime scene. Each shot must be

shown if it is a residential, factory or a busy street.
2. Other rerated houses, passages in the vicinity.
3. Evidence left behind in the crime scene and other traces.
4. Blood stains.
5. Condition of the victim.

PROCEEDURES OF THE CRIME SCENE;

1. General view or long range view- overall view of the crime scene to
include the reference point.
2. Medium view or mid-range view - to show the four angels of the
crime scene including the possible including the route path of the
suspect.
3. Close-up shot- to identify the subject. Normally taken at
approximately 5 ft or less from the subject.
4. Extreme close-up shot- to show the extent of damage or injury
caused by the suspect.

ITEMS OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE TO BE PHOTOGRAPH

1. All materials which serve to establish the fact that the crime has been
committed.
2. The body of the victim.
3. Any object to identify the number of perpetrator/s.
4. Physical evidence which would connect the suspect to the crime. Any
marks, such as fingerprints, splashes of blood, hair strands, etc.

NOTE: Shoe print or tire impression should be photographed before the

addition of a scale or label.

SEX OFFENSE EXAMINATION

The crime of rape may be taken as typical class of offense. There

must be a written permission from the victim, the photograph must be
taken in the presence of the victim, the photograph must be taken in the
presence of the parents/guardians or medico legal officer. Indication of the
victims effort to resist, such as brushes or black or blue marks or evidence
of the presence of either or both parties at the scene.

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Photograph of the stains or mark should also be taken at the crime
scene. After the stains have been photographed, specimens should be
carefully preserved for submission to the medical doctor or other specialists
whose duty is to identify them and prepare photomicrograph foe use of
evidence.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE VICTIM

Evidence of resistance of the criminal act is of particular importance
in sex offences; verify the head, including marks and discoloration of the
body in general, the condition of the specifically affected parts, and presence
of foreign hairs, fibers, and biological stains. Bite-mark wounds should be
photographed at twelve to twenty four hour intervals for the proceeding
several days.
THE SUSPECT

The suspect’s body may show evidence of physical struggle, such as

scratches or bruises, foreign hairs or fibers that may be discovered by the
physician. The garments of the suspects may reveal bloodstains, semen,
hair strands, etc.

Written photographing the scene of the homicide, the forensic

photographers relates what he has seen and defend it before the court
during trial. Through photographs he has to show the manner by which the
homicide occurred, views of the room with all the possible entrance and
exit.

He must shoe whether there is any evidence of struggle and try to

show what happen inside prior to the crime. Obvious evidence such as
cigarette butts, blood stains or broken glass should not be overlooked.

The circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the

body. Take close-up shots of the wounds, bruises, weapon used and the
place where it was taken.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE CORPSE

In photographing the corpse on the scene, several pictures of the
conditions at the time of discovery including the environment of the corpse
must be taken from various photographic directions;

 Show when photographing the general condition of the corpse, if as

being deformed as a whole.
 When photographing the damage part of the corpse, consider the
range of photographing to the damage part clearly; take some close-
up shots on the several directions, if possible so as to clarify their
relation.

AUTOPSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
If a cadaver is anatomized, photograph its front and rear views in the
nude so as to clearly reveal the conditions in details.

SUICIDE
We should not conclude in reporting such causes. Its needs thorough
examination and investigation.

SUICIDE BY HANGING
Strangulation by hanging is the most common form of suicide. But
the investigator must not assume that the victim found hanging is suicide.
But the investigator must not assume that the victim found hanging is

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suicide. Photograph the subject at the distant from four views, showing the
full body then move in close and show the knot, and bruise marks. If it is
suicide by shooting, take note of the color of the body (discoloration).
NOTE: Do not untie the knot, just cut it.

SUICIDE BY SHOOTING
Photograph both entrance and exit wounds. Exit wound is always
larger that the diameter of the bullet. Usually, the hair surrounding the
entrance is singeing and the skin is burned to a reddish or grayish-brown
color. If it is fired from range of less than eight inches, black residue may be
evident.

