X

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Engr. Noel S. Palomas

College of Engineering
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PREFACE

The main purpose of this module is to provide the student with a clear and detailed
presentation of the theory and application of Highway and Railroad Engineering. This
course presents the methods and underlying principles for the design and control of
the elements of road and railroad infrastructure. The course will also discuss
transportation system terminology, flow analysis, driver, vehicle and road
characteristics, and aspects of road geometrics, road construction, drainage,
pavements and maintenance.
To achieve this objective despite of this pandemic due to COVID-19, this work has
been shaped by the comments and suggestions of the peer reviewer in the teaching
profession, as well as the other faculty members who will ensure quality of the
modules that will be distributed to the LGU.
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UNIT III: GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR HIGHWAYS AND

RAILWAYS

3.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Identify the design requirements for highways and railways.

2. Determine highway surveys and location.
3. Identify geometric design of highway facilities.
4. Determine the proper highway drainage.
5. Define and solve problem related to horizontal alignment.
6. Define and solve problem related to vertical alignment.
7. Define and solve problems related to super-elevation.
8. Identify different types of earthworks.

3.1 Introduction

Geometric design for highways and railways is essential in the specified field
of engineering which is transportation engineering. Geometric designs matters
depending of the locations of both highways and railways. In addition, it is
important to determine the different parameters to determine the appropriate
geometric design for highways and railways. In making a design, it needs to
take in consideration the different aspects of highway and railways such as:
highway drainage, types of alignments, elevations or slope, and earthworks.

3.2 Topics

3.2.1 Design Requirements for Highways and Railways

3.2.1.1 Design Requirement for Highways
The criteria contained of the Roadway Design Manual are applicable to
all classes of highways from freeways to two-lane roads. The guidelines
may require modification for local conditions. It is important that the
significant deviations from the manual be documented and be based on
an objective engineering analysis.
It should be noted that roadway design criteria and technology is a
rapidly changing field of study. The fact that new design values are
presented or updated herein does not imply that existing highway
conditions are less safe. Also, continually enhanced design practices do
not mandate the need for improvement projects. With a significant
transportation infrastructure in place, the intention is to use the most
current design techniques on projects scheduled for future construction.
The manual is intended to result in projects, which provide user safety
and operational efficiency while taking into account environmental
quality. Various environmental impacts can be mitigated or eliminated
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by the use of appropriate design practices. To the extent practical, the

selection of cost-effective design criteria can allow the finished project to
be more consistent with surrounding terrain and/or settings.

 Design Exemptions
 Design Waivers
 Design Variances

Design Exemptions
A design exemption is required whenever the criteria for certain
controlling criteria specified for the different categories of construction
projects are not met. The determination of whether a design exemption
exists rest with the district, unless the project is subject to federal
oversight or review. A design exemption is not required when values
exceed the guidelines for the controlling criteria.
Final approval of a roadway design exception must be signed by the
district engineer and this signature authority cannot be delegated. For
flexibility and efficiency in meeting project design schedules, the review
of design exceptions and recommendations for approval/non-approval
may be established individually by each district. For example, a four-
person review committee might be established which includes:
 Director of Transportation Planning and Development,
 Director of Construction,
 Director of Operations/Traffic, and
 Area Engineer (not responsible for project management).
The reviews of any three of the four-member committee would
constitute a quorum for recommending signature action. The
complete documentation for a roadway exception should be retained
permanently in the district project files and a copy furnished to the
Design Division. Since the construction plans are sealed, the design
exception documentation does not require an engineer’s seal.

Project Categories Will Have Controlling Criteria that Dictate A Design

Exception:

 New Location and Reconstruction Projects

 Resurfacing, Restoration or Rehabilitation Projects
 Resurfacing or Restoration Projects
 Special Facilities
 Off-System Historically Significant Bridge Projects
 Park Road Projects
 Bicycle Facilities
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Design Waivers
When the criteria are not met in a non-controlling category, a design
exception is not required. However, variations from the criteria in these
cases will be handled by design waivers at the district level. Design
waivers will be granted as the district authorizes. The complete
documentation should be retained permanently in the district project
files and a copy furnished to the Design Division.

Project Categories Will Have Noncontrolling Criteria That Dictate A

Design Waiver.

 New Location and Reconstruction Projects

 Resurfacing, Restoration or Rehabilitation Projects.
 Resurfacing or Restoration Projects.
 Special Facilities.

Design Variances
A design variance is required whenever the design guidelines specified
in the Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) and
the Texas Accessibility Standards are not met. Design variances should
be sent to the Design Division for forwarding to the Texas Department
of Licensing and Regulation for approval.

3.2.1.2 Design Requirement for Railways

Geometric design of a railway track includes all those parameters which
determine or affect the geometry of the track. These parameters are as
follows:

1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation,

rising gradient, and falling gradient

2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical

curves, transition curves, sharpness of the curve in terms of
radius or degree of the curve, can’t or super-elevation on curves,
etc.

3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as

curved alignment. It is very important for tracks to have proper
geometric design in order to ensure the safe and smooth running
of trains at maximum permissible speeds, carrying the heaviest
axle loads. The speed and axle load of the train are very important
and sometimes are also included as parameters to be considered
while arriving at the geometric design of the track.
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Necessity for Geometric Design

The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the
following considerations:
(a) To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
(b) To achieve maximum speeds
(c) To carry heavy axle loads
(d) To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent
way
(e) To ensure that the track requires least maintenance
(f) For good aesthetics

Details of Geometric Design of Track

The geometric design of the track deals with various aspects, which are
as follows:
 Alignment of Railway track
 Curves
 Gradients

Gradients

Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the
railway track. A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the
direction of movement of traffic and in a down or falling gradient the
track loses elevation the direction of movement of traffic.
A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise
or fall of one unit. Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or
fall. For example, if there is a rise of 1 m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400
or 0.25 per cent, as shown in Fig. 12.1.
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Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives:

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations
(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork
The following types of gradients are used in the railways:
(a) Ruling gradient
(b) Pusher or helper gradient
(c) Momentum gradient
(d) Gradients in station yards

Ruling Gradient

The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It

determines the maximum load that can be hauled by a locomotive on
that section. While deciding the ruling gradient of a section, it is not only
the severity of the gradient, but also its length as well as its position with
respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into
consideration. The power of the locomotive to be put into service on the
track also plays an important role in taking this decision, as the
locomotive should have adequate power to haul the entire load over the
ruling gradient at the maximum permissible speed.
The extra force P required by a locomotive to pull a train of weight W
on a gradient with an angle of inclination 8 is as follows:

P = W sin 8
= W tan 8 (approximately, as 8 is very small)
= W x gradient
Indian Railways does not specify any fixed ruling gradient owing to
enormous variations in the topography of the country, the traffic plying
on various routes, and the speed and type of locomotive in use on
various sections. Generally, the following ruling gradients are adopted
by Indian Railways when there is only one locomotive pulling the train.
In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250
In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
Once a ruling gradient has been specified for a section, all other
gradients provided in that section should be flatter than the ruling
gradient after making due compensation for curvature.

Pusher or Helper Gradient

In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when
trying to reduce the length of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes,
gradients steeper than the ruling gradient are provided to reduce the
overall cost. In such situations, one locomotive is not adequate to pull
the entire load, and an extra locomotive is required.
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When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to necessitate the

use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or
helper gradient. Examples of pusher gradients are the Budni-Barkhera
section of Central Railway and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
section.

Momentum Gradient

The momentum gradient is also steeper than the ruling gradient and can
be overcome by a train because of the momentum it gathers while
running on the section. In valleys, a falling gradient is sometimes
followed by a rising gradient. In such a situation, a train coming down a
falling gradient acquires good speed and momentum, which gives
additional kinetic energy to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients
steeper than the ruling gradient. In sections with momentum gradients
there are no obstacles provided in the form of signals, etc., which may
bring the train to a critical juncture.

Gradients in Station Yards

The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons:

(a) It prevents standing vehicles from rolling and moving

away from the yard due to the combined effect of gravity and
strong winds.
(b) It reduces the additional resistive forces required to start a
locomotive to the extent possible.

It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not levelled

completely and certain flat gradients are provided in order to ensure
good drainage. The maximum gradient prescribed in station yards on
Indian Railways is 1 in 400, while the recommended gradient is 1 in 1000.

3.2.2 Highway Surveys and Location

Selecting the location of a proposed highway is an important initial step in its

design. The decision to select a particular location is usually based on
topography, soil characteristics, environmental factors such as noise and air
pollution, and economic factors. The data required for the decision process are
usually obtained from different types of surveys, depending on the factors
being considered. Most engineering consultants and state agencies presently
involved in highway locations use computerized techniques to process the vast
amounts of data that are generally handled in the decision process. These
techniques include remote sensing, which uses aerial photographs for the
preparation of maps, and computer graphics, which is a combination of the
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analysis of computer-generated data with a display on a computer monitor. In

this chapter, we present a brief description of the current techniques used in
highway surveys to collect and analyze the required data, and the steps
involved in the procedure for locating highways. We also cover earthwork
computations and mass diagrams, since an estimate of the amount of
earthwork associated with any given location is required for an economic
evaluation of the highway at that location. The result of the economic
evaluation aids in the decision to accept or reject that location.

Principles of Highway location

The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as
curvature and grade must blend with each other to produce a system that
provides for the easy flow of traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design
criteria and safety standards. The highway should also cause a minimal
disruption to historic and archeological sites and to other land-use activities.
Environmental impact studies are therefore required in most cases before a
highway location is finally agreed upon.
The highway location process involves four phases:
• Office study of existing information
• Reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary location survey
• Final location survey

Phase 1: Office Study of Existing Information

The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available
data of the area in which the road is to be constructed. This phase is usually
carried out in the office prior to any field or photogrammetric investigation. All
of the available data are collected and examined. These data can be obtained
from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial photographs, and charts, which
are usually available at one or more of the state’s departments of
transportation, agriculture, geology, hydrology, and mining. The type and
amount of data collected and examined depend on the type of highway being
considered, but in general, data should be obtained on the following
characteristics of the area:

• Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic

volumes
• Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns
• Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational,
historic, and archeological sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and
water pollution
• Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of
agricultural, commercial, and industrial activities.
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Phase 2: Reconnaissance Survey

The object of this phase of the study is to identify several feasible routes, each
within a band of a limited width of a few hundred feet. When rural roads are
being considered, there is often little information available on maps or
photographs, and therefore aerial photography is widely used to obtain the
required information. Feasible routes are identified by a stereoscopic
examination of the aerial photographs, taking into consideration factors such
as:
• Terrain and soil conditions
• Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas
• Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and
highways
• Directness of route

Phase 3: Preliminary Location Survey

During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set as
closely as possible by establishing all the control points and determining
preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments for each. Preliminary
alignments are used to evaluate the economic and environmental feasibility of
the alternative routes.

Economic Evaluation

Economic evaluation of each alternative route is carried out to determine the

future effect of investing the resources necessary to construct the highway.

The evaluation methods are used for this decision process. Factors usually
taken into consideration include road user costs, construction costs,
maintenance costs, road user benefits, and any disbenefits, which may include
adverse impacts due to dislocation of families, businesses, and so forth. The
results obtained from the economic evaluation of the feasible routes provide
valuable information to the decision maker. For example, these results will
provide information on the economic resources that will be gained or lost if a
particular location is selected. This information is also used to aid the policy
maker in determining whether the highway should be built, and if so, what
type of highway it should be.

