f.ngh.j.

cau;juk;

ngsjpftpay;

nra;Kiwf; ife;E}y;
(2017 Mk; Mz;L njhlf;fk; mKy;gLj;Jtjw;FupaJ)

tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw
tpQ;Qhd> njhopDl;g gPlk;
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;
kfufk
www.nie.lk
f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;)
ngsjpftpay; - nra;Kiwf; ife;E}y;

Kjw; gjpg;G: 2018

 Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;>

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ISBN:

tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;

,izaj;jsk; : www.nie.lk
 gzpgg
; hsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp
2007 Mk; Mz;L eilKiwapypUe;j cs;slf;fj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l
ghltpjhdj;ij etPdg;gLj;jp> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;> Muk;g> ,ilepiyf;
fy;tpg;gug;Gfspd; vl;L tUl Row;rp Kiwahd> Gjpa Njrpakl;lg; ghltpjhdj;jpd;
Kjy; g hfj; j pid mwpKfg; g Lj; j paJ. Njrpa fy; t p Mizf; F Otpdhy;
Kd;nkhopag;gl;l Njrpa fy;tp ,yf;Ffis mbg;gil Nehf;fhff; nfhz;L> ,J
nraw;gLj;jg;gl;lJld; nghJj; Nju;r;rpfis tpUj;jp nra;J te;jJ.
gy;NtWgl;l fy;tpahsu;fshy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l Ma;TfspdJk;> fUj;Jf;fspdJk;
nghUj;jg;ghl;Lld; gFj;jwpT thjj;jpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L ghltpjhdk;
eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mjd; njhlu;r;rpahfg; ghltpjhdr; Row;rpapd; ,uz;lhk;
ghfk; 2015 Mk; Mz;by; ,Ue;J fy;tp Kiwapy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ.
,e;jg; gFj;jwpTthj eilKiwapd; fil epiyapy; ,Ue;J cau;epiy tiu
midj;Jg; ghlq;fspYk; xOq;FgLj;jg;gl;l Kiwapy; Nju;r;rpfis tsu;j;njLg;g
jw;fhf> fPopUe;J Nky;Nehf;fpa eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; mZFKiw gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpwJ. xNu ghlj;jpd; cs;slf;fj;jpid Vida ghlq;fspYk; kPz;Lk; ghtpg;g
jidf; Fiwg;gjw;fhfTk;> ghlj;jpd; Nehf;fq;fis kl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhfTk;>
nraw;gLj;jf;$bajhd khztu; ikag; ghltpjhdk; xd;iw cUthf;Fk; Nehf;fpYk;
fpilahd xUq;fpizg;ghdJ nraw;gl;L tUfpd;wJ.
Mrpupau;fspwF; > mtu;fsJ tFg;giwf; fw;gpjj ; y;fis topgg ; Lj;Jtjw;F mtrpakhd
topfhl;Ljy;fis toq;Ftjw;fhfTk;> jq;fisf; fw;wy; - fw;gpjj ; y; nraw;ghLfspy;
nghUj;jg;ghl;Lld; <LgLj;jpf;nfhs;tjw;fhfTk;> tFg;giw mstPLfisAk;
kjpg;gLP fisAk; nghUj;jkhfg; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjid Nehf;fkhff; nfhz;L
Gjpa Mrpupau; topfhl;b E}y;fs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j topfhl;b E}y;fs;>
Mrpupaiu xU nghUj;jg;ghLila Mrpupauhf tFg;giwapy; nraw;gl itf;fpd;wJ.
,e;j topfhl;b E}y;fspD}lhf> Mrpupau;fs; jq;fs; khztu;fspd; Nju;r;rpfis
tsu;j;njLf;fj; Njitahd ju cs;sPLfisAk;> nraw;ghLfisAk; jhq;fshfNt
njupen; jLf;Fk; Rje;jpuj;jpidAk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;fpdw; du;. mj;Jld; tpje;Jiuf;fg;gl;l
ghlg; gug;Gf;fspd; ghupa Rikfs; ,y;yhnjhopf;fg;gLfpwJ.
tpQ;Qhdk; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jw; nrad;Kiwapy; nra;Kiwr; nraw;ghLfSk; xU
Kf;fpa $whFk;. khztd; Fwpj;j nra;Kiwr; Nritfspy; caupa kl;lj;jpy;
<LgLjyhdJ mtu;fspd; Kf;fpakhd jpwd;fis tsu;jJ ; f; nfhs;tjw;Fk; tpQQ
; hd
g+u;tkhd JUtpaha;jy; nrad;Kiwia tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;Fk; mtu;fsJ
vz;zf;fU rhu;e;j tpsf;fj;ij Nkk;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;f;Fk; JizahFk;.
nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfis ed;F jpll; kpLjy;> khztu;fs; fw;wy; nrad;Kiwapy;
tpidj;jpwDld; <LgLj;jy;> ngsjpftpay; ghlj;Jiwapy; khztupd; nra;Kiwj;
jpwd;fis nkU$l;ly; Mfpa gzpfis ntw;wpfukhfr; nra;tjw;F Mrpupau; -
khztu; Mfpa ,U jug;gpdu;fSk; topfhl;Lk; Nehf;FlNdNa ,r;nra;Kiwf;
ife;E}y; jahupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Njrpa fy;tp epWtf> jhgdg; Nguit kw;Wk; fy;tprhu; mYty;fs; rig cWg;gpdu;
fSf;Fk;> ,r;nrad;Kiwf; ife;E}iyj; jahupg;gjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;j tsthsu;
fSf;Fk;> ,g;gzpia ntw;wpfukhf epiwT nra;tjw;fhf mu;gg ; zpg;Gld; nraw;
gl;likf;fhf vdJ ed;wpawpjiyj; njuptpf;fpd;Nwd;.

fyhepjp (jpUkjp) up. V. Mu;. [. FzNrf;fu

gzpg; g hsu; ehafk; >
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

iii
 tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwg; gzpg;ghsupd; nra;jp

tpQ;Qhdg; ghlj;Jiwapy; khztiug; ghz;baj;jpd;ghy; ,l;Lr; nry;yf;$bathwhf

,e;jr; nra;Kiwf; ife;E}y; jahupff; g;gl;Ls;sJ. ,e;E}iyj; jahupfF
; k; Kaw;rpapd;
NghJ ehk; Mrpupau;fs;> gy;fiyf;fof tpupTiuahsu;fs;> fiyj;jpll; r; rpwg;gwpQu;fs;
Nghd;w gy jug; gl;ltu;fSld; $l;lhfr; nraw;gl;bUf;fpd;Nwhk;. ,r;nra;Kiwf;
ife;E}ypy; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;s gupNrhjidfs;> ngsjpftpay; ghlj;jpl;lf;
Fwpf;Nfhs;fis milAk; Nehf;Fld; jahupf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

ghlrhiyapy; nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfis elj;Jtjd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; njhlu;ghf

xd;Wlndhd;W ,ilj;njhlu;igf; nfhz;l> vdpDk; ntt;NtW tplaq;fshff;
Fwpg;gplf;$ba %d;W fhuzq;fis vLj;Jf; fhl;lyhk;.
(1) tpQ;Qhd vz;zf;fUf;fisf; (mwpitAk; tpsf;fj;ijAk;) fl;bnaOg;gj;
JizahjYk; Nfhl;ghl;L tplaq;fisr; nra;Kiw tplaq;fSld;
xd;wpizj;jYk;
(2) JUtpahAk; jpwid NkYk; tpUj;jp nra;jy;.
(3) nra;Kiwj; jpwd;fisf; fl;bnaOg;GjYk; tpUj;jp nra;jYk;

ahNjDk; gupNrhjidia elj;Jk;NghJ> Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l fhuzq;fs; Fwpj;Jf;

ftdQ; nrYj;jp> khztd; ghltplaq;fis ed;F tpsq;fpf; nfhs;tjw;Fk;>
khztuplj;Nj tpQ;QhdpnahUtupd; jpwd;fis tpUj;jp nra;tjw;Fk; khztuplj;Nj
tpQ;Qhd> njhopDl;g> ve;jpupa> fzpjj; Jiwfs;rhu;e;j tplaq;fis NkYk;
fw;gjw;Fk; njhopy; tha;gG
; f;fisg; ngWtjw;Fk; Njitahd ifj;jpwd;fis
tpUj;jp nra;tjw;Fk; Mrpupau; JizGupthu; vd;gJ vkJ ek;gpf;ifahFk;.

nra;Kiw Ntiyfs;> tpisj;jpwdhf miktjw;nfdpd;> Ntiyfspy; <Lgl;Lf;

fw;gjw;Nfw;w Xu; ,lkhf Ma;T$lk; fhzg;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; Ma;T$lj;jpy;
gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s xOq;Ffs; njhlu;ghd topfhl;liy Mrpupau;
toq;Fjy; Ntz;Lk;.
 Ntiy nra;Ak; ,lj;ij Neu;j;jpahfTk; Rj;jkhfTk; itj;jpUj;jy;.
 khzt khztpau;fs; jkJ fUkq;fs; njhlu;ghf mjpf ftdj;JlDk;
fupridAlDk; ,Uj;jy;.
 ,urhadg; nghUs;fs; mlq;fpAs;s Nghj;jy;fspd; %bfis Ma;T$l Nkir
kPJ itj;J tpl;Lr; nry;tijj; jtpu;jj ; y;.
 ePu>; vupthA> kpdr
; huk; Mfpad tPzt
; puakhtijj; jtpuf
; F
; k; tifapy; nraw;gly;.
 gupNrhjid njhlu;ghfj; jug;gl;Ls;s topfhl;ly;fis kpff; ftdkhf thrpjj ; Yk;
gpd;gw;WjYk;.
 Mrpupau; mwpe;j epiyapNyNa khztu;fs; Ma;T$lj;jpy; gpuNtrpj;jy;.
 ghlg; nghWg;ghrpupau; mDkjp toq;fpa gupNrhjidfis khj;jpuNk khztu;fs;
elj;Jjy;.

iv
,r;nrad;Kiwf; ife;E}iyj; jahupf;Fk; Kaw;rpapd; ntw;wpf;F cjtpa gy;fiyf;
fof tpupTiuahsu;fs;> Mrpupau;fs; cl;gl Vida rfy tsthsu;fSf;Fk;
vdJ ed;wpawpjiyj; njuptpj;Jf; nfhs;fpd;Nwd;. NkYk; vkJ ,sQ; re;jjpapd;
jfty;fis ed;fwpej; > njhopDl;gj;jpy; Nkk;gl;l r%fq;fisr; Nru;ej
; cWg;gpdu;fs;
Nghd;W tYt+l;lk; ngWtjw;F ,k;Kaw;rp Jizahfl;Lk; vdg; gpuhu;jj ; pff
; pd;Nwd;.

fyhepjp. V. B. mNrhf;f j rpy;th

gzpg; g hsu;
tpQ;Qhdj; Jiw
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

v
 tsg; gq;fspg;G (2018 jpUj;jpa gpujp)

MNyhrid: fyhepjp. uP. V. Mu;. [. FzNrfu

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

Nkw;ghu;it: fyhepjp. V. B. mNrhf;f j rpy;th

gzpg;ghsu;>
tpQ;;Qhdj;Jiw>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

ghlj; jiyikj;Jtk;: gP . kstpgj;j puz

rpNul;l tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

nrt;tpjhf;fk;: 1. gP . kstpgj;j puz>

rpNul;l tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

2. fyhepjp. vk;. vy;. v];. gpajp];]>

cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

3. Mu;. V. mkurpq;`>
cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

nkhopr; nrt;tpjhf;fk;: vk;. vr;. vk;. ahf;$j;

Xa;Tngw;w gpujk nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

fzpdp tbtikg;G: fkyNtzp fe;i jah>

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

Ma;T$l cjtp: vk;. ntypg;g pl; b a

Ma;T$l cjtpahsu;> tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

ehdhtpj cjtp: 1. lgps;A. gP. gP. tPutj;jd>

tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

2. Nf. Mu;. jahtq;]>

tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

vi
 tsg; gq;fspg;G (2015 %yg;gpujp)

MNyhrid: Nguhrpupau; lgps;A . vk;. mNguj;d gz;l hu

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

Nkw;ghu;it: vk;. vt;. v];. gP. [atu;jd>

gpujpg; gzpg;ghsu; ehafk;>
tpQ;;Qhd njhopDl;gg; gPlk;>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

ghlj; jiyikj;Jtk;: vk;. vy;. v];. gpajp];]>

cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

ghl ,izg;ghsu;: 1. gP . kstpgj;j puz>

rpNul;l tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

2. vk;. vy;. v];. gpajp];]>

cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

3. vk;. Mu;. gP. I. N[. N`uj;>

cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

4. lgps;a+. B. I. cgkhy; >

cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

5. Mu;. V. mkurpq;f >

cjtp tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

vOj;jhsu; FO: 1. gP. kytpgj;j pud>

rpNul;l tpupTiuahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

2. lgps;a+. V. B. uj;d#upa>
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(ngsjpftpay;)> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

3. gP. V. jpyf;fuj;d>
Kd;idaehs; nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup
(ngsjpftpay;)> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.
Xa;Tngw;w ,yq;iff; fy;tp epu;thf Nrit - II
mjpfhup.
vii
 4. B. v];. tpjhdhr;r p>
Xa;Tngw;w gpujk nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup>
(fy;tpj; njhopDl;gtpay;)>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

5. vr;. v];. Nf. tp[ajpyf;f>

Xa;Tngw;w ,yq;iff; fy;tp epu;thf Nrit - II.

6. V.Rfj; j ghs>
Xa;Tngw;w ,yq;if Mrpupau; Nrit - I.

7. V. n`l;b Mur;r p >

rpNul;l epfo;r;rpj; jpl;l mjpfhup>
Njrpa fy;tp Mizf;FO.

ghltpla MNyhridAk;
kjpg;gPLk;: 1. jifrhu; Nguhrpupau; uP. Mu;. Mupauj;d

2. Nguhrpupau; v];. Mu;. B. Nuhrh>

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

3. Nguhrpupau; N[. Nf. B. v];. [andj;jp>

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

4. fyhepjp vk;. N[. [ade;j>

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

5. Nguhrpupau; Nf. gP. v];. rP. [auj;d>

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

6. Nguhrpupau; B. B. vd;. gP. jah>

nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

7. Nguhrpupau; I. Nf. ngNuuh>

,yq;if rg;gpufKt gy;fiyf;fofk;.

8. fyhepjp [P. vk;. vy;. gP. mnghd;R>

,yq;if rg;gpufKt gy;fiyf;fofk;.

9. Xa;Tngw;w Nguhrpupau; gP. v];. gP. fUzhuj;d

viii
 10. fyhepjp gP. lgps;a+. v];. Nf. gz;lhuehaf;f>
Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

11. fyhepjp vy;. Mu;. V. Nf. gz;lhu>

Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

12. fyhepjp> jpUkjp. tP. V. nrndtpuj;d>

Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

13. fyhepjp N[. gP. ypadNf>

Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

14. fyhepjp rP. gP. [ayj;>

Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

15. Nguhrpupau; N[. rP. vd;. uhN[e;j pu>

,yq;ifj; jpwe;j gy;fiyf;fofk;.

16. Nguhrpupau; lgps;a+. [P. B. ju;kuj;d >

UFZ gy;fiyf;fofk;.

17. Nguhrpupau; N[. V. gP. Nghjpj;j>

UFZ gy;fiyf;fofk;.

18. Nguhrpupau; v];. Mu;. B. fhypq;f Kjyp>

fsdpg; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

19. fyhepjp gP. fPf padNf>

= [atu;jdGug; gy;fiyf;fofk;.

RahjPd kjpg;gPL: 1. gP. tpf;u kNrf;f u>

Mrpupau; Nrit I.>
ngsj;j ngz;fs; ghlrhiy> fy;fpir.

2. N[. Mu;. yq;fhGu>

Mrpupau; Nrit I.>
tpfu; krpyh Njrpa ghlrhiy> fpupcs;s.

ix
tpsf;fg;glq;fs;: 1. lgps;a+. V. B. uj;d#upa>
Xa;Tngw;w gpujk nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup
(ngsjpftpay;)> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

2. N[. Mu;. yq;fhGu>

Mrpupau; Nrit I.>
tpfu; krpyh Njrpa ghlrhiy> fpupcs;s.

3. [aUtd; tp[atu;j d>

fzpdp rpj;jpuf; fiyQu;.

,Wjp kjpg;gPL: v];. Mu;. n[af;F khu;>

Mrpupau;>
Nwhay; fy;Y}up> nfhOk;G - 07.

nkhopr; nrt;tpjhf;fk;: vk;. vr;. vk;. ahf;$j;

Xa;Tngw;w gpujk nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup>
Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

fzpdp tbtikg;G: fkyNtzp fe;i jah>

Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

Ma;T$l cjtp: vk;. ntypgpl; b a

Ma;T$l cjtpahsu;>
tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

ehdhtpj cjtp: 1. lgps;A. gP. gP. tPutj;jd>

tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

2. Nf. Mu;. jahtq;]>

tpQ;Qhdj;Jiw> Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;.

x
 mwpKfk;

2017 Mk; Mz;L njhlf;fk; eilKiwapYs;s fy;tpg; nghJj; juhjug; gj;jpu

cau; j u ngsjpftpay; ghlj; j pl; l j; j py; cs; s 42 Ma; $ lr; nra; K iwg;
gupNrhjidfs; njhlu;ghd tplaq;fis cs;slf;fpa> Mrpupau;fs; - khztu;fs;
Mfpa ,uz;L gpuptpduhYk; gad;gLj;jf;$ba xU E}yhf f.ngh.j. cau;ju
ngsjpftpay; nra;Kiwf; ife;E}y; Njrpa fy;tp epWtf tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwapdhy;
jahupff; g;gl;Ls;sJ. 2017 ,y; mwpKfk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;s ngsjpftpaypd; ghlj;jpll
; j;
Jf;Fupa nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfspd; gl;bay; xiii Mk;> xiv Mk;> xv Mk; gf;fq;fspy;
jug;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J f.ngh.j. cau;ju Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; khztu;fSf;Fkhfj;
jahupf;fg; gl;Ls;s xU ife;E}yhapDk; khztu; vg;NghJk; Mrpupaupd; mwpe;j
epiyapy; mtuJ topfhl;lYlNdNa Ma;T$lg; gupNrhjidfspy; <LgLjy;
Ntz;Lk;. Ma;T$lj;jpy; gpd;gw;w Ntz;ba xOf;f tpjpfs;> Kw;ghJfhg;G cj;jpfs;
Mfpad njhlu;ghf Mrpupau; - khztu; Mfpa ,U gpuptpdUk; tpNrl ftdQ;
nrYj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.

,f;ife;E}ypy; mlq;fpAs;s xt;nthU gupNrhjidAk; ~~gupNrhjidapd; ngau;||>

~~cgfuzq;fSk; nghUs;fSk;||> ~~nfhs;if||> ~~nra;Kiw||> ~~thrpg;Gf;fSk;
fzpj;jYk;||> ~~KbG|| Mfpa tplaq;fspd; fPo; Njitahd ,lq;fspy; tpsf;fg;
glq;fSld; jug;gl;Ls;sJ. Fwpg;gpl Ntz;ba tpNrl tplaq;fs; ~~Fwpg;G|| vDk;
jiyg;gpd; fPo;j; jug;gl;Ls;sJ. khztd; cupa mwpTWj;jy;fis mDrupj;J>
nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjid tptuq;fisg; gjpT nra;jYk; mtrpakhFk;. ,q;F jug;
gl;Ls;s nra;Kiwr; nraw;ghLfSf;F Nkyjpfkhff; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jw; nrad;
Kiwf;F tYt+l;Ltjw;Fj; Njitahd NtW nra;Kiwj; njhopw;ghLfs; Mrpupau;
nra;Jfhl;ly;fs;> nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfs; Nghd;wtw;iwAk; nghUj;j khdthW
jpl;lkpl;Lg; gad;gLj;Jk; Rje;jpuk; MrpupaUf;F cz;L. NkYk;> ghlrhiy
Kiwikapy; ,urj;jpd; gad;ghl;il ,ad;w msTfSf;Ff; fl;Lg;gLj;JkhWk;
jw;NghJ MNyhrid Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

,f;ife;E}ypd; %yg; gpujp 2009 njhlf;fk; eilKiwf;F te;j (2012 ,d; kPsN
; ehf;fg;
gl;l) ghlj;jpl;lj;jpy; cs;s 46 Ma;T$lr; nrad;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfSf;F
mwpTWj;jy;fis cs;slf;fpa xU E}yhf 2015 ,y; jahupj;J Kbf;fg;gl;lJ.
,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s Vwj;jho vy;yhr; nrad;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfSk; guPl;rhu;j;j
khff; ifahz;Lghu;f;fg;gl;itahFk;. 2017 njhlf;fk; eilKiwapYs;s Gjpa
ghlj;jpl;lj;Jf;nfd ,f;ife;E}iyr; nrt;tpjhf;fk; nra;jNghJ gpd;tUk; gpujhd
jpUj;jq;fs; nra;ag;gl;ld.

xi
 2009 ,d; nra;Kiwg; gl;baypy; mlq;fpapUe;j gpd;tUk; gupNrhjidfis
ePf;fp tpLjy;.
gupNrhjid ,y. gupNrhjidapd; ngau;

32 kPw;wu; ghyj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp ,uz;L jilfis

xg;gpLjy;.

35 mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jpj; jilfis xg;gpLjy;.

37 mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp kpfr; rpwpa kpd;dpaf;f

tpirfisj; Jzpjy;. (ntg;g kpd; ,iznahd;wpd;)

44 fk;gpr; rl;lfnkhd;iwg; gad;gLj;jpr; rtu;f;fhug; gly

nkhd;wpd; gug;gpOitiaj; Jzpjy;.

 gupNrhjid ,y 24: ~~khwhf; fdtstpy; thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fj;Jf;Fk; jdp

ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;g;Gg; ghu;j;jy;|| vDk; gupNrhjidf;
fhf ,Jtiuapy; ghlrhiy Kiwikapy; kuGuPjpahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; ~~khwhf;
fdtsT thA cgfuzj;Jf;F||g; gjpyhfg; ~~NghBd; mKf;fkhdpia||g;
gad;gLj;jp mg;gupNrhjid elj;Jk; tpjj;ij tpsf;Fjy;.

