Module 2

Knowledge Management

KBL Srivastava
 Topics
• KM Cycle: Process, Models of KM
cycle
•Knowledge creation and knowledge
architecture
•capturing tacit Knowledge
 KM Cycle
• Effective knowledge management requires an
organization to identify, generate, acquire,
diffuse, and capture the benefits of knowledge
that provide a strategic advantage to that
organization.
• A knowledge management cycle can be perceived
as the route information follows in order to
become transformed into a valuable strategic
asset for the organization via a knowledge
management cycle.
 KM Cycle Processes
• Knowledge Capture
• Knowledge Creation
• Knowledge Codification
• Knowledge Sharing
• Knowledge Access
• Knowledge Application
• Knowledge Re-Use

4
 Meyer and Zack KM Cycle
• KM cycle processes are composed of technologies,
facilities and processes of manufacturing products and
services.
• Information products are repositories comprising
information content and structure, which is unique for
each organization.
• Information Content is the data held in the repository
that provides the building blocks for the resulting
information products such as Banks have content relating
to Personal and commercial accounts
• The major developmental stages of a knowledge
repository and mapped these stages onto a KM cycle.
Meyer and Zack KM Cycle
 Meyer and Zack KM Cycle (1)
• Acquisition deals with issues regarding origin
of raw materials such as scope, breadth,
depth, credibility, accuracy, timeliness,
relevance, cost, control, and exclusivity.
• The guiding principle is that, highest quality
source data is required, else the intellectual
products produced downstream will be lower.
 Stage 2
• Refinement may be physical (like migrating from
one medium to another) or logical (like
restructuring, relabeling, indexing, and integrating).
• Refining includes cleaning up (like sanitizing content
so as to ensure complete anonymity of sources and
key players involved) or standardizing (like
conforming to templates of a best practice or
lessons learned as used within that particular
organization.
• This stage also adds up to the value by creating
more readily usable knowledge objects and by
storing the content more flexibly for future use.
 Stage 3 and 4
• Storage or Retrieval forms a bridge between the
upstream addition and refinement stages that feed
the repository and downstream stages of product
generation. Storage can be physical (file folders,
printed information) as well as digital (database,
knowledge management software).
• Distribution defines how the product is to be
delivered to the end-user (like fax, print, email) and
encloses not only the medium of delivery but also its
timing, frequency, form, language, and so on.
 Stage 5: Presentation
• Context plays an important role in Presentation or Application
stage. The performance of each of the preceding value-added
steps is evaluated here – for example, does the user have
enough context to be able to make use of this content?
• If not, the KM cycle has failed to deliver value to the individual
and ultimately to the company.
• Example: A Basic Database may represent an example of
Knowledge that has been created. Value can then be added by
extracting Trends from this data.
• The original information has been repackaged to provide Trend
analyses that can serve as the basis for Decision Making within
an organization
 Bukowitz & Williams Model

• Bukowitz and Williams portray a knowledge

management process framework that outlines “how
organizations generate, maintain and expand a
strategically correct stock of knowledge to create
value”.
• In this framework, knowledge includes knowledge
repositories, relationships, information technologies,
communications infrastructure, functional skill sets,
process know-how, environmental responsiveness,
organizational intelligence, and external sources.
 Bukowitz and Williams

ASSESS
GET

BUILD/SUSTAIN
USE Knowledge

LEARN CONTRIBUTE OR: DIVEST

12
 Bukowitz and Williams /2
• Get: seeking out information
– Tacit and explicit
– Being selective when faced with information
overload
• Use: combine content in new and interesting
ways to foster innovation in the organization
• Learn: learning from experiences
– Creation of an organizational memory

13
 Bukowitz and Williams/3
• Contribute: motivate employees to post what
they have learned to a knowledge base
– Link individual learning and knowledge to
organizational memory
• Assess: evaluation of knowledge capital:
Identify assets, metrics to assess them and
link these directly to business objectives

14
 Bukowitz and Williams/4
• Build and Sustain: allocate resources to
maintain knowledge base
– Contribute to viability, competitiveness
• Divest: should not keep assets that are no
longer of any business value
– Transfer outside the organization e.g. outsourcing
– Patent, spin off companies etc.