Environmental Evaluation

Construction of a highway at any location will have a significant impact on its

surroundings. A highway is therefore an integral part of the local environment
and must be considered as such. This environment includes plant, animal, and
human communities and encompasses social, physical, natural, and man-made
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variables. These variables are interrelated in a manner that maintains

equilibrium and sustains the lifestyle of the different communities. The
construction of a highway at a given location may result in significant changes
in one or more variables, which in turn may offset the equilibrium and result
in significant adverse effects on the environment. This may lead to a reduction
of the quality of life of the animals and/or human communities. It is therefore
essential that the environmental impact of any alignment selected be fully
evaluated.
Federal legislation has been enacted that sets forth the requirements of the
environmental evaluation required for different types of projects. In general,
the requirements call for the submission of environmental impact statements
for many projects. These statements should include:
• A detailed description of alternatives
• The probable environmental impact, including the assessment of
positive and negative effects
• An analysis of short-term impact as differentiated from long-term
impact
• Any secondary effects, which may be in the form of changes in the
patterns of social and economic activities
• Probable adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided if the
project is constructed
• Any irreversible and irretrievable resources that have been committed

Phase 4: Final Location Survey

The final location survey is a detailed layout of the selected route. The
horizontal and vertical alignments are determined, and the positions of
structures and drainage channels are located. The method used is to set out the
points of intersections (PI) of the straight portions of the highway and fit a
suitable horizontal curve between these. This is usually a trial-and-error
process until, in the designer’s opinion, the best alignment is obtained, taking
both engineering and aesthetic factors into consideration.

Location of Recreational and Scenic Routes

The location process of recreational and scenic routes follows the same steps as
discussed earlier, but the designer of these types of roads must be aware of
their primary purpose. Three additional factors should be considered in the
location of recreational and scenic routes:
1. Design speeds are usually low, and therefore special provisions should
be made to discourage fast driving, for example, by providing a
narrower lane width.
2. Location should be such that the conflict between the driver’s attention
on the road and the need to enjoy the scenic view is minimized. This can
be achieved by providing turn-outs with wide shoulders and adequate
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turning space at regular intervals, or by providing only straight

alignments when the view is spectacular.
3. Location should be such that minimum disruption is caused to the area.

Location of Highways in Urban Areas

Urban areas usually present complex conditions that must be considered in

the highway location process. In addition to factors discussed under office
study and reconnaissance survey, other factors that significantly influence the
location of highways in urban areas include:
• Connection to local streets
• Right-of-way acquisition
• Coordination of the highway system with other transportation systems
• Adequate provisions for pedestrians

Principles in Bridge Location

The basic principle for locating highway bridges is that the highway location
should determine the bridge location, not the reverse. When the bridge is
located first, in most cases the resulting highway alignment is not the best. The
general procedure for most highways, therefore, is to first determine the best
highway location and then determine the bridge site. In some cases, this will
result in skewed bridges, which are more expensive to construct, or in locations
where foundation problems exist.

Highway Survey Methods

Highway surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and

vertical angles, vertical heights (elevations), and horizontal distances. The
surveys are then used to prepare base maps with contour lines (that is, lines on
a map connecting points that have the same elevation) and longitudinal cross
sections. Highway surveying techniques have been revolutionized due to the
rapid development of electronic equipment and computers. Surveying
techniques can be grouped into three general categories:

• Ground surveys
• Remote sensing
• Computer graphics

3.2.3 Geometric Design of Highway Facilities

Highways are complex physical structures involving compacted soil; sub-base

layers of aggregate, pavements, drainage structures, bridge structures, and
other physical elements.
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From an operational viewpoint, it is the geometric characteristics of the

roadway that primarily influence traffic flow and operations. Three main
elements define the geometry of a highway section:

• Horizontal alignment - The horizontal alignment refers to a plan view of

the highway. The horizontal alignment includes tangent sections and the
horizontal curves and other transition elements that join them.
• Vertical alignment - Vertical alignment refers to the design of the facility
in the profile view. Straight grades are connected by vertical curves,
which provide for transition between adjacent grades. The grade refers
to the longitudinal slope of the facility, expressed as " feet of rise or fall
" per "longitudinal foot" of roadway length
• Cross-sectional elements - The third physical dimension, or view, of a
highway that must be designed is the cross section. The cross section is
a cut across the plane of the highway. Within the cross section, such
elements as lane widths, superelevation (cross-slope), medians,
shoulders, drainage, embankments (or cut sections), and similar features
are established. Because the cross section may vary along the length of a
given facility, cross sections are generally designed every 100 ft along
the facility length and at any other locations that form a transition or
change in the cross-sectional characteristics of the facility.

3.2.4 Highway Drainage

3.2.4.1 Drainage

Drainage is defined as the means of collecting, transporting and

disposing of surface water originating in or near the right of way, or
flowing in stream crossings or bordering the right of way.

Approximately about 25% of roadway funds are spent for culverts,

bridges and other drainage structures. Bigger appropriations are also
allotted for ditches, dikes, channels and erosion control structures of
rural roads. Likewise, major capital investments are channeled to urban
areas for storm drains and other appurtenances plus the routine clearing
of drainage facilities.

Surface drainage is only one among the many problems to be considered

in establishing the location and construction of roads. The most
favorable location of a roadway as far as drainage is concerns, is the
division between large drainage areas. All streams must flow away from
the right of way to reduce the drainage problem. Roadway location
parallel with the large streams should be avoided because it will cross
every tributary canal leading to the streams. Steep grades, and heavy
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cuts and fill, should likewise be avoided for it will contribute to the
problems of erosion.

Surface drainage problems follow three basic considerations:

l. Hydraulic design that deals with estimating the highest rate of run-off
to be handled.

2. Hydraulic Design deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes
of the drainage facilities that is most economical to accommodate the
estimated water flow.
3. Erosion Control is to ascertain the design will not create erosion
or other unacceptable environmental conditions.

3.2.4.2 Hydrology

Hydrology is that branch of physical geography that deals with water of

the earth. The branch of hydrology that concern highway engineers are:

l. The frequency and intensity of precipitation.

2. The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest run-off
which are equal or exceeded critical values.
3. The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons that
influences water behavior affecting the highway surfaces.
4. The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off from gathered
statistical approaches, formula, or simulated methods based on the laws
of probability.

Concomitant thereof, any methods of predicting may be subject to

substantial error. Therefore, design should make the best possible use of
existing methods, with full expectations of high probability of error.

Runoff is Predicted Based on the Following Methods:

l. By the Rational Methods.

2. By the Empirical Formula.
3. By the Unit Hydrograph.
4. By Statistical Approach.
5. By Simulation.

Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction

l. Usually, highway construction disrupts existing natural drainage

pattern. Water passing the natural right of ways is often intercepted by
road cuts. The flow of several streams is collected, to pass under the
highway through a single channel, diverting streams to canal or culverts
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that differ in sizes and length including the flow characteristics from the
previous one.
2. Construction operations may disturb the ground cover, and
loosen the soil creating muddy stream as a result of erosion.
3. Erosions create debris that are carried downstream, and
deposited at points where the velocity slackens. Record shows that,
almost every drainage installation disturbed the ecological balance of
nature.
4. Any changes in the land use may alter the historical runoff or
ungauged rural water shed that could be disastrous on wide scale basis.

Cardinal Rules on Drainage Design

l. As much as possible, any existing drainage system patterns and soil

cover should not be disturbed.
2. Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in any manner
bring velocities that may create new erosion problems.

Non-observance of these simple rules has created many serious

problems in the past, and worse, the people put their blame on those
who were not involve in making the highways very unsightly.

3.2.4.3 Drainage Economic Considerations

The term economy in drainage system, simply mean; finding the

solution to a problem that is cheapest in the long run under the following
conditions:

l. Determine the estimated initial investment cost.

2. Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
3. Consider anticipated loss and damage for each solution.

Under the foregoing considerations, annual appropriation for possible

drainage or economic loss is equal to the estimated losses from floods of
various magnitudes, multiplied by the probability that these floods will
occur any time of the year.

For instance, if the drainage loss from any flood exceeding the design
flow is P200,000 and according to hydraulic computations such floods
will occur once in every 5 years, then the annual loss of flood damage is
P200,000 divided by 5 years or P40,000 per year.

Drainage problem is varied" and there is no single set of assumption or

rule to economic problem in drainage, considering the uncertainty of
flood frequency where the design is based. To major highways with
large volume of traffic, losses to motorists and to the economy, is
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tremendously high, if the road will be closed frequently, due to flood

and washout.

For major highways, projections might prove that drainage facilities

should accommodate a 50 years flood, whereas, the design based on a 5
years flood is reasonable for a low volume rural road.
Where drainage problem of any magnitude has alternative solution,
economic studies based on reasonable estimated costs and possible
damages, represent the best approach. Flood frequencies and some of
the costs, must be thoroughly approximated and let catastrophic
occurrences pervert our perspective on
cost risks.

3.2.4.4 Draining the Highway

Rain water flows laterally or obliquely on the surface of the road

pavement under the influence of the cross-section slope or super
elevation in the pavement and shoulders. If the water flow is controlled,
then, the shoulder is in danger of erosion. However, the shoulder will
have minimal erosion damage if it is already covered or protected by
turf or grass.

1. Water flowing across the roadway down the road slope must be
thin enough in a sheet form like so that the erosion on the shoulder will
be minimized.
2. Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in
the pavement or shoulder accumulates water into small streams.
Another point of water accumulation that endangers the shoulder is the
low portion of sagged vertical curves.
3. One way of preventing washout of the side slope is to retain the
water at the outer edge of the shoulder.
4. A crown ditch or intercepting channel maybe employed at the top
of the cut slope. This will prevent erosion of the cut slope by surface
runoff from the hillside above.
5. The surface should not be disturbed in any manner where the
natural ground is already covered with grass or other ground cover.
6. The channel or canal should be formed making the original
ground as its bed and a small dike of topsoil or imported materials to
serve as its bank.
7. Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow must be
limited to a safer amount by diverting the flow at intervals. Water should
be dropped down to the road side ditch by means of specially designed
conduit or channels.

3.2.4.4 Manhole, Inlets and Catch Basin

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Manhole, inlets and catch basins are classified under Item 502 of the
DPWP standard specifications which includes construction,
reconstruction or adjustment of manholes inlets and catch basin. Read
from the manual.

3.2.4.5 Design of Underdrain

Underdrain is categorized under Item 501 of DPWH Standard

Specifications. Read from the manual.

3.2.4.6 The Legal Aspect of Drainage

Highway agency is legally responsible for any damage to private

property affected by the changes it makes in natural drainage pattern
within the limit that water must flow.

Damage claim against the Department could be established if:

1. Wren as a result of the agency's project, the flow of several
streams or creeks were concentrated into a single channel that resulted
to erosion, silting or flooding of private property
2. When due to poor design or inadequate maintenance water
backed against highway or embankment resulted to inundation of land
or property or caused injury or death.
3. Liability however, is limited to damages is direct consequences of
the improvement. The agency would not be liable for damages if an
unprecedented storm causes the stream to overflow a newly constructed
channel, provided that this channel has the capacity equal to the natural
volume of water flow.
4. Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice, do not
provide for a course of action. ln any case, the responsibility of the
highway agency would be determined through negotiations or court
litigations. Therefore, design of drainage system must satisfy the various
requirements of the environmental laws and regulations.

3.2.5 Horizontal Alignment

The roadway horizontal alignment is a series of horizontal tangents (straight

roadway sections), circular curves, and spiral transitions. It shows the
proposed roadway location in relation to the existing terrain and adjacent land
conditions. Together with the vertical alignment (grades and vertical curves)
and roadway cross-sections (lanes, shoulders, curbs, medians, roadside slopes,
ditches, sidewalks), the horizontal alignment (tangents and curves) helps to
provide a three-dimensional roadway layout.
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3.2.5.1 Design Speed

AASHTO defines design speed as “the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so
favorable that the design features of the highway govern”.

3.2.5.2 Elements of Curve Design

• Curve radius
• Super elevations
• Side Friction
• Assumed Vehicle Speed

3.2.5.3 Side Friction Factor

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A vehicle’s need for side friction (side friction demand) is represented

by the side friction factor. This term also depicts the lateral acceleration
acting on a vehicle which is the product of the side friction demand
factor and the gravitational constant. Vehicle speeds on horizontal
curves create tire side thrust which is offset by the frictional forces
between the tires and the riding surface.