NkYk;> ngsjpftpay; fy;tpapd; topNa Nkyjpf fw;ifapy; ftdQ; nrYj;Jk;

Mrpupau;fs; kw;Wk; khztu;fspd; tpQ;Qhdj; jpwd;fSf;F nkU$l;Ltjw;fhf>
nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidfisj; jpl;lkpLjy;> Nkk;gLj;jy;> kjpg;gL
P nra;jy; Nghd;w
Jiwfspy; fw;wha;T elj;Jtjw;Fj; jhuhskhd tha;gG ; f;fs; Mrpupau;fSf;F
cz;L.

NkYk;> ,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s gupNrhjidfspy; FiwghLfs; mtjhdpff ; g;gl;lnjdpd;

mtw;iwj; Njrpa fy;tp epWtf tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwf;F mwptpg;guP ;fshapd; mLj;j
gjpg;gpd;NghJ jpUj;jpaikg;gjw;Fg; ngupJk; trjpahf mikAk;.

xii
 2017 njhlf;fk; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; fy;tpg; nghJj; juhjug;
gj;jpu cau;ju ngsjpftpay; ghl> ghlj;jpl;lj;Jf;Fupa
nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidg; gl;bay;

01. Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp ePsk;> mfyk;> cauk;> fdtsT

Mfpatw;iwj; Jzpjy;.

02. Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rpiag; gad;gLj;jp tpl;lk;> jbg;G Mfpatw;iwj;

Jzpjy;.

03. Nfhskhdpiag; gad;gLj;jpj; jbg;G> tistpdhiu Mfpatw;iwj; Jzpjy;.

04. efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;biag; gad;gLj;jp cs;tpll

; k;> ntsptpl;lk; Mfpatw;iwj;
Jzpjy;.

05. tpirapizfu tpjpia tha;gG

; g;ghu;j;jYk;> mjidg; gad;gLj;jp> jug;gl;l
xU nghUspd; jpzpitj; JzpjYk;

06. jpUg;gk; njhlu;ghd Nfhl;ghl;ilg; gad;gLj;jp> nghUnshd;wpd; epiwiaj;

Jzpjy;.

07. U - Fohiag; gad;gLj;jp> jputnkhd;wpd; njhlu;glu;j;jpiaj; (rhulu;j;jpiaj;)

Jzpjy;.

08. n`aupd; Ma;fUtpiag; gad;gLj;jp> jputnkhd;wpd; njhlu;glu;j;jpiaj;

(rhulu;j;jpiaj;) Jzpjy;.

09. epiwNaw;wpa Nrhjidf;F ohnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp> jputnkhd;wpd;

njhlu;glu;j;jpiaj; (rhulu;j;jpiaj;) Jzpjy;.

10. vspa Crypidg; gad;gLj;jp> <u;g;G Mu;KLfiyj; Jzpjy;.

11. Ruptpy;nyhd;wpy; njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s nghUnshd;wpd; jpzpTf;Fk; miyT

fhyj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;gG ; g;ghu;j;jy;.

12. Rukhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp ,irf;fUtpnahd;wpd; kPbwidj; Jzpjy;.

13. Rukhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> <u;jj

; fk;gpnahd;wpd; kPbwDf;Fk; mjpuT
; ePsj;Jf;Fk;
,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;gG ; g;ghu;j;jy;.

14. %ba Fohnahd;iwAk; Xu; ,irf;fitiaAk; gad;gLj;jp> tspapy; xypapd;

Ntfj;ijAk; Fohapd; Kidj;jpUj;jj;ijAk; Jzpjy;.

15. %ba Fohnahd;iwAk; ,irf;fitj; njhFjpnahd;iwAk; gad;gLj;jp> tspapy;

xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk;> Fohapd; Kidj; jpUj;jj;ijAk; Jzpjy;.

16. efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bnahd;iwAk; fz;zhbf; Fw;wpnahd;iwAk; gad;gLj;jp>

fz;zhbapd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijf; fhzy;.

xiii
17. mupankhd;wpd; Clhf epfOk;> fjpnuhd;wpd; tpyfiyr; Nrhjpj;J mjd;
%yk; mupaj;jpd; ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;ijj; Jzpjy;.

18. mtjpf;Nfhz Kiwapy;> mupankhd;W Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;

Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy;.
19. jpUrpakhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;jYk; mjidg; gad;gLj;jp mupankhd;wpd;
KwpTf;Nfhzj;ijj; JzpjYk;.

20. jpUrpakhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> mupankhd;wpd; ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;ijj;

JzpjYk; mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijj; JzpjYk;.

21.1 FtpT tpyi

; ynahd;wpy; tpkg
; j;jpd; mikTfisg; nghUj;Jif Kiwapy;
ngWjYk; mjd; %yk; tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ijj; JzpjYk;.

21.2 FopT tpy;iynahd;wpd; tpk;gj;jpd; mikTfisg; nghUe;Jif Kiwapy;

ngWjYk; mjd; %yk; tpyi
; yapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ijj; JzpjYk;.

22. Ftpy; Fohiag; gad;gLj;jp> tspkz;ly mKf;fj;ijj; Jzpjy;.

23. khwh mKf;fj;jpy; thAnthd;wpd; fdtsTf;Fk; ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd

njhlu;ig tha;gG; g;ghu;j;jy;.

24. khwh fdtstpy; thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fj;jpw;Fk; jdp ntg;gepiyf;Fk;

,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;gG
; g;ghu;j;jy;.

25. fyit Kiwapy; jpzk

; g; nghUnshd;wpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj; Jzpjy;.

26. Fspuy; Kiwapy; jputnkhd;wpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj; Jzpjy;.

27. fyit Kiwapy; gdpf;fl;bapd; cUfypd; kiw ntg;gj;ijj; Jzpjy;.

28. fyit Kiwapy; ePupd; Mtpahjypd; jd;kiw ntg;gj;ijj; Jzpjy;.

29. kpDf;fpa fNyhupkhdpiaf; nfhz;L tspapd; rhuPug;gjidj; Jzpjy;.

30. ‘Nrspd;’ Kiw %yk; cNyhfnkhd;wpd; ntg;gf; flj;jhiwj; Jzpjy;.

31. cyu;fynkhd;wpd; mfj;jiliaAk; kpd;dpaf;f tpiriaAk; Jzpjy;.

32. kPw;wu; ghyj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp> cNyhfnkhd;wpd; (Cu) jilapd; ntg;gepiyf;

Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy;.

33. mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> ,uz;L fyq;fspd; kpd;dpaf;f tpirfis

xg;gpLjy;.

34. mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> fynkhd;wpd; mfj;jiliaj; Jzpjy;.

xiv
35. Fiwflj;jp ,Uthapnahd;Wf;fhf I -V tisapiag; ngwy; (Kd;Kff;
NfhlYf;fhf).

36. jpuhd;rpw;wnuhd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp> nghJf; fhyp epiyaikg;gpy; Ib ,w;Fk; Ic

,w;Fk; ,ilNa khWepiyr; rpwg;gpay;G tisapiag; ngwy;.

37. vspa mbg;gilahd jUf;f g;gliyfspd; cz;ik ml;ltizfisg;

gupNrhjid uPjpapy; Nehf;FjYk; mjd; %yk; gliyfis ,dq;fhzYk;.

38. fk;gp tbtj;jpYs;s cNyhfnkhd;wpd; (cUf;F) aq;qpd; Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy;.

39. jputnkhd;wpd; (ePupd); gpRf;Fikf; Fzfj;ij> kapuj

; J
; isg; gha;rr
; y; Kiwapy;
Jzpjy; (GthNra; (Poiseuille) #j;jpuk; %yk;).

40. EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp> ePupd; gug;gp Kiwiaj;

Jzpjy;.

41. kapu;j;Jis Vw;w Kiwapy; ePupd; gug;gOitiaj; Jzpjy;.

42. Nafupd; Kiwapy; (Jaeger’s Method) jputnkhd;wpd; gug;G ,Oitiaj;

Jzpjy;.

xv
 nghUslf;fk;
gupNrhjid
,y. gf;fk;

gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; mtu;fspd; nra;jp ....................................................... iii

tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwg; gzpg;ghsupd; nra;jp .................................................... iv

tsg; gq;fspg;G .............................................................................................. vi

mwpKfk; ........................................................................................................... xi

nra;Kiwg; gupNrhjidg; gl;bay; ............................................................... xiii

01. Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp ePsk;>

mfyk;> cauk;> fdtsT Mfpatw;iwj; Jzpjy; ............... 01
02. Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rpiag; gad;gLj;jp
tpl;lk;> jbg;G Mfpatw;iwj; Jzpjy; ...................................... 06
03. Nfhskhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp jbg;G>
tistpdhiu Mfpatw;iwj; Jzpjy; ..................................... 09
04. efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;biag; gad;gLj;jp
cs;tpl;lk;> ntsptpl;lk; Mfpatw;iwj; Jzpjy; ................... 11
05. tpirapizfu tpjpia tha;gG ; g;ghu;j;jYk;> mjidg;
gad;gLj;jp> jug;gl;l xU nghUspd; jpzpitj; JzpjYk; ... 14
06. jpUg;gk; njhlu;ghd Nfhl;ghl;ilg; gad;gLj;jp>
nghUnshd;wpd; epiwiaj; Jzpjy; ......................................... 16
07. U - Fohiag; gad;gLj;jp> jputnkhd;wpd;
njhlu;glu;j;jpiaj; (rhulu;j;jpiaj;) Jzpjy; .......................... 18
08. n`aupd; Ma;fUtpiag; gad;gLj;jp> jputnkhd;wpd;
njhlu;glu;j;jpiaj; (rhulu;j;jpiaj;) Jzpjy; .......................... 20
09. epiwNaw;wpa Nrhjidf;Fohnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp>
jputnkhd;wpd; njhlu;glu;j;jpiaj; (rhulu;j;jpiaj;) Jzpjy; 22
10. vspa Crypidg; gad;gLj;jp> <u;g;G Mu;KLfiyj; Jzpjy;. 24
11. Ruptpy;nyhd;wpy; njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s nghUnshd;wpd;
jpzpTf;Fk; miyT fhyj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd
njhlu;ig tha;g;Gg;ghu;j;jy;. ....................................................... 26
12. Rukhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp ,irf;fUtpnahd;wpd;
kPbwidj; Jzpjy; ....................................................................... 28
13. Rukhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> <u;j;j fk;gpnahd;wpd; kPbwDf;Fk;
mjpu;T ePsj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;gG ; g;ghu;j;jy;. 30

xvi
14. %ba Fohnahd;iwAk; Xu; ,irf;fitiaAk;
gad;gLj;jp> tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk; Fohapd;
Kidj;jpUj;jj;ijAk; Jzpjy; .................................................. 32
15. %ba Fohnahd;iwAk; ,irf;fitj; njhFjpnahd;iwAk;
gad;gLj;jp> tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk;> Fohapd;
Kidj; jpUj;jj;ijAk; Jzpjy; ................................................. 34
16. efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bnahd;iwAk; fz;zhbf;
Fw;wpnahd;iwAk; gad;gLj;jp> fz;zhbapd;
KwpTf;Fzfj;ijf; fhzy; ........................................................ 36
17. mupankhd;wpd; Clhf epfOk;> fjpnuhd;wpd; tpyfiyr;
Nrhjpj;J mjd; %yk; mupaj;jpd; ,opT tpyfw;
Nfhzj;ijj; Jzpjy; .................................................................. 38
18. mtjpf;Nfhz Kiwapy;> mupankhd;W Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s
jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy; ................................ 40
19. jpUrpakhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;jYk; mjidg; gad;gLj;jp
mupankhd;wpd; KwpTf;Nfhzj;ijj; JzpjYk; 42
20. jpUrpakhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> mupankhd;wpd; ,opT tpyfw;
Nfhzj;ijj; JzpjYk; mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s
jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijj; JzpjYk; ................................. 45
21.1 FtpT tpyi
; ynahd;wpy; tpkg
; j;jpd; mikTfisg;
nghUj;Jif Kiwapy; ngWjYk; mjd; %yk;
tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ijj; JzpjYk; ................................. 47
21.2 FopT tpy;iynahd;wpd; tpk;gj;jpd; mikTfisg;
nghUe;Jif Kiwapy; ngWjYk; mjd; %yk; tpyi ; yapd;
Ftpaj;J}uj;ijj; JzpjYk; .......................................................... 51
22. Ftpy; Fohiag; gad;gLj;jp> tspkz;ly
mKf;fj;ijj; Jzpjy; ................................................................. 54
23. khwh mKf;fj;jpy; thAnthd;wpd; fdtsTf;Fk;
ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;g;Gg;ghu;j;jy;..... 56
24. khwh fdtstpy; thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fj;jpw;Fk; jdp
ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;g;Gg;ghu;j;jy;..... 58
25. fyit Kiwapy; jpz;kg; nghUnshd;wpd;
jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj; Jzpjy; .......................................... 60
26. Fspuy; Kiwapy; jputnkhd;wpd;
jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj; Jzpjy; .......................................... 62
27. fyit Kiwapy; gdpf;fl;bapd; cUfypd;
kiw ntg;gj;ijj; Jzpjy; ......................................................... 65
28. fyit Kiwapy; ePupd; Mtpahjypd; jd;kiw
ntg;gj;ijj; Jzpjy; .................................................................... 67

xvii
29. kpDf;fpa fNyhupkhdpiaf; nfhz;L tspapd;
rhuPug;gjidj; Jzpjy; ................................................................. 69
30. ‘Nrspd;’ Kiw %yk; cNyhfnkhd;wpd; ntg;gf;
flj;jhiwj; Jzpjy; ..................................................................... 71
31. cyu;fynkhd;wpd; mfj;jiliaAk; kpd;dpaf;f
tpiriaAk; Jzpjy; .................................................................... 74
32. kPw;wu; ghyj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp> cNyhfnkhd;wpd; (Cu)
jilapd; ntg;gepiyf;Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy; ............................. 76
33. mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> ,uz;L fyq;fspd;
kpd;dpaf;f tpirfis xg;gpLjy; ................................................. 78
34. mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> fynkhd;wpd;
mfj;jiliaj; Jzpjy; ................................................................ 80
35. Fiwflj;jp ,Uthapnahd;Wf;fhf I -V tisapiag; ngwy;.
(Kd;Kff; NfhlYf;fhf) .............................................................. 82
36. jpuhd;rpw;wnuhd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp> nghJf; fhyp
epiyaikg;gpy; Ib ,w;Fk; Ic ,w;Fk; ,ilNa khWepiyr;
rpwg;gpay;G tisapiag; ngwy; ...................................................... 84
37. vspa mbg;gilahd jUf;fg;gliyfspd; cz;ik
ml;ltizfisg; gupNrhjid uPjpapy; Nehf;FjYk;
mjd; %yk; gliyfis ,dq;fhzYk; .................................... 86
38. fk;gp tbtj;jpYs;s cNyhfnkhd;wpd; (cUf;F)
aq;qpd; Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy; .......................................................... 88
39. jputnkhd;wpd; (ePupd;) gpRf;Fikf; Fzfj;ij>
kapu;j;Jisg; gha;r;ry; Kiwapy; Jzpjy;
(GthNra; (Poiseuille) #j;jpuk; %yk;) ........................................ 90
40. EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp>
ePupd; gug;gp Kiwiaj; Jzpjy; .................................................. 93
41. kapu;j;Jis Vw;w Kiwapy; ePupd; gug;gOitiaj; Jzpjy;. 95
42. Nafupd; Kiwapy; (Jaeger’s Method) jputnkhd;wpd;
gug;G ,Oitiaj; Jzpjy; ........................................................ 97

crhj;Jiz E}y;fs; ....................................................................................... 100

xviii
 gupNrhjid ,y:
01
 Ntzpau; ,Lf;f pkhdpiag; gad;g Lj;j p>
1. fdTU kuf;f l;i lnahd;wpd; fdtsT
2. PVC Foha;j;Jz;n lhd;wpd; jputpaf; fdtsT
3. jpzkf; Nfhsnkhd;wpd; jputpaf; fdtsT
4. nghs;s hd cUisnahd;wpd; cl;f dtsT
Mfpatw;i wj; Jzpjy;
nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdp> rpwpa fdTU kuf;fl;il - 2cm4cm6cm> PVC
Foha;j;Jz;L - 1.3cm(1/2"), 6cm> Nfhsk; - 2cm tpl;lKs;s> nghs;shd
cUis (Mf;fpkPbR cUisAk; thspAk;).
nfhs;if
mfj;jhilfs; tOf;F jhil
gpujhd mstpil
Nfhy;
epiyj;j jhil >

Ntzpah; mstpil

cU: 1.1 Ntzpau; ,Lf;F khdp

Gwj;jhilfs;
Ntzpau; mstpil

,opntz;zpfi
; f

gpujhd mstpil
cU. 1.2 cUg;n gUf;f pa Ntzpau; mstpilAk; gpujhd mstpilAk;
ghlrhiy Ma;T$lq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapd; gpujhd
mstpilapd; n gFjpfs; Ntzpau; mstpilapd
; ; N gFjpfshfg; gpupff
; g;gl;Ls;sjhapd>;
kpfr;rpwpa mstPL = gpujhd mstpilapd; xU gFjpapd; ePsk;Ntzpau; mstpilapd;
xU gFjpapd; ePsk;

 n  gpujhd mstpilapd; kpfr; rpwpa

Fwpj;j myFfspd; kpfr;rpwpa mstPL   1  
 N  gFjpapd; ePsk;
(1) kuf;Fw;wpapd; ePsk;  ck; mfyk; b ck; cauk; h ck; Mapd;>
fdtsT  bh
(2) Fohapd; ntsptpl;lk; d0 ck; cs;tpl;lk; d1 ck; ePsk;  ck; Mapd;>

 d 2 2
o   di  
Fohapd; jputpaf;fdtsT        2  l MFk;.
  2    

3
d 4
(3) Nfhsj;jpd; tpl;lk; d vdpd;> Nfhsj;jpd; fdtsT     MFk;.
3 2
(4) nghs;shd cUisapd; Mok; l ck; cs;tpl;lk; d ck; Mapd;> nghs;shd
2
d
gFjpapd; fdtsT     l MFk;.
2
1
nra;Kiw
 jug;gl;Ls;s Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapd; kpfr; rpwpa mstPl;ilf; fz;lwpe;J
gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
 G+r;rpa tO cs;sjhapd; mjidf; fz;lwpe;J gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

1. fdTU kuf;fl;ilapd; ePsk;> mfyk;> cauq;fisf; fhzy;

cU. 1.3

 fdTU kuf;fl;ilapd; mstpilfisg; ngWk;NghJ cU 1.3 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;s

Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;J thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.

 ePsk;> mfyk;> cauk; Mfpatw;Wf;fhf %d;W ,lq;fspy; mstPLfisg;

ngw;W jpUj;jpa thrpg;Gf; fis ml;ltiz 1.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

2. PVC Foha;j;Jz;nlhd;wpd; jputpaf; fdtsitf; fhzy;

cU. 1.4 cU. 1.5

 PVC Foha;jJ
; z;bd; ntsptpll
; j;ij msg;gjw;fhf cU 1.4 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW
Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;J thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.

 xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd ,uz;L thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W ml;ltiz 1.2

,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

 Foha;j;Jz;bd; cs;tpl;lj;ij msg;gjw;fhf cU. 1.5 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW

Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;J thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.
 xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd ,uz;L thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W ml;ltiz 1.2
,y; gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
 Foha;jJ; z;bd; ePsj;ij ntt;NtWgl;l %d;W ,lq;fspy; mse;J ml;ltiz
1.2 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

2
 3. Nfhsnkhd;wpd; fdtsitf; fhzy;

cU. 1.6

 Nfhsj;jpd; tpl;lj;ijg; ngWtjw;fhf cU 1.6 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Ntzpau;

,Lf;fpkhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;J thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.
 xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd %d;W jpirfspd; topNa thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W
ml;ltiz 1.3 ,y; gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

4. nghs;shd cUisapd; cl;fdtsitf; fhzy;

cU. 1.7

 nghs;shd cUisapd; cs;tpl;lj;ij Kd;du; cU 1.5 ,w; Nghd;W ngw;W

ml;ltiz 1.4 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.
 nghs;shd gFjpapd; Moj;ij msg;gjw;fhf cU. 1.7 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW
Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;J %d;W ,lq;fspy; thrpg;Gf;fisg;
ngw;W ml;ltiz 1.6 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.
 cU. 1.8 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW %d;W ,lq;fspy; thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;Wg;
gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

3
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
 Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapd; kpfr;rpwpa thrpg;G =
Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapd; G+r;rpa tO =

1. kuf;fl;ilapd; mstPLfSf;fhf:

ml;l tiz: 1.1

jpUj;jg;gl;l thrpg;;G (i) (ii) (iii) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; (cm)
ePsk; l (cm)
mfyk; b (cm)
cauk; h (cm)

2. Foha;j;Jz;bd; mstPLfSf;fhf:

ml;ltiz 1.2
jpUj;jg;gl;l thrpg;;G (i) (ii) (iii) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; (cm)
cs;tpl;lk; di(cm)
ntsptpl;lk; d0 (cm)

ml;l tiz: 1.3

jpUj;jg;gl;l thrpg;;G (i) (ii) (iii) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; (cm)
ePsk; l (cm)

3. Nfhsj;jpd; mstPLfSf;fhf:

ml;ltiz: 1.4
jpUj;jg;gl;l thrpg;;G (i) (ii) (iii) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; (cm)
Nfhsj;jpd; tpl;lk;
d (cm)

4. nghs;shd cUisapd; mstPLfSf;fhf:

ml;ltiz: 1.5
jpUj;jg;gl;l thrpg;;G (i) (ii) (iii) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; (cm)
Nfhsj;jpd; tpl;lk;
d (cm)
Mok; l (cm)

ml;l tiz: 1.6

jpUj;jg;gl;l thrpg;;G (i) (ii) (iii) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; (cm)
Mok; l (cm)

4
KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jy;fspd;gb> cq;fsJ KbGfisf; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.
fye;Jiuahly;
,k;KbGfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tOf;fs; njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fisAk;
mg;ngWkhdq;fis NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhf cq;fsJ gpNuuiz
fisAk; Kd;itAq;fs;.
Fwpg;G
Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapd; G+r;rpa tOit> Ntzpau; mstpilapd; mikTg;gb
thrpf;Fk; tpjj;ijAk; jpUj;jQ; nra;tjw;fhf mg;ngWkhdj;ijf; Fwpj;j
mstPlb ; ypUe;J ePfF
; tJ Ntz;Lkh my;yJ mstPlL ; ld; Nru;jj
; y; Ntz;Lkh
vd;gijAk; jPuk ; hdpg;gJk; Kf;fpakhditahFk;.

cU. 1.8 cU. 1.9

jilfs; xd;Wlndhd;W njhLifAWkhW Ntzpau; mstpilfisr; nra;j
NghJ ,uz;L Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpfspy; G+r;rpa tO gjpthFk; tpjk;
NkNy cU. 1.8> cU 1.9 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.

cU. 1.8 ,d;gb> G+r;rpa tOit (Ntzpau; mstpilapd; G+r;rpaj;Jf;Fk;>

gpujhd mstpilapd; G+r;rpaj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp) mstpil
%yk; Neubahf thrpf;fyhk;. mg;ngWkhdk; 0.3 mm MFk;. Ntzpau;
mstpilapd; mirT ,e;j miktpypUe;Nj Muk;gpf;fpd;wJ. vdpDk;>
gpujhd mstpilapd; G+r;rpaj;jpypUe;Nj thrpg;G gjpT nra;ag;gLk;. vdNt
jpUj;jQ; nra;tjw;fhf> ,g;ngWkhdj;ij (0.3 mm) Fwpj;j thrpg;gpypUe;J
fopj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

cU. 1.9 ,d;gb G+r;rpa tOit> mjhtJ Ntzpau; mstpilapd;

G+r; r paj; J f; F k; gpujhd mstpilapd; G+r; r paj; J f; F k; ,ilapyhd
,ilntspia mstpilapdhy; fhl;lg;gLk; thrpg;gpd; %yk;> Neubahfg;
ngw KbahJ. thrpgi ; gf; fhl;Lk;> Ntzpau; gFjpfspd; ,ilntspapypUe;J
gpujhd msTj;jpl;lj;jpd; gFjpfspd; ,ilntspiaf; fopg;gjd; %yk;
G+r;rpa tOg; ngWkhdj;ijg; ngwyhk;.