ROBBERY CASE
1. Photograph the general view of the crime scene.
2. The point of entry begins with a distant shot, and works you into.
Take close-up shots on the possible entry and exit to include the
pathways. Each room in the house or building which was
disturbed should be photograph.
3. Take some shots of all the furniture or articles which show as
evidence of being ransacked.
4. Determine his possible point of exit. Usually, the burglar may leave
something at the crime scene especially when he is surprised by
someone such as hat, gloves, and scarf or cigarette butts.

ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

1. Avoid unnecessary surroundings/objects that are not pertinent to the
case.
2. Take four shots at 25 feet distance from the point of impact.
3. Take close-up shots on the damaged area in two angels.

PHOTOGRAPH THE FF:

1. Vehicles in their original positions.
2. Debris
3. Reference points
4. Skid tire marks, patches of oil or water.
5. Victims
6. Plate number

KINDS OF SKETCH
1. Rough sketch- is a diagram drawn at the scene by the investigator or
someone involved in the investigation. The sketch is made after a
preliminary search of the scene and before any evidence is removed.

The rough sketch can be used in the following:

a. To enable the investigator to obtain a lasting picture of the crime

scene that will assist him to review the circumstances of the
incident after the original scene has been chage or destroy.
b. To help a witness recall some particular fact.

2. Finish or Final Sketch- the finish or final is well- prepared diagram

using instrument for the construction of the lines. The purpose of the
finished is to bring the crime scene into the courtroom for
presentation. It can strengthen the testimony of the witness by
showing a neat and accurate drawing.

TYPES OF SKETCHES

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1. Neighbourhood or Locality Sketch- is used to document items

within a large scene involving a large truck of land and/or many
buildings. The sketch can show the location of evidence and its
relationships to the overall scene, the relationships of building to one
another, the location of major vegetation, fences street signs, path of
egress used by the suspects, and the location of witnesses in relation
to the scene. It’s up to the discretion of investigator what should be
included or excluded in the sketch.

2. Floor Plan/Ground Sketch- is the simplest and most common one

used in diagramming crime scene. It may be used in nearly all crime
scene situations where the items of interest are located in one plane.
It is also the easiest for lay people such as jury members to
comprehend.

3. Detailed Sketch- shows the area of immediate concern with all the
physical details that are of importance. These details can consist of
piece of physical evidence, furniture arrangement, location of doors
and windows, and accurate measurements of location of evidence. It
is the decision of the investigator as to what is needed in the sketch.

4. Exploded View- is the sketch that uses the combination of the floor
plan and the floor elevation views (the walls) of the room. The walls
and ceiling are drawn as if they are folded out with the ceiling placed
on one of the walls. The purpose of this type of sketch is to show
points of interest on the walls, ceiling and floor.

5. Elevation of Sketch or Drawing- depict a side, front, or rear of the

exterior of a structure or one of the interior walls in a room used
when the vertical, rather than the horizontal plane is of interest.
Thus, if bloodstream is present on a wall of a house, the elevation
drawing of the wall would be used to depict this scene.
6. Perspective Drawing- depicts a three-dimensional drawing of the
drawing of the scene. Although the final drawing will be very clear if
done properly, this type of sketch requires a fair amount of artistic
and therefore is generally not recommended.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS

1. Rectangular Method
- This method uses two walls in a room as fixed points, from
which distances are measured at right angel to the object.
2. Triangulation Method
- An object is located by drawing two straight lines from two
fixed points creating a triangle; the object is in angel formed by the
line.
3. Baseline or Coordinate Method
- The baseline method also known as coordinate method, uses
the principle of measuring an object between two known as known
points. This single reference is called the baseline. The baseline can
be a wall or the known center of the room. The measurement of the
evidence is taken in the following manner. A starting point is decided
on one of the ends of the baseline. From that point, a measurement is
made to the point that is right angle to the evidence. A second
measurement is then taken from the object to the baseline. All
measurements from the baseline to objects are left to right.