AASHTO’s “simplified curve formula” (shown below) is a basic side

friction equation that produces slightly higher friction estimates than
those resulting from the “basic curve formula”.
𝑣2
𝑣2
𝑓=𝑒 − 0.01
15 𝑅

f – side friction factor

e – rate of roadway super elevations
v – vehicle speed
R – radius of curve

3.2.5.4 Normal Cross Slope

Roadway drainage determines the minimum rate of cross slope for the
traveled way. Acceptable minimum cross slope values range from 1.5 to
2.0 percent (with 2.0 typically used for paved, uncurbed pavements)
depending on the roadway type and weather conditions.
Controls for Maximum Superelevation:

• Climate (amount of precipitation)

• Terrain (flat, rolling, or mountainous)
• Area type (rural or urban)
• Slow-moving vehicles (frequency)
3.2.5.5 Recommendations:
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• Several maximum superelevation rates should be used for design

controls for horizontal curves
• Do not exceed a rate of 12 percent
• Rates of 4 or 6 percent may be used for urban areas with few
constraints
• Superelevation may be omitted on low-speed urban roads with severe
constraints

3.2.5.5 Minimum Curvature

The minimum radius for horizontal curves is a limiting value for design
speeds based on the maximum superelevation and maximum side
friction factor. Actual design values were developed from the laws of
mechanics and depend on practical limits and factors that were
determined empirically. Sharper radii would require superelevation
above the limits for comfortable operation. The minimum radius values
maintain a margin of safety against vehicle rollover and skidding. The
“basic curve equation” governs vehicle operation on a horizontal curve.

The following equation can be used to calculate the minimum radius of

curvature, from the “simplified curve formula”.
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3.2.5.6 Grades

Motorists typically drive faster on downgrades versus upgrades for long

or steep roadway grades. Data has shown greater side friction demands
on:

• Downgrades due to braking forces

• Steep upgrades from tractive forces.

On low-speed urban streets, superelevation on horizontal curves may be

minimized or eliminated with lateral forces being sustained by side
friction only. Various factors that may make superelevation unsuited for
low-speed urban areas include:

• Wide pavement areas

• Need to meet adjacent property grades
• Surface drainage
• Low-speed operation concerns
• Intersection frequency

3.2.5.7 Transition Design Controls

A number of factors determine horizontal curve safety, including:

• curve length
• radius
• spiral transitions
• roadway superelevation

3.2.6 Vertical Alignment

Roadway vertical alignments are a combination of various parabolic curves and

connecting tangent grades. They are one of the fundamental three-dimensional
road features directly related to safety, operations, drainage and construction
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requirements. Together with the horizontal alignment (tangents and curves)

and roadway cross-section (lanes, shoulders, curbs, medians, roadside slopes,
ditches and sidewalks), the vertical alignment (grades and vertical curves) help
provide a three-dimensional roadway layout.

3.2.6.1 Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length or distance of roadway visible to the driver.

This is a major design control for vertical alignments and is essential for
the safe and efficient operation of vehicles. This distance is dependent
on the driver’s eye height, the specified object height, and the
height/position of sight obstructions.

3.2.6.2 Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance is considered to be the most basic form of sight

distance. This distance is the length of roadway needed for a vehicle
traveling at design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in
the road. Ideally, all of the roadway should provide stopping sight
distance consistent with its design speed.

Stopping sight distance is composed of two distances:

(1) Brake Reaction Time starts upon driver recognition of a roadway

obstacle until application of the vehicle’s brakes. Typically, the driver
not only needs to see the object but also recognize it as a potential
hazard.

(2) Braking Distance is the roadway distance traveled by a vehicle

during braking (from the instant of brake application).

Using the following equation, the approximate braking distance (𝑑𝐵)

may be calculated for a vehicle traveling at design speed on a level
roadway. The recommended deceleration rate (𝑎) of 11.2 ft/s² has shown
to be suitable since 90% of all drivers decelerate at greater values. This
deceleration rate is fairly comfortable and allows drivers to maintain
steering control.
𝑉2
𝑑𝐵 = 1.075
𝑎
𝑑𝐵=braking distance (feet)
𝑉= design speed (mph)
𝑎= deceleration rate (ft/sec²)
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For roadways on a grade, the braking distance can be determined by:

𝑣2
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑎
30 [(32.2 +/−𝐺)]

𝑑𝐵=braking distance on grade (feet)

𝑉= design speed (mph)
𝑎= deceleration rate (ft/sec²)
𝐺= grade (ft/ft)
The Stopping Sight Distance formula is a function of initial speed,
braking friction, perception/reaction time, and roadway grade that
contains assumptions about the driver’s eye height (3.5 feet) and the size
of object in the road (2 feet).
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 1.47𝑉𝑡 + 1.075
𝑎

𝑆𝑆𝐷=stopping sight distance (feet)

𝑉= design speed (mph)
𝑎= deceleration rate (ft/sec²)
𝑡= brake reaction time (2.5 seconds)

Limitations of the AASHTO Model

Does not fully account for heavy vehicles (longer stopping times)
Does not differentiate between various highway types
Does not recognize differing roadway conditions

3.2.6.3 Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

Certain situations requiring complex decisions or maneuvers

(unexpected conflicts, navigational needs, roadway changes, etc.) can
place extra demands on drivers. These circumstances usually require
longer sight distances than those for stopping.

Decision sight distance recognizes these needs and is composed of the

following required actions:

Detect unexpected/unusual conflict, Recognize potential risk

Select appropriate speed /path, Initiate and complete safe maneuver

Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

Passing sight distance is the length of roadway needed for drivers on

two-lane two-way highways to pass slower vehicles without meeting
opposing traffic.
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Passing Sight Distance Definitions

Vertical Curve Distance where an object (3.5 ft above roadway surface)

can be seen from a point 3.5 ft above the roadway.

Horizontal Curve Distance measured (along the center line or righthand

lane line for 3-lane roadway) between two points 3.5 ft above the
roadway on a tangent line.
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3.2.7 Super Elevation

When a vehicle takes a curve, external forces act on the front wheels of the
vehicle. These forces have components that retard the forward motion of the
vehicle. This resistance depends on the radius of curvature and the speed of the
vehicle. This curve resistance can give as:
1000 2
(3600 𝑣) 𝑚
𝑅𝑐 = 0.5
𝑅
Where:

Rc – Curve Resistance

v – vehicle speed (km/hr)

m – gross vehicle mass (kg)

g – acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)

R – radius of curvature (m)

Example curve resistance:

A 1000 kg vehicle is traveling at 100 km/hr around a curve with a radius of 250
m. What is the curve resistance?
1000 2
(3600 𝑣) 𝑚
𝑅𝑐 = 0.5
𝑅
2
1000
( 100) 1000
𝑅𝑐 = 0.5 3600
250
𝑅𝑐 = 1543 𝑁

Radius of Curvature

• Vertical curves on roads are parabolic

• Horizontal curves are based on circles
• When a vehicle moves around a horizontal curve, it is subject to the outward
radial force (centrifugal force) and the inward radial force. The radial
inward force is not due to gravity, but rather because of the friction between
tires and the roadway. At high speeds, the inward force is inadequate to
balance the outward force without some help.
• That help arises from banking the road, what transportation engineers
called super elevations. This banking, an inclination to the center of the circle,
keeps vehicle on the road at high speed.
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Centrifugal Force
The minimum radius of circular curve (R) for a vehicle travelling at kph can
be found by considering the equilibrium of a vehicle with respect to moving
up or down the incline. Let alpha (a) be the angle of incline, the components
of weight down the incline is W*sin (a), the frictional force acting down the
incline is W*f*cos (a). The Centrifugal force, Fc is,
𝑊𝑎𝑐
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑔
Where:
W – weight of the vehicle

ac – acceleration for curvilinear motion

g – acceleration due to gravity

Equilibrium of forces
When the vehicle is in equilibrium with respect to the incline, the forces may
be equated as follows:
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑊𝑣 2
=
𝑅 𝑔𝑅
𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑊𝑓𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 = 0
Where:
fs – coefficient of side friction

v2/g – R (tan (a) + fs

3.2.6 Earthworks

The final element in the location process is to establish the horizontal and
vertical alignments of the highway project and to prepare highway plans and
specifications for estimating project costs and preparation of bids by
contractors. The following sections explain how the terrain influences the cost
to transport earthen materials that will be used to construct the roadbed and
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how to estimate payment. The final result of the location process is a highway
plan used in estimating quantities and computing the overall project cost.

Highway Grades and Terrain

One factor that significantly influences the selection of a highway location is

the terrain of the land, which in turn affects the laying of the grade line. The
primary factor that the designer considers on laying the grade line is the
amount of earthwork that will be necessary for the selected grade line.

These cross sections are obtained by plotting the natural ground levels and
proposed grade profile of the highway along a line perpendicular to the grade
line to indicate areas of excavation and areas of fill. Figure 14.16 shows three
types of cross sections.

Computing Earthworks Volumes

One of the major objectives in selecting a particular location for a highway is to

minimize the amount of earthwork required for the project. Therefore, the
estimation of the amount of earthwork involved for each alternative location is
required at both the preliminary and final stages.

A common method of determining the volume is that of average end areas.

This procedure is based on the assumption that the volume between two
consecutive cross sections is the average of their areas multiplied by the
distance between them, computed as follows.
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𝐿
𝑉= ( 𝐴 + 𝐴2 )
54 1
Where:
V – volume (yd3)

A1 and A2 – end areas (ft2)

L – distance between cross-section
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3.3 ASSESSMENT
SCORE
Name: __________________________________Year & Section: _________________
Instructor: ______________________________ Date Finished: __________________

General Instructions: Answer all the items of this assessment by following the set of guidelines
indicated for each item. Use another sheet/s of paper for your answer. Avoid erasures. Do not
mutilate this paper.
Direction: Answer the following questions given below. For problems that needs solution, you
are required to indicate the solution. Problems are 5 pts each.
Evaluation Criteria: Cleanliness – 10%; Timeliness – 10%; Content – 80%

1. The highway is classified into two categories in terms of the service provided by the roadway and
roadway systems. This are the Accessibility and Mobility. Define and describe each classification.
(2 pts each.)

2. There are six distinct travel movements that may be present in a typical trip. Namely as the
following: Describe each of the travel movement. (2 pts each.)
• Main movement
• Transition
• Distribution
• Collection
• Access
• Termination

3. The three main elements that define the geometry of a highway section are Horizontal Alignment,
Vertical Alignment and Cross-sectional Alignment. Describe each element. (2 pts each.)

4. The cross section includes the following features: Discuss each feature of the cross section. (2 pts each.)
• Travel Lanes
• Shoulders
• Side Slopes
• Curbs
• Median and Median Barriers
• Guardrails
• Drainage Channel

5. The point of intersection (P.I.) of two tangent lines is Station 11,500+66. The radius
of curvature is 1,000 feet, and the angle of deflection is 60˚. Find the length of the
curve, stations for the P.C. and P.T., and all other relevant characteristics of the
curve (LC, M, E).
6. A 3.5˚ curve is to be designed on a highway with a design speed of 60 mi/h. Spiral
transition curves are to be used. Determine the length of the spiral and the
appropriate stations for the T.S., S.C., and S.T. The angle of deflection for the
original tangents is 40˚, and the P.I. is at station 15,100+26. The segment consists of
two 12-ft lanes.
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7. A 5˚ curve (measured at the centerline of the inside lane) is being designed for a
highway with a design speed of 65 mi/h. The curve is on a 2% upgrade, and driver
reaction time may be taken as 2.5 seconds. What is the closest any roadside object
may be placed to the centerline of the inside lane of the roadway while maintaining
adequate stopping sight distance?

8. What is the appropriate superelevation rate for a curve with a 1,200-ft radius on
highway with a design speed of 60 mi/h? The maximum design superelevation is
6% for this highway.