G+r;rpa tO = (8  0.9 - 7) = (7.2 - 7.0) mm = 0.2 mm MFk;. jpUj;jQ;

nra;tjw;fhf ,g;ngWkhdj;ij (0.2 mm) Fwpjj ; thrpgG
; ld; $l;Ljy; Ntz;Lk;.

Fwpj;j G+r;rpa tOit> Ntzpau; mstpilapd; tyJ Gwj;NjapUe;J

xUq;fpirAk; thrpg;Gf;F xg;ghd ngWkhdk; %yKk; ngwyhk;.
mjw;fika g+r;rpa tO = (10 - 8) 0.1 mm = 0.2 mm MFk;.

5
 gupNrhjid ,y:
02
 Ez;k hdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;r piag; gad;gLj;j p>
1. nky;y pa fk;gpnahd;wpd; tpl;lk;
2. cUf;F/ fz;zhbf; Nfhsnkhd;wpd; tpl;lk;
3. rtu mynfhd;wpd; jbg;G
4. xspg;g pujpj; jhnshd;wpd; jbg;G
Mfpatw;i wj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rp> nky;ypa fk;gp (fk;gp msT 22)> cUf;Ff;
Nfhsk; (5 mm Fz;Lg; Nghjpiff; Nfhsk;)> rtu myF> xspg;gpujpj;jhs;>
EZf;Ff; fhl;b tOf;fp

nfhs;if

jpUFg; Gupapil x ck; tl;l mstpilapd; gFjpfspd; vz;zpf;if n

x
ck; Mapd;> Fwpj;j myFfspy; cgfuzj;jpd; kpfr;rpwpa mstPL 
gl;lil jPjhs; n

fjph;f;Nfhy; jPjhs; jiy

cU. 2.1

nra;Kiw
Ez; k hdpj; jpUFf; fzpr; r papd; kpr; r pwpa mstP l ; i lg; ngWq; f s; .
fjpu;fN
; fhyhdJ gl;lilAld; njhLifailAkhW jPjhs; jiyiag; gpbj;Jj;
jpUfp> G+r;r pa tO fhl;lg;gLfpd;wjhapd; mt;tOitg; gjpT nra;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;.
1. fk;gpapd; tpl;lj;ij msf;Fk; NghJ fjpuf
; N
; fhYf;Fk; gl;lilf;Fk; ,ilNa
fk;gp jq;fpapUf;FkhW jPjhs; jiyiar; Row;wp tpll ; j;jpd; ngWkhdj;ijg;
0
ngWq;fs;. fk;gpia 90 ,dhy; Row;wp kPz;Lk; thrpg;igg; ngWq;fs;.
fk;gpapd; %d;W mikTfspy; ,t;thwhf thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.
jpUj;jQ; nra;j thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 2.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

2. fjpu;fN
; fhYf;Fk; gl;lilf;Fk; ,ilNa Nfhsk; jq;fpapUf;FkhW nrg;gQ;
nra;J Nfhsj;jpd; tpll
; j;ij xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd %d;W mikTfspy;
itj;J mse;J thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 2.2 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

6
 3. fjpu;fN
; fhYf;Fk; gl;lilf;Fk; ,ilNa rtu myF jq;fpapUf;FkhW
nrg;gQ; nra;J %d;W ,lq;fspy; mjd; jbg;ig mse;J thrpg;Gf;fisg;
ngWq;fs;. jpUj;jQ; nra;ag;gl;l thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 2.3 ,y; gjpT
nra;Aq;fs;.
4. xspg; gpujpj;jhis 20 Jz;Lfshf ntl;b mtw;iw xd;wpd; kPJ xd;whf
itj;J mtw;wpd; jbg;ig mse;J thrpg;igg; gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
,t;thwhd %d;W ,lq;fspy; thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;Wg; gjpT nra;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;. jpUj;jQ; nra;ag;gl;l thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 2.4 ,y;
gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
 Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rpapd; kpfr;rpwpa thrpg;G =
G+r;rpa tO =
ml;ltiz: 2.1

fk;gpapd; tpl;lk; (mm)

,il tpl;lk;
(i) (ii) (iii) (mm)

ml;ltiz 2.2

Nfhsj;jpd; tpl;lk; (mm)

,il tpl;lk;
(i) (ii) (iii) (mm)

ml;ltiz: 2.3
rtu myfpd; jbg;G (mm)
,ilj; jbg;G
(i) (ii) (iii) (mm)

ml;ltiz 2:4
20 xspg; gpujpj; 20 xspg; gpujpj; jhs; xd;wpd;
jhs;fspd; jbg;G (mm) jhs;fspd; ,il jbg;G
,iljbg;G (mm)
(i) (ii) (iii) (mm)
jpUj;jQ; nra;j
thrpg;G

7
KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jy;fspd;gb> cq;fsJ KbGfisf; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
,k;KbGfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tOf;fs; njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fisAk;
mg;ngWkhdq;fis NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhf cq;fsJ gpNuuiz
fisAk; Kd;itAq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzprr
; papd; G+r;rpa tOit> gpujhd mstpilf; Nfhl;Lf;Fr;
rhu;g;ghfTk;> tl;l mstpilapy; G+r;rpak; mikAk; tpjj;Jf;F mikaTk;
thrpf;Fk; tpjj;ijAk; jpUj;jQ; nra;tjw;fhf mg;ngWkhdj;ij Fwpj;j
mstPl;bypUe;J fopf;f Ntz;Lkh my;yJ mjid mstPl;Lld; $l;l
Ntz;Lkh vd;gijAk; jPuk ; hdpg;gJk; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;.

cU. 2.2 cU. 2.3

fjpu;fN
; fhy; gl;lilAld; njhLifAWkhW jPjhs; jiyapdhy;; gpbj;Jj;
jpUFk;NghJ Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rpfspuz;by; G+r;rpa tO fhl;lg;gLk;
tpjk; NkNy cU. 2.2> cU 2.3 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.

cU. 2.2 ,d;gb> G+r;rpa tO (gpujhd mstpilapd; Nfhl;Lf;Fk;> tl;l

mstpilapd; G+r;rpaj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp) 0.02 mm MFk;.
cU. 2.3 ,d;gb G+rr ; pa tO 0.01 mm MFk;. cU. 2.2 ,d;gb tl;l mstpilapd;
G+r;rpak; Nfhl;Lf;Ff; fPohf mikfpwJ. tl;l mstpil> 0.02 mm ,ypUe;Nj
Roy Muk;gpff ; pd;wJ. vdNt jpUj;jQ; nra;tjw;fhf> ,g;ngWkhdj;ij cupa
thrpg;gpypUe;J fopj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. cU. 2.3 ,d;gb tl;l mstpilapd;
G+r;rpak;> gpujhd mstpilapd; G+r;rpakhdJ> mjid 0.01 mm Row;Wk;NghNj
mstpilf; Nfhl;Lld; xUq;fpirAk;. vdNt jpUj;jQ; nra;t jw;fhf
,g;ngWkhdj;ijf; Fwpj;j thrpg;Gld; $l;Ljy; Ntz;Lk;.

xspg;gpujpj; jhspd; jbg;ig msf;Fk;NghJ ngWk; thrpg;Gf;F xg;ghfg; gFjp

tOthdJ cgfuzj;jpd; kpfr;rpwpa mstPl;Lld; nghUe;Jk; tifapNyNa
jhs;Jz;Lfspd; vz;zpf;ifiaj; jPuk ; hdpj;Jf; nfhs;Sjy; Ntz;Lk;.

8
 gupNrhjid ,y:
03
 Nfhskhdpiag; gad; g Lj;j p>
1. EZf;Ff; fhl;b tOf;f pnahd;wpd; jbg;G
2. Nfhs tisNkw;g ug;n ghd;w pd; tistpdhiu
Mfpatw;i wj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Nfhskhdp> rkjs (xspapaw; rkjs) fz;zhbj;Jz;L> EZf;Ff;fhl;b
tOf;fp> fbfhuf; fz;zhb> kPw;wu; Nfhy; my;yJ Ntzpau; ,Lf;Fkhdp.

nfhs;if

Nfhskhdpapd; jpUFg; Gupapil x ck; tl;l mstpilapd; gFjpfspd;

vz;zpf;if y ck; Mapd;>
x
kpfr;rpwpa mstPL 
y
jpUF Kid tisNkw;gug;igj; njhLtjw;fhfg; ghjj;jsj;jp ypUe;J
NkNy cau;j;jpa cauk; h ck; Nfhskhdpapd; ghjq;fspuz;Lf;F
,ilapyhd ,ilntsp a ck; Nfhs Nkw;gug;gpd; tistpdhiu R
ck; Mapd;>
a2 h
R= 
6h 2

gpujhd
mstpil tl;l
mstpil

cU. 3.1 Nfhskhdp cU. 3.2

nra;Kiw
Nfhskhdpapd; kpfr;rpwpa mstPli
; lg; ngWq;fs;. Nfhskhdpapd; ghjq;fisj;
js fz;zhb Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ itj;Jj; jpUfpd; Kid fz;zhb Nkw;gug;igj;
njhLkhW nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;. (fz;zhb Nkw;gug;gpdhy; gFjpj; njwpg;gpdhy;
Njhd;Wk; jpUF Kidapd; tpk;gKk; jpUF KidAk; njhLifailAkhW
nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;. epiyf;Fj;J mstpilapdJk; tl;l mstpilapdJk;
thrpg;Gf;fs; %yk;> jpUF Kidapd; msTf;F xg;ghd thrpg;igg; ngw;Wf;
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

9
(1) jpUifr; rw;W NkNy cau;j;jp> EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpiaj; jpUFf;Ff; fPNo
mikAkhW fz;zhb Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ itj;J> jpUFKid EZf;Ff; fhl;b
tOf;fpapd; Nkw;Gw Nkw;gug;Gld; njhLifailAkhW> jpUifr; Row;wp> xg;ghd
thrpg;igg; ngWq;fs;. EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpapd; %d;W ,lq;fspy; ,t;thwhf
thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWf. jsf;fz;zhb Nkw;gug;gpy; ngw;w thrpgG
; f;Fk;> ,e;j thrpgG
; f;
Fk; ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrj;ijg; ngw;W ml;ltiz 3.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.
(2) gpd;du;> Nfhskhdpapd; ghjq;fs; Nfhs Nkw;gug;igj; njhLk; tifapYk; jpUF
Kid Nfhs Nkw;gug;Gld; njhLifailAk; tifapYk; cU 3.2 ,w; fhl;bAs;sJ
Nghd;W jpUifr; nrg;gQ; nra;J xg;ghd thrpgi
; gg; ngw;W jsf;fz;zhb Nkw;gug;gpy;
ngw;w thrpg;Gf;F ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrk; h0 vdg; gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
Nfhskhdpiaf; fhfpjnkhd;wpd; kPJ itj;J mOj;Jf. ghjq;fspd; Kidfshy;
Vw;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;s milahsq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd J}uj;ij Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdp
apd; cl;jhil Kidfshy; mse;J nfhs;f. my;yJ kPw;wu; Nfhypdhy; msg;gjw;
fhff; Nfhskhdpapd; ghjq;fspuz;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd J}uj;ijg; ngWf.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
 jpUF Kid ghjj; jsj;ijj; njhLk; Ntisapy; thrpg;G
ml;ltiz: 3.1
EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpapd; jbg;G (mm) ,ilj;jbg;G
(i) (ii) (iii) (mm)

h ,d; ngWkhdk; = ............. mm

Nfhskhdpapd; ,uz;L ghjq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd J}uk;(a) =(i) ......... mm
(ii)......... mm
(iii) ........ mm
a ,d; ,ilg;ngWkhdk; = ............ mm
Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb> fbfhuf; fz;zhbapd; tistpdhiu R If; fzpf;Ff.

KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jy;fspd;gb> cq;fsJ KbGfisf; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.
fye;Jiuahly;
,k;KbGfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tOf;fs; njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fisAk;
mg;ngWkhdq;fis NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhf cq;fsJ gpNuuizfisAk;
Kd;itAq;fs;.
Fwpg;G
Nkw; g ug; G > FtpthdjhfNth FopthdjhfNth ,Ug; g ijg; nghWj; J tis
tpdhiuia msf;Fk;NghJ h ,d; jpUj;jkhd ngWkhdj;Jf;fhf> njhlf;f
thrpg;ig (jpUF Kid ghjj; jsj;ijj; njhLk;NghJ thrpg;G) Fwpj;j thrpg;gp
ypUe;J fopf;f Ntz;Lkh my;yJ thrpg;Gld; mjidf; $l;l Ntz;Lkh vd;gijj;
jPu;khdpAq;fs;.
Nfhskhdpiaf; fljhrpnahd;wpd; kPJ itj;J mkj;Jtjhy; fljhrpapd; kPJ
Njhd;Wk; milahsq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd J}uj;ij kPw;wu; Nfhypdhy; my;yJ
Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapdhy; msg;gjd; %yk; Nfhskhdpapd; ,uz;L ghjq;fSf;F
,ilapyhd J}uj;ij msf;fyhk;.
10
 gupNrhjid ,y:
04
 efUk; EZf;F f;f hl;b iag; gad;g Lj;jp>
1. kapu;j;J isf; Fohnahd;w pd; cs;tpl;l k;
2. ,wg;gu; Fohnahd;wpd; cs;tpl;lk;
3. ,wg;gu; Fohnahd;wpd; ntsptpl;lk;
Mfpatw;i wj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;b> kapuj
; ;Jisf;Foha;> ,wg;gu;fF
; oha;> jhq;fp> ePuk
; l;lk;

nfhs;if

Ntzpau; mstpiliaf; nfhz; l cgfuznkhd; w pd; gpujhd

mstpilapd; n gFjpfs;> Ntzpau; mstpilap;d; N gFjpfSld;
xUq;fpirAkhapd;>
 n
kpfr;rpwpa mstPL   1   (gpujhd mstpilapd; xU gFjpapd; ePsk;)
 N

cU. 4.1 efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;b

cU. 4.2 cU. 4.3 cU. 4.4 cU. 4.5

nra;Kiw
jug;gl;Ls;s efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; kpfr;rpwpa mstPl;ilf; fz;lwpe;J
gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. EfUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;bia mjd; ghjq;fspy;
cs;s rkjskhf;fp jpUFfs; %yk; rkjsg;gLj;jpf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
11
 cU. 4.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW kapu;j;Jisf;Fohiaj; jq;fpnahd;wp;d; %yk;>
efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bAld; efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;bapdhy;> kapu;j;Jisf;
Fohapd; Kfg;ig Ftpar; nra;Aq;fs;.

efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;bapd; FWf;Ff; fk;gpfs; cU 4.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW

mikAk; tiuapy>; EZf;Ff;fhl;bia fpilahf efu;jj ; p> fpil mstpiliag;
gad;gLj;jp> x1, x2 thrpg;Gf;fisAk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; FWf;Ff; fk;gpfs;
cU. 4.4 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW mikAk; tifapy; EZf;Ff; fhl;bia
epiyf;Fj;jhf efu;j;jp> epiyf;Fj;J mstpiliag; gad;gLj;jp> y1, y2
thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;. cq;fsJ thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 4.1 ,y;
gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

,wg;gu;f; Fohapd; ntsptpl;lj;i j msf;Fk;NghJ FWf;Ff; fk;gpfs;

,wg;gu;Fohapd; ntspNkw;gug;Gld; njhLifailAkhW nrg;gQ; nra;J
cU. 4.5 ,y; fhl;bAs;s x3, x4 thrpg;Gf;fisAk; cU. 4.6 ,y; fhl;bAs;s
y3, y4 thrpg;Gf;fisAk; ngw;W ml;ltiz 4.3 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz: 4.1
kapu;j;Jisf; Fohapd;
x1 (cm) x2 (cm) y1 (cm) y2 (cm) cs; ,il tpl;lk; (cm)

ml;ltiz 4.2
,wg;gu; Fohapd; cs;
x1 (cm) x2 (cm) y1 (cm) y2 (cm) ,il tpl;lk; (cm)

ml;ltiz: 4.3
,wg;gu; Fohapd; ntsp
x3 (cm) x4 (cm) y3 (cm) y4 (cm) ,il tpl;lk; (cm)

( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 )
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; ,il cs;tpl;lk; =
2
( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 )
,wg;gu; Fohapd; ,il cs;tpl;lk; =
2
( x4  x3 )  ( y4  y3 )
,wg;gu; Fohapd; ,il ntsptpl;lk; =
2

12
KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jy;fspd;gb> cq;fsJ KbGfisf; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
,k;KbGfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tOf;fs; njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fisAk;
mg;ngWkhdq;fis NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhf cq;fsJ gpNuuiz
fisAk; Kd;itAq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
,wg; gu;f ;F oha; f ; f hf 5 mm tpl; lKs; s 5 cm msT eP skhd Foha;j ;
Jz;nlhd;wpidg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;f. ,wg;gu;fF ; ohiaf; fpilahf epWj;Jtjw;fhf>
mjd; tl;lj;jpYk; rw;Wf; Fiwthd tpll ; Ks;s cUistbt Nfhnyhd;wpidg;
GFj;jp> mf;Nfhiyj; jhq;fpAld; ,izf;Ff.

efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;biag; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ Kjypy; mjd; nraw;gL

J}uj;ij (FtpAk; J}uj;ij) mwpe;jpUj;jyhdJ gupNrhjidia elj;Jtjw;F
,yFthdjhf mikAk;. ngUk;ghYk; ,J EZf;Ff; fhl;bapd; clw;gFjpapy;
Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. mt;thW Fwpf;fg;gl;buhtpbd; rJuf; Nfhl;Lf; fljhrp
nahd;wpy; Ftpar; nra;J> fljhrpf;Fk;> fz;Jz;L Kidf;Fk; ,ilapyhd
J}uj;ij mse;J mjid mwpe;J nfhs;syhk;.

,wg;gu;f;Fohapd; my;yJ kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; me;jk; mz;zsthf

,j;J}uj;Jld; xNu Nfhl;by; mikAkhW itg;gjhy; ,yFthff; Ftpar;
nra;J nfhs;syhk;.

13
 gupNrhjid ,y:
05
tpirapizfu tpjpia tha;g ;G g;g hu;j ; j Yk;> mjidg; g ad;g Lj;j p>
jug;gl;l xU nghUspd; jpzpitj; JzpjYk;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
tpirapizfu cgfuzk;> njupahj; jpzpTila xU nghUs;> ngWkhdk;
njupe;j %d;W epiwfs;> %iy kl;lk; my;yJ ePsk; Fiwthd jsthbf;
fPyk;> miukPw;wu; Nfhy;> tiujy; Crpfs; 4> ntz;zpwf; fljhrp (A4)>
Kj;Jyhj;juhR
nfhs;if

3
2

cU. 5.1 cU. 5.2 cU. 5.3

tpirapizfu tpjpia tha;g;Gg;ghu;j;jy;
nghUj;jkhd Xu; mstpilg;gb G+u;jj; p nra;ag;gl;l OACB ,izfuj;jpd>;
(cU. 5.2) OC %iytpl;lj;jpd; ePsj;ij mstpilapdhy; ngUf;Ftjhy;
fpilf;Fk; ngWkhdk; W3 epiwf;Fr; rkdhfTk; OC epiyf;Fj;jhfTk;
mikAkhapd; tpirapizfu tpjpapd; tha;gG ; cWjpahfpd;wJ.

nghUspd; jpzpit (epiw W ) Jzpjy;

nghUj;jkhd Xu; mstpilg;gb G+u;jj ; p nra;ag;gl;l OA’C’B’ ,izfuj;jpd;
(cU 5.3) OC’ %iytpll
; j;jpd; ePsj;ij msTj;jpll ; j;jpidg; ngUf;Ftjhy;
fpilf;Fk; ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;L jpzptpd; ngWkhdj;ijf; fhz;f.

nra;Kiw
tiujy; Crpfisg; gad;gLj;jp ntz;zpwf; fljhrpiag; gyifapd; kPJ
,izAq;fs;. cU. 5.1 ,w; fhl;bAs;sthW epiwfisj; juhRj;jl;bd; kPJ
itAq;fs;. eLtpy; cs;s epiwiar; rw;Wf; fPo; Nehf;fp ,Oj;J tpLtpj;J>
mJ Kd;du; ,Ue;j epiyia milfpd;wjh vd mtjhdpAq;fs;. %iy
kl;lj;ij ,iofSf;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf itg;gjd; %yk; myyJ jsthbf;
fPyj;ij ,iofSf;Ff; fPohf itj;J ,ioapdhy; mjd; tpkg ; k; kiwf;fg;gLk;
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; fljhrpapd; kPJ xt;nthU ,ioiaAk; cwpit nra;aj;jf;f
J}uj;jpy; ,uz;L Gs;spfshy; FwpjJ; f; nfhs;Sq;fs;. fljhrpiag; gyifapypUe;J
mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> milahskpl;l Gs;spfSf;F Clhfr; nry;YkhW NfhLfs;
tiuAq;fs;. jl;Lf;fspd; jpzpTfis mse;J Fwpjj ; epiwfSld; $l;Lq;fs;.