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In outdoor scenes, a straight line is established from one fixed
point to another fixed point. Using one end of the line as a starting
point, an object can be located by measuring along either side of the
baseline to the point at right angle to the object.
4. Compass Point Method
– A protractor is used to measure the angle between two lines.
One point along a wall is selected as the origin. An axis line drawn
from the origin is the line from which the angle is measured.
5. Polar Coordinate Method
– one permanent object is chosen and with the use of a
compass, the direction of the object to be measured is determined.
6. Grid Method
– starting at a known permanent reference point at the scene,
a measurement of predetermined increments is marked off
horizontally and vertically. On each horizontal and vertical
increment, a line or string is laid so that the scene resembles many
small squares. When a piece of evidence is found it is recorded to the
nearest increment from the reference point. A measurement from the
increment to the evidence is taken horizontally and vertically.

THE FIVE METHODS OF SEARCH

A. Spiral Search – this ever widening circle technique is conducted with
the searching officer starting at the focal point of the crime scene or
the center of the area, working outward by circling in a clockwise or
counter-clockwise direction to the outside edges of the crime scene. A
spiral technique is a good pattern for a rather confined area. This
works well in a small room. In addition to using the spiral pattern in
a room, it is also helpful to apply this pattern in layers. This can be
done as follows:
1. Visually search the top third of the room, as well as the ceiling.
2. Search the middle third of the room including drawers and
cabinets.
3. Search the lower third, using the spiral technique.

B. Strip or Line Search – a strip search is typically used in outdoor

scenes to cover large areas in which detailed examination is
necessary. It is a technique frequently used by archaeologists when
they search a particular area. The strip search uses a series of lanes
across the crime scene. This method can be used by one or a group of
searchers. It is done as follows:
1. Each lane contains a searcher that walks down the lane parallel
to the other searcher.
2. Once the searchers get to the end of the lane they reverse their
direction and walk back adjacent to the lane they just searched.
3. This process is continued until the entire crime scene area has
been searched.
4. If one of the searchers find evidence, all searchers should stop
until/the evidence is properly processed and they received
additional information.

C. Grid or Double Strip Search – the grid search is a combination of

the strip search and is useful for large crime scenes, particularly
outdoor scenes. After completing the strip search, the searchers are
doubled back, perpendicularly across the area they just searched. It
is very time consuming but causes a very methodical and through
examination of the area. It is also has the advantage of allowing
searchers to view and search the crime scene from two different
viewpoints, thereby increasing the possibility of uncovering evidence

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not previously noticed.

D. Quadrant, Zone or Sector Search – a quadrant, zone or sector

search is used when the search area is particularly large and
cumbersome. This type of search requires the crime scene to be
divided into four large quadrants (the four large quadrants can also
be sub-divided into four smaller quadrants). Each quadrant or sector
is then searched separately as an individual unit, using the spiral,
strip and/or grid search pattern.

E. Pie or Wheel Search- is based on the established on the

establishment of a circular surrounding the crime scene. The circle is
then divided into six quadrants in a pie-like fashion.

In this method of search, the area is considered to be approximately

circular. The searchers gather at the center and proceed outward along radii
or spokes. The procedure should be repeated several times depending on
the size of the circle and the numbers of searchers. One shortcoming of this
method is the great increase in the area to be observed as the searcher….

IMPORTANCE OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

 Permanent Record- photo lay sheet

-object in permanent position
 Significance of certain aspects of the crime scene- related
evidence to be photographs or important object
 Reconstruction of the crime scene- for corners photographs

BASIC REQUIREMENT OF A PHOTOGRAPH ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE

IN COURT

 Accurate representations of the crime scene or the object it purports

to reproduce.
 Free of distortion
 Material and relevant to the point in issue.
 Unbiased
 A written record that indicates a detail information about the
photographs such as the case number, location’s address, date, time,
incident, name of victim, etc.