15
 Wiig KM Cycle
• Processes by which we build and use knowledge
– As individuals
– As teams (communities)
– As organizations
• How we:
– Build knowledge
– Hold knowledge
– Pool knowledge
– Apply knowledge
• Discrete tasks yet often interdependent & parallel

16
 Wiig KM Cycle/2

•Personal experience
•Formal education and training
Build Knowledge
•Intelligence sources
•Media, books, peers

Hold Knowledge •In people

•In tangible forms (e.g. books)

•KM systems (intranet, dbase)

Pool Knowledge •Groups of people-
brainstorm

•In work context

Use Knowledge
•Embedded in work processes
 Building Knowledge
• Learning from all kinds of sources to:
– Obtain Knowledge
– Analyze Knowledge
– Reconstruct (Synthesize) Knowledge
– Codify and Model Knowledge
– Organize Knowledge

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 Holding Knowledge
• In people’s minds, books, computerized knowledge
bases, etc.
– Remember knowledge – internalize it
– Cumulate knowledge in repositories (encode it)
– Embed knowledge in repositories (within procedures)
– Archive knowledge
• Create scientific library, subscriptions
• Retire older knowledge from active status in repository (e.g. store
in another medium for potential future retrieval – cd roms, etc.)

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 Pooling Knowledge
• Can take many forms such as discussions, expert networks
and formal work teams
• Pooling knowledge consists of:
– Coordinating knowledge of collaborative teams
– Creating expert networks to identify who knows what
– Assembling knowledge – background references from
libraries and other knowledge sources
– Accessing and retrieving knowledge
• Consult with knowledgeable people about a difficult problem,
peer reviews, second opinions
• Obtain knowledge directly from a repository – advice, explanations

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 Pooling Knowledge - Examples
• An employee realizes he or she does not have the
necessary knowledge and know-how to solve a
particular problem
• (S)he contact others in the company who have had
similar problems to solve, consults the knowledge
repository and makes use of an expert advisory
system to help her out
• She organizes all this information and has subject
matter experts validate the content

21
 Using Knowledge (con’t)
• Synthesize alternative solutions, identify options, create new
solutions
• Evaluate potential alternatives, appraise advantages and
disadvantages of each, determine risks and benefits of each
• Use knowledge to decide what to do, which alternative to
select
– Rank alternatives & test the extent of feasiblity, and
acceptablity
• Implement selected alternative
– Choose and assemble tools needed
– Prepare implementation plan, distribute it, authorize
team to proceed with this solution

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 Using Knowledge - Examples
• Expert mechanic encounters a new problem
• Gathers info to diagnose and analyze
• Synthesizes a list of possible solutions with the tools
he knows are available to him
• Decides on the best option and uses it to fix the part
• Non-routine tasks are approached in a different way
than familiar, standard ones

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Five Critical Knowledge Functions for
each KM Cycle Step
• Type of knowledge or skill involved
– Securities trading expertise
• Business use of that knowledge
– Increase the value of a retirement fund portfolio
• Constraint that prevents knowledge from being fully
utilized
– Expert will retire at the end of the year with no successor
• Opportunities, alternatives to manage that knowledge
– Elicit and codify knowledge before person retires
• Expected value-added of improving the situation
– Valuable knowledge is not lost to organization

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 Integrated KM Cycle
Source: Dalkir (2005). Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice.

Assess
Knowledge Knowledge
Capture Sharing and
and/or Creation Dissemination

Knowledge
Acquisition and
Update Application Contextualize
KNOWLEDGE CREATION
AND ARCHITECTURE
 KNOWLEDGE CREATION
• KM is not a technology; it is an activity
enabled by technology and produced by
people
• An alternative way of creating knowledge is
via teamwork
• A team compares job experience to job
outcome—translates experience into
knowledge
• Such newly acquired knowledge is carried to
the next job
• Maturation over time with a specific job turns
experience into expertise
 Impediments to knowledge
sharing
Personality
Compensation Organizational
Recognition culture
Ability utilization
Creativity Vocational
Good work environment reinforcers Knowledge
Autonomy sharing
Job security
Moral values
Attitude
Advancement
Variety Company
Achievement strategies and
Independence policies
Social status Work Norms