14
 nghUj;jkhd Xu; mstpiliaj; njupT nra;J> W1 kw;Wk; W2 ngWkhdq;fSf;F
tpfpjrkdhFkhW OA, OB ePsq;fis milahskpLq;fs;. OACB ,izfuj;ijg;
G+u;j;jp nra;J> OC %iy tpl;lj;jpd; ePsj;ij msTq;fs;. Nkw;gb nfhs;if
apd;gb tpirapizfu tpjpapd; tha;gi ; g cWjpg;gLj;Jq;fs;.
W3 epiwia mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> mj;jl;by;> jug;gl;Ls;s nghUis (epiw W)
cl;gLj;jp> Kd;du; Nghd;Nw gupNrhjidia kPzL ; k; elj;Jq;fs;. Kd;ida
mstpiliaNa gad;gLj;jp> OA` C` B` tpirapizfuj;ijg; G+u;jj ; p nra;J>
OC %iytpll ; j;jpd; ePsj;ij msTq;fs;. Nkw;gb nfhs;ifapdg ; b> jug;gl;Ls;s
nghUspd; jpzpitj; JzpAq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
gad;gLj;jpa mstpil = 
OC %iytpl;lj;jpd; ePsk; = ......... cm
OC` %iytpl;lj;jpd; ePsk; = ......... cm

nfhs;ifapd;gb nghUspd; jpzpitf; fzpf;Ff.

KbG
KjyhtJ gupNrhjidapd; ngWNgw; w pd;g b tpir ,izfu tpjpia
cWjpg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ,uz;lhtJ gupNrhjidapd; ngWNgw;wpd;gb jug;gl;Ls;s
nghUspd; jpiztpidj; JzpAq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
nghUspd; jpzpitj; juhrpdhy; epWj;J> gupNrhjid %yk; fpilf;Fk;
ngWkhdj;jpd; rjtPj tOitf; fhz;f. ahNjDk; tpyfy; fhzg;gLfpd;w
njdpd; mjw;fhd fhuzq;fis Kd;itAq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
tpirapizfu tpjp

xU Gs; spapd; kP J njhopw;g Lk; ,uz;L tpirfisg; gUkdpdhYk;

jpirapdhYk; ,izfunkhd;wpd;> mLj;Js;s gf;fq; fspuz;Lk; re;jpf;Fk;
Gs;spfF
; Clhf tiuag;gl;l %iy tpll ; j;jpdhy;> gUkdpdhYk; jpirapdhYk;
tif Fwpf;fg;gLk;.
tpirapizfu cgfuzj;jpd; jl;Lf;fspd; epiwfis ,l;L eLtpy; cs;s
epiwiar; rw;Wf; fPoN
; ehf;fp ,Oj;J tpLtpfF
; k; NghJ mJ Kd;du; fhzg;gl;l
mikit kPz;Lk; milt jpy;iynadpd; mjw;fhd fhuzk; fg;gpfspy;
cuha;thf ,Uf;f ,lKz;L. fg;gp RoYk; ,lq;fspy; krnfz;nza; ,Ltjd;
%yk; cuha;it ,opthf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.
,iofs; ghukhd ,ioahapd;> mtw;wpd; epiwAk; ,Lk; epiwfSld;
NrUkhifahy;> gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfs; jpUj;jkhdjhf ,Uf;fkhl;lhJ.
vdNt ,iofs; ,Nyrhf ,Uf;Fk; msTf;Fg; gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfs;
nrk;ikahdjhf mikAk;.

15
 gupNrhjid ,y:
06
jpUg;g k; njhlu;g hd Nfhl;g hl;i lg; gad;g Lj;j p>
nghUnshd;wpd; epiwiaj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
kPw;wu; Nfhy;> fj;jp tpspk;G> 50 g gb> fz;zhb %b my;yJ rpWfy; (Vwj;jho
50 g)> E}y; Jz;L> kuf;Fw;wp (3” 4”)

nfhs;if

m0g - ngWkhdk; njupe;j epiw

mg - nghUspd; epiw
rkepiyapd; NghJ
jpUg;gk; njhlu;ghd Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb
m0 g  y  mg  x

m
y  x
 m0 
cU. 6.1
y cm

m
x ,w;F vjpNu y tiugpd; gbj;jpwd;   
 m0 
m = gbj;jpwd  m0

(0,0) x cm
cU. 6.2

nra;Kiw
jhq;fpapd; kPJ fj;jp tpspk;ig itj;J> fj;jp tpspk;gpd; kPJ kPw;wu; Nfhiyf;
fpilahfr; rkdpiyg;gLj;Jq;fs;. cU. 6.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> ngWkhdk;
njupe;j epiw (m0) iaAk; ngWkhdk; njupahj epiwia (m) Ak; fj;jp
tpspk;gpd; ,U Gwj;jpYk; cs;s kPww
; u;Nfhy; Gaq;fspy; njhq;ftpl;L> Nfhiyf;
fpilahfr; rkdpiyia milAk; tifapy;> x ,d; njupT nra;ag;gl;l xU
ngWkhdj;Jf;F xg;ghf y J}uj;ij khw;Wq;fs;. x kw;Wk; y ,d; ngWkhdq;fis
mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fspy; ey;y guk;gy; fpilf;FkhW x ,d; njupT nra;J nfhz;l

NkYk; Ie;J ngWkhdq;fSf;fhfg; gupNrhjidia kPz;Lk; elj;Jq;fs;.
thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 6.1 ,y; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. thrpg;Gf;fisg;
ngWk; NghJ fj;jp tpspk;gpd; kPJ kPw;wu;f;Nfhypd; Muk;g mikit khwhJ
itj;jpUq;fs;.
16
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;ltiz: 6.1

x (cm)

y(cm)

x ,w;F vjpNu y I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf; fzpj;J> nfhs;ifapd;gb> jug;gl;Ls;s nghUspd;

epiwiaf; fhz;f.

KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfisf; nfhz;L> jug;gl;Ls;s nghUspd; epiwiaf;
fhz;f.

fye;Jiuahly;
juhnrhd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp> nghUspd; epiwia mse;J gupNrhjid %yk;
fpilj;j ngWkhdj;jpd; rjtPj tOitf; fhz;f. ahNjDk; tpyfy; cs;sjhapd;
mjw;fhd fhuzq;fis Kd;itAq;fs;.

17
 gupNrhjid ,y:
07
U - Fohiag; gad;gLj;j p> jputnkhd;w pd; njhlu;glu;j ;jpiaj;
(rhulu; j ; j piaj; ) Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Foha;> miukPw;wu; Nfhy;fs; - 2> Njq;fhnaz;nza;> ePu;> gpbjhq;fp - 2

nfhs;if

< ; u; Nfhy;
miukPww

U - Foha; >

< Njq;fha;
x vz;nza;

z
ePu; >

cU. 7.1 cU. 7.2

nghJ ,ilKfg;Gf;F xg;ghd kl;lj;jpypUe;J ePu; epuypd; cauk; hw ck;

jput epuypd; cauk; h1 ck; ePupdJk; jputj;jpdJk; mlu;jj
; pfs; KiwNa>
w ck; l ck; tspkz;ly mKf;fk; p0 Ak; Mapd;>
p0  hw  w g  p0  h1 1 g

 
hw   1  h1
 w 
h1 ,w;F vjpNu hw tiugpd;>
1
gbj;jpwd; =  = jputj;jpd; njhlu;G mlu;j;jp
w

(rhulu;j;jp)

nra;Kiw
glj;jpy; fhl;bathW cgfuz mikg;ig xOq;F nra;J Kjypy; U -
Fohapd; xU Gaj;jpDs;Ns Fwpg;gpl;lsT ePiu ,l;Lg; gpd;dh; kw;iwa
Gaj;jpDs;Ns Njq;fha; vz;nzia ,Lq;fs;.

18
 jputnghJ ,ilKfj;jpy; ,Ue;J jputepuypd;(Njq;fha; vz;nza;) cauk;
hl, ePhe
; puypd; cauk; hw vd;gtw;iw msg;gjw;F %iykl;lj;ijg; gad;gLj;jpg;
nghJ ,ilKfj;jpw;Fhpa thrpg;G z, ePh;gpiwAUf;Fhpa thrpg;G x, Njq;fha;
vz;nzapd; gpiwAUTf;Fhpa thrpg;G y vd;gtw;iw msTq;fs;. Njq;fha;
vz;nziar; Nrh;gg ; jd; %yk; ntt;NtW hl ,w;F xj;j hw ,d; ngWkhdq;fs;
Fiwe;jJ MW ngWkhdq;fs; ngWq;fs;. fPo; cs;s ml;ltiziag; G+h;jj ; p
nra;Aq;fs;

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz: 7.1

x (cm)

y (cm)

z (cm)
hl = (y - z) cm
hw = (x - z) cm

KbG
hl ,w;F vjpNu hw ,d; tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; jputj;jpd; njhlh;glh;jj
; p (rhulh;jj
; p)
l
 w Ij; jUk;.

fye;Jiuahly;
,k;KbGfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tOf;fs; njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fisAk;
mg;ngWkhdq;fis NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhf cq;fsJ gpNuuizfisAk;
Kd;itAq;fs;.

19
 gupNrhjid ,y:
08
n`aupd; Ma;f Utpiag; gad;gLj;jp> jputnkhd;w pd;
njhlu;g lu; j ;j piaj; (rhulu;j ; j piaj; ) Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
n`aupd; Ma;fUtp> ePu>; nrg;Gry;Ngw;Wf; fiury; my;yJ NtW nghUj;jkhd
fiury;fs;

nfhs;if

(cm)

(0,0) (cm)
cU. 8.1 cU. 8.2
hw - ePu; kl;lj;jpypUe;J ePu; epuypd; cauk;
h1 - ePu;kl;lj;jpypUe;J jput epuypd; cauk;
 w - ePupd; mlu;j;jp
1 - jputj;jpd; mlu;j;jp
tspkz;ly mKf;fk; p0 Ak; FohapDs; cs;s tspapd; mKf;fk;
p ck; Mapd;>
p0  p  hw  w g  p  h1 1 g
hw  w = h1 1

 
hw   1  h1
 
 w 1
h1 ,w;F vjpNu hw tiugpd;> gbj;jpwd; = 
w

nra;Kiw
cU. 8.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW n`aupd; Ma;fUtpapd; Gaq;fis ePu; KfitapYk;
jput KfitapYk; ,l;L> ft;tpiaj;jpwe;J tisapapdhy; cwpQr ; p> tspia
mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> (mlu;jj
; p Fiwthd jputk; cr;r cauj;ij milAk; tiu)

20
 Foha;fspuz;bYk; ePu; kw;Wk; jput epuy;fis mikj;J> ft;tpia ,Wf;Fq;fs;.
fhl;bfspd; Kidfs; Kfitfspy; cs;s ePu; kw;Wk; jput Nkw;gug;Gf;fisj;
njhLk;tifapy; mikAq;fs;. mstpil %yk; ePu;epuypd; cauk; hw IAk;
jput epuypd; cauk; hl IAk; mse;J Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ft;tpiar;
rw;Wj; jsu;j;jp kPzL
; k; ,Wf;Ftjd; %yk; hw kw;Wk; hl ,w;fhd xg;ghd rpy
ngWkhdq;fisg; ngw;W thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 8.1 ,y;
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz: 8.1

hw(cm)

hl (cm)

hw ,w;F vjpNu hl I tiughf;Fq;fs;. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf; fzpj;J mjd;

%yk; jputj;jpd; njhlu;glu;j;jpiag; ngWq;fs;.
KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb jputj;jpd; njhlu;glu;jj
; pia KbG nra;Aq;fs;.
fye;Jiuahly;
jput epuy;fspd; cauj;ijr; rupahf msg;gjw;fhf> vspa mstPlL
; cgfuzq;
fisg; gad;gLj;jpg; gpuNahfpf;ff;$ba cj;jpfisf; Fwpg;gpLf.
Fwpg;G
fhl;bfs; nfhz;l n`aupd; Ma;fUtpiag; gad;gLj;jp> gupNrhjidia elj;Jt
jhapd>; thrpgG
; f;fisg; ngWk; KiwiaAk; nfhs;ifiaAk; gpd;tUkhW khw;wpf;
nfhs;Sjy; Ntz;Lk;. ePu; epuYk; jput epuYk; mirahJ ,Uf;FkhW mikj;Jf;
nfhz;l gpd;du;> fhl;bfspd; Kidfs; Kfitfspy; cs;s ePu; kw;Wk; jput
Nkw;gug;Gf;fisj; njhLk;tifapy; khw;wpaikAq;fs;. fhl;bfspd; Nky; me;jj;jp
ypUe;J jput epuypd; cauk; h’w > jput epuypd; cauk; h’l Mfpatw;iw mse;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;. ePupdJk; jputj;jpdJk; mlu;j;jpfs; KiwNa  w ,  l ck; tsp
kz;ly mKf;fk; p 0 ck;> FohapDs; cs;s tspapd; mKf;fk; p ck; Mapd>;
p0  p  (hw  x1 ) w g  p  (hl  x2 )l g
(hw  x1 ) w  (hl  x2 ) l
  1
hw   l  hl  (x   x  )
 w  w 2 l 1 w

l
h’1 ,w;F vjpNu h’w tiugpd; gbj;jpwd;  
w

n`aupd; Ma;fUtpapd; Gaq;fs; nky;ypaitahapd;> jputq;fspd; gug;G

,Oitapd; nry;thf;F gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspy; ghjpg;ig Vw;gLj;J
khifahy; nfhs;ifia mjw;F xg;ghfj; jpupGgLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.

21
 gupNrhjid ,y:
09
epiwNaw;w pa nfhjpFohnahd;w pidg; gad;g Lj;j p> jputnkhd; w pd;
njhlu;g lu; j ;j piaj; (rhulu;j ; j piaj; ) Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
nfhjpFoha; > caukhd rhb> gbj; n jhFjp> Ntzpau; ,Lf; f pkhdp>
kpy;ypkPww
; u;fspy; milahskpll; tiuGj;jhs; fPyk;> NghJkhd msT jputk;>
<ar;rd;dq;fs;> rpwpa cUf;Fr; rd;dq;fs; (irf;fpsf
; spy; gad;gLj;jg;gLgit)>
nkOF - rpwpjsT

nfhs;if

M - FohapdJk; mjpy; mlq;fpAs;stw;wpdJk; jpzpT

V - Fohapy; epiwapl;l gFjpapd; fdtsT
A - Fohapd; cUis tbtg;gFjpapd; FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;gsT
m - FohapDs; Nru;f;fg;gl;l Nkyjpf jpzpT
 - jputj;jpd; mlu;j;jp
l - Foha; kpjf;Fk;NghJ mkpo;e;Js;s gFjpapd; cauk;

kpjj;jy; Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb>
( M  m) g  (V  Al )  g
 1  1M 
l   m   V 
 A  A  
m ,w;F vjpNu l tiugpd>; gbj;jpwd; G Mapd>;
1
G=
A
2
Fohapd; tpl;lk; d Mapd;> A   d
4
4
 2
d G
cU. 9.1

nra;Kiw
Foha; epiyf;Fj;jhf kpjg;gjw;Fj; Njitahd Fiwe;j gl;r msT <ar;
rd;dq;fisr; Nrhjidf;FohapDs; ,Lq;fs;. <ar;rd;dq;fs; %lg;gLk;
tifapy>; cUf;fpa nkOiff; FohapDs; ,Lq;fs;. fljhrpff ; y
P j;jpd; G+r;rpak;>
epiwapll; gFjpapd; Nky;kl;lj;jpy; mikAkhW> fPyj;ijf; Fohapd; cl;Gwj;Nj
ePsg;ghlhf xl;Lq;fs; (cU: 9.1). caukhd rhbapy; Nrhbak; FNshiul;Lf;
fiury; epug;gp> Nrhjidf;Fohia jputj;Js; epiyf;Fj;jhf kpjf;fr; nra;J>
mkpOk; cauk; l ,id Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. FohapDs; m jpzpitg;
GFj;jp xg;ghd l ,d; ePsj;ijf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. (Fwpiag; ghu;ff ; )

22
 m ,d; ngWkhdj; i j mjpfupj; J xg; g hd l ,w; f hd Vwj; j ho MW
ngWkhdq;fisg; ngw;W> thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 9.1 ,y;
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> xd;Wf;nfhd;W
nrq;Fj;jhd ,uz;L jpirfspd; topNa njpT nra;j Xu; ,lj;jpy; Fohapd;
ntsptpl;lj;ij msf;Ff. mt;thwhd thrpg;Gr; Nrhb tpjk; %d;W ,lq;fspd;
ntsptpl;lj;ij msf;Ff.
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz: 9.1

m (g)

l (cm)

ml;ltiz: 9.2
Fohapd; njupT nra;j ,lj;jpd; mt;tplj;jpy; Fohapd;
ntsp tpl;lk; (cm) ,il ntsp tpl;lk; (cm)
(i)
(ii)

m ,w;F vjpNu l I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

Fohapd; ,il ntsptpll; j;ijf; fzpfF
; f. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf; fzpAq;fs;.
Nkw;gb nfhs;ifapd;gb> jputj;jpd; mlu;j;jpiaf; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb jputj;jpd; mlu;j;jpia KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd; nrk;ikia mjpfupg;gjw;fhf vLf;f Ntz;ba
Kw;ghJfhg;G cj;jpfisf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
Kjypy; FohapDs; Nru;f;Fk; jpzpit> xU rpW ngWkhdj;jpy; Muk;gpj;J>
gbg;gbahf mjpfupj;Jf; Fohia mjd; jpwe;j me;jj;Jf;F mz;ik tiuapy;
jput kl;lk; tUk; tiuapy; mkpo;j;jj;jf;f cr;r jpzpitf; fz;lwpAq;fs;.
mj;jpzptpd; ngWkhdj;ij mz;zsthd rkkhd MW gFjpfshf tFj;Jg;
ngWk; ngWkhdj;Jf;Fr; rkdhd jpzpT tPjk; Nru;j;J thrpg;Gf;fisg;
ngWq;fs;. mt;thW jpl;lkpl;Lf; nfhs;tjhy; thrpg;Gf;fSf;F ,ilNa
ey;y guk;giyg; ngwyhk;.

gbg;ngl;biag; gad;gLj;jp> gupNrhjid elj;Jtjhapd;> Nru;fF

; k; jpzpitr;
rkkhd ngWkhdKilajhfg; NgZtjw;fhf> epiwfis ntspNa vLf;f
Ntz;bNaw;glyhk;. vdNt> rkkhd jpzpT myFfisj; jahu;gg ; Lj;jp
itj;Jf; nfhs;tjhy; (rkmsTilajhf ntl;lg;gl;l <aj;jfl;Lj; Jz;Lfs;)
epiwfis ntspNa vLj;jy; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; mnrsfupaq;fisj; jtpuj ; J
; f;
nfhs;syhk;.
23
 gupNrhjid ,y:
10
vspa Crypidg; gad;gLj;jp> <u;g;G Mu;KLfiyj; Jzpjy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
vspa Cry;> kPw;wu;f;Nfhy;> epWj;jw; fbfhuk;> ,lq;fhzy;
Nfhy;> eLNt epiyf;Fj;jhfg; gpsf;fg;gl;l milg;ghd;>
,lq;fhzy;

nfhs;if

(s2)

(0,0) (cm)
cU. 10.1 cU. 10.2

vspa Crypd; ePsk; l ck; miyT Mtu;jj

; d fhyk; T ck; Mapd>;

l
T  2
g
 4 2 
T2   l
 g 

4 2
l ,w;F vjpNu T2 tiugpd;> gbj;jpwd; 
g
4 2
g
(gbj; jpwd; )

nra;Kiw
vspa Crypd; ,ioia milg;ghdpd; Clhfr; nrYj;jp> epiyj;j jhq;fp
nahd;wpy; njhq;ftpl;L> Crypd; ePsj;ij l (Crypd; ikak; tiu) mse;J
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. Crypd; ghijf;F mUNf mjd; kpff;fPo; miktpy;>
,lq;fhzy; Nfhit epiyf;Fj;jhfj; jhq;fpnahd;wpy; epWj;Jq;fs;. Crypd;
epiyf;Fj;Jld; rpwpa Nfhzj;jpy; (50 - 60) mikAkhW Criy xU Gwkhf
,Oj;J tpLtpg;gjd; %yk; fpilj;jsj;jpy; miyar; nra;J> epWj;jw;
fbfhuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp 25 miyTfSf;Fupa Neuj;ij mse;J Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;. gupNrhjidia kPz;Lk; elj;Jq;fs;. l ,id Vwj;jho 40 cm
24
 ,y; Muk;gpj;J 10 cm fspdhy; khwpathW Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l tpjj;jpy; Vwj;jho
MW thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W> mt;thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 10.1
,y; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz: 10.1
l (cm)

25 miyTfSf; Fupa I
Neuk; (s) II
T (s)
T 2 (s2 )

l ,w;F vjpNu T2 I tiughf;Fq;fs;. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf; fzpAq;fs;.