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIME INVESTIGATION

1. Identification of the subject

a. Frontal whole body
b. Frontal whole body
c. Half body right side
d. Half body left side
e. Left quarter view
f. Right quarter view

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIME INVESTIGATION

1. Preservation of evidence
2. Description of the crime scene
3. Substitution to original documents/evidence
4. Record

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PROCEDURE IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

1. General view or long-range

2. Medium view or mid-range
3. Close-up view/range

SEQUENTIAL PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CRIME SCENE

1. Views of the exterior of the building/vehicle in relation to other

buildings/vehicles, roads/ streets, etc.
2. Point of entry and exit outside and inside.
3. Interiors of the crime scene/room.
4. Condition of the crime scene.
5. Area from which valuable articles were removed
6. Articles left at the scene.
7. Trace evidence, such as hairs, fibers, footprints and cigarettes buttes.
8. Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks.
9. Fingerprints as well as articles on which these prints may be found.

A. Purpose of crime scene photography

1. To record the original scene and related areas
2. To record the initial appearance of physical evidence
3. It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual record of the
scene for later use.
4. Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings

B. Admissibility of photographic evidence

1. Two major points of qualification of a photograph in court:
a. Object pictured must be material or relevant to the point in issue.
b. The photograph must be free from distortion and not misrepresent the scene
or the object purports to reproduce.

C. General Crime Scene Photography

Photographs are one way to record a crime scene:

1. Field notes
2. Photographs
3. Sketches

Six (6) steps in recording the crime scene:

1. Record the time of arrival
2. Secure the scene
3. Take preliminary notes
4. Take overview or preliminary photographs
5. Make a basic sketch
6. Record each item of evidence

D. Rules in Crime Scene Photography

Rule 1 – Do not disturb the scene

This is the cardinal rule of crime scene photography. Both later investigators and
judges need to see the scene, as it was when the police arrived.

As far as possible, plan your pictures before you shoot. Make sure to cover the whole
scene before it is touched or altered in any way. After the scene has been photographed in its
original state, you may shoot a second series of pictures with minor changes. You can add
measuring scales, remove obstacles blocking the view or do anything else which will make
the scene clearer. If you are working with a partner, take pictures of him moving objects or
adding them to the scene. This will show the jury exactly what was done and why.

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

Rule 2 – Get a complete Series of Pictures

You must move around the scene to see anything. So must the camera. Generally
speaking, each important object in the scene should appear in at least three pictures: an
overview; a mid-range shoot; a close-up.

The overview (using wide angle lens) should cover the entire scene to bring the out
relationship between the objects. The mid-range (using normal lens: 50mm) shot shows and
important object and its immediate surroundings. Finally, each close-up (using close-up
lens) shows a key detail clearly.
All of these pictures are important. A close-up alone does not indicate where the
object was located. An overview alone does not bring out all items sharply enough to permit
a detailed examination

Rule 3 – Pay attention to camera angles

Relationships of size and distance may be distorted by the wrong viewpoint.
Examine the scene in the viewfinder. This shows the scene, as your camera will see it.

Ask yourself questions such as:

Does this picture reveal the true position of the witness to the crime?

Do the skid marks seem longer or shorter in the viewfinder than they are in real life?

How large is the lead pipe used as a weapon?

Shoot most pictures with the camera at eye level. This is the height from which people
normally see things and that makes it easier to judge perspective.

One practical way to assure complete coverage and to provide correct perspective is to
follow the
four corner approach: Clockwise manner
four corner approach in the crime scene photography.

Rule 4 – Record all Data

You will often want to stress key details in a picture. If you do not that by marking
on the print itself, a defense lawyer may accuse you of altering it. For this reason, it is wise to
do your marking on a transparent overlay that can be removed to show the untouched print.

Another way to avoid possible objections is to label the negatives from which your
prints were made and take them with you to court.

Finally, you may want to support your prints with a “sketch map” of the crime scene
and indicate that camera position for each shot.

STEPS IN MAJOR CRIME PHOTOGRAPHY

a. First discuss the crime, evidence and photographs needed with other investigators
at the scene
b. Be careful not to destroy any evidence while taking the photographs
c. Outside the scene
1. Exterior of the building where the crime occurred and in some cases the whole
locale.
2. Aerial photographs of the scene and the surrounding area can be useful in some
types of cases.
3. Original series of photographs should also show all doors, windows and other
means of entrance or exit.
d. Inside the camera
1. Begin with a view of the entrance
2. Then photograph the scene as it appears when you first step into the room.