9. What length of superelevation runoff should be used to achieve a superelevation

rate of 10%? The design speed is 70 mi/h, and a three-lane cross section (12-ft lanes)
is under consideration. Superelevation will be achieved by rotating all three-lanes
around the inside edge of the pavement.

10. Find the maximum allowable grade and critical length of grade for each of the
following facilities: a) A rural freeway in mountainous terrain with a design speed
of 60 mi/h b) A rural arterial in rolling terrain with a design speed of 45 mi/h c)
An urban arterial in level terrain with a design speed of 40 mi/h

11. A vertical curve of 1,000-ft is designed to connect a grade of +4% to a grade of -5%.
The V.P.I, is located at station 1,500 + 55 and has a known elevation of 500 ft. Find
the following:
a) The station of the V.P.C. and the V.P.T.
b) The elevation of the VP.C. and the VPT:
c) The elevation of points along the vertical curve at 100-ft intervals
d) "The location and elevation of the high point on the curve

12. Find the minimum length of curve for the following scenarios.

Entry Grade Exit Grade Design Speed Reaction Time

A 3% 8% 45 mi/hr 2.5 s
B -4% 2% 65 mi/hr 2.5 s
C 0% -3% 70 mi/hr 2.5 s

13. A vertical curve is to be designed to connect a -4% grade to a +1% grade on a facility
with a design speed of 70 mi/h. For economic reasons, a minimum-length curve
will be provided. A driver-reaction time of 2.5 seconds may be used in sight
distance determinations. The V.P.I. of the curve is at station 5,100 + 22 and has an
elevation of 1,285 ft. find the station and elevation of the V.P.C. and V.P.T., the high
point of the curve, and at 100-ft intervals along the curve.

------------------------ End of Assessment ------------------------

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3.4 References:

Design Manual, Part 2 Highway Design. (2016). Publication 13M (DM-2).

https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.acecpa.org/resource/resmgr/2016_clearance_trans
mittals/H-16-036/H-16-036(3)_DM-2-AASHTO_2011.pdf
Earthworks. (2002). Standard Specification for Urban Infrastructure Works, 1-26.
https://www.academia.edu/39725044/SECTION_2_EARTHWORKS_Standard_Sp
ecification_for_Urban_Infrastructure_Works_2_1_Edition_1_Revision_0
Garber, N. J. (2009). Traffic & Highway Engineering. Nelson Education Ltd.
http://civilcafe.weebly.com/uploads/2/8/9/8/28985467/traffic_and_highway_en
gineering_4th_edition.pdf
Mannering, F. L. (2013). Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. http://www.civilittee-hu.com/uploads/1/Traffic/book5th.pdf
Marek, M. A. (2010). Roadway Design Manual. Texas Department of Transportation.
http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rdw/rdw.pdf
Satish Chandra, a. M. (2013). Railway Engineering. YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai
Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India: Adage Printers (P) Ltd., Noida 201301 U.P.
https://www.academia.edu/29476630/SATISH_CHANDRA
Taylor, G. J. (2014). Roadway Vertical Alignment. Continuing Education and
Development Inc.
https://www.cedengineering.com/userfiles/Roadway%20Vertical%20Alignments.
pdf
Taylor, G. J. (2015). Roadway Horizontal Alignment. Continuing Education and
Development Inc.
https://www.cedengineering.com/userfiles/Roadway%20Horizontal%20Alignmen
t.pdf
Max Fajardo (2002). Elements of Roads and Highways (Second Edition).5138 Merchandising.

3.5 Acknowledgement

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken from
the references cited above.
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UNIT IV: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Identify traffic Characteristics.

2. Solve Problems related to traffic characteristics and studies.
3. Identify traffic operations regulation and control
4. Define and identify the basic principles in designing intersection – at grade
and grade separated.

4.1 Introduction

Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering techniques

to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on roadways. It
focuses mainly on research for safe and efficient traffic flow, such as road geometry,
sidewalks and crosswalks, cycling infrastructure, traffic signs, road surface markings
and traffic lights. Traffic engineering deals with the functional part of transportation
system, except the infrastructures provided.

4.2 Topics

4.2.1 Traffic characteristics, Traffic studies-speed, volume, speed and delay,

origin-destination, parking and accident studies

4.2.1.2 Traffic Characteristics

4.2.1.2.1 Road Users

The road user refers to the driver, pedestrian, bicyclist and

passengers

1. Drivers Characteristics

A. The Human Response Process

Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation of

and reaction to information they obtain from certain stimuli that
they see or hear. It is therefore important that highway and traffic
engineers have some fundamental knowledge of visual
perception as well as of hearing perception.

a. Visual Reception
The ability of the human eye to differentiate between objects is
fundamental to this phenomenon. The principal characteristics of
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the eye are visual acuity, peripheral vision, color vision, glare
vision and recovery, and depth perception.

b. Hearing Perception
The ear receives sound stimuli, which is important to drivers only
when warning sounds, usually given out by emergency vehicles,
are to be detected. Loss of some hearing ability is not a serious
problem, since it normally can be corrected by a hearing aid.

c. Reaction Time (Perception-Reaction Process)

The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian
evaluates and reacts to a stimulus can be divided into four
subprocesses:

1. Perception: the driver sees a control device, warning sign,

or object on the road
2. Identification: the driver identifies the object or control
device and thus understands the stimulus
3. Emotion: the driver decides what action to take in
response to the stimulus; for
example, to step on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to
change lanes
4. Reaction or volition: the driver actually executes the
action decided on during the emotion sub-process.

Example 4.1 Distance Traveled During Perception-Reaction

Time
A driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec is driving at
65 mi/h when she observes that an accident has blocked the
road ahead. Determine the distance the vehicle would move
before the driver could activate the brakes. The vehicle will
continue to move at 65 mi/h during the perception-reaction
time of 2.5 sec.

Solution:

• Convert mi/h to ft /sec:

5280
𝑚𝑖 (65𝑥 3600) 𝑓𝑡
65 = = 65𝑥1.47 = 95.55 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐

• Find the distance traveled:

𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 = 95.55 × 2.5 = 238.9 𝑓𝑡

Where v is velocity and t is time.

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2. Pedestrian characteristics

Pedestrian characteristics relevant to traffic and highway

engineering practice include those of the driver, discussed in the
preceding sections. In addition, other pedestrian characteristics
may influence the design and location of pedestrian control
devices. Such control devices include special pedestrian signals,
safety zones and islands at intersections, pedestrian underpasses,
elevated walkways, and crosswalks. Apart from visual and
hearing characteristics, walking characteristics play a major part
in the design of some of these controls. For example, the design
of an all-red phase, which permits pedestrians to cross an
intersection with heavy traffic, requires knowledge of the
walking speeds of pedestrians.

3. Bicyclist and Bicycles Characteristics

As noted earlier, bicycles are now an important component of the

highway mode, especially for highways located in urban areas. It
is therefore essential that highway and traffic engineers
understand the characteristics of bicycles and bicyclists. The basic
human factors discussed for the automobile driver also apply to
the bicyclist, particularly with respect to perception and reaction.
It should, however, be noted that unlike the automobile driver,
the bicyclist is not only the driver of the bicycle, but he/she also
provides the power to move the bicycle. The bicycle and the
bicyclist therefore unite to form a system, thus requiring that both
be considered jointly.

Three classes of bicyclists (A, B, and C) have been identified in the

Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities by AASHTO.
Experienced or advanced bicyclists are within class A, while less
experienced bicyclists are within class B, and children riding on
their own or with parents are classified as C. Class A bicyclists
typically consider the bicycle as a motor vehicle and can
comfortably ride in traffic. Class B bicyclists prefer to ride on
neighborhood streets and are more comfortable on designated
bicycle facilities, such as bicycle paths. Class C bicyclists use
mainly residential streets that provide access to schools,
recreational facilities, and stores.

In designing urban roads and streets, it is useful to consider the

feasibility of incorporating bicycle facilities that will
accommodate class B and class C bicyclists.
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The bicycle, like the automobile, also has certain characteristics

that are unique. For example, based on the results of studies
conducted in Florida, Pein suggested that the minimum design
speed for bicycles on level terrain is 20 mi/h, but downgrade
speeds can be as high as 31 mi/h, while upgrade speeds can be
as low as 8 mi/h. Pein also suggested that the mean speed of
bicycles when crossing an intersection from a stopped position is
8 mi/h and the mean acceleration rate is 3.5 ft /sec2 .

4.2.1.2.2 Vehicle Characteristics

Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on

the static, kinematic, and dynamic characteristics of vehicles.

1. Static characteristics include the weight and size of the

vehicle.
2. Kinematic characteristics involve the motion of the
vehicle without considering the forces that cause the
motion.
3. Dynamic characteristics involve the forces that cause the
motion of the vehicle.

Since nearly all highways carry both passenger-automobile and

truck traffic, it is essential that design criteria consider the
characteristics of different types of vehicles. A thorough
knowledge of these characteristics will aid the highway and/or
traffic engineer in designing highways and traffic-control
systems that allow the safe and smooth operation of a moving
vehicle, particularly during the basic maneuvers of passing,
stopping, and turning. Therefore, designing a highway involves
the selection of a design vehicle, whose characteristics will
encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected to use the
highway. The characteristics of the design vehicle are then used
to determine criteria for geometric design, intersection design,
and sight-distance requirements.

4.2.1.2.3 Road Characteristics

The characteristics of the highway discussed in this section are

related to stopping and passing because these have a more direct
relationship to the characteristics of the driver and the vehicle
discussed earlier.
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4.2.1.2.3.1 Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of the roadway a driver can see

ahead at any particular time. The sight distance available
at each point of the highway must be such that, when a
driver is traveling at the highway’s design speed,
adequate time is given after an object is observed in the
vehicle’s path to make the necessary evasive maneuvers
without colliding with the object. The two types of sight
distance are (1) stopping sight distance and (2) passing
sight distance.

1.) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is the viewable

distance required for a driver to see so that he or she can
make a complete stop in the event of an unforeseen
hazard. SSD is made up of two components: (1) Braking
Distance and (2) Perception-Reaction Time.

For highway design, analysis of braking is simplified by

assuming that deceleration is caused by the resisting force
of friction against skidding tires. This is applicable to both
an uphill or a downhill situation. A vehicle can be modeled
as an object with mass m sliding on a surface inclined at
angle 𝜃.

While the force of gravity pulls the vehicle down, the force
of friction resists that movement. The forces acting this
vehicle can be simplified to:

𝐹 = 𝑤 (sin 𝜃 − 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
Where:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Using Newton’s second law we can conclude then that the

acceleration (a) of the object is:

𝑎 = 𝑔(sin 𝜃 − 𝑓 cos 𝜃)

Using our basic equations to solve for braking distance 𝑑𝑏

in terms of the initial speed 𝑣𝑖 and ending speed of 𝑣𝑒 gives
𝑣𝑖 2 − 𝑣𝑒 2
𝑑𝑏 =
−2𝑎
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And substituting for the acceleration yields

𝑣𝑖 2 − 𝑣𝑒 2
𝑑𝑏 =
2𝑔(𝑓 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 )

For angles commonly encountered on roads, cos 𝜃 ≈ 1 and

sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = 𝐺 where G is called the road’s grade. The
gives

𝑣𝑖 2 − 𝑣𝑒 2
𝑑𝑏 =
2𝑔(𝑓 ± 𝐺)

Using simply the braking formula assumes that a driver

reacts instantaneously to a hazard. However, there is an
inherent delay between the time a driver identifies a
hazard and when he or she mentally determines an
appropriate reaction. This amount of time is called
perception-reaction time. For a vehicle in motion, this
inherent delay translates to a distance covered in the
meanwhile. This extra distance must be accounted for.