Nkw;gb nfhs;ifapd;gb> g apd; ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpj;jwpAq;fs;.

KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb g ,dJ ngWkhdj;ij KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
,yq;ifapy; g ,dJ ngWkhdk; 9.78 m s-2 vdf; fUjp> fpilj;j ngWkhdj;jpd;
rjtPj tOitf; fhz;f.

Fwpg;G
jug;gl;Ls;s epWj;jw; fbfhuj;jpd; kpfr;rpwpa mstPlb
; d;gb> ngWk; mstPl;bd;
rjtPj tO 1% MFkhW miyTfspd; vz;zpf;ifiaj; njupT nra;Aq;fs;.
l
T  2 #j;jpukhdJ miyTf;Nfhzk; rpwpajhf ,Uf;Fk;NghNj cz;ik
g
ahFk;.

rpwpa Nfhzj;jpy; mikAkhW Cry; miyAk;NghJ mt;tirTfs; xNu

epiyf;Fj;Jj; jsj;jpy; mikAkhW ftdpj;Jf; nfhs;f. ngUk;ghYk; mJ
mz;zsthff; fpil ePs;tisa ,af;fkhf mikayhk;.
Crypd; Fz;L ,lq;fhzy; Nfhiyj; jhz;br; nry;Yk; fzj;jpy; epWj;jw;
fbfhuj;jpd; ,af;fj;ij mknuz; (Count down) Kiwapy; njhlq;Fq;fs;.
cjhuzkhf 3> 2> 1> 0> 1> 2> ...> 25

,lq;fhzy; nfhYf;F Clhf xU jpirapy; Cry; mirAk; NghJ ~3|

,ypUe;J vz;zj; njhlq;fp ~0| $wg;gLk;NghJ epWj;jf; fbfhuj;ij ,af;Ff.
vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; xU nrad; Kiwahf mikfpd;wikahYk;> epWj;jw;
fbfhuj;ij ,af;Fgtu; mjd; re;jj;Jf;F ,irtilfpdw ; ikahYk;> Ms;rhu;ej
;
tOf;fs; ,opthFk;.
25
 gupNrhjid ,y:
11
Ruptpy;n yhd;wpy; njhq;f tplg;gl;L s;s nghUnshd;wpd; jpzpTf;F k;
miyT fhyj;Jf;F k; ,ilapyhd njhlu;i g tha;g;G g;ghu;j;jy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Rup tpy;> 50 g gbj;njhFjp> epWj;jy; fbfhuk;> jhq;fp> ,lq;fhzy; Nfhy;.

nfhs;if

(s2)

(0,0) (g)
cU 11.1 cU 11.2

njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s jpzpT m ck;> tpy;ypd; tpy; khwpyp k ck;> miyT

fhyk; T ck; Mapd;>

m
T  2
k
 4 2 
T2  m
 k 
m ,w;F vjpNu T 2 tiugpdhy; T 2   m vd;gJ tha;gG
; g; ghu;ff
; g;gLfpdw
; J.

nra;Kiw
cU 11.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Rup tpy;iy mirahj; jhq;fpnahd;wpy;
epiyf;Fj;jhfj; njhq;ftpl;L> mjd; fPo; me;jj;jpy; epiwNaw;wj;jf;f
gbj;njhifapd; njhlf;fr; Rikia (cUtpy; fWg;G epwj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s
gFjp) njhq;f tpLq;fs;. tpyy
; pd; me;jj;jpy; fpilr; Rl;bnahd;iw ,izAq;fs;.
,lq;fhzy; Nfhit cU. 11.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW tpy;ypd; ,il miktpy;
mjd; miyTg; ghijf;F mz;ikapd; Rl;bf;F Neuhf mikAkhW jhq;fpAld;
,izAq;fs;.

26
 jpzpit Xa;T miktpypUe;J rw;Wf;fo P hf ,Oj;Jf; iftplL
; > epiyf;Fj;Jj;
jsj;jpy; miyar; nra;J> 50 miyTfSf;Fr; nrytpLk; Neuj;ij> epWj;jw;
fbfhunkhd;wpd; %yk; mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. mg;ngWkhdj;ij kPzL ; nkhU
jlit ngWq;fs;. Nru;fF ; k; jpzpT m I mjpfupj;jthW m ,d; MW ngWkhdq;
fSf;fhf> Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW gupNrhjidia kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; elhj;jp>
thrpgG
; f;fisf; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s ml;ltiz 11.1 Nghd;wnjhU ml;ltizapy;
gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 11.1

m (g)
50 miyTfSf;fhd I
Neuk; II
T (S)
T2 (s2)

m ,w;F vjpNu T2 I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

KbG
m ,w;F vjpNu T2 tiugpd; tbtj;Jf;Nfw;g jpzpTf;Fk; miyT fhyj;Jf;Fk;
,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;gG ; g;ghUq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
jug;gl;Ls;s epWj;jf; fbfhuj;jpd; kpfr;rpwpa myF> mstPL> Rup tpy;ypd;
tpiwg;G Mfpatw;Wf;Nfw;g> ngWk; mstPl;by; rjtPj tO 1% MFkhW
miyTfspd; vz;zpf;ifiaj; njupT nra;Jnfhs;Sq;fs;.

m
T  2 ,lg;ngau;r;rpahdJ rpwpjhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ ,r;rkd;ghL nghUj;j
k
khdJ.

27
 gupNrhjid ,y:
12
Rukhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp ,irf;f Utpnahd;wpd; kPbwidj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Rukhdp> kPbwd; njupahj ,irf;fUtp> 1/2 kg gbj;njhFjp> ,Nyrhd fljhrp
Vwp> gad;gLj;jpa Rukhdpf; fk;gpj;Jz;L> kPw;wu;Nfhy;> Kj;Jyhj; juhR

nfhs;if

(cm2)

(0,0) (kg)
cU. 12.1 cU. 12.2
fk;gpapd; gupT kPbwd; f ck;> gupT ePsk; l ck; ,Otpir T ck;> myF
ePsj;jpd; jpzpT m ck; Mapd;>
1 T
f 
2l m
fk;gpapy; njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s jpzpT M Mapd;> T  Mg

1 Mg
f 
2l m
 g 
l2 =  2  M
 4f m 
g
M ,w;F vjpNu l2 tiugpd;> gbj;jpwd; 
4 f 2m
1
 g 2
 f  
 4m (gbj; jpwd; ) 

nra;Kiw
Rukhdpapd; fg;gpf;F Nkyhfr; nry;Yk; fk;gpapy; 0.5 kg Muk;g epiwiaj;
njhq;ftpLq;fs;. ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp rpwpajhFkhW mikj;J
ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapy; fk;gp kPJ mjd; eLg;gFjpapy; mikAkhW ,Nyrhd
fljhrp Vwpnahd;wpid Vw;Wq;fs;. ,irf;fUtpia mjpur; nra;J Rukhdpg; ngl;b
kPJ itAq;fs;. fljhrp Ntfkhf mg;ghy; vwpag;gLk; tifapy; ghyq;fSf;F
,ilapyhd ,ilntspiag; gbg;gbahf mjpfupAq;fs;. mjd; %yk; mbg;gilahd
gupTr; re;ju;gg
; j;ijg; ngw;W> njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s jpzptpd; ngWkhdk; M IAk;
ghyq;fSf;F ,ilNa fk;gpapd; ePsk; l IAk; mse;J nra;J FwpjJ ; f;nfhs;Sq;fs;.

28
 M ,dJ ngWkhdj;ij 0.5 kg apdhy; mjpfupj;jthW Nkw; Fwpg;gpl;lJ
Nghy; xg;ghd MW l ngWkhdq;fisg; ngw;W thrpgG ; f;fis fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s
ml;ltiz 12.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;. m ,dJ ngWkhdj;ijf; fhz;gjw;fhf>
jug;gl;Ls;s Rukhdpf; fk;gpj;Jz;bd;> ePsj;ij kPw;wu; Nfhypdhy; mse;J
mjd; jpzpit Kj;Jyhj;juhrpd; %yk; mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz: 12.1

M (kg)

l (cm)
l 2 (cm)

fk;gpj;Jz;bd; ePsk; = .................. cm

fk;gpj;Jz;bd; jpzpT = .................. kg

M ,w;F vjpNu l2 I tiughf;Fq;fs;. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf; fzpAq;fs;.

m ,dJ ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpAq;fs;. nfhs;ifapdg ; b> f ,dJ ngWkhdj;ijf;
fzpAq;fs;.
KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb> ,irf;fUtpapd; kPbwid KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
mjpur; nra;j ,irf;fUtpiaf; fk;gpapd; kPJ ghyj;Jf;F NkNy cs;s
,lj;jpy; itg;gjd; %yk; rf;jp CLflj;jy; ed;F epfOfpd;wikahy;
gupTr;re;ju;gg
; j;ij kpf vspjhfg; ngwyhk;.
mjpUk; ,irf;fitAld; Rukhdpf; fk;gp gupTWk; re;ju;gg
; j;ijg; ngWtjw;fhfg;
gpd;tUk; KiwfisAk; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
(1) nrtpkLj;J ,irthf;fy;
,irf;fyitiaak; Rukhdpff ; k;gpapd; ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd gFjpiaAk;
,ilapilNa mjpur; nra;Aq;fs;. ,uz;Lk; xNu Ruj;jpy; Nfl;Fk; tifapy;
(xj;jpirAk; tiuapy;) ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd ,ilntspiar; rpwpanjhU
ngWkhdj;jpypUe;J gbg;gbahf mjpfupAq;fs;.
(2) mbg;Gfs; %yk; ,irthf;fy;
,irf;fitiaAk; Rukhdpf;fk;gpapd; ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd gFjpiaAk;
Vffhyj;jpy; ,irAq;fs;. mbg;Gfs; Nfl;Fk; tiuapy; ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd
,ilntspiar; rpwpa ngWkhdj;jpy; ,Ue;J gbg;gbahf mjpfupAq;fs;.
gpd; d u; mbg; G f; f s; Nfl; f hj epiytiu ghyq; f Sf; F ,ilapyhd
,ilntspiar; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.

29
 gupNrhjid ,y:
13
Rukhdpiag; gad;gLj;j p> <u;j;j fk;gpnahd;wpd; kPb wDf;F k;
mjpu;T ePs j;J f;F k; ,ilapyhd njhlu;i g tha;g;Gg;ghu;j;jy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Rukhdp> ,irf;fitj;njhFjp> 2 kg gb> ,Nyrhd fljhrp Xb

nfhs;if

(cm)

2 kg (0,0) (Hz-1)
cU 13.1 cU 13.2

fk;gpapd; gupT kPbwd; f ck;> gupT ePsk;  ck; ,Otpir T ck; myF
ePsj;jpzpT m ck; Mapd;>

 1 T 
f 
 2 m 
 
1 T  1

 2 m  f
 

1
f ,w;F vjpNu  tiughdJ cw;gj;jpf$
; lhf nry;Yk; Neu;Nfhlhifahy;>

1
 vd;gJ tha;gG
; g; ghu;ff
; g;gLfpd;wJ.
f

nra;Kiw
Rukhdpff; k;gpf;F Nkyhfr; nry;Yk; fk;gpapy; 2 kg njhlf;fr; Rikiaj; njhq;f
tpLq;fs;. ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp rpwpajhFkhW mikj;J
ghyq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd fk;gpapd; kPJ kj;jpapy; mikAkhW ,Nyrhd
fljhrp Xbia Vw;Wq;fs;. cau; kPbwidf; nfhz;l ,irf;fitapdhNyNa Fiwthd
gupT ePsk; fpilf;fpd;wikahy; ,irf;fitia mjpur; nra;J> Rukhdpg;
ngl;bapd; kPJ itAq;fs;. fljhrp Xb Ntfkhf mg;ghy; vwpag;gLk; tiuapy;
ghyq;fSf;F ,ilNa ,ilntspiag; gbg;gbahf mjpfupAq;fs;. ,irf;
fitapd; kPbwd; f IAk;> ghyq;fSf;F ,ilNa fk;gpapd; ePsk;  IAk; mse;J
gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. kPbwd; ,wq;F tupirapy; nry;YkhW ,irf;fitfisj;
; thW f ,w;Fk;  ,w;Fk; xg;ghd MW ngWkhdq;fisg;
njupT nra;J Nkw;Fwpgg; pll

30
 ngw;W thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; 13.1 ml;ltiz Nghd;w Xu; ml;ltizapy;
gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;ltiz 13.1

f (Hz)

(cm)

1
f

Hz-1 

1
f ,w;F vjpNu  I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

KbG
cq;fSf;Ff; fpilj;j tiugpd; tbtj;Jf;Nfw;g fk;gpapd; kPbwDf;Fk; mjpu;T
ePsj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;ig tha;gG; g;ghUq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
gupTr; re;ju;gg; j;ijr; rupahfg; ngWtjw;fhfg; gupNrhjid ,y. 12 ,y;
Fwpg;gpy; jug;gl;Ls;s Kiwiag; gpd;gw;Wq;fs;.

31
 gupNrhjid ,y:
14
%ba Fohnahd;i wAk; Xu; ,irf;f itiaAk; gad;gLj;jp> tspapy;
xypapd; Ntfj;i jAk; Fohapd; Kidj;jpUj;jj;i jAk; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Vwj;jho 2.5 cm tpl;lKk; Vwj;jho 50 cm ePsKila Fohnahd;Wk; kPbwd;
mwpag;gl;l ,irf;fitnahd;W> kPw;wu; Nfhy;> caukhd rhb> ePu;> jhq;fp

nfhs;if

cU 14.1 cU 14.2 cU 14.3

%ba Foha; mbg;gilr;Ruj;jpy; gupAk;NghJ miyapd; miy ePsk; 

ck; Fohapd; ePsk; 1 ck; Fohapd; Kidj;jpUj;jk; e ck; Mapd;>

 1  e
4
tspapy; xypapd; Ntfk; v ck;> mbg;gilr; Ruj;jpd; kPbwd; f ck; Mapd>;
v f
v  4 f  1  e  .....(1)
3
,uz;lhk; gupTr; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; Fohapd; ePsk;  2 Mapd;>   2  e
4
4
v f   2  e  .....(2)
3

(1)> (2) Mfpatw;wpd; %yk;> v  2 f   2  1 

 2  31
e
2

32
nra;Kiw
cU 14.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Fohia> rhbapy; cs;s ePupy; mkpo;j;jp
jhq;fpAld; ,izAq;fs;. ,irf;fitia mjpur; nra;J Foha;f;F NkNy
gpbj;J> Fohapy; tspepuiy rpwpa ePsj;jpy; Muk;gpj;Jg; gbg;gbahf mjpfupj;J
KjyhtJ jlitahf> cau; xyp vOk;Gk; gupTr; re;ju;g;gj;ijg; ngw;Wf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;. kPw;wu; Nfhiyg; gad;gLj;jp> ePu; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Fohapd;
jpwe;j Kid tiuapyhd ePsk; 1 I mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

,irf;fitia kPz;Lk; mjpur; nra;J> Foha;f;F Nkyhfg; gpbj;J> Fohia

ePupypUe;J NkYk; cau;j;jpathW Kd;du; Nghd;W ,uz;lhtJ jlit
gupTWk; re;ju;g;gj;ijg; ngWq;fs;. xg;ghd tsp epuypd; ePsk;  2 I mse;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;. thrpg;Gf;fis ml;ltiz 14.1 Nghd;wNjhu; ml;ltizapy;
gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 14.1
,irf;fitapd;
l1(cm) l2(cm)
kPbwd; f (Hz)

Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb tspapy; xypapd; Ntfk; v IAk; Fohapd; Kidj;jpUj;jk; e IAk;

fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
cq;fsJ fzpj;jypd;gb> tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk; Fohapd; Kidj;
jpUj;jj;ijAk; Jzpf.

Fwpg;G
juTg; Gj;jfnkhd;wpd; %yk; ngw;w jfty;fspd;gb> Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyapy;
tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijj; Jzpe;J mg;ngWkhdj;jpdJk;> gupNrhjid
%yk; fpilj;j ngWkhdj;jpdJk; tpyfy; gw;wpa fhuzq;fisf; fye;Jiu
ahLq;fs;.

33
 gupNrhjid ,y:
15
%ba Fohnahd;iwAk; ,irf;fitj; njhFjpnahd;iwAk; gad;gLj;jp>
tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk;> Fohapd; Kidj; jpUj;jj;ijAk; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
2 cm tpll
; Kk; Vwj;jho 50 cm ePsKKila Foha;> kPbwd; njupej
; ,irf;fitj;
njhFjp> miukPw;wu;fN ; fhy;> caukhd rhb> ePu; jhq;fp

nfhs;if

(cm)

(0,0)
(Hz-1)

cU. 15.1 cU. 15.2 cU. 15.3

%ba Fohnahd;W mbg;gilahd Ruj;jpy; gupTWk;NghJ miyapd;
miy ePsk;  ck; Fohapd; ePsk; l ck; Fohapd; Kidj;jpUj;jk; e ck;

Mapd>; l +e=
4
tspapy; xypapd; Ntfk;> v ck; mbg;gilr; Ruj;jpd; kPbwd; f ck;
Mapd>;
v

f
v 1
   .  e
4 f

1 v
f ,w; F vjpNu  tiugpd; gbj; jpwd; 
4
v = gbj;jpwd  4
e = ntl;Lj;Jz;L

34
nra;Kiw
cU. 15.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> Fohia mjd; ePsk; Fiwthf ,Uf;FkhW
rhbapDs; cs;s ePupy; mkpoj ; j
; pj; jhq;fpAld; ,izAq;fs;. ,irf;fitia
mjpur; nra;J> Foha;f;F NkNy gpbj;J tspepuypd; ePsj;ijg; gbg;gbahf
mjpfupj;J Kjy; jlitahff; FohapypUe;J cau xyp ntspg;gLk; gupTr;
re;ju;gg
; j;ijg; ngWq;fs;. ePuN
; kw;gug;gpypUe;J Fohapd; Nky; me;jk; tiuapyhd
ePsk;  I mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. ,irf; fitapd; kPbwd; f IAk; Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;. kPbwd; ,wq;Ftupirapy; ,irf;fitfisj; njupT nra;J>
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW mbg;gilr; Ruj;jpy; gupTWk; re;ju;gg ; j;Jf;F xg;ghd Fohapd;
ePsk;  IAk; kPbwd; f IAk; NkYk; Ie;J jlitfs; ngw;W thrpg;Gf;fisg;
gpd;tUkhW ml;ltiz 15.1 ,y; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;lml;
tiz 15.115.1
l tiz
f (Hz)

(cm)

1
f
Hz-1 

1
f ,w;F vjpNu  I tiughf;Fq;fs;. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf; fzpAq;fs;.
tiugpd; ntl;Lj;Jz;ilg; ngWq;fs;.
nfhs;ifapdg; b> tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk; Fohapd; Kidj;jpUj;jj;ijAk;
fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
cq;fsJ fzpj;jypd;gb tspapy; xypapd; Ntfj;ijAk; Fohapd; Kidj;
jpUj;jj;ijAk; KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjid ,y. 14 ,w;Nghd;W fye;Jiuahliy elj;Jq;fs;.