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

3. Next, move around the room to get photographs of all the walls.
a. These photographs should also show the positions of any potential items of
evidence.
4. Include photographs of other rooms connected with the actual crime scene.

PHOTOGRAPHING ITEMS OF EVIDENCE

1. Take two photographs of each item of evidence.

a. One should be an orientation (midrange) shot to show how the item is related to
its surroundings.
b. The second photograph should be a close-up to bring out the details of the object
itself.

2. Measuring and marking devices

a. Take two photographs if a marking or measuring device used.
(a.1.) one photograph without the device, the other with the device.
(a.2.) so the defense can’t claim that the scene was altered or that the device was
concealing anything important.

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED IN CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Always take preliminary photographs before the scene is altered in any way.
2. Take a complete set of pictures (overall, midrange and close-up). Shoot from
different angles and distances. Film is cheaper than lost cases.
3. Keep your pictures sharp. Use a tripod if possible. Focus carefully. Be sure your
lens is clean.
4. Avoid back lighting. it creates silhouettes and may cause flare. If you must shoot
toward a light, shade the lens as best you can.
5. Use side lighting to bring out texture, accident damage, tool marks and any other
irregularities on a surface. Avoid it when shooting recesses, containers and closets.
6. Front lighting is normally the best in police work. Use it unless three dimensional
details need to be record (then use side lighting)
7. The flash provides portable and easily controlled light. In sunlight scenes, it fills in
the shadows and brings out details that they might otherwise hide.
8. Aiming your flash at a highly polished surface may cause “glare”. Point the
camera / flash at the surface from a 45degree angle.
9. Cover the flash with a clean white handkerchief for close subjects to prevent the
flash from “burning” the subject in with overexposure or harsh light.
10. When some important objects are near you and others are far away, use your flash
but expect those objects closer to you to be overexposed and those farther away to be
underexposed. Try taking an extra shot without a flash if there is some “available”
light but you will most likely have to use a tripod or rest the camera on some solid
stationary object to prevent a blurred or unclear image.

BASIC RULE FOR EVIDENCE CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPHY

As a general rule, always keep the film plane parallel (at a right angle or 90 degrees)
to the plane of the evidence.
Ex. Impressions, tool marks, weapons and the like

Note: recommended size of photograph in court is 5” x 7” or 8” x 10” or bigger.

FLASH FILL IN CRIME SCENE AND EVIDENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

When to use flash fill?

In scenes illuminated by bright sunlight there will usually be dark shadow areas.
Detail in the deep shadow areas will be lost when the exposure is based on the overall
brightness of the scene. With the use of flash fill, the brightness level in the shadow areas can
be raised to the overall brightness of the scene.

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

SPECIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
(Types of Photography used in law enforcement or forensic works)

1. Infrared Photography
Infrared photography is the recording of images formed by infrared
radiation. These uses a special films or sensors that are sensitive to
infrared radiation.
Infrared rays (heat thermal rays) are invisible and only detected as
heat. With infrared radiation, pictures can be taken even at night or in
complete darkness.

USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

a. Questioned Document
Even crossed-out words or writings on a charred piece of paper can
be read if photographs of them are taken with infrared rays.

b. Aerial Photography
- Infrared photography can enhance the contrast of the terrain.
- Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter) growth is
differentiated.
c. Surveillance photography (especially at night)
d. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth.
e. Detection of certain types of secret writings.
f. It can differentiate inks, dyes and pigments that appears visually the
same.
g. Fabrics that appear to be similar but have been dyed differently can
be identified by infrared.
h. It may also reveal the contents of sealed envelopes.
i. It is also valuable in detecting stains on cloth, including blood stains
that are not visible to the eye, and
j. Powder residues surrounding bullet holes in cloth, even when the
fabric is dark in color or bloodstained, may be made visible by
infrared.