For a vehicle traveling at a constant rate, distance 𝑑𝑇

covered by a specific velocity v and a certain perception
reaction time 𝑡𝑟 can be computed using simple dynamics:

𝑑𝑟 = 𝑣𝑡𝑟

Finally, combining these two elements together and

incorporating unit conversion, the AASHTO stopping
sight distance formula is produced. The unit conversions
convert the problem to metric, with 𝑣𝑖 in kilometers per
hour and 𝑑𝒔 in meters.

𝒅𝒔 = 𝒅 𝒓 + 𝒅𝒃
(𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝒗𝒊 )𝟐
𝒅𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝒕𝒓 𝒗𝒊 +
𝟏𝟗. 𝟔(𝒇 ± 𝑮)

A note on Sign Conventions:

Use (𝑓 − 𝐺) if going uphill and (𝑓 + 𝐺), where G is the

absolute value of the grade.
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2.) Passing Sight Distance (PSD) is the minimum sight

distance that is required on a highway, generally a two
lane, two-directional one, that will allow a driver to pass
another vehicle without colliding with a vehicle in the
opposing lane. This distance also allows the driver to abort
the passing maneuver if desired. AASHTO defines PSD as
having three main distance components: (1) Distance
traveled during perception-reaction time and acceleration
into the opposing lane, (2) Distance required to pass in the
opposing lane, (3) Distance necessary to clear the slower
vehicle.

The first component 𝑑1 is defined as:

𝑎𝑡1
𝑑1 = 1000𝑡1 (𝑢 − 𝑚 + )
2

Where:
𝑡1 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟)
𝑚 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟)

The second distance component 𝑑2 is defined as:

𝑑2 = 1000𝑢𝑡2

Where:
𝑡2 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟)

The third component 𝑑3 is more of a rule thumb that a

calculation. Lengths to complete this maneuver vary
between 30 to 90 meters.

With these values, the total passing sight distance (PSD)

can be calculated by simply taking the summation of all
three distances.

𝒅𝒑 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐 + 𝒅𝟑
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Example 4. 2 Sight Distance

a. A vehicle initially traveling at 66 km/h skids to a stop on a 3% downgrade, where
the pavement surface provides a coefficient of friction equal to 0.3. How far does the
vehicle travel before coming to a stop?

Solution:

1000 2
(66𝑥 3600) − 02
𝑑𝑏 = = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟓𝒎
2(9.8)(0.3 − 0.03)

b. A vehicle initially traveling at 150 km/hr. skids to a stop on a 3% downgrade, taking

200 m to do so. What is the coefficient of friction on this surface?
Solution:

1000 2
(150𝑥 3600) − 02
𝑑𝑏 = = 200𝑚
2(9.8)(𝑓 − 0.03)

1000 2
(150𝑥 3600) − 02
= (𝑓 − 0.03)
2(9.8)(200)
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕

c. You are shown a crash scene with a vehicle and a light pole. The vehicle was estimated to
hit the light pole at 50 km/hr. The skid marks are measured to be 210, 205, 190, and 195 meters. A
trial run that is conducted to help measure the coefficient of friction reveals that a car traveling at
60 km/hr. can stop in 100 meters under conditions present at the time of the accident. How fast
was the vehicle traveling to begin with?

Solution:

First Average the skid marks:

(210+205+190+195)/4=200 m

Estimate the coefficient of friction:

1000 2
(60𝑥 3600) − 02
𝑓= = 0.14
2(9.8)(100)
Estimate the unknown velocity:

1000 2 1000 2
(𝑣 x ) − (50 x )
3600 3600 = 200
𝑑𝑏 =
2(9.8)(0.14 − 0)

𝑣 = 98 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
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4.2.2.2 Traffic Studies

4.2.2.1 Spot Speed Studies

Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of

speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular location on
a highway. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of
movement of the vehicle; it is usually expressed in miles per hour
(mi/h) or kilometers per hour (km/h). A spot speed study is
carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a
specified location. Speed characteristics identified by such a
study will be valid only for the traffic and environmental
conditions that exist at the time of the study.

4.2.2.1.1 Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

The calculated mean (or average) speed is used to

represent the true mean value of all vehicle speeds at that
location. The accuracy of this assumption depends on the
number of vehicles in the sample. The larger the sample
size, the greater the probability that the estimated mean is
not significantly different from the true mean. It is
therefore necessary to select a sample size that will give an
estimated mean within acceptable error limits. Statistical
procedures are used to determine this minimum sample
size. Before discussing these procedures, it is first
necessary to define certain significant values that are
needed to describe speed characteristics. They are:

1. Average Speed which is the arithmetic mean of all

observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of all spot
speeds divided by the number of recorded speeds). It
is given as

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑢̅ =
∑ 𝑓𝑖

Where:
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝑢𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
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The formula can also be written as

∑ 𝑢𝑖
𝑢̅ =
𝑁

2. Median Speed which is the speed at the middle

value in a series of spot speeds that are arranged in
ascending order. 50 percent of the speed values will be
greater than the median; 50 percent will be less than the
median.

3. Modal Speed which is the speed value that occurs

most frequently in a sample of spot speeds.

4. The ith-percentile Spot Speed which is the spot

speed value below which i percent of the vehicles travel;
for example, 85th-percentile spot speed is the speed below
which 85 percent of the vehicles travel and above which 15
percent of the vehicles travel.

5. Pace which is the range of speed—usually taken at

10mi/h intervals—that has the greatest number of
observations. For example, if a set of speed data includes
speeds between 30 and 60 mi/h, the speed intervals will
be 30 to 40 mi/h, 40 to 50 mi/h, and 50 to 60 mi/h,
assuming a range of 10 mi/h. The pace is 40 to 50 mi/h if
this range of speed has the highest number of
observations.

6. Standard Deviation of Speeds which is a measure

of the spread of the individual speeds. It is estimated as
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢̅)2
𝑆=√
𝑁−1

Where:
𝑢𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖

4.2.2.1.2 Comparison of Spot Speed Studies

It is also sometimes necessary to determine whether there is a

significant difference between the mean speeds of two spot speed
studies. This is done by comparing the absolute difference
between the sample mean speeds against the product of the
standard deviation of the difference in means and the factor Z for
a given confidence level. If the absolute difference between the
sample means is greater, it can then be concluded that there is a
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significant difference in sample means at that specific confidence

level.

The standard deviation of the difference in means is given as:

𝑆𝑑

Where:
𝑛1 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 1
𝑛2 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆𝑑 = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑆12 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 1
𝑆22 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 1

If 𝑢1 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 1, 𝑢2 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓

𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 2, and where is the absolute value of the difference
in means, it can be concluded that the mean speeds are
significantly different at the confidence level
corresponding to Z. This analysis assumes that and are
estimated means from the same distribution. Since it is
usual to use the 95 percent confidence level in traffic
engineering studies, the conclusion will, therefore, be
based on whether is greater than 1.96Sd.

4.2.2.2 Volume Studies

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the

number of vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a
highway facility during a specified time period. This time period
varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending
on the anticipated use of the data. The data collected also may be
put into subclasses which may include directional movement,
occupancy rates, vehicle classification, and pedestrian age. Traffic
volume studies are usually conducted when certain volume
characteristics are needed, some of which follow:

1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of

24hour counts collected every day of the year. AADTs are used
in several traffic and transportation analyses for:
a. Estimation of highway user revenues
b. Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per
100 million vehicle miles
c. Establishment of traffic volume trends
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d. Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects

e. Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
f. Development of improvement and maintenance programs

2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts

collected over a number of days greater than one but less than a
year. ADTs may be used for:

a. Planning of highway activities

b. Measurement of current demand
c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow

3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles

that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive
minutes. PHVs are used for:

a. Functional classification of highways

b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for
example, number of lanes, intersection signalization, or
channelization
c. Capacity analysis
d. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for
example, one-way street systems or traffic routing
e. Development of parking regulations

4. Vehicle Classification (VC) records volume with respect to the

type of vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or
three-axle trucks. VC is used in:

a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular

reference to turning-radii requirements, maximum grades, lane
widths, and so forth
b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car
equivalents of trucks
c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines d.
Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth

5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a

section of road. It is the product of the traffic volume (that is,
average weekday volume or ADT) and the length of roadway in
miles to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used mainly
as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and
improvement of highways.
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4.2.2.2.1 Sample Size and Adjustment of Periodic Counts

The impracticality of collecting data continuously every

day of the year at all counting stations makes it necessary
to collect sample data from each class of highway and to
estimate annual traffic volumes from periodic counts. This
involves the determination of the minimum sample size
(number of count stations) for a required level of accuracy
and the determination of daily, monthly, and/or seasonal
expansion factors for each class of highway.

Determination of Number of Count Stations

The minimum sample size depends on the precision level
desired. The commonly used precision level for volume counts
is 95–5. When the sample size is less than 30 and the selection
of counting stations is random, a distribution known as the
student’s t distribution may be used to determine the sample size
for each class of highway links. The student’st distribution is
unbounded (with a mean of zero) and has a variance that depends
on the scale parameter, commonly referred to as the degrees of
freedom (v). The degrees of freedom (v) is a function of the
sample size; v = N =1 for the student t distribution. The variance
of the student’s t distribution is v/(v - 2), which indicates that as
v approaches infinity, the variance approaches 1. The
probabilities (confidence levels) for the student’s t distribution
for different degrees of freedom are given in Appendix A of the
reference book page 1177 of Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel
Traffic & Highway Engineering , Fouth Edition.

Assuming that the sampling locations are randomly selected, the

minimum sample number is given as

2
𝑡 2 𝛼/2,𝑁−1 (𝑆 ⁄ 2 )
𝑛= 𝑑
2
1 + (1/𝑁)(𝑡 𝛼/2,𝑁−1 ) (𝑆 ⁄𝑑 2 )
2

Where:
n = minimum number of count locations required
t = value of the student’s t distribution with (1 − 𝛼⁄2)
confidence level (N − 1) degrees of freedom)
N = total number of links (population)from which a
sample is to be selected
α = significance level
S = estimate of the spatial standard deviation of the
link volumes
d = allowable range of error
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To use equation, estimates of the mean and standard

deviation of the link volumes are required. These
estimates can be obtained by taking volume counts at a
few links or by using known values for other, similar
highways.

Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Expansion factors, used to adjust periodic counts, are
determined either from continuous count stations or from
control count stations.

Expansion Factors from Continuous Count Stations.

Hourly, daily, and monthly expansion factors can be
determined using data obtained at continuous count
stations.

Hourly expansion factors (HEFs) are determined by the

formula:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 24 ℎ𝑟. 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝐻𝐸𝐹 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

These factors are used to expand counts of durations

shorter than 24 hours to 24-hour volumes by multiplying
the hourly volume for each hour during the count period
by the HEF for that hour and finding the mean of these
products.

Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are computed as:

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘

𝐷𝐸𝐹 =
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

These factors are used to determine weekly volumes from

counts of 24-hour duration by multiplying the 24-hour
volume by the DEF.

Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are computed as:

𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
𝑀𝐸𝐹 =
𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ
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The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the ADT
for a given month by multiplying this volume by the MEF.

4.2.2.3 Travel time and Delay Studies

A travel time study determines the amount of time required to

travel from one point to another on a given route. In conducting
such a study, information may also be collected on the locations,
durations, and causes of delays. When this is done, the study is
known as a travel time and delay study. Data obtained from
travel time and delay studies give a good indication of the level
of service on the study section. These data also aid the traffic
engineer in identifying problem locations, which may require
special attention in order to improve the overall flow of traffic on
the route.

4.2.2.3.1 Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay

Studies

Let us now define certain terms commonly used in travel

time and delay studies:

1. Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse

a given section of a highway.
2. Running time is the time a vehicle is actually in
motion while traversing a given section of a highway.
3. Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes
beyond the control of the driver.
4. Operational delay is that part of the delay caused
by the impedance of other traffic. This impedance can
occur either as side friction, where the stream flow is
interfered with by other traffic (for example, parking or
unparking vehicles), or as internal friction, where the
interference is within the traffic stream (for example,
reduction in capacity of the highway).
5. Stopped-time delay is that part of the delay during
which the vehicle is at rest.
6. Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by
control devices such as traffic signals. This delay occurs
regardless of the traffic volume or the impedance that may
exist.
7. Travel-time delay is the difference between the
actual travel time and the travel time that will be obtained
by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at
an average speed equal to that for an uncongested traffic
flow on the section being studied.
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4.2.2.3.2 Methods of Conducting Travel Time & Delay

Studies

Two general categories are the Methods using test vehicle

and Methods not requiring a test vehicle. The selection of
the method depends on the reason of conducting the study
and the available personnel and equipment.