35
 gupNrhjid ,y:
16
efUk; EZf;F f;f hl;b nahd;i wAk; fz;z hbf; Fw;w pnahd;i wAk;
gad;gLj;jp> fz;zhbapd; KwpTf;F zfj;i jf; fhzy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
efUk; EZf; F f; f hl; b > nrt; t f tbtKila fz; z hbf; Fw; w p>
ntz;zpwf;fljhrp

nfhs;if

fz;zhbf;Fg;gpapd; x, y, z J}uq;fisg; glj;jpy; Fwpg;gpLf.

cU. 16.1 cU. 16.2 cU. 16.3

fz;zhbf; Fw;wpapd; Nkw;Gw Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J fljhrpapy; cs;s ‘X’

milahsk; tiuapyhd J}uk; cz;ik MokhFk;. fz;zhbf;Fw;wpapd;
Clhfr; nrq;Fj;jhf milahsj;ijg; ghu;fF ; k;NghJ njupAk; tpkg
; j;Jf;F
cs;s J}uk; Njhw;w MokhFk;.

tspf;Fr; rhu;ghf fz;zhbapd; Kwpntz; a ng Mapd;>

cz; ik Mok;
a ng =
Njhw; w Mok;
efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;bia milahsj;jpd; kPJ Ftpar; nra;j NghJ
epiyf;Fj;J mstpilapd; thrpg;G x ck; milahsj;jpd; tpk;gj;jpd;
kPJ Ftpar; nra;j NghJ thrpg;G y ck; fz;zhbf; Fw;wpapd; Nky;
Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ ftpar; nra;j NghJ thrpg;G z ck; Mapd;>
cz;ik Mok; = z  x Njhw;w Mok; = z  y
zx
a ng 
zy

36
nra;Kiw
efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; mbapd; kPJ itf;fg;gl;l nts;isf; fljhrp kPJ
ikapdhy; Gs;sb milahsnkhd;W (X) ,Lq;fs;. cU. 16.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;s
thW efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bia epiyf;Fj;jhf cauj;jpy; mikj;J> mjid
ik milahsj;jpd; kPJ Ftpar; nra;Aq;fs;. EZf;Ffhl;bapd; epiyf;Fj;J
mstpilapd; thrpg;igg; (x) ngWq;fs;. ,dp> jug;gl;Ls;s fz;zhbf;
Fw;wpia ik milahsj;jpd; kPJ itAq;fs;. cU. 16.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW
EZf; F f; f hl; b ia msTj; j pl; l j; j pd; topNa cau; j ; j p mjid ik
milahsj;jpd; tpk;gj;jpd; kPJ Ftpar; nra;Aq;fs;. epiyf;Fj;J mstpilapd;
thrpg;ig (y) kPsg; ngWq;fs;. gpdd; u; ik milahsj;Jf;F NkNy fz;zhbf;
Fw;wpapd; Nky; Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ itj;Jj; jug;gl;Ls;s Ez;nghb (Talcum
powder) rpwpjsit ikahfg; gug;Gq;fs;. cU 16.3 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW
EZf;Ff;fhl;bia kPz;Lk; mstpilapd; topNa NkNy cau;j;jp> Ez;nghb
kPJ Ftpar; nra;Aq;fs;. epiyf;Fj;J mstpilapd; thrpg;ig (z) kPz;Lk;
ngWq;fs;. thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz 16.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;ltiz 16.1

x (cm) y (cm) z (cm) ( z  x)(cm) ( z - y )(cm)

nfhs;ifapd;gb> fz;zhbapd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijf; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
cq;fsJ fzpj;jypd;gb fz;zhbapd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ij KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjidapd; nrk;ikia mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;fhff; ifahsj;jf;f
cj;jpfs; gw;wpf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
cz;ik Mok; mjpfupf;Fk; tifapy; fz;zhbf;Fw;wpapd; mfykhd gf;fk;
epiyf;Fj;jhf ,Uf;FkhW mikg;gjhy; a ng ,jw;fhf NkYk; jpUj;jkhd
ngWkhdj;ijg; ngwyhk;.

fz;zhbf;Fw;wpapd; Nkw;Gw Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ ,Lk; nkd;nghb my;yJ

Rz;zf;fl;b milahsk; kpf nky;ypajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,y;iyNay;
mjd; jbg;Gf; fhuzkhf thrpg;gpy; tO Vw;gl ,lKz;L.

jputnkhd;wpd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijj; Jzptjw;fhfTk; ePq;fs; gupNrhjidia

jpupGgLj;jpf; nfhs;syhk;.
37
 gupNrhjid ,y:
17
mupankhd;wpd; Clhf epfOk;> fjpnuhd;wpd; tpyfiyr; Nrhjpj;J
mjd; %yk; mupaj;jpd; ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;ijj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
rkgf;ff; fz;zhb mupak;> tiujw; gyif> tiujy; Crpfs;> ntz;zpwf;
fljhrp> Fz;^rpfs; ehd;F> msTNfhy;

nfhs;if

cU. 17.1 cU. 17.2

gLNfhzj;ij (i) rpwpa ngWkhdj;jpypUe;J gbg;gbahf mjpfupf;Fk;
NghJ tpyfw; Nfhzk; Fiwtile;J ,opT Clhf kPzL ; k; mjpfupf;Fk;.
; j;Jf;F xg;ghd tpyfw; Nfhzk; ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzk;  Dm 
,opTr; re;ju;gg
MFk;.

nra;Kiw
tiujw; gyif kPJ tiujy; Crpfisf; nfhz;L nts;isf; fljhrpia
,izAq;fs;. fljhrpapy; Vwj;jho eLg;gFjpapy; AB Neu;Nfhl;il tiuAq;fs;.
,e;Neu;Nfhl;bd; kPJ nghUj;jkhd ,ilntspfspy; mike;j VO Gs;spfis
milahskpl;L> mt;ntht;nthd;wpYk; AB Ald; nrt;tdhFkhW NfhLfs;
tiuAq;fs;. mr;nrt;td;fSld; KiwNa 30 0, 40 0, 45 0, 50 0, 55 0, 60 0, 70 0
tPjkhFkhW NfhLfs; tiuAq;fs;. jug;gl;Ls;s mupaj;jpd; xU tpspk;G
(PQ) 30 0 gLNfhzj;jpy; tiuag;gl;l Nfhzk; AB re;jpf;Fk; Gs;sp eLtpy;
mikAkhW cU. 17.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW AB Nfhl;il tiuAq;fs;.

gpd;du;> gLNfhl;bd; kPJ ,uz;L Fz;^rpfis (P1, P2) xd;wpypUe;njhd;W

,ad;w msT J}uj;Nj epiyf;Fj;jhf epWj;Jq;fs;. mupaj;jpd; kw;iwa
Kfg;gpd; (QR) Clhf mf;Fz;^rpfspuz;bdJk; tpk;gq;fis mtjhdpj;J
mt;tpkg; q;fSld;(P1’, P2’) Neu; Nfhhl;by; mikAkhW NkYk; ,uz;L Fz;^rpfis

38
 (P3, P4) xd;wpypUe;njhd;W J}uj;Nj mikAkhW epiyf;Fj;jhf epWj;Jq;fs;.
mupaj;jpd; tpspk;G fisf; fljhrpapy; milahskpl;L mupaj;ijf; fljhrp
apypUe;J mg;Gwg;gLj;Jq;fs;. P3, P4 Fz;^rpfspd; mbfis ,izf;Fk;
Nfhl;bd; %yk; ntspg;gLk; fjpiug; ngWq;fs;. gL fjpiu Kd;dhYk;
ntspg;gLfjpiu gpd;dhYk; ePl;b mtw;Wf;F ,ilapyhd tpyfw; Nfhzj;ij
(d) mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

Vida gLNfhzq;fSf;fhf Nkw;Fwpgg

; pll
; thW gupNrhjidia kPzL
; k; elj;jp>
cupa tpyfw; Nfhzq;fis mse;J thrpg;Gf; fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiz
17.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;ltiz 17.1

gLNfhzk; (i) 300 400 450 500 550 600 650

tpyfw; Nfhzk; (d)

i ,w;F vjpNu d I tiughf;Fq;fs;. tiugpd;gb> ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;jpd;

ngWkhdj;ijg; (D) ngWq;fs;.

KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb> ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;ij KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
,opT tpyfYf;F xg;ghfg; gLNfhzk; (im) ,U Gwj;jpYk; cs;s rpwpa
tPr;rpy; (im  5o ) rpy gLNfhzq;fSf;fhf tpyfw; Nfhzq;fisf; fz;lwpe;J
tiugpy; ,Ltjhy; NkYk; xg;gkhd xU tisapia tiutJ ,yFthf
mikAk;. jpUj;jkhd ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;ijg; ngwyhk;.

Fz;^rpfisj; J}uj;Nj epWj;Jtjhy; ntspg;gL fjpupd; jpiria NkYk;

jpUj;jkhfg; ngwyhk;.

tpyfw; Nfhzk; d ,d; ngWkhdj;ij NkYk; jpUj;jkhff; fz;lwptjw;fhf

ifahs Ntz;ba cj;jpfisf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

39
 gupNrhjid ,y:
18
mtjpf;N fhz Kiwapy;> mupankhd;W Mf;f g;gl;L s;s jputpaj; j pd;
KwpTf;F zfj;i jj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
rkgf;f fz;zhb mupak;> tiujw;gyif> tiujy; Crpfs; rpy> nts;is
epw fljhrp> Fz;^rpfs; rpy> msT Nfhy;> ghifkhdp

nfhs;if

I
,uz; L Clfq;f is Ntwhf; F k; ,il
Kfj; j pw; f hd mtjpf; N fhzk; c Mapd; >
mhpaj;jputpaj;jpd;; KwpTf; Fzfk;

1
n 
a g sin c
Q

cU 18.1

nra;Kiw
tiujw; gyif kPJ tiujy; Crpfs; %yk; nts;isf; fljhrpia
,izAq;fs;. fljhrpapd; kPJ mupaj;ij itj;J mjd; tpspk;Gfisg;
ngd;rpyhy; milahskpLq;fs;. mupaj;jpd; xU Kfj;Jld; (AB) njhLifAW
khW Fz;^rpnahd;iw (O) epiyf;Fj;jhf epWj;Jq;fs;. mupaj;jpd; BC
Kfj;jpd; Clhf AC Kfj;ij Nehf;fpathW O Fz;^rpapd; tpkg ; j;ij mtjhdp
Aq;fs;. mupaj;jpd; BC Kfj;jpd; C me;jj;jpypUe;J O me;jj;jpdg ; hy; fz;izf;
nfhz;;L nry;Yq;fs;. mt;tpk;gk; ghu;itapypUe;J kiwAk; vy;iyapy;
mjDld; xNuNfhl;by; mikAkhW> ,uz;L Fz;^rpfis (P,Q) xd;wpypUe;J
kw;nwhd;W ,ad;w msT J}uj;jpy; mikAkhW epiyf;Fj;jhf epWj;Jq;fs;.

,dp mupaj;ijAk; Fz;^rpfisAk; mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> fljhrpapd; kPJ gpd;tUk;

gbKiwfspd;gb mikg;igr; nra;Aq;fs;.
 O ,ypUe;J AC ,w;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhf xU NfhL tiue;J OX = XI MFkhW
mf;Nfhl;bd; kPJ I tpk;gj;jpd; mikg;ig milahskpLq;fs;.
 P, Q Fz;^rpfspd; ghjq;fis ,izf;Fk; Nfhl;il ePl;b> mJ BC I
ClWf;Fk; R Gs;spiag; ngWq;fs;.
 R IAk; I IAk; ,izj;J mJ AC I ClWf;Fk; S Gs;spiag; ngWq;fs;.
 OS I ,izAq;fs;
 OSRˆ Nfhzj;ij mse;jwpAq;fs;.

40
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ˆ = 2c Mifahy;> c apd; ngWkhdj;ijj; Jzpe;J Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb>
OSR
n If; fzpAq;fs;.
a g

KbG
fzpjj; y; %yk; cq;fSf;Ff; fpilj;j ngWkhdj;jpdg
; b> mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s
jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf; Fzfj;ijj; JzpAq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
mtjpf;Nfhzk; c Ir; rupahfj; Jzptjw;fhf vLf;f Ntz;ba eltbf;iffs;
gw;wpf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
mupaj;jpd; AC Kfj;Jld; njhLifailAkhW ePupy; eide;j EZf;Ff;fhl;b
tOf;fpnahd;iw itj;J> Kd;du; Nghd;Nw gupNrhjidia elj;jp mtjpf;
Nfhzj;ijj; Jzpayhk;. ,q;F fpilf;Fk; mtjpf; Nfhzg; ngWkhdk;> ePu;-
fz;zhb ,ilKfg;Gf;fhd mtjpf; NfhzkhFk;.

mupaj;jpd; AB Nkw;gug;Gld; njhLifailAkhW O Fz;^rpia epWj;Jjy;

Ntz;Lk;. ,y;iyNay; AB Kfg;gpy; KwpT epfOtjhy;> gupNrhjidapy; tO
Vw;gLk;. O Fz;^rpapd; jiy mupaj;jpd; Nky; Nkw;gug;igtpl jho;thf
mikAkhapd; O Fz;^rpapd; jiyia ePf;fptpLtjhy;> Fz;^rpia AB
Nkw;gug;Gld; njhLifAWkhW epWj;jyhk;.

41
 gupNrhjid ,y:
19
jpUrpakhdpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;jYk; mjidg; gad;gLj;jp
mupankhd;wpd; KwpTf;Nfhzj;ijj; JzpjYk;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
jpUrpakhdp> rkgf;f mupak;> xsp Kjy; (kpd;Fkpo; my;yJ tpsf;Fr; Rthiy)

nfhs;if

A
C
R
B
(1) (2) (3)

cU 19.1 cU 19.2

cU 19.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> mupa Kfg;Gf;fspy; njwpf;Fk; xspf;

fjpu;fSf;F ,ilapyhd Nfhzk;  Mapd;> T1, T2 mikg;GfSf;F xg;ghd
thrpg;Gf;fspd; tpj;jpahrKk;  ,w;F rkkhFk;.

mupaj;jpd; KwpTf;Nfhzk; (mupaf; Nfhzk;) A 
2

jpUrpakhdp
cU 19.3

42
nra;Kiw
njhiyf;fhl;biar; nrg;gQ; nra;jy;
1. Kjypy; FWf;Ff; fk;gpfs; njspthfj; njd;gLk; tifapy; ghh;itj;Jz;ilr;
(FWf;Ff; fk;gpf;Fk; ghh;itj;Jz;L tpy;iyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,ilntsp)
nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.
2. gpd;du;> J}uj;Nj cs;s xU nghUspd; $u;ikahd tpk;g nkhd;wpidf;
FWf;Ff; fk;gpfs; kPJ FtpAk; tiu (FWf;Ff; fk;gpfSld; xUq;fpirAk;
tiu) njhiyf;fhl;biar; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.

Neu;tupirahf;fpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;jy;

1. Neu;tupirahf;fpapd; ePs; Jthuj;ij xLf;fkhfTk; epiyf;Fj;jhfTk;
mikj;J xsp Kjypdhy; xspA+l;Lq;fs;.
2. njhiyfhl;bAk; Neu;tupirahf;fpAk; xNu Nfhl;by; ,Uf;FkhW mikj;J>
Neu;tupirahf;fp %yk; fpilf;Fk; xspia njhiyf;fhl;bapd; Clhf
mtjhdpj;J ePs; Jthuj;jpd; $u;ikahd tpk;gk; FWf;Ff; fk;gpfs; kPJ
FtpAk; tiuapy; Neu;tupirahf;fpiar; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.

mupa Nkiria kl;lg;gLj;jy;

cU 19.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW mupaj;jpd; cr;rp mupa Nkirapd; ikaj;Jf;F
mz;ikapy; mikAkhWk; mjd; xU Kfg;G (AB Kfg;G) vitNaDk;
rkepiyj;jpUFfspuz;Lf;F (Q, R jpUFfs;) nrq;Fj;jhf mikAkhWk;
mupaj;ij mupa Nkir kPJ itAq;fs;. Neu;tupirahf;fpapypUe;J tUk;
xsp> mupaj;jpd; cr;rpapd; ,Ugf;f Kfg;Gf;fspd;kPJ tpOk; tifapy; mupa
Nkiriar; Row;Wq;fs;.

mupaj;jpd; AB Kfg;gpy; njwpjj; xspia mtjhdpff ; j;jf;fthW njhiyfhl;bia

T mikTf;Fr; Row;Wq;fs;. ePs; Jthuj;jpd; tpk;gj;ij cU 19.2 Mk; cUtpd;
(1)> (2) fhl;rpj; jlq;fspd;gb fhl;rpaspfF
; khapd; mJ (3) Mk; fhl;rpg;glj;jpy;
fhl;lg;gLk; tifapy; rkr;rPuhf mikAk; tifapy; Q my;yJ R rkepiyj;
jpUFfisr; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;. mupaj;jpd; AC Kfg;gpy; njwpf;Fk; xspia
mtjhdpf;ff;$bathW njhiyf;fhl;bia T2 mikTf;Fr; Row;Wq;fs;. ePs;
Jthuj;jpd; tpk;gj;ij cU 19.2 ,d; (1)> (2) fhl;rpj; jlq;fspw;Nghd;W
fhl;rpaspf;fpd;wjhapd;> mJ (3) Mk; fhl;rpj; jlj;jpw;Nghd;W rkr;rPuhf
mikAk; tiu rkepiy jpUifiar; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.

njhiyf;fhl;bapd; ,uz;L mikTfspYk; ePs; Jthuj;jpd; tpk;gj;jpd; mikT

fhl;rpj;jplj;jpy; rkdpiyahFk; tiuapy; rpy jlitfs; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.
,r;nrg;gQ; nra;iffspd; NghJ ,uz;L rkepiyj; jpUfis khj;jpuNk
gad;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.

mupaf; Nfhzj;ijj; Jzpjy;

mupa Nkiliar; nrg;gQ; nra;j gpd;du; njhiyf;fhl;rpapd; T1 miktpy;

msTj;jpll; j;jpy; fhl;rpaspfF
; k; thrpgi
; gg; gjpT nra;Jnfhs;Sq;fs;. njhiyf;
fhl;bia T2 mikTf;Fr; Row;wp Ntzpau; msTj;jpll ; j;jpy; fhl;lg;gLk;
thrpg;igAk; gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
43
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 19.1
T1 miktpy; T2 miktpy; 
thrpg;G thrpg;G
Ntzpau; msTj;
jpl;lj;jpdhy;
fhl;lg;gLk;
thrpg;G

Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb> mupaf;Nfhzk; A apd; ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
cq;fsJ fzpj;jy;fspdg
; b mupaf; Nfhzj;jpd; ngWkhdj;ijj; JzpAq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
ngWNgWfis ntw;wpfukhdjhf;fpf; nfhs;tjw;fhfg; gpuNahfpf;fj;jf;fit
gw;wpf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
kpfr;r upahd jpUrpakhdpapy;> miug; ghifg; gFjpfshy; gbtFf; i f
nra;ag;gl;Ls;s tl;ltbt jiyik msTj; jpl;lj;jpd; tpl;lj;jpd; ,uz;L
me;jq;fspy; mikAkhW> ,uz;L msTj;jpl;lq;fs; cs;sd. thrpg;Gf;fisg;
ngWk; NghJ ,uz;L Ntzpau; msTj;jpl;lq;fs; %yk; thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw
Ntz;Lk;. thrpg;Gf;fspd; tpj;jpahrj;ijg; ngWk; NghJ me;je;j Ntzpau;
msTj;jpll ; q;fspd; ,uz;L mikTfspYk; tpj;jpahrj;ijg; ngWjy; Ntz;Lk;.
,jw;fhf ,uz;L msTj;jpl;lq;fs; %yk; fpilf;Fk; ngWkhdq;fspd;
,iliag; ngWjy; Ntz;Lk;. ,t;thwhf thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWk;NghJ
cgfuz mikg;Gf; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; tO (mupa Nkirapd; ikaKk;
tl;l msTj;jpl;lj;jpd; ikaKk; xUq;fpirahikahy; Vw;glj;jf;f tO)
jpUj;jg;gLk;.

ahNjDnkhU tifapy; gpujhd msTj; j pl; l j; j pd; G+r; r pakhdJ>

njhiyfhl;bapd; T1 mikTf;Fk; T2 mikTf;Fk; ,ilNa mike;jjhapd;
mupaf; Nfhzj;jpd; ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWtjw;fhf thrpgG
; f;fspd; tpjj
; pahrj;ij
3600 ,ypUe;J fopj;J 2 My; gpupj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

44
 gupNrhjid ,y:
20
jpUrpakhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> mupankhd;wpd; ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzj;ijj;
JzpjYk; mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;Fzfj;ijj; JzpjYk;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
nrg;gQ; nra;j jpUrpakhdp> rkgf;f mupak;> Nrhbar; Rthiy my;yJ
Nrhba Myp tpsf;F

nfhs;if

mupa Nkir

Neu;tupirahf;fp ePs; Jthuj;jpd;

1
tpk;gk;

2
cU. 20.2
mupak;
cU. 20.1
D A 
sin  m 
2
mupaj;jpd; ,opT tpyfw;Nfhzk; (Dm) ck; n=  
 A
mupaf;Nfhzk; A ck; mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s sin  
2
jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;Fzfk; n ck; Mapd;>

nra;Kiw
nrg;gQ; nra;j jpUrpakhdpapd; Neu;tupirahf;fpapd; ePs; Jthuj;ij Nrhba
xspapdhy; xspA+l;Lq;fs;. cU. 20.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Neu;tupirahf;fp
apypUe;J fpilf;Fk; xspia mupaj;jpd; Kfg;Gf;F Clhf Kwpaj;jf;fthWk;>
gLNfhzk; rpwpajhFkhWk;> mupaj;ij mupa Nkirapy; itAq;f s;.
Kwpfjpiu mtjhdpf;fj;jf;fthwhfj; njhiyf;fhl;bia T1 mikTf;Fr;
Row;Wq;fs;. gLNfhzk; i gbg;gbahf mjpfupf;FkhW mupaNkiriar;
Row;Wq;fs;. mg;NghJ cU. 20.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW ePs; Jthuj;jpd;
tpk;gk;> fhl;rpg;Gyj;jpy; xU jpirapy; nrd;W xU Fwpj;j ,lj;jpy; jupj;J
kPz;Lk; jpUk;gpr; nry;fpd;wik njupfpd;wJ.

jpUrpakhdpapd; fhl;rpj;jpiuapy; epiyf;Fj;Jf;fk;gp> ePs;Jthuj;jpd; tpk;gk;

jupfF
; k; ,lj;jpy; mjDld; nghUe;Jk; tifapy>; jpUrpakhdpia T2 tiuGf;Fr;
Row;Wq;fs;. mstilapy; fhl;lg;gLk; thrpg;igf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
mupaj;ij mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> jpUrpakhdpia Neu;tupirahf;fpAld; xNu Nfhl;by;
mikAkhW T3 mikTf;Fr; Row;Wq;fs;. jpUrpakhdpapd;> fhl;rpg;Gyj;jpd;
epiyf;F j;Jf; fk;gp> ePs; Jthuj;jpd; tpk;gj;Jld; nghUj;jr; nra;J
mstpilapdhy; fhl; l g; g Lk; . thrpg; i gf; Fwpj; J f; nfhs; S q; f s; .
thrpgG; f;fisf; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s ml;ltiz 20.1 ,y; FwpjJ ; f; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
45
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 20.1
T2 miktpy; T3 miktpy; ,opT tpyfw;
thrpg;G thrpg;G Nfhzk; ( Dm )
Ntzpau; msTj;
jpl;lj;jpdhy;
fhl;lg;gLk;
thrpg;G

mupaf;Nfhzk; (A) ,w;fhf gupNrhjid ,y. 19 ,w; ngw;w ngWkhdj;ijg;

gad;gLj;Jq;fs;.
Nkw;gb nfhs;ifapd;gb mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf;Fzfk;
(n) If; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb> mupaj;jpd; ,opT tpyfw; Nfhzk; Dm
IAk; mupak; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s jputpaj;jpd; KwpTf; Fzfj;ijAk; n KbT
nra;Aq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
,opT tpyfw;Nfhzj;ijj; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhfg; gupNrhjid ,y.17
,y; gad;gLj;jpa Kiwfisg; gpd;gw;Wq;fs;.