Source: Awad, E.M & Ghaziri , H (2007). Knowledge Management

28
 KNOWLEDGE ARCHITECTURE
• People core: Evaluate current documents
people use
• Identify knowledge centers
• The technical core: The total technology
required to operate the knowledge
environment
People Content

Technology

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 Identifying Knowledge Content
Centers . Competition
. Job data
openings . Sales volume
. Benefits . Leader sales
information
Human
Resource
s Sales

Customer
. Strategies Service
. Tools
.R&D Marketing
. Advertising . Complaint
rate
. Satisfaction
information

Source: Awad, E.M & Ghaziri , H (2007). Knowledge Management

30
 Technical layer of the KM system
Source: Awad, E.M & Ghaziri , H (2007). Knowledge Management

User Interface
1
(Web browser software installed on each user’s PC)

Authorized access control

2 (e.g., security, passwords, firewalls, authentication)

Collaborative intelligence and filtering

3 (intelligent agents, network mining, customization, personalization)
Knowledge-enabling applications
(customized applications, skills directories, videoconferencing, decision support systems,
4 group decision support systems tools)

Transport
5 (e-mail, Internet/Web site, TCP/IP protocol to manage traffic flow)

Middleware
6 (specialized software for network management, security, etc.)

The Physical Layer

(repositories, cables)
7

Databases Legacy applications

(e.g., payroll) Groupware Data warehousing
(document exchange, (data cleansing,
collaboration) data mining)
 The User Interface Layer
• Tacit knowledge should be made available
face-to-face, e-mail, or by other media
• User interface design focuses on consistency,
relevancy, visual clarity, navigation, and
usability

32
 Technical Access Layer
• Intranet: The internal network of
communication systems modified around the
Internet
• Extranet: An intranet with extensions that
allow clearly identified customers or suppliers
to reach company-related technical
educational information.

33
Technical Access Layer

Internet Intranet
Extranet
Cloud Company employees
•Suppliers
•Vendors
PUBLIC •Partners
AT LARGE •Customers

•News/events •Human resource • Product information

information
•Marketing •Sales information
•Production
•E-commerce •Collaboration/cooperatio
information
•Careers n
•Sales information
•Strategic plans
Source: Awad, E.M (2007). Knowledge Management 34
 Features/Limitations of Firewalls
Protects against:
• E-mail services known to be problems
• Unauthorized interactive log-ins from outside firm
• Undesirable material coming in/leaving firm
• Unauthorized sensitive information leaking
Limitations include:
• Attacks that do not go through the firewall
• Weak security policies
• Viruses on floppy disks
• Traitors or disgruntled employees
35
Collaborative Intelligence and
Filtering Layer (Layer 3)
• Provides personalized views based on stored
knowledge
• Reduces search time for information
• Intelligent agents search across servers to find the
information requested by the client (user)
• Intelligent agents arrange meetings, pay bills, and
even wander through virtual shopping malls,
suggesting gifts and so on

36
 Criteria for an Effective
Collaborative Layer
• Security—very critical
• Portability across platforms
• Integration with existing systems
• Scalability, flexibility, and ease of use

37
 Expert Systems
• Emulate the reasoning of a human expert in a
problem domain
• Can help a person become wiser, not just better
informed
Components include:
• Justifier: explains how and why an answer is given
• Inference engine: problem-solving mechanism for
reasoning and inferencing
• Scheduler: coordinates and controls rule processing

38
Knowledge-Enabling Application
Layer
• Often referred to as value-added layer
• Creates a competitive edge for the learning
organization
• Provides knowledge bases, discussion databases,
sales force automation tools, imaging tools, etc.
• Ultimate goal: show how knowledge sharing
could improve the lot of employees

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 Transport Layer
• Most technical layer to implement
• Ensures that the company will become a
network of relationships
• Includes LANs, WANs, intranets, extranets,
and the Internet
• Considers multimedia, URLs, graphics,
connectivity speeds, and bandwidths