Methods requiring a test vehicle:

• Floating-car Technique
• Average-Speed Technique.
• Moving-vehicle Technique.

Methods not requiring a test vehicle:

• License-Plate Observations.
• Interviews.

4.2.2.3.2.1 Methods requiring a test vehicle Floating

Car Technique

The test car is driven by an observer along the test

section so that the test car “floats” with traffic. The
test vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those
that pass his test vehicle. The time taken to traverse
the study section is recorded. The procedure repeated
and the average time is recorded as the travel time.

Minimum number of test runs:

𝑁 = [(𝑡𝛼 × 𝜎 )/ 𝑑]2
Where:
N= sample size (min. number of test runs).
s = standard deviation (mi/h)
t𝛼 = value of the student t-dist. With (1-𝛼/2)
confidence level and (N-1) degrees of freedom
𝛼: significance level.
d: limit of acceptable error

The sample size is usually less than (30) which makes

the t-dist. Is more appropriate than the Z values.

d= ±1.0 to ± 3.0 mi/l for before & after studies

d= ±2.0 to ± 4.0 mi/l for traffic operations, economic
evaluation, and trend analysis studies
d= ±3 to ± 5.0 mi/l for Highway needs and planning
studies.
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4.2.2.3.2.2 Methods requiring a test vehicle Average

Speed Technique

Involves driving the test car along a length of the test

section at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is
the average speed of the traffic stream. The time
required to traverse the test section is noted. Test is
repeated for min. number of times, and the average
time is recorded at the travel time. In both floating-car
and average-speed methods the travel time is usually
obtained by observer who starts a stop watch at the
beginning point and stops it at the end of the section.
Another stop watch may be used to measure stops
times which are summed to find the stopped-time
delay. Alternatively, this can be done using a laptop
with internal clock and distance function. The data are
recorded automatically and the cause of delay are then
recorded by the driver on a tape recorder.

4.2.2.3.2.3 Methods Requiring A Test Vehicle

Moving-Vehicle Technique

Observer makes a round trip on a test section starting

from section (X-X) to (Y-Y) (East direction) then returns
back from (Y-Y) to (X-X) West direction.

The observer records during the round trip the

following:
• The time it takes to travel from (X-X) to (Y-Y)
East in minutes (Te).
• The time it takes to travel from (Y-Y) to (X-X)
West in minutes (Tw).
• The number of vehicles traveling in the opposite
direction while the test vehicle is traveling from
(X-X) to (Y-Y) east (Ne)
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• The number of vehicles that over take the test

car while it is traveling from (Y-Y) to (X-X) West
(Ow).
• The number of vehicles that the test car passes
while it is traveling from (Y-Y) to (X-X) West
(Pw).

The volume in the (Y-Y) to (X-X) Westbound direction

(Vw) cab be obtained by:

𝑽𝒘 = [(𝑵𝒆 + 𝑶𝒘 – 𝑷𝒘) ∗ 𝟔𝟎/ (𝑻𝒆 + 𝑻𝒘)]

Where, (Ne + Ow –Pw) is the number of vehicles traveling

westward that cross the line (X-X) during the time (Te +
Tw).

The average travel time in the west direction is given by:

𝑻𝒘 = 𝑻𝒘 – [(𝟔𝟎 (𝑶𝒘 – 𝑷𝒘))/ 𝑽𝒘)]

It the test car travels at average speed it is most likely that

number of vehicles it passes will equal the number of
vehicles that over take it.

But it is more probable that the test car will not be traveling
at the average speed, thus the second term in the equation
is provided to correct for the difference between the
number of vehicles that overtake the test car and the
number of vehicles that are overtaken by the test car.

4.2.2.3.2.4 Methods not requiring a test vehicle/

Interviews.

Carried out by obtaining information from people who

drive on the study site regarding their travel times, their
experience of delays, and so forth. This method facilitates
collecting large amount of data in relatively short times.
Requires cooperation of the people contacted.

4.2.2.4 Parking Studies

Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be

parked for either a relatively short time or a much longer time,
depending on the reason for parking. The provision of parking
facilities is therefore an essential element of the highway mode of
transportation. The need for parking spaces is usually very great
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in areas where land uses include business, residential, or

commercial activities. The growing use of the automobile as a
personal feeder service to transit systems (“park-and-ride”) has
also increased the demand for parking spaces at transit stations.
In areas of high density, where space is very expensive, the space
provided for automobiles usually has to be divided between that
allocated for their movement and that allocated for parking them.

4.2.2.4.1 Types of Parking Facilities

Parking facilities can be divided into two main groups: on

street and off-street.

On-Street Parking Facilities

These are also known as curb facilities. Parking bays are
provided alongside the curb on one or both sides of the
street. These bays can be unrestricted parking facilities if
the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free, or
they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is limited
to specific times of the day for a maximum duration.
Parking at restricted facilities may or may not be free.
Restricted facilities also may be provided for specific
purposes, such as to provide handicapped parking or as
bus stops or loading bays.

Off-Street Parking Facilities

These facilities may be privately or publicly owned; they
include surface lots and garages. Self-parking garages
require that drivers park their own automobiles;
attendant-parking garages maintain personnel to park the
automobiles.

4.2.2.4.2 Methodology of Parking Studies

A comprehensive parking study usually involves (1)

inventory of existing parking facilities, (2) collection of
data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and
parking duration, (3) identification of parking generators,
and (4) collection of information on parking demand.
Information on related factors, such as financial, legal, and
administrative matters, also may be collected.

1. Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities

An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed
listing of the location and all other relevant characteristics
of each legal parking facility, private and public, in the
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study area. The inventory includes both on- and off-street

facilities.

2. Collection of Parking data

Accumulation. Accumulation data are obtained by

checking the amount of parking during regular intervals
on different days of the week. The checks are usually
carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis between 6:00 a.m.
and 12 midnight. The selection of the times depends on the
operation times of land-use activities that act as parking
generators.

Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover and

duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a sample
of parking spaces in a given block. This is done by
recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each
parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals
during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals
depends on the maximum permissible duration.

Turnover is then obtained from the equation:

𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒅

𝑻=
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

Identification of Parking Generators. This phase involves

identifying parking generators (for example, shopping
centers or transit terminals) and locating these on a map of
the study area.

Parking Demand. Information on parking demand is

obtained by interviewing drivers at the various parking
facilities listed during the inventory. An effort should be
made to interview all drivers using the parking facilities
on a typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m.
Information sought should include (1) trip origin, (2)
purpose of trip, and (3) driver’s destination after parking.
The interviewer must also note the location of the parking
facility, times of arrival and departure, and the vehicle
type.

Parking interviews also can be carried out using the

postcard technique, in which stamped postcards bearing
the appropriate questions and a return address are handed
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to drivers or placed under windshield wipers. When this

technique is used, usually only about 30 to 50 percent of
the cards distributed are returned. It is therefore necessary
to record the time and the number of cards distributed at
each location, because this information is required to
develop expansion factors, which are later used to expand
the sample.

4.2.2.4.3 Analysis of Parking data

Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding,

and interpreting the data so that the relevant information
required for decision making can be obtained. The
relevant information includes the following:

• Number and duration for vehicles legally parked

• Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
• Space-hours of demand for parking
• Supply of parking facilities

The analysis required to obtain information on the first

two items is straightforward; it usually involves simple
arithmetical and statistical calculations. Data obtained
from these items are then used to determine parking
space-hours.

The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained from

the expression:
𝑁

𝐷 = ∑(𝑛𝑖 𝑡1 )
𝑖=1

Where:
𝐷 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑡𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

The space-hours of supply are obtained from the

expression:
𝑁

𝑆 = 𝑓 ∑(𝑡1 )
𝑖=1
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where:
𝑆 = 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑡𝑖 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑓 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The efficiency factor f is used to correct for time lost in each

turnover. It is determined on the basis of the best
performance a parking facility is expected to produce.
Efficiency factors therefore should be determined for
different types of parking facilities—for example, surface
lots, curb parking, and garages. Efficiency factors for curb
parking, during highest demand, vary from 78 percent to
96 percent; for surface lots and garages, from 75 percent to
92 percent. Average values of f are 90 percent for curb
parking, 80 percent for garages, and 85 percent for surface
lots.

4.2.2 Capacity of Urban Roads and Highway

4.2.2.1 Definition of Highway Capacity

• Highway capacity is associated with traffic volume and traffic

density. Where traffic volume is the number of vehicles passing a
given point on a roadway during a specified time period. This is
usually expressed as vehicles per hour and traffic density is defined
as the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane of a
roadway at a given instant of time. This is usually expressed in
vehicles per kilometer.
• It is easy to understand that traffic volume is the product of traffic
density and speed.
• Capacity is the maximum traffic flow that can be accommodated in a
highway facility during a given time period under prevailing
roadway, traffic and control conditions. (While traffic volume
represents the actual rate of flow and responds to variations in traffic
demand, capacity indicates the maximum rate of flow when exposed
to a certain level of service characteristics or a number of prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions).
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4.2.2.2 The Highway Capacity Manual (1950) defined the following

three types of highway capacity (O. K Normann):

1. Basic Capacity:
Basic capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
given point on a lane or a roadway during one hour, under the ideal
roadway and traffic conditions that can possibly be attained.

2. Possible Capacity:
Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
given point on a lane or roadway during one hour, under the prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions.

3. Practical Capacity:
Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
given point in a lane or roadway during one hour, when traffic density
is not so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to
the driver’s freedom to maneuver under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions. This is usually considered to be the ‘design capacity’.

It is observed that the term ‘capacity’ used in the revised Highway

Capacity Manual is the same as the ‘possible capacity’ defined above.

The ‘basic capacity’ of the original Highway Manual (1950) has been
replaced with ‘capacity under ideal conditions’. The original ‘practical
capacity’ has been replaced by several ‘service volumes’ related to a
group of desirable operating conditions collectively termed as ‘level of
service’.

Early Studies on capacity were based on the theoretical formula:

100 𝑉
𝐶=
𝑆

Where:
C = Capacity Volume (vehicles/h/lane)
V = Speed (km/hr.)
S = Average spacing of moving vehicles or space headway (meters)
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The value of S is obtained from actual field observations; alternatively,

it can be calculated from safe stopping sight distance considerations
involving total reaction time and braking distance, and the length of the
vehicles, L, in meters –
𝑣2
𝑆 = 0.278𝑣𝑡 + +𝐿
254𝑓

Realizing the inadequacy of this approach, the Highway Research Board

Committee on Highway Capacity (U.S), headed by O.K. Normann,
conducted research in this direction and published the Highway
Capacity Manual in 1950; this was later revised in 1965, 1985 and 2000
with further improvements combining experimental and mathematical
models of traffic flow.

4.2.2.3 Importance of the Concept of Highway Capacity:

The concept of highway capacity is important for the following reasons:

1. The capacity of a highway should be adequate to serve the needs

of the projected traffic.
2. The class of highway, lane width, number of lanes and
intersections are dependent on capacity.
3. Improvements on geometric elements, traffic control devices and
traffic management measures can be effectively planned based on the
studies of highway capacity.
4. The adequacy of the existing highway network for the existing
traffic volume can be assessed by capacity studies; transportation
planning can be done effectively using this information.