46
 gupNrhjid ,y:
21.1
FtpT tpy;iynahd;wpy; tpk;gj;jpd; mikTfis nghUj;Jif Kiwapy;
ngWjYk; mjd; %yk; tpy;i yapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;i jj; JzpjYk;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
jhq;fpnahd;wpy; Vw;wg;gl;l FtpTtpyi
; y> jhq;fpfspy; ,izf;fg;gl;l xspapay;
Fz;^rpfs; 2> kPw;wu; Nfhy;> gpd;dzpj;jpiu

nfhs;if

FtpT tpy;iynahd;wpd; nghUs; J}uk; u ck; tpk;gj;J}uk; v ck;

Ftpaj;J}uk; f ck; Mapd;> 1
(cm-1)
v
1 1 1
 
v u f

(0,0) 1
(cm-1)
u

cU. 21.1.1
1 1
njf;fhl;b d; Fwptof;i fg; gpuNahfpj;J> ,w;F vjpNu I
u v

tiughf;fpdhy; fpilf;Fk; tiugpd; ntl;Lj;Jz;L 1 MFk;. mjw;fika

f
tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ijf; fzpf;fyhk;.
u ,dJ ngWkhdk; + MfTk;> v ,dJ ngWkhdk;  MfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.
1 1
mg;NghJ ,dJ ngWkhdk; + ck; ,dJ ngWkhdk;  ck;
u v
MFk;.

nra;Kiw
jug;gl;Ls;s FtpT tpy;iyiaj; J}uj;Nj mike;Js;s nghUs;fspd;ghy;
Kidg;GWj;jp> jpiuapd; kPJ njspthd tpk;gj;ijg; ngWq;fs;. tpy;iyf;Fk;
jpiuf;Fk; ,ilapyhd J}uj;ij kPw;wu; Nfhypdhy; mse;J tpy;iyapd;
Ftpaj; J}uj;ijf; fz;lwpAq;fs;. kPw;wu; Nfhypd; JizAld; Nkir kPJ
Rz;zf;fl;bapdhy; xU NfhL tiuAq;fs;. mf;Nfhl;bd; kj;jpapy; mf;
Nfhl;Lf;Fr; nrq;Fj;jhfj; jhq;fpapd; kPJ Vw;wpa tpy;iyia itAq;fs;.
tpy; i yapd; xU gf; f j; j py; mf; N fhl; b d; kP J Vw; f dNt fz; l wpe; j
Ftpaj;J}uj;ij tplr; rw;Wj; J}uj;Nj mikAkhWk; Fz;^rp Kidia
tpy;iyapd; xspapay; mr;Rf;Fr; rkkhd cauj;jpy; mikAkhW> jhq;fpapd;
kPJ Vw;wpa xU xspapaw; Fz;^rpiag; nghUshf (O) itAq;fs;. gpdd ; zpj;
jpiuiag; nghUistplj; J}uj;Nj mNj gf;fj;jpy; itj;J kWgf;fj;jpy;
J}uj;Nj fz;iz itj;Jg; nghUspd; jiyfPo; tpk;gk; njd;gLfpd;wjh vd
mtjhdp Aq;fs;. mt;thW njd;gltpyi ; ynadpd>; nghUis> tpyi ; yapypUe;J
47
 NkYk; mg;ghy;nfhz;L nrd;W tpk;gk; fz;Zf;Fg; Gyg;gLkhW mikj;Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;. (cU. 21.1.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW x  njspTg;ghu;itapd;
,opTj; J}uk; Mjy; Ntz;Lk;) Nfhl;bw;F Neuhf fz;iz itj;J 0 ,d;
jiyfPo; tpk;gk; mNj Neupy; epiyf;Fj;jhf mike;Js;sjh vd;gij cWjpg;
gLj;jpf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. (mt;thW njd;gl tpy;iynadpd; jhq;fpAld;
tpy;iyiar; rw;Wr; Row;Wtjd; %yk; mf;Nfhl;by; tpyi ; yapd; jsk; rupahfr;
nrt;tdhFk; tifapy; mikj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. NkYk; Fz;^rpapd; cr;rp>
tpy;iyapd; kj;jpapy; njd;gltpyi
; yahapd>; tpyi
; yapd; jsk; epiyf;Fj;jhF
khW mikj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ,dp kw;w xspapay; Fz;^rpia (P) cU
21.1.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW mr;rpd; kPJ itj;J mjd; cr;rpiaj; jiyik
mr;rpy; mikAkhW nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;.

I vg;NghJk; P I tplg;
I ngupaJ.

Nkir kPJ tiuag;gl;l NfhL

cU 21.1.2 cU 21.1.3
I tpk;gj;jpd; Kid P Ald; nghUj;JkhW P Kd;dhf my;yJ gpd;dhfr;
nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;. (nghUe;Jk; re;ju;gg
; j;jpy; mr;rpd; ,uz;L Gwq;fSf;Fk;
fz;izf; fpilahf mirf;Fk; NghJ I ,dJk; P ,dJk; Kidfs;
xd;iwnahd;W njhlu;ghf cU. 21.1.3 ,w;Nghd;W rhu; mirT ,d;wp xd;whf
mirtJ Nghd;W fhl;rpaspf;Fk;.)

,dp tpy;iyf;Fk; nghUSf;Fk; ,ilapyhd J}uj;ijAk; (u) tpy;iyf;Fk;

tpkg
; j;Jf;Fk; ,ilapyhd J}uj;ijAk; (v) kPww
; u; Nfhiyg; gad;gLj;jp mse;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;. nghUs; J}uj;ijg; nghUj;jkhdthW khw;wpaikj;J u, v
Mfpatw;Wf;fhf NkYk; Ie;J Nrhb thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W> mt;thrpg;Gf;fis
ml;ltiz 21.1.1 Nghd;w Xu; ml;ltizapy; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;. (Gjpa
njf;fhl;bd; Fwptof;Fg;gb FwpaPl;Lld;)

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 21.1.1
u (cm) +....
v (cm) - ....
1
u
 
cm-1
+....
1
v
cm-1  - ....

48
 1 1
,w;F vjpNu I tiughf;Fq;fs;.
u v
Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb tiugpd; ntl;Lj;Jz;lj;jpd; %yk; tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;
J}uj;ijf; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
Nkw;gb fzpgg
; l
P b
; d;kJ
P ngw;w ngWkhdj;ij Ftpaj;J}ukhf KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
tpyi
; yapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ij kpfr; rupahfj; Jzptjw;fhf ePqf
; s; gad;gLj;jj;jf;f
cj;jpfisAk; tOf;fis ,opthf;fj;jf;f topfisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
 O vDk; nghUis tpy;iyapd; Ftpag;Gs;spf;F mz;ikapy; itg;gjhy;
Njhd;Wk; tpk;gk; tpy;iyapypUe;J kpfj; njhiytpy; mikAkhifahy;>
mJ fl;GydhfhJ. (tpk;gk; ed;F njd;gLtjw;nfdpd; mJ fz;Zf;F
Kd;dhy;> njspTg;ghu;itapd; ,opTj;J}uj;jpyhapDk; mikjy; Ntz;Lk;).
vdNt nghUs; J}uj;ijg; nghUj;jkhdthW nrg;gQ; nra;tJ Fwpj;Jf;
ftdQ; nrYj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.
1
 tiuig u cld; md;wp clNdNa tiua Ntz;L khifahy;>
u
1
tiugpdJ Gs; spfspd; ey;y guk; gYf; f hfg; ngWkhdq;f is
u
mz;zsthf rkkhd tpj;jpahrq;fspy; mikAkhW u ,w;Fupa ngWkhdj;
ijj; njupT nra;Jnfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzk;: u ,w;fhf
1 1 1 1
25 = 0.04 > 28 = 0.0352 > 32 = 0.312 > 40 = 0.025 >
u u u u
1 1
50 = 0.02 > 65 = 0.0154
u u

 FtpT tpy;iynahd;wpd; nka;tpk;gq; fis mtw;wpd; nghUSld; gupkhw;w

KbAkhifahy; (cld; Gzupg; Gs;sp) u, v thrpg;Gr; Nrhbfisg; gupkhw;wp
thrpg;Gf;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.

 ,q;F nka;gn; ghUs;fSk; nka;tpkg

; q; fSk; gupNrhjidf;fhfg; gad;gLj;jg;
gl;Ls;sd. vdpDk; Njitahapd; nka;g;nghUs;fs; - kha tpk;gq;fs;
my;yJ khag;nghUs;fs; - nka; tpk;gq; fSf;fhfTk; gupNrhjidia
elj;jyhk;. (Gjpa njf;fhl;bd; Fwp tof;Fg;gb> nka;g;nghUs;fs;> kha
tpk;gq;fSf;fhf u+ ck; v+ ck; MtNjhL> khag; nghUs;fs; nka;
tpk;gq;fSf;fhf u- Tk; v- ck; MFk;.)

49
 nka;gn
; ghUs;
,e;j vy;yhr; re;ju;g;gq;fSf;fhfTk; khatpk;gk;
tiuGfs; tiuayhk;. 1 Mk; 3 Mk; 4
Mk; fhy;tl;lq;fspy; tiuG tiuag;gLk;.  
%d;W re;ju;g;gq;fSf;F tiuG xNu
Neu;Nfhl;bd; gFjpfshtNjhL> ve;j
nthU tiugpdJk; ntl;L j;J z;b d;
%yk; f If; fzpf;fyhk;. khag;nghUs;
nka;tpk;gk; nka;gn
; ghUs;
  nka;t pk;gk;

cU 21.1.4
Ftpaj;J}uk; fzpjj
; ypd; khw;W Kiwfs;

(1) nka;g;nghUs;fs;> nka;tpk;gq;fSf;fhf u, v, f

Mfpa vy;yhtw;Wf;Fk; Fwptof;ifg;
gpuNahfpg;gjhy;>
1 ,w;F vjpNu 1 tiuig tiutjhy;
|u| |v|

1 1 1
  
v u f
1 1 1
 
|v| |u| | f |

mjd; ntl;Lj; Jz;L C  1 MFk;

|f|

(2) u, v, f Mfpa vy;yhtw;Wf;Fk; FwpaPLfis

,Ltjhy;>
1 1 1 1 1 1
   MfNt  
v u f |v| |u| | f |
|uv| ,idg; ngUf;Ftjhy;>
uv
| u |  | v |
f
| uv || f | ( u  v )

u  v ,w;F vjpNu uv I tiughf;Ftjhy; gbj;jpwdpd; %yk; f

fpilf;fpd;wJ.
FtpTtpyi; yapy; nka;nghUSf;F nka;tpkg
; j;ijg; ngWtjw;F | u |  | v | 4 | f |
Mjy; Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ tiugpd; %yk; tha;gG ; g; ghu;ff
; yhk;.

50
 gupNrhjid ,y:
21.2
FopT tpy;iynahd;wpd; tpk;gj;jpd; mikTfis nghUe;Jif Kiwapy;
ngWjYk; mjd; %yk; tpyi ; yapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ijj; JzpjYk;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
jhq;fpnahd;wpy; Vw;wg;gl;l FopTtpy;iy> xspapay; Fz;^rpfs; 2> jsthbf;
fPyk;> kPw;wu; Nfhy;> gpd;dzpj;jpiu

nfhs;if

FopT tpyi
; ynahd;wpd; nghUs; J}uk; u ck; tpkg
; j;J}uk; v ck; tpyi
; yapd;
Ftpaj;J}uk; f ck; Mapd>; nghJ tpy;iyr; #j;jpuj;jpd;gb>
1 1 1
 
v u f
1 1 1
 
v u f

cm-1
 
^

cm-1
cU. 21.2.2
cU. 21.2.1
1
njf;fhl;bd; Fwptof;ifg; gpuNahfpj;J> gpuNahfpj;J ,w;F vjpNu
u
1 1
I tiughf;fpdhy; fpilf;Fk; tiugpd; ntl;Lj;Jz;L f MFk;.
v
mjw;fika tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ijf; fzpf;fyhk;.

nra;Kiw
kPw;wu; Nfhiyg; gad;gLj;jp> NkirkPJ Rz;zf;fl;bapdhy; Nfhnlhd;W
tiuAq;fs;. mf;Nfhl;bd; eLg;gFjpapy; tpy;iyapd; jsk; mf;Nfhl;Lf;Fr;
nrt;tdhf mikAkhW jhq;fpapy; Vw;wg;gl;l tpy;iyia itAq;fs;.

tpyi
; yapd; xU Gwj;Nj> nghUshf (O) jhq;fpnahd;wpy; Vw;wpa xU Fz;^rpia
mjd; Kid tpy;iyapd; xspapay; mr;Rld; njhLifailAkhW mr;Rf;F
NkNy cU. 21.2.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW itAq;fs;. gpd;dzpj;jpiuia
nghUis tplr; rw;Wj; J}uj;jpy; mNj gf;fj;jpy; itAq;fs;. ,dp nghUs;
cs;s gf;fj;Jf;F vjpu;g;gf;fj;jpy;> J}uj;Nj Nkir kPJ tiue;j Nfhl;bd;

51
 topNa fz;iz itj;J> jiyfPohd rpwpa tpk;gKk; nghUSk;> tpy;iyapd;
eLNt xNu Nfhl;by; mikAkhW njupfpd;wjh vd mtjhdpAq;fs;.
njupatpy;iynadpy; jhq;fpapd; kPJ tpy;iyiar; rw;Wr; Row;wp> (tpy;iyapd;
jsk; xspapay; mr;Rf;Fr; nrt;tdhFkhW) tpy;iyapd; xspapay; mr;rpd;
kPJ tpk;gj;ijg; ngWq;fs;.

,dp> glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthW nghUs; cs;s gf;fj;Jf;F vjpu;g;gf;fj;jpy;

tpy;iyapd; xspapay; mr;Rf;Ff; fPohf tpy;iyapd; miug;gFjp kiwAk;
tifapy;> NkirkPJ tiuag;gl;l Nfhl;Lf;Fr; nrt;tdhf> jhq;fp %yk;
jsthbf;fPyj;ij (M) itAq;fs;.

gpd;du;> tpy;iyapd; xspapay; mr;Rld; Kid njhLif ailAkhW Nkir

kPJ tiuag;gl;l Nfhl;bd; kPJ ,uz;lhtJ Fz;^rp P ,id> jhq;fpnahd;wpd;
JizAld; epWj;Jq;fs;. glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthW fz;iz itj;J tpy;iy
apDs; njupAk; rpwpa jiyfPohd tpk;gk; I ,dJ KidAk; jsthb M ,d;
Clhfj; njupAk; I tpk;gj;jpd; KidAk; nghUe;jpaikAk; tifapy; Mbf;Fk;>
Fz;^rp P ,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd J}uj;ij khw;Wq;fs;. nghUs;J}uk; u IAk;
tpy;iyf;Fk; Mbf;Fk; ,ilapyhd J}uk; y IAk; Mbf;Fk; O Fz;^rpf;Fk;
,ilapyhd J}uk; x IAk; msTq;fs;.

u ,id vNjr;irahf khw;wp> y ,dJ ngWkhdj;ij khwhJ itj;J> NkYk;

Ie;J re;ju;g;gq;fSf;fhf tpk;gj;Jld; nghUe;jpaikAk; J}uk; x I mse;J
ngWNgWfisg; gpd;tUkhW ml;ltiznahd;wpy; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 21.2.1
u (cm) +....
1
u
 cm -1  + ....

x (cm) +....

v=xy (cm) +....

1 +....
(cm -1 )
v

1 1
,w;F vjpNu I tiughf;Fq;fs;.
u v
Nfhl;ghl;bd; gb tiugpd; ntl;Lj;Jz;L c If; nfhz;L tpy;iyapd;
Ftpaj;J}uj;ijf; fzpAq;fs;. (tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; m If; fhZq;fs;. tiugpd;
kPJ mike;Js;s kw;WnkhU Gs;spapd; x, y Ms;$Wfisg; ngWq;fs;.

y = mx+ c rkd;ghl;by; m ,dJ ngWkhdq;fSf;fhf x kw;Wk; y ngWkhdq;

fisg; gpujpaPL nra;J c If; fzpAq;fs;.

52
KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jy; %yk; ngw;w ngWkhdj;ij> tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;J}ukhf
KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
tpy;iyapd; Ftpaj;J}uj;ij NkYe;jpUj;jkhfj; Jzptjw;fhf ePq;fs;
gad;gLj;jj;jf;f cj;jpfisAk; tOf;fis ,opTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;nfd
ifahsj;jf;f cj;jpfisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
gupNrhjid ,y. 21.1 ,y; jug;gl;Ls;s Fwpg;igg; ghUq;fs;. u Ij; njupT
nra;tjw;fhf mt;twpTWj;jy;fisg; gpd;gw;wyhk;. cz;ikg; nghUs;fspd;
rfy mikTfSf; fhfTk; xspapay; ikaj;Jf;Fk; Ftpaj;Jf;Fk; ,ilapy;
mike;j tpkg ; k; fpilf;fpdw
; ikahy; u ,dJ ngWkhdq;fs; ,ad;w msTf;Fg;
guk;gpr; nry;Yk; tifapy; ngWkhdq;fisj; njupT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

53
 gupNrhjid ,y:
22
Ftpy; Fohiag; gad;gLj;jp> tspkz;ly mKf;f j;ijj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
‘Ftpy;’ Foha; (Xu; me;jk; %lg;gl;L> ,ur epunyhd;wpdhy; cyu; thA
epunyhd;W rpiwg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;s nky;ypa fz;zhbf; Foha;)> kPw;wu;f;Nfhy;>
gpbjhq;fp

nfhs;if

(cm-1)

q
(0,0) (cm)
cU. 22.1 cU. 22.2

h - NkirapypUe;J Fohapd; Nky; me;jk; tiu cauk;

l - tsp epuypd; ePsk;
L - Fohapd; ePsk;
A - Fohapd; FWf;Fntl;Lg; gug;gsT
x - ,ur epuypd; ePsk;
r - ,urj;jpd; mlu;j;jp
H - tspkz;ly mKf;fk; (Hgcm)

Nghapypd; tpjpg;gb p = k ,  H+x sin    g =

k
,
V Al
 xh  k
 H+   g = ,
 L  Al
1  Ax  g  AH  g
 h +
  kL  k

1 Ax  g AH  g
h ,w;F vjpNu tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; = ntl;Lj;Jz;L =
 kL k
ntl; Lj; Jz; L x
H= 
gbj; jpwd; L

54
nra;Kiw
cU. 22.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> Fohapd; %ba me;jk; fpil Nkirnahd;wpd;
kPJ mikAkhW Fohia fpilf;Fr; rha;thf mikAkhW jhq;fpnahd;wpy;
,izAq;fs;. NkirapypUe;J Fohapd; Nky; me;jk; tiuapyhd cauk; h
IAk; tsp epuypd; ePsk; l IAk; mse;J Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. jhq;fpiar;
nrg;gQ;nra;J rha;it khw;wpathW h ,d; MW ngWkhdq;fSf;F xg;ghf
l ,d; ngWkhdq;fis mse;J> thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltiziapy;
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ,ur epuypd; ePsk; x IAk;> Fohapd; ePsk; l IAk;
mse;J Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 22.1
h (cm)

 (cm)
1

cm-1 
,ur epuypd; ePsk; x = .......... cm Fohapd; ePsk; L = ............ cm
1
h ,w;F vjpNu tiuig tiue;J> gbj;jpwidf; fzpj;J> ntl;Lj;Jz;ilg;

ngw;W> nfhs;ifapd;gb> H If; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
gupNrhjid %yk; ngw;w ngWNgWfspd;gb H ,dJ ngWkhdj;ij KbT
nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
tspkz;ly mKf;fj;ijg; ghukhdpapdhy; ngw;W> gupNrhjid %yk;
cq;fSf;Ff; fpilj;j ngWkhdj;jpd; rjtPj tOitf; fzpAq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
Ftpy; Fohiaj; jahupg;gjw;fhf> Vwj;jho xU kPw;wu; ePskhd> ,uz;L
me;jq;fSk; jpwe;j> Vwj;jho 2 mm tpl;lkhd Jis nfhz;l> nky;ypa
fz;zhbf; Fohnahd;wpid vLj;J> Vwj;jho 10 cm ePskhd ,ur
epunyhd;wpidg; GFj;Jq;fs;. Fohiaf; fpilahf itj;J> ,ur epuy; Fohapd;
eLg;gFjpia milar; nra;J> Fohapd; Xu; me;jj;ijg; gd;rd; Rthiyapy;
gpbj;J> Fohia cUl;bathW Kj;jpiuapLq;fs;. %ba me;jk; kPww ; u; Nfhypd;
G+r;rpa milahsj;jpy; mikAkhW Fohia kPw;wu; Nfhypd;kPJ itj;J
wg;gu; thu;fisf; nfhz;L ,izAq;fs;.
cU ,y. 22.3 ,d;gb Fohapd; jpwe;j me;jk; fPo;Nehf;fp ,Uf;FkhW
itj;J> h ,dJ kiwg;ngWkhdq;fSf;fhfTk; thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngwyhk;.
gupNrhjidg; ngWNgWfspd;gb> vjpug; hu;ff
; g;gl;lthwhd Neu;NfhL fpilf;fpdw
;
jhapd;> tiuig tiutjw;fhfg; gad;gLj;jpa rkd;ghl;ilf; fl;bnaOg;Gtjw;
fhfg; gad;gLj;jpa njhlu;G (Nghapypd; tpjp) cz;ikahdJ vd;gJ cWjp
ahfpd;wJ.
55
 gupNrhjid ,y:
23
khwh mKf;f j;jpy; thAnthd;wpd; fdtsTf;F k; ntg;gepiyf;F k;
,ilapyhd njhlu;i g tha;g ;G g;g hu;j ; j y;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
xU Jsp ,urj;jpdhy; rpiwg;gLj;jg;gl;l cyu; tsp epuiyf; nfhz;l Xu;
me;jk; %lg;gl;l> nky;ypa Rtu; nfhz;l xLq;fpa rPuhd fz;zhbf; Foha;>
(0-100)0C ntg;gkhdp> ePu; mlq;fpAs;s caukhd Kfit> fyf;fp> Kf;fhyp>
fk;gptiy> gd;rd; RluLg;G> gpbjhq;fp> wg;gu; thu;fs; rpy> mm fspy;
gbtFf;if nra;ag;gl;l mstpil

nfhs;if
cU. 23.1 ,y; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;s FohapDs; rpiwg;gl;Ls;s
thAtpd; fdtsT V ck;> mt;thAtpd; nfy;tpd;
ntg;gepiy T ck; Mapd; rhsprpd; tpjpg;gb> khwh
mKf;fj;jpy; cs;s cau; thAj;jpzpnthd;wpd;
V ,w;Fk; T ,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;G>
V T
V = kT thAepuypd; ePsk; l ck;> Fohapd;
cl;FWf;F ntl;Lg;gug;gsT A ck; Mapd;>

V = lA (cm)
/ lA = kT
k
l =  T
 A

cU. 23.1
(0,0) (K)
cU. 23.2

T ,w;F vjpNu l tiuG> cw;gj;jpf; $lhfr; nry;fpdw

; jhapd;
thAnthd;wpd; fdtsTf;Fk; ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd
njhlu;G cWjpahfpdw
; J.
xLq;fpa rPuhd Fohapy; tsp epuypd; ePsj;ij mjpfupjJ ;
mjid cU ,y. 23.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW tisj;Jf;
nfhs;tjhy; my;yJ Fohapd; me;jj;jpy; nky;ypa Rtu; nfhz;l
rpwpa fz;zhbf; Fohnahd;wpid ,izj;Jf; nfhs;tjhy;
Fohapd; czu;jpwd; mjpfupgg
; NjhL> gupNrhjidia elj;Jk;
NghJ thrpgG; f;fSf;F ,ilNa ey;y guk;giyAk; ngwyhk;.
Fohapy; tise;Js;s gFjpapy; mlq;fpAs;s thAtpd; fdtsT
V ck; Fohapd; FWf;Fntl;Lg;gug;gsT A ck; Mapd;>

k V 
cU. 23.3 Al + V = kT  l =   T   
 A  A

56
nra;Kiw
ntg;gkhdpapd; Fkpo;> nky;ypa Fohapy; cs;s thAepuypy; eLg;gFjpapy;
mikAkhWk; Fohapd; jpwe; j me;j k; mstpilapd; G+r;r paj; JlDk;
nghUj;JkhW> ntg;gkhdpiaAk; FohiaAk; mstpilAld; ,izAq;fs;.
cU. 23.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> cgfhuzj;njhFjpia mikj;J> ntg;gkhdp
thrpg;igAk;> thA epuypd; ePsj;ijAk; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ePiu ed;F
fyf;fpathW Kfitf;F ntg;gNkw;Wq;fs;. ntg;gepiy Vwj;jho 10 oC apdhy;
mjpfupj;j gpd;du; RluLg;ig mg;Gwg;gLj;jp ePiuf;fyf;fp> ntg;gkhdp thrpg;ig
khwhJ itj;J> ,urj;Jsp Xa;it mile;j gpd;du;> kPz;Lk; ntg;gkhdp
thrpg;igAk; tsp epuypd; ePsj;ijAk; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ePupd;
ntg;gepiyiaj; jlitf;F 10 oC tPjk; mjpfupjJ; > ,t;thwhd MW thrpgG; f;fisg;
ngWq;fs;. thrpg;Gf;fis ml;litz 23.1 ,y; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 23.1

 (0 C)
ntg;gepiy T (K)
thA epuypd;
ePsk;  (cm)

T ,w;F vjpNu l I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

KbG
tiugpdg
; b> khwh mKf;fj;jpy; thAnthd;wpd; fdtsTf;Fk; ntg;gepiyf;Fk;
,ilapyhd njhlu;ig KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
ngWNgWfis NkYk; nrk;ikahf;Ftjw;fhf> ,q;F ifahsg;gl;Ls;s
topKiwfs; gupNrhjid kPJ nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jk; tpjj;ijf; fye;Jiu
ahLf.