2. Ultraviolet Photography
By using a filter that absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet
Ultraviolet Filter – it is possible to make a photographic exposure
with just ultraviolet.

USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

a. Try ultraviolet photography after visible light techniques and infrared
light techniques fail (questioned document, etc.)
b. Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces (dust with fluorescent powder or
ninhydrin solution)
c. Body secretions such as urine, semen and perspiration often glow
when illuminated by ultraviolet light.
d. Money and other valuables can be dusted or marked to identify
thieves.
e. Photographing “invisible ink”

3. X-ray Photography
is widely use in medicine, industry, and science. It is quite different
from ordinary photography. X rays are invisible electromagnetic waves. They
behave much like visible light. But they can pass through things such as
wood, cardboard, and flesh, which light cannot penetrate.
In law enforcement, x-ray photography is widely used to show and
provide evidence as to weather a subject suffered or suffering from internal
injuries.

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

4. Photomicrography
It combines a camera with microscope. Pictures can then be taken of
things too small to be seen with naked eye. A photograph taken
through a microscope is called photomicrograph.

Photomicrography is the practice of photographing very small objects in

order that they may be seen in comfort. (One should not confuse this with
micro-photography, which is the opposite.)
- The practice dates from the earliest days of photography. The first
known example is that of Fox Talbot who, using a solar
microscope, had photographed an insect's wing, magnified some
15 times. John Benjamin Dancer also produced work in this field.

5. Micro-Photography – A.K.A. Micro-filming

It is the production of photographs in which the image of an objects
is reproduced much smaller than it actually is. It is just the opposite
of macrophotography. Invented by George Shadbolt.

- This is photography made on a vastly reduced scale, to be

observed using a microscope or projected using a “magic lantern.”

- The micro-photographic process is taken to mean a substantial

reduction of the “real thing” either for archival, portability or,
clandestine purposes.

6. Macrophotography
Photography of a subject where the image is recorded in the same or
larger than actual size.
- It is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small
object without the use of a microscope, by using a short focus lens
or macro lens/close-up lens and a long bellow extension.

- Applied in taking photos of small items of evidence at the crime

scene like latent fingerprints and the like.

Enrichment Answer the following:

Activities 1.
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__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2.
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Rubrics
Learning Exemplary Superior Satisfactory Needs
Episodes Improvement
Learning All tasks All or nearly Nearly all Fewer than
Activities were done all tasks tasks were half of the
with were done done with tasks were

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”

 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF PUBLIC SAFETY

outstanding with high acceptable done; or most
quality; work quality quality objectives
exceeds were met but
expectations need
improvement

5 4 3 2
Assignment All tasks All tasks Tasks were Tasks were
were were not not
accomplishe accomplishe accomplished accomplished;
d completely; d completely; completely; grammar and
in depth clear vaguely spelling are
answers; connection related to the unsatisfactory
thoroughly with theories, To the
grounded on grammar and theories;
theories, with spelling are grammar and
exemplary superior spelling are
grammar and acceptable
spelling
5 4 3 2
Assessmen All questions There is one Two mistakes Three
t were mistake were mistakes were
answered committed committed committed
with perfect
score
5 4 3 2
Submission Submitted Submitted on Submitted a Submitted
of learning before the the deadline day after the two days or
episodes deadline deadline more after the
deadline
5 4 3 2

TRANSMUTATION OF SCORE TO GRADE/ RATING

Score 20 19- 17 16 15 14 13- 11 10 79-
18 12 8
below
Grade 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.5
5.00
99 96 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 72
71-
below
Grading Written/Performance activities 30% worksheets, exercises, essays,
System narrative, critics, audio/video
recordings
Major Requirements 25% term papers, research papers,
portfolio
Major Exams 45% 3 summative tests
Total 100%
Reference

VISION MISSION
The leading center for academic and technological excellence Develop competent and morally upright professionals and generate
and prime catalyst for a progressive and sustainable Quirino appropriate knowledge and technologies to meet the needs of Quirino
Province and Southern Cagayan Valley. Province and Southern Cagayan Valley.

“Molding Minds, Shaping Future”