4.2.2.4 Factors Affecting the Capacity and Level of Service:

The factors affecting capacity and level of service fall under two heads:

(a) Roadway Conditions:

• Restrictive physical and geometric elements such as lane-width,

lateral clearance, and horizontal alignment of road shoulders,
gradients and pavement surface condition are some factors which
affect capacity and level of service. Even road intersections affect
the capacity.
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• Lane width – A width of 3.65 m is considered ideal for smooth

flow. Smaller widths than this will reduce the capacity up to 25
per cent. Distance from the edge of the carriageway to an
obstruction is also an important factor which can affect capacity.
• Lateral clearance – Lateral obstructions may be abutments such
as sign posts, light poles and parked cars; if these are located
closer than 1.83 m from the edge of a traffic lane, it reduces the
capacity.
• Shoulders – They help to maintain traffic flow. Paved shoulders
of 1.2 m width increase the effective width of the lane by 0.3m.
• Horizontal alignment – Sharp curves and restrictive sight
distances are also a factor which tend to reduce lane capacity. The
highway capacity manual contains tables to account for the
influence of these factors on capacity.
• Gradient – Gradients affect the speed of the vehicles, especially
trucks, and have an adversely impact on the capacity.
• Pavement surface condition – A deteriorated pavement surface
condition is known to adversely affect the capacity but the
Manual states that adequate data are not available to develop
adjustment factors to consider this.
• Intersections-at-grade – These affect the capacity significantly.

(b) Traffic Conditions:

The capacity and level of service are affected by the composition of

different types of vehicles in the stream, variation of traffic flow, traffic
interruption, and lane distribution. The number of traffic lanes,
vehicular and driver characteristics, and one- or two-way traffic
movements have a direct bearing on the lane or highway capacity.

Capacity of Rural Roads:

The latest IRC recommendations for design service volumes are given
below:
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For four-lane divided roads, the design service volumes range from
47,000 to 1, 05,000 PCU/day depending upon the terrain, shoulder
type and the level of service (B or C).

Capacity of Urban Roads:

Capacity values for urban roads (between intersections suggested by the

IRC are given below:

(These are for no frontage access, no standing vehicles, and very little
cross traffic; for other restrictive conditions, the capacity values will be
reduced significantly.)

4.2.3 Traffic operations regulation and control

4.2.3.1 Traffic Operation Regulation

The mass of the traffic laws, rules and regulations have their source in
laws, Presidential Decrees (P.D.’s), Executive Orders (E.O.’s), Letters of
Instructions (L.O.I’s), Administrative Orders and Implementing
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Memoranda and other Special Laws relative to traffic operation and

traffic law enforcement.

Republic Acts

• R.A 4136. This is the basic law regulating land transportation in

the Philippines. It has repealed Act no. 3992. Further, as amended
by R.A Nos. 5715, 6374, PD Nos. 382, 843, 896, 1057, 1934,1950,
1958, BP Blg. 43, 74 and 398.
• R.A 6539. The act which is known as the “Anti Carnapping Act of
1972”, the act preventing and penalizing carnapping.
• R.A 5448. Act imposing a tax on privately owned passenger
automobiles, motorcycles and scooters, and a science stamp tax,
to constitute a special science fund defining the programs,
projects and activities of science agencies to be financed there
from and for other purposes.
• R.A 8749. Also known as the “Clean Air act” which regulates
emission of toxic gases of both gasoline and diesel engines and
bans the use of leaded gas for gasoline engines.
• R.A 8750. It provides for the attachment of seat belts for all types
of motor vehicles and imposes penalty for the non-compliance
thereof.
• R.A 7924. The Act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development
Authority, defining its powers and functions, providing funds
therefor and for other purposes.

Presidential Decrees

• P.D No. 96. Regulating the use of sirens, bells, horns, etc., by
prohibiting the attachment of any siren, horn bell, etc. on motor
vehicles which produce unusual or startling sounds as well as
blinkers and other similar devices unless the vehicle belongs to
the AFP, NBI, LTO, PNP, BJMP, hospitals and Fire Departments
and are specifically intended for use in emergencies.
• P.D No. 101. Expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or
modifying the lines and modes of operations of public utility
motor vehicles in the Philippines.
• P.D No. 207. Declaring as part of the laws of the Philippines the
Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, Signs and Signals.
• P.D No.612. Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of
vehicles against third party liability as an additional pre-requisite
for registration by the LTO.
• P.D 1686. Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with
air conditioner.
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• P.D 1181. Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor
vehicles and for other purposes.
• P.D 1605. Granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission certain
powers related to traffic management and control in
Metropolitan Manila providing penalties, and for other purposes.
• P.D 98. Regulating the insurance of license plates of all motor
vehicles. P.D 109. Modifying P.D 98.
• P.D 1729. Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to
dispose of impounded motor vehicles unclaimed by owners for a
certain period of time.
• P.D 1730. Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture,
distribution, possession or use of fake official Bureau of Land
Transportation forms, documents, plates and stickers as offenses
involving economic sabotage

Letter of Instructions

• L.O.I No. 43. Providing for the removal of all impediments on

roads, streets and highways such as constructions, stalled or
parked vehicles and other movable property that obstruct free
passage. This LOI abrogated city or municipal ordinances
governing the disposition of traffic on city and municipals streets
throughout the country.
• L.O.I No. 112. Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks from using
roads, highways and bridges whose load capacities are in excess
of specific allowable limits.
• L.O.I No. 229. Requiring all motor vehicle owners, users, or
drivers to have in their possession at all times while driving at
least one (1) pair of early warning device (EWD) for use when the
vehicle is disabled on roads, streets and highways or other
emergencies compelling the vehicle to be on stop position.
• L.O.I No. 716. Every motor vehicle to equip at least a pair of early
warning device.
• L.O.I. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement
the pollution Control Program.
• L.O.I 853. Calling for the National Tripartite Conference to
consider the establishment of viable labor-management relations
based upon the “boundary” system in land transportation.
• L.O.I 1009. All owners of private motor vehicles who desire to
stop operating or using their numbers plates and registration
certificates to surrender to BLT.
• L.O.I 1071. Owners and/or operators of motor vehicles are
authorized to pay the annual premiums for the insurance of their
motors vehicles on quarterly basis.
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Department Orders

• DOTC D.O.88-305. Rules of pleadings, practice and procedure for

appeals on franchising, fare rates charges and other related
matters pertinent to land Transportation Public Utilities.
• D.O. 93-693. Revised Schedule of Administrative Fees and
charges of the Land Transportation Office.

Administrative and Special Orders

• Administrative Order No. VIII, S-1968, LTC. Requiring the

towing and impounding of stalled motor vehicles on public
highways and the imposition of corresponding fees thereof.
• Administrative Order No. 1, S-1973, LTC. Prescribing guidelines
and procedure in implementation of PD No. 96.
• Administrative Order No. 1, S-1975, LTC. Laying down the
specific rules and action in the imposition of uniform fines and
penalties for violations of the provision of R.A.4136.
• Special Order No. 101-IRM, LTC. Enumerating and identifying
various city streets where parking is prohibited.

Memorandum Circular

• LTC Memorandum to All Patrol Officers. Deputies and Agents –

dtd 09 august 1975. Directing that motor vehicles whose loads are
rice, cereals, fertilizers and other prime commodities are not to be
apprehended and stop on roads and highways except only in
cases of serious violations.
• LTC Memorandum Circular No. 33. Dated 12 September 1972.
Providing guidelines in the apprehension of illegally parked
motor vehicles.
• LTC Circular No. 15, dated 19 January 1972. Regulating and
laying instructions in the use of Special Commemorative Motor
Vehicle Plates.
• M.C 94-199. Aide-memoir regarding retention and authority by
LTO to regular motorized tricycles under R.A 4136, and guidelines
to implement devolution of LTFRB’s Franchising Authority over
TC’s per R.A 7160 issued by DOTC.
• M.C 94-188. Issuance of driver’s license to disabled persons.
• M.C. 92-146. Re-implementation of LOI 229, as amended by LOI 479
directing the installation of early warning devices of motor vehicles.
M.C. 94-192. Diesel smoke emission test for moto vehicles.
• M.C. 90-020. Directing all public land transportation service
operators and drivers to display in any conspicuous place of their
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vehicles the authorized fare matrix for the specific route granted
them to avoid conflict.
• M.C. 93-011. Enjoining all public utility operators to use garage
instead of public places or side streets in parking their vehicles.
• M.C 94-002. Sanctions on operators arising from the violations of
their drivers.
• M.C. 94-209. Clarificatory guidelines for the
registration/operation of new private vehicles particularly in the
use of conduction sticker.

Executive Orders

• E.O 125. Reorganizing the DOTC, defining its powers and

functions and for other purposes.
• E.O.266. Providing for two service units in the office of the Asst.
Sec. for land Transportation in the DOTC (Law Enforcement
Service-LES and Traffic Adjudication Service-TAS), defining the
powers and functions thereof and for other purposes.
• E.O. 202. Creating the Land Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
• E.O. 248. Empowering the Land Transportation Commission to
control and supervise the operations of motor vehicle driving
schools.

Other Laws, Statues and etc.

• Batas Pambansa Blg. 344 (B.P. 344). Act to enhance the mobility
of disabled persons by requiring certain buildings, institutions,
establishments and public utilities to install facilities and other
devices. Memorandum Unnumbered Dated July 13, 1992. Early
Warning Device (EWD) not a requirement for registration.
• SC Bars Lawmen from Removing Car Plates (187 SCRA 432).

4.2.3.2 Traffic Operation Control

At the broadest level, road traffic control includes the layout of streets to
serve a variety of travel needs in a region. Highways or expressways
carry through traffic at high speed; arterial streets carry traffic within
and across urban areas; and local streets provide low-speed travel but
access to many local destinations. The hierarchy of streets that perform
at different levels of speed and provide different levels of access form
the foundation upon which traffic control problems evolve. Long delays
and frequent accidents are common outcomes of inadequate road
planning, which results in an insufficient number of roads to meet travel
needs. While traffic control may help, it is not a substitute for adequate
provision of transportation supply.
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4.2.3.2.1 History

Traffic congestion, often bad enough to require drastic control

measures, was a feature of city life at least as early as Roman
times. A basic cause, then as now, was poor city planning, with
roads laid out in such a way as to bring traffic from all quarters
to a central crossing point. In the 1st century BC Julius Caesar
banned wheeled traffic from Rome during the daytime, a
measure gradually extended to cities in the provinces. Late in the
1st century AD the emperor Hadrian was forced to limit the total
number of carts entering Rome.

About 1500 Leonardo da Vinci, envisioning a revolutionary

solution to urban traffic problems—then acute in the crowded
and busy Italian cities—proposed separating wheeled and
pedestrian traffic by creating routes at different levels. Except for
the railway, however, few segregated route systems were
established before the 20th century.

Congestion was severe enough in European cities of the 17th

century to require ordinances prohibiting parking on certain
streets and establishing one-way traffic. The advent of the
railroad brought temporary relief to the growing problem of road
traffic control, though it created congestion at terminals inside
cities. The automobile, with its increase first in speed and then in
numbers over horse-drawn transport, rapidly created a new
situation that was to become one of the characteristic problems of
urban industrialized society in the 20th century.

4.2.3.2.2 Common control techniques

Traffic signal controllers are electronic devices located at

intersections that control the sequence of the lights. Along with
computers, communications equipment, and detectors to count
and measure traffic, the controllers are frequently grouped
together to control large numbers of traffic signals, either at
intersections in a city or on ramps approaching expressways and
motorways. While the detailed brand and type of equipment vary
greatly, the functions performed by the systems are generally
consistent.

There are four basic elements in a computerized traffic control

system: computer(s), communications devices, traffic signals and
associated equipment, and detectors for sensing vehicles. Traffic
flow information is picked up by the detectors from the roadway
and transmitted to the computer system for processing. The
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detectors are normally embedded in or suspended above the

roadway. Vehicle counts and speeds are typically measured;
vehicle type (e.g., auto or truck) also may be obtained. The
computer processes the traffic flow data to determine the proper
sequence for the lights at the intersections or ramps. The
sequencing information is transmitted from the computer
through communications equipment to the signals. In order to
assure safe and proper operation, information is also transmitted
from the traffic signals to the computer, confirming proper
operation. Humans can interact with the system by accessing the
computer system in some way.