Fwpg;G
ntg;gepiy VWk; re;ju;gg
; j;jpYk; ntg;gepiy ,wq;Fk; re;ju;gg ; j;jpYk; mjhtJ
,uz;L re;ju;gg
; q;fspYk; thA epuypd; ePsq;fis mse;J Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;tJ
rhyg; nghUj;jkhdJ. ,ur epuy; Foha;rR ; tupy; xl;bf;nfhs;tjhy; Vw;glj;jf;f
tO ,jd; %yk; ,opthf;fg;gLk;.

57
 gupNrhjid ,y:
24
khwh fdtstpy; thAnthd;wpd; mKf;fj;jpw;Fk;
jdpntg;g epiyf;F k; ,ilapyhd njhlu;i g tha;g ;G g;g hu;j ;j y;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
NghBd; mKf;fkhdp nfhz;l khwhf; fdtsT thA cgfuzk; (ntg;gkhdp
(0-110 0C)> ePu; nfhz;l Kfit> gd;rd; RluLg;G> Kf;fhyp> fk;gptiy>
jhq;fp> fyf;fp.

nfhs;if

mKf;fkhdp
ePsk; Fiwthd
gpshj;jpf;Ff; Foha;
kapuj
; J
; isf;Foha;
ntg;gkhdp

ePu; tl;l mbf;FLit

cyu;e;j mirah thAj;jpzpT  500 cm 
3

cU 24.1

cU. 24.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW FkpopDs; rpiwg;gl;Ls;s thAtpd; mKf;fk;

p ck;> mt;tspapd; jdpntg;gepiy T ck; Mapd;> mKf;f tpjpapd;gb>
fdtsT khwhJ ,Uf;Fk;NghJ mirahj thAj; jpzptpdJ p ,w;Fk; T
,w;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;G p  T MFk;.

T ,w;F vjpNu p apdJ ntg;gepiy 0C apy; msf;fg;gLk;NghJ

tiuG gpd;tUkhwhdJ. tiuG gpd;tUkhwhdJ.

 (0 C)

cU 24.2 cU 24.3

58
nra;Kiw
cU. 24.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthwhf khwh mKf;f thA cgfuzj;jpd; FkpioAk;
ntg;gkhdpiaAk; fyf;fpiaAk; Kfitapy; cs;s ePupDs; ,Lf.

Kfitapy; cs;s ePiu ntg;gNkw;wpf; fyf;fpapdhy; fyf;fpathW ntg;gepiy

Vwj;jho 10 0C apdhy; cau;e;j gpd;du;> RluLg;ig mg;ghw;gLj;jp rpwpJ
Neuj;jpy; ntg;gkhdp thrpg;igAk; mKf;fkhdp thrpg;igAk; gjpT nra;J
nfhs;f.

NkNy Fwpg;gpl;lthW ePupd; ntg;gepiyiar; rpy jlitfs; Vwj;jho 10 0C

apdhy; mjpfupj;J> xg;ghd thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W mtw;iw ml;ltiz
24.1 ,y; gjpT nra;f.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 24.1
ntg;gkhdp thrpg;G  (0 C)

jdpntg;gepiy T(K)

mKf;fkhdp thrpg;G p / (N m-2 )

jdp ntg;gepiy (T) ,w;F vjpNu mKf;fk; (p) ia tiughf;Ff.

KbG
Nfhl;ghl;by; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;sthW> tiugpd;gb khwhj fdtstpy; thAnthd;wpd;
mKf;fj;Jf;Fk; ntg;gepiyf;Fk; ,ilapyhd njhlu;G tha;gG ; g; ghu;ff
; g;
gLfpd;wJ.

Fwpg;G
Kfitapy; cs;s ePupd; ntg;gepiyia kpf nkJthf cau;j;JtNjhL>
ePiuf; fyf;FtJk; mtrpakhFk;. FkpioAk; khdpiaAk; ,izf;Fk;
FohapDs; cs;s tspapd; ntg;gepiyAk; Fkpopd; cs;Ns cs;s tspapd;
ntg;gepiyAk; xNu ngWkhdj;ijf; nfhz;bUf;fkhl;lhJ. ghupa fdtsTs;s
Fkpnohd;iwAk; Fohnahd;iwAk; gad;gLj;Jtjhy; ,g;gupNrhjidapdN; ghJ
Vw;glf;$ba tOit ,opthf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.

59
 gupNrhjid ,y:
25
fyit Kiwapy; jpz;kg; nghUnshd;wpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
fNyhupkhdp> nfhjpFoha;> <ar;rd;dq;fs;> (0-100) 0C ntg;gkhdp> ePu;jn
; jhl;b>
Kf;fhyp> fk;gptiy> Kj;Jyhj;juhR> (0-50) 0C ntg;gkhdp

nfhs;if

#lhd nghUnshd;iwAk; Fspuhd nghUnshd;iwAk; fyf;Fk; NghJ

#oYf;F ntg;g ,og;G epfotpy;iynadpd;> #lhd nghUspypUe;J
ntspNawpa KO ntg;g msthdJ Fspuhd nghUs; ngw;w KO
ntg;g msTf;Fr; rkkhdjhFk;.

Nkw;gb gupNrhjidapy>; ntWk; fNyhupkhdpapdJk; fyf;fpapdJk; jpzpT

m1 ck;> ePu; mlq;fpAs;s fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m2 ck; me;ePupd;
njhlf;f ntg;gepiy 1 ck; ntg;gNkw;wpa <ar;rd;dq;fspd; ntg;gepiy
2 ck; fyitapd; cr;r ntg;gepiy 3 ck; fNyhupkhdpapdJk;
fyitapdJk; jpzpT m3 ck; fNyhupkhdpj; jputpaj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf;
nfhs;ssT c1 ck; ePupd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT c2 ck; <ar;rd;dq;fspd;
jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT c3 ck; Mapd;> Nkw;gb nfhs;ifapd;gb

<ar;rd;dq;fspypUe;J = ePu; + fNyhhpkhdp

ntspNawpa ntg;gk; ngw;w ntg;gk;
(m3 - m2) c3 (2 - 3) = [m1 c1+ (m2 - m1) c2](3 - 1)

nra;Kiw
fyf;fpAld; ntWk; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpit (m1) mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
fNyhupkhdpapd; ghjpasT epuk;Gk; tiu Fspu; ePu; ,l;L> kPz;Lk; jpzpit
(m2) mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT (c3) msg;gjw;Fupa
jpz;kg; nghUs; (<ar;rd;dq;fs;) nfhjpFohapDs; ,l;L> ePu;j;njhl;bapd;
%yk; ntg;gNkw;Wq;fs;. ePu; nfhjpfF
; k; tiu ntg;gNkw;wp> <ar;rd;dq;fspd;
ntg;gepiy (2) khwhg; ngWkhdj;ij mile;j gpd;du;> mjidf; Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;tNjhL> <ar;rd;dq;fis kpfj;Jupjkhf fNyhupkhdpapDs; cs;s ePupDs;
,Lq;fs;.

fyitia ed;F fyf;fp> mjd; cr;r ntg;gepiyiaf; (3) Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;

Sq;fs;. ,jw;fhf (0 - 50)0C ntg;gkhdpiag; gad;gLj;Jq;fs;. fNyhupkhdp
apdJk; mjpy; mlq;fpAs;stw;wpdJk; jpzpit (m3) mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
fNyhupkhdpapdJk; fyf;fpapdJk; jpzpT m1 = .............
fNyhupkhdp> fyf;fp> ePu; Mfpatw;wpd; jpzpT m2 = .............
ePupd; Muk;g ntg;gepiy 1 = ..............
<ar;rd;dq;fspd; ntg;gepiy 2 = ..............
fyitapd; cr;r ntg;gepiy 3 = ..............
fNyhupkhdpapdJk; mjpy; mlq;fpAs;stw;wpdJk; jpzpT m3= ..............
60
 Nkw;gb nfhs;ifapd;gb> <ar;rd;dq;fspd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitf;
fzpj;jwpAq;fs;. fzpj;jypd;NghJ fNyhupkhdp cNyhfj;jpdJk;> ePupdJk;
jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssTfSf;fhf epakg; ngWkhdq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jq;fs;.

KbG
fzpj;jy; %yk; ngw;w ngWkhdq;fis> <ar;rd;dq;fspd; jd; ntg;gf;
nfhs;ssthf KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
<aj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssit> epakj; juTg; Gj;jfnkhd;wpypUe;J ngw;W>
gupNrhjid %yk; ePqf ; s; ngw;w ngWkhdj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp> rjtPj tOitf;
fzpjj ; wpAq;fs;. ntg;g ,og;G fhuzkhf Vw;glj;jf;f tOf;fisAk; mtw;iw
,opthf;Ftjw;fhfg; gpuNahfpf;fj;jf;f cj;jpfisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
 fNyhupkhdpia ntspff ; trj;Jld;> <ar;rd;dq;fis ntg;g Nkw;Wk; ,lj;Jf;F
vLj;Jr; nry;Yq;fs;. ,y;iyNay;> ePu;j; njhl;bf;Fk; fNyhupkhdpf;Fk;
,ilNa ntg;gf; fhtypg; nghUnshd;wpid itAq;fs;.
 <ar;rd;dq;fisf; fNyhupkhdpf;F khw;WQ; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; ePu; ntspNa
rpjwhjthW ftdkhfr; nraw; g LtNjhL> ntg; g khdpiaf; $u; e ; J
mtjhdpgg; Jk; mtrpakhFk;. <ak; kpfr; rpwe;jnjhU ntg;gf;flj;jpahifahy;>
fyit nrhw;g Neuj;jpy; cr;r ntg;gepiyia milAk;.
 ,k;K iwiaf; ifahz;L jputnkhd; wpd; jd;n tg; gf; nfhs;ssitj;
JzpAk;NghJ Nkw;gb gupNrhjidapw; Nghd;Nw ePUf;Fg;gjpyhf> jd;ntg;gf;
nfhs;ssitj; Jzpa Ntz;ba jputj;ijAk; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT njupe;j
xU nghUisAk; gad;gLj;Jtjhy; jputj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj;
Jzpayhk;.
 fNyhupkhdpapy; ,lg;gl;l ePUld; ntg;gNkw;wpa <ar;rd;dq;fisr; Nru;jj
; Jk;
fyitapd; ntg;gepiy Vwj;jho 100C apdhy; mjpfupf;fr; nra;tjw;Fg;
NghJkhd <ar;rd;dq;fspd; msit> Kd; gupNrhjidnahd;wpd; %yk;
fz;lwpe;J nfhs;Sjy; Ntz;Lk;.
 ntg;gNkw;wpa <ar;rd;dq;fis ,l Kd;du; ePupdJk; fNyhupkhdpapdJk;
Muk;g ntg;gepiyia miwntg;gepiyapypUe;J Vwj;jho 50C Fiwar;
nra;J mg;ngWkhdj;ijf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhz;l gpd; <ar;rd;dq;fis me;euP pDs;
,Ljy; Ntz;Lk;. mg;NghJ fyitapd; ntg;gepiy> miw ntg;gepiyia
tpl Vwj;jho 50C apdhy; caUkhifahy;> gupNrhjidapd; Kw;gFjpapy;
#oypypUe;J ngw;w ntg;gkhdJ> gupNrhjidapd; gpw;gFjpapy; #oYf;F
Vw;gl ntg;g ,og;Gf;F <lhtjhy;> ntg;g ,og;Gf; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; tO
,opthdjhFk;.
 ePupd; Muk;g ntg;gepiy> gdpgLepiyia tplf; FiwtilahJ ghu;j;Jf;
nfhs;tJ mtrpakhdJ.

61
 gupNrhjid ,y:
26
Fspuy; Kiwapy; jputnkhd;wpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Gw Nkw;gug;G kpDf;fg;gl;l> %bAk; fyf;fpAk; nfhz;l fNyhupkhdp> (-10 -
110 0C) ntg;gkhdp> kpd; tprpwp> epWj;jw; fbfhuk;> Kj;Jyhj;juhR> NghJkhd
msT ePu;> NghJkhd msT jputk;

nfhs;if

cWjp thAg;gha;rr ; nyhd;wpd; FspUk;> ntg;gNkwpa ,uz;L nghUs;fspd;

Nkw;gug;Gf;fspd; jd;ik> gug;gsT> nghUs;fSf;Fk; Rw;Wg;Gwj;Jf;Fk;
,ilNa Nkyjpf ntg;gepiy vd;gd ru;trkdhapd;> mtw;wpy; ,Ue;J
ntg;gk; ,of;fg;gLk; ,iltPjk; rkkhFk;.

ntg;gepiy (  )
0
C

ePu;
jputk;

cU 26.1 cU 26.2 Neuk;

xNu fNyhupkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> rk fdtsTs;s jputq;fis Nkw;gb

epge;jidfspd;fo P ; FsputpLk;NghJ fyf;fpAld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT
m1 ck; ePUld; jpzpT m2 ck; jputj;Jld; jpzpT m3 ck; Mapd;  1
ntg;gepiy njhlf;fk; 2 ntg;gepiy tiu FspUtjw;fhf> fNyhupkhdpapDs;
ePu; mlq;fpAs;sNghJ nrythFk; fhyk; tW ck; jputk; cs;s
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; nrythFk; fhyk; tl ck; fNyhupkhdp Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s
jputj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT c Ak; ePupd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT
cW ck; jputj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT c1 ck; Mapd;>

,uz;L re;ju;g;gq;fspYk; ,ilntg;g ,og;G tPjk; rkkhifahy;

 m1c   m2  m1  cw   m1c   m3  m1  c1  1   2 
  1   2  
 tw  tl
,jd; %yk; c1 If; fzpf;fyhk;.

nra; K iw
fyf;fpAld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpit mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. Vwj;jho 70 0C
tiu ntg;gNkw;wpa ePupdhy; fNyhupkhdpapd; cr;rpapypUe;J Vwj;jho xU
nrd;upkPw;wu; tiuf;Fk; epug;gp> %bapdhy; %b glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthW
62
 jhq;fpnahd;wpy; njhq;ftpLq;fs;. maypy; itf;fg;gl;l kpd;tprpwpapdhy;
toq;fg;gLk; cWjpahd tspg;gha;r;rypy; fNyhupkhdpia FsputpLq;fs;.
ePiu ,ilawhJ fyf;fp epWj;jf; fbfhuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp ntg;gepiy
Vwj;jho 40 oC MFk; tiuapy; miu epkplj;Jf;F xU jlit ntg;gepiyiag;
gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. ,Wjpapy; ePu; mlq;fpAs;s fNyhupkhdpapd;
jpzpit mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. fNyhupkhdpapy; ePiu mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> ed;F
Jilj;J cyu;j;jp mjw;Fg;gjpyhf> ntg;gNkw;wpa jputj;jpd; rk fdtsit
mjDs; ,l;L> jputj;Jf;fhfTk; Kd;du; Nghd;Nw thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.
jputj;Jld; fNyhupkhdpAld; jpzpitg; ngWq;fs;. thrpgG
; f;fis ml;ltiz
26.14 Nghd;w Xu; ml;ltizapy; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 26.1
fhyk; (epkplk;) 0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0
ePupd; ntg;gepiy (0C)
jputj;jpd; ntg;gepiy (0C)

fyf;fpAld; ntWq;fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m1 = ......................

ePUld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m2 = ......................
jputj;Jld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m3 = ......................
 1oC njhlf;fk;  2oC tiu tPr;rpDs;
ePu;Fspu;tjw;Fr; nrythfpa fhyk; tw = .......................
 1oC njhlf;fk;  2oC tiu tPr;rpDs;
jputk; Fspu;tjw;Fr; nrythfpa fhyk; t  = ......................
xNu Ms;$w;W mr;rpd;kPJ ePUf;Fk; jputj;Jf;Fkhf Neuj;Jf;F vjpNu
ntg;gepiy tisapia xg;gkhf tiuAq;fs;. ntg;gepiy - fhy tisap
%yk; xNu ntg;gepiy tpj;jpahrj; jpDs; FsputpLtjhy; jputj;Jf;Fk;
ePUf;Fk; ntt;Ntwhfr; nrythFk; fhyj;ijg; ngWq;fs;.
cw ,w;Fk; c ,w;Fk; epakg;ngWkhdq;fisg; gad;gLj;jp Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb>
jputj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssitf; (c1) fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
fzpj;jy; %yk; ngw;w ngWkhdj;ijj; jputj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssthf
KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjid %yk; ePq;fs; ngw;w ngwkhdj;ij jputj;jpd; jd;ntg;gf;
nfhs;sstpd; epakg;ngWkhdj;Jld; xg;gpLq;fs;. gupNrhjidapd; tOf;fis
,opthf; F tjw; f hf cq; f sJ fUj; J f; f isAk; gpNuuizfisAk;
Kd;itAq;fs;.

63
Fwpg;G

Nkyjpf ntg;gepiy 20 0C - 30 0C tiu rpW ngWkhdq;fSf;fhfTk; ,g;gupNrhj

idia elj;jyhk;. mjw;fhf cWjpahd tspgg; ha;rr; y; Njitg;gLtjpyi
; y. vdpDk;
gupNrhjidia elj;Jk; fhyg;gFjpAs; fNyhupkhdp maypy; mirah tspr;
#onyhd;iwg; NgzptUjy; Ntz;Lk;.
fzpj;jypd; NghJ ntg;gepiy tPr;rpDs; fNyhupkhdp %yk; ntg;gepiy
FiwtilAk; tPjq;fspd; ,ilg;ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWtij tpl> cU. 26.3
,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyf;F xg;ghd Nkyjpfj;Jf;fhf
ntg;gepiy Fiwtile;j tPjj;ijg; ngWtJ $Ljy; jpUj;jkhdjhFk;.

 d q  ntg;gepiy
  = tan at
 dt 
t

 d q 
  = tan aw
 dt 
a

 dQ   
  =  m1c  (m2  m1 )cw  d q  ePu;

 dt   dt  jputk;
w w

 dQ   
  =  m.c(m3  m1 )ct  d q  fhyk;
 dt   dt 
t t cU 26.3
 dQ   dQ 
  =  
 dt w  dt t

 d q   dq 
 m1c1 +(m2  m1 )cw     m1c1 +(m3  m1 )c1  
 dt w  dt t
 (m2  m1 )cw tan aw  (m3  m1 )c1 tan at
,jd; %yk; ct fzpf;yhk;.

64
 gupNrhjid ,y:
27
fyit Kiwapy; gdpf;fl;b apd; cUfypd; kiw ntg;gj;ijj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
fNyhupkhdp> fyf;fp> ntg;gkhdp> ePu; - NghJkhd msT> gdpf;fl;b> tbjhs;>
ehw;Jyhj;juhR> ,urhadj; juhRk; gbg;ngl;bAk;

nfhs;if

c1 jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssTs;s Xu; cNyhfj;jpdhy; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s m1

jpzpTila fNyhupkhdpnahd;wpDs; (fyf;fpAld;) 1 Muk;g ntg;gepiyapy;
cs;s ePUld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m2 ck; me;ePupDs; gdpf;fl;b
,l;Lf; fyf;fpaNghJ fyitapd; ,opT ntg;gepiy 2 ck;> fNyhupkhdpAld;
fyitapd; jpzpT m3 ck;> ePupd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT cw ck;
gdpffl;bapd; cUfypd; kiwntg;gk; L ck