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 Middleware Layer
• Focus on interfacing with legacy systems and
programs residing on other platforms
• Designer should address databases and applications
with which KM system interfaces
• Contains a cluster of programs to provide
connections between legacy applications and
existing systems
• Makes it possible to connect between old and new
data formats

41
 Repositories Layer
• Bottom layer in the KM architecture
• Represents the physical layer where
repositories are installed
• Includes intelligent data warehouses, legacy
applications, operational databases, and
special applications for security and traffic
management

42
 Build In-House, Buy, or
Outsource?
• Trend is toward ready-to-use, generalized
software packages
• Outsourcing is also a trend, releasing
technological design to outsiders
• Regardless of choice, it is important to set
criteria for the selection
• Question of who owns the KM system should be
seriously considered

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CAPTURING TACIT KNOWLEDGE
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES
Source: Awad, E.M & Ghaziri , H (2007). Knowledge Management Knowledge Codification in the KM System Life Cycle
Capture Tools Intelligence
Programs, gathering
books, articles, Shells, tables,
experts tools, frames
maps, rules
KNOWLEDGE
CAPTURE
KNOWLEDGE
(Creation) CODIFICATION
• Logical testing
• User Acceptance
• Testing, Training
Data Bases
TESTING AND
DEPLOYMENT
Explicit Knowledge
GOAL
KNOWLEDGE
INNOVATION

KNOWLEDGE
SHARING

KNOWLEDGE
TRANSFER
DATABASE Collaborative
tools,
Web browser, networks,
Web pages Intranets
KNOWLEDGE
BASE Distributed
Insight systems
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 What Is Knowledge Capture ?
• Transfer of problem-solving expertise from some
knowledge source to a repository or a program
• A process by which the expert’s thoughts and
experiences are captured- mind automation
• Includes capturing knowledge from other sources
such as books, technical manuscripts, etc.
• A knowledge developer collaborates with an
expert to convert expertise into a coded program
• Knowing how experts know what they know

46
 Steps involved
• Knowledge capturing is a demanding process
in which knowledge developer collaborates
with the experts to convert expertise into a
coded program. It include three steps-
1. Use of appropriate tools to get information
from the expert
2. Interpreting the information and inferring the
experts knowledge and reasoning process
3. Using the interpretation to build the rules
that represent the expert’s though process or
solution
 Improving the Knowledge
Capture Process
• Knowledge developers should focus on how
experts approach a problem. They must Look
beyond the facts or the heuristics
• Re-evaluate how well knowledge developers
understand the problem domain and how
accurately they are modeling it.
• Elicit the expert knowledge through case situation
and scenarios.

48
 Indicators of Expertise
• Experts are distinguished by the quantity and
quality of knowledge they possess.
• They know more and what they know makes them
more efficient and effective.
• Peers regard expert’s decisions good decisions
• Every time there is a problem, the expert is
consulted
• Expert sticks to the facts and works with a focus
• Expert has a knack for explaining things
• Expert exhibits an exceptional quality in
explanations
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 Expert’s Qualifications
• Knows when to follow hunches and when to make exceptions
• Sees big picture
• Possesses good communication skills
• Tolerates stress
• Thinks creatively
• Exhibits self-confidence
• Maintains credibility
• Operates within a schema-driven orientation
• Uses chunked knowledge
• Generates motivation and enthusiasm
• Shares expertise willingly
• Emulates a good teacher’s habits
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 Pros and Cons of Using a Single
Expert
Advantages:
• Ideal when building a simple KM system
• A problem in a restricted domain
• Facilitates the logistics aspect of coordinating
arrangements for knowledge capture
• Problem-related or personal conflicts are easier to
resolve
• Shares more confidentiality with project-related
information than does multiple expert

51
 Pros and Cons of Using a Single
Expert (cont’d)
Drawbacks:
• The expert’s knowledge is not easy to capture
• Single experts provide a single line of reasoning,
which makes it difficult to evoke in-depth
discussion of the domain
• Single experts more likely to change scheduled
meetings than experts who are part of a team
• Expert knowledge is sometimes dispersed

52
 Pros and Cons of Using Multiple
Experts
Advantages
• Complex problem domains benefit from the
expertise of more than one expert
• Working with multiple experts stimulates
interaction
• Listening to a variety of views allows knowledge
developer to consider alternative ways of
representing knowledge
• Formal meetings frequently a better environment
for generating thoughtful contributions
53
 Pros and Cons of Using Multiple
Experts
Advantages
• Complex problem domains benefit from the
expertise of more than one expert
• Working with multiple experts stimulates
interaction
• Listening to a variety of views allows knowledge
developer to consider alternative ways of
representing knowledge
• Formal meetings frequently a better environment
for generating thoughtful contributions
54
 Pros and Cons of Using Multiple
Experts (cont’d)
Drawbacks:
• Scheduling difficulties
• Disagreements frequently occur among experts
• Confidentiality issues
• Requires more than one knowledge developer
• Process loss in determining a solution

55
 Developing a Relationship With
Experts
• Create the right impression- Knowledge developer
must learn quickly and se behavioral ad technical skills to
gain experts attention and respect.
• Do not underestimate the expert’s experience-
understand the experts style: procedure type, storyteller
type, godfather type or salesperson type
• Prepare well for the session- Knowledge developer
should know about the background of experts
• Decide where to hold the session- location and
meeting places should be quiet and interruption free
56
 Styles of expert’s expressions
• Procedure type—methodical approach to the
solution

• Storyteller—focuses on the content of the domain at

the expense of the solution

• Godfather—compulsion to take over the session

• Salesperson—spends most of the time explaining his

or her solution is the best
57
Approaching Multiple Experts
• Individual approach—holding a session with one
expert at a time
• Primary and secondary experts—start with the
senior expert first, on down to others in the
hierarchy. Alternatively, start bottom up for
verification and authentication of knowledge
gathered
• Small groups approach—experts gathered in one
place to provide a pool of information. Each
expert tested against expertise of others in the
group
58
 Analogies and Uncertainties In
Information
• Experts use analogies to explain events
• An expert’s knowledge is the ability to take
uncertain information and use a plausible line
of reasoning to clarify the fuzzy details
• Understanding experience. Knowledge in
cognitive psychology is helpful background
• Language problem. Reliable knowledge capture
requires understanding and interpreting
expert’s verbal description of information,
heuristics, and so on
59
 The Interview As a Tool
• Commonly used in the early stages of tacit knowledge capture
• The voluntary nature of the interview is important
• Major benefit is behavioral analysis
• Interviewing as a tool requires training and preparation
• Great tool for eliciting information about complex subjects
• Convenient tool for evaluating the validity of information
acquired
• Types of Interview: Structured, semi-structured, and
unstructured

60
 Variations of Structured
Questions
• Multiple-choice questions offer specific choices,
faster tabulation, and less bias by the way
answers are ordered
• Dichotomous (yes/no) questions are a special
type of multiple-choice question
• Ranking scale questions ask expert to arrange
items in a list in order of their important or
preference

61
 Things to Avoid
• Taping a session without advance permission from
the expert
• Converting the interview into an interrogation
• Interrupting the expert
• Asking questions that put the domain expert on the
defensive
• Losing control of the session
• Pretending to understand an explanation when you
actually don’t
• Promising something that cannot be delivered
• Bring items not on the agenda
62
 Sources of Error that Reduce
Information Reliability
• Expert’s perceptual slant
• Expert’s failure to remember just what happened
• Expert’s fear of the unknown
• Communication problems
• Role bias
Errors made by Knowledge developer- Age, Race,
Gender

63
 Problems Encountered During
the Interview
• Response bias
• Inconsistency
• Communication difficulties
• Hostile attitude
• Standardized questions
• Lengthy questions
• Long interview

64
 Issues to Assess
• How would one elicit knowledge from experts who cannot say
what they mean or mean what they say?
• What does one say or do when the expert says, “Look, I work
with shades of gray reasoning. I simply look at the problem
and decide. Don’t ask me why or how.”
• How does one set up the problem domain when one has only
a general idea of what it should be?
• What does one do if the relationship with the domain expert
turns out to be difficult?
• What happens if the expert dislikes the knowledge developer?

65
 On-Site Observation
• Process of observing, interpreting, and recording
problem-solving behavior while it takes place
• More listening than talking
• Some experts do not like to be observed
• Fear of ‘giving away’ expertise is a concern by the
one observed
• Process can be distracting to others in the setting
• Continuous shuttle process important

66
 Brainstorming
• Unstructured approach to generating ideas
about a problem
• All possible solutions considered equally
• Emphasis is on frequency of responses during
the session
• Idea generation, followed by idea evaluation
• Computer-aided approach to dealing with
multiple experts

67
 Protocol Analysis(Cases or
Scenarios)
• Think-aloud method
• Expert keeps talking, speaking out loud while solving
a problem
• Effective source of information on cognitive
processes
• Makes expert cognizant of the processes being
described
• Provides wealth of information toward knowledge
representation

68
 Consensus Decision Making
• Clear agreement regarding the best solution to a
problem
• As a tool, it follows brainstorming
• Procedure ensures fairness and standardization in
the way experts arrive at a consensus
• A bit tedious and can take hours
• The rigidity of the consensus method can be a
problem for many experts

69
 The Repertory Grid
• Domain expert viewed as a scientist who categorizes
a problem domain using his or her own model
• Grid used to capture and evaluate the expert’s model
• Experts see problems based on reasoning that has
stood test of time
• A representation of the experts’ way of looking at a
particular problem
• A grid is a scale or a bipolar construct on which
elements are placed within gradations
• Novice Expert

70
 The Repertory Grid (cont’d)
• Benefit: May prompt the expert to think more
seriously about the problem and how to solve it.
• Drawback: Difficult to manage when large grids are
accompanied by complex details
• Because of difficulty in simplicity and manageability,
the tool is normally used in the early stages of
knowledge capture

71
Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
• Mitigates the process losses associated with
multiple experts
• An alternative to the consensus technique
• Provides an interface between consensus and
brainstorming
• Panel of experts becomes a “nominal” group
whose meetings structured in order to effectively
pool individual judgment
• An idea writing or idea generation technique

72
 NGT (cont’d)
• Effective in multiple expert knowledge capture,
especially when minimizing differences in status
among experts is important
• In NGT, each expert has an equal chance to express
ideas in parallel with other experts in the group
• With discussion accommodated in sequential order,
NGT can be a more efficient and productive
approach than brainstorming

73
 Delphi Method (cont’d)
• Controlled feedback
• Statistical group response
• Experts often lack necessary knowledge on
which to base final judgment
• Poorly designed questionnaire could cause all
kinds of problems

74
 Concept Mapping
• A network of concepts, consisting of nodes
and links
• A node represents a concept and a link
represents the relationship between concepts.
An effective way for a group to function
without losing their individuality

75
 Figure: Conceptual Map
Example-

White
horse Bear
d At
chimneys On roofs
Birthday
has
rides
Spain listens
has climbs
lives
in lives in
SAINT helper of BLACK
NICOLAS
PETER

not same as gives brings

Santa
Clause Presents

Source: Awad, E.M & Ghaziri , H (2007). Knowledge Management 76

Figure: Steps in Concept Mapping
1 Preparation of Project
Participants, focus,
schedule

2
Idea
Generation
6 (focus for
Utilization
STEPS IN
brainstorming)
CONCEPT
MAPPING

3
Idea
Structuring
(sorting/rating
4 statements)
5 Statement
Interpretation Representation
(cluster analysis)

Source: Awad, E.M & Ghaziri , H (2007). Knowledge Management 77

 Blackboarding
• A global memory structure database or
repository- 3 factors- knowledge source
(expert), blackboard and control mechanism
• Assumes all participants are experts with
unique experience
• Each expert has equal chance to contribute to
the solution via the blackboard
• Process continues until the problem has been
solved
• Diverse approaches to problem solving
78
 Blackboarding (cont’d)
• Participants share a common language for
interaction
• Flexible representation of information
• Efficient storage and location of information
• Organized participation
• Iterative approach to problem solving

79