While these are the general principles, important variations are

possible. First, it is common to find some form of computer as
part of the traffic signal at the intersection or ramp to be
controlled. This allows the local computer to process traffic flow
data directly, reducing communications needs and costs. Another
variation is that selected vehicles themselves may transmit traffic
data directly to the computer system. This is frequently combined
with the ability to receive information in the vehicle regarding
points of congestion, so the driver can choose to avoid them. If
the two-way communication exists between the vehicles and
computer system, it may not be necessary to have separate
physical detectors.

Another area of application for traffic control devices is their use

in traffic restraint (often called traffic “calming”). Rather than use
traffic control to increase efficiency of movement, controls are
used to create impediments that restrain traffic from sensitive
areas. Most commonly applied in older cities whose road
network does not match current needs, traffic restraint seeks to
funnel traffic onto particular routes by creating impediments to
movement on others. These other routes typically have some
special value—a historic site or a residential character—that
requires protection. Devices typically used include speed bumps,
barricades to block streets, turn prohibitions, stop signs, and
raised pavement markers.

Traffic restraint also includes programs to foster bicycle and

pedestrian travel. Wider sidewalks, sometimes including tables
and benches, and bicycle lanes frequently accompany restraint
actions. These programs recognize that what is good for vehicular
travel may not necessarily be positive for other road users, the
environment, or the neighborhood. An unfortunate aspect of
these programs is that their benefits and costs are highly
localized. Those living on the “right” side of the restraint device
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generally experience slow speed and lower traffic volume. Those

living along the routes onto which the traffic is funneled must
endure increased vehicle volumes and speeds.

Traffic control also can be used to give priority to high-occupancy

passenger modes. The objective of such actions is to emphasize
people rather than vehicle movement. A variety of techniques are
available and are employed in priority treatment approaches. The
most common is the dedication of special lanes to the use of
priority, or high-occupancy, vehicles. Buses and car pools can use
the lanes to move at high speeds along congested expressways
and motorways, bypass queues at expressway ramps, and move
along congested arterial streets. Because these special lanes are
designed to operate uncongested, they provide an incentive,
through reduced travel times, for travelers to leave private single
passenger automobiles and travel by multi passenger modes.
Buses also may be given priority by allowing only them to turn
at intersections and to be provided with extra green time at a
traffic signal. The undesirable feature of such systems is that they
provide improved service to high-occupancy modes while
sustaining or increasing congestion for others. The residual
congestion for other road users may result in continued wasteful
fuel consumption and high vehicle pollutant emission.

4.2.4 Design of Intersections- at Grade and Grade Separated

4.2.4.1 Design at Grade Intersections

Types of At Grade Intersections

The basic types of at-grade intersections are T or three-leg intersections

which consist of three approaches; four-leg or cross intersections, which
consist of four approaches; and multileg intersections, which consist of
five or more approaches.

Design Principle for At-grade Intersection

The fundamental objective in the design of at-grade intersections is to

minimize the severity of potential conflicts among different streams of
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traffic and between pedestrians and turning vehicles. At the same time,
it is necessary to provide for the smooth flow of traffic across the
intersection. The design should therefore incorporate the operating
characteristics of both vehicles and pedestrians using the intersection.
For example, the corner radius of an intersection pavement or surfacing
should not be less than either the turning radius of the design vehicle or
the radius required for design velocity of the turning roadway under
consideration. The design should also ensure adequate pavement
widths of turning roadways and approach sight distances. This suggests
that at-grade intersections should not be located at or just beyond sharp
crest vertical curves or at sharp horizontal curves.

The design of an at-grade intersection involves:

• The design of the alignment
• The design of a suitable channeling system for the traffic pattern,
• The determination of the minimum required widths of turning
roadways when traffic is expected to make turns at speeds higher
than 15 mi/h

• The assurance that the sight distances are adequate for the type
of control at the intersection.

Read the reference book for further discussion of the topic:

Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel. Chapter 7: Intersection Design, page 265,
Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fourth Edition,

4.2.4.2 Design at Grade Separated Intersection

It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at intersections by vertical

separation of roadways in space. Grade separated intersection are
otherwise known as Interchanges. Grade separated intersections cause
less hazard and delay than grade intersections. Route transfer at grade
separations is accommodated by interchange facilities consisting of
ramps. Interchange ramps are classified as Direct, Semi-Direct and
Indirect. Interchanges are described by the patterns of the various
turning roadways or ramps. The interchange configurations are
designed in such a way to accommodate economically the traffic
requirements of flow, operation on the crossing facilities, physical
requirements of the topography, adjoining land use, type of controls,
right-of-way and direction of movements.
The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections is to eliminate all
grade crossing conflicts and to accommodate other intersecting
maneuvers by merging, diverging and weaving at low relative speed.
The relative speed of the conflicting vehicle streams is an important
factor affecting the significance of a conflict. The benefit of providing for
low relative speed is twofold. First, events unfold more slowly allowing
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more judgement time and second, in case of an impact the total relative
energy to be absorbed are less and hence, the damage is less. In addition,
when relative speed is low, the average motorist will accept a smaller
time gap space between successive vehicles to complete his move. This
condition increases roadway capacity.

Classification of Grade Separated Intersection:

One of the distinctions made in type of interchange is between the

directional and the non-directional interchange. Directional
interchanges are those having ramps that tend to follow the natural
direction of movement. Non-directional interchanges require a change in
the natural path of traffic flow. A comprehensive classification plan for
grade separated intersection design which includes all possible geometric
patterns has not yet been developed. The design and operational
characteristics of each of the major interchange types are mentioned as
follows and are discussed in the following sections.

• Underpass
• Overpass
• Trumpet Interchange
• Diamond Interchange
• Cloverleaf Interchange
• Partial Cloverleaf Interchange
• Directional Interchange
• Bridged Rotary

Design Components:

1. Acceleration Lane
An acceleration lane is defined as extra pavement, of constant or variable
width, placed parallel or nearly so, to a merging maneuver area to
encourage merging at low relative speed. The major difference in
opinion concerning acceleration design stems from lack of information
on driver performance. Field observations have indicated that drivers
desire to follow the direct path even though extra width or tapered
section is provided. The length of acceleration lanes is determined by
two factors: (1) Time required for drivers to accelerate to the speed of the
preferential flow from the speed of entry into the acceleration lane and
(2) Maneuvering time required as a supplement to the sight distance
which is provided in advance of the acceleration lane. Taper distances
are based upon a lateral transition time of about 1/3 sec/ft of
displacement.
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Figure 1: Different forms of Acceleration lanes

Figure 2: details of length of acceleration lane

2. Deceleration Lane

Deceleration lanes are defined as extra pavement of constant or variable

width, placed parallel or nearly so, to a diverging maneuver area to
encourage diverging at low relative speed. The lengths of deceleration
lanes are based on the difference in the speed of traffic of the combined
flow (in advance of the collision area) and the speed at which drivers
negotiate the critical diverging channel curve, as well as the deceleration
practices of drivers. These deceleration lane lengths are based on the
assumed performance of passenger vehicles only. Extra allowance must
be made for grades and for trucks with different deceleration
characteristics. In the figure below, Form A design is more economical
when large speed differentials are to be overcome. Form B could be
advantageous by contrasting pavement colors and Form C design is
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more convenient for drivers when small speed differentials are to be

eliminated.

Figure 3: Different forms of Deceleration lanes

Figure 4: details of length of deceleration lane

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4.3 ASSESSMENT
SCORE
Name: __________________________________Year & Section: _________________
Instructor: ______________________________ Date Finished: __________________

General Instructions: Answer all the items of this assessment by following the set of
guidelines indicated for each item. Use another sheet/s of paper for your answer. Avoid
erasures. Do not mutilate this paper.

1. Describe each principal characteristics of the eye: 3 points each

a) visual acuity
b) peripheral vision
c) color vision
d) glare vision and recovery
e) depth perception.

2. The design speed of a multilane highway is 60 mi/h. What is the minimum

stopping sight distance that should be provided on the road assuming that? 5 pts each

a) The road is level and

b) The road has a maximum grade of 4%?

Assume the perception-reaction time 2.5 sec.

3. Speed data collected on an urban roadway yielded a standard deviation in speeds

of 4.8 mi/h. 5 points each

a) If an engineer wishes to estimate the average speed on the roadway at a 95%

confidence level so that the estimate is within 2 mi/h of the true average, how
many spot speeds should be collected?
b) If the estimate of the average must be within 1 mi/h, what should the sample
size be?
4. An engineer, wishing to determine the travel time and average speed along a
section of an urban highway as part of an annual trend analysis on traffic
operations, conducted a travel time study using the floating-car technique. He
carried out 10 runs and obtained a standard deviation of ±3 mi/h in the speeds
obtained. If a 5% significance level is assumed, is the number of tests runs
adequate? 7pts

5. Data collected at a parking lot indicate that a total of 300 cars park between 8 a.m.
and 6 p.m. 10% of these cars are parked for an average of 2 hr., 30% for an average
of 4 hr., and the remaining cars are parked for an average of 10 hr. Determine the
space hours of demand at the lot. 8 pts

6. Define the following terms and cite examples of how they are used. 3pts each
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a) Average annual daily traffic (AADT)

b) Average daily traffic (ADT)
c) Vehicle-miles of travel (VMT)
d) Peak hour volume (PHV)
7. Describe and Identify all types of traffic signals (include picture if necessary). 10 pts

8. Choose at least two traffic operation regulation and describe each by your own
words. 10 pts

9. Briefly describe the different principles involved in the design of at-grade

intersections. 10pts

10.A minor road intersects a multilane divided highway at 90° forming a T

intersection. The speed limits on the major and minor roads are 55 and 35 mi/h,
respectively. Determine the minimum sight distance required for a single-unit
truck on the minor road to depart from a stopped position and turn left onto the
major road. 8pts

------------------------ End of Assessment ------------------------

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4.4 References:

Traffic Engineering. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_engineering_(transportation)#:~:text=Traffic
%20engineering%20is%20a%20branch,people%20and%20goods%20on%20roadways

Fundamental of Transportation/Sight Distance. Wikibooks (Open books for an open world).

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Transportation/Sight_Distance

Dr. Taleb Al-Rousan. Traffic Engineering Studies

(Travel Time & Delay Studies).
https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=r
ja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjelcKjssLsAhWnHqYKHbrjBfIQFjAFegQIAxAC&url=htt
p%3A%2F%2Fwww.icivil-hu.com%2FSafaa%2FDr.Taleb%2520al-
rosan%2520notes%2520trans%2FTravel%2520Time%2520%26%2520Delay%2520Stud
ies.ppt&usg=AOvVaw1KT5PNH2Uv6lT2C73sfJea

Mugdha P. Highway Capacity: Definition, Importance, Factors and Formula. Engineering

Notes. https://www.engineeringenotes.com/transportation-
engineering/trafficengineering/highway-capacity-definition-importance-factors-
and-formula/48457

Maricar Lavayna (July 7, 2015). Traffic Rules, Laws and Regulation. SlideShare.
https://www.slideshare.net/akingmister/traffic-laws-rules-and-regulations-and

Fd Hobbs. Traffic Control. Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/technology/traffic-control

Prof. Tom V. Mathew (Jan 10, 2019). Grade Separated Intersection (Lecture Notes in
Transportation Systems Engineering.
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/567_Grade/web/web.html

Nicholas J. Garber, Lester A. Hoel (2009). Traffic & Highway Engineering, Fourth Edition.
Cengage Learning.
http://civilcafe.weebly.com/uploads/2/8/9/8/28985467/traffic_and_highway_en
gineering_4th_edition.pdf

4.5 Acknowledgement

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken from
the references cited above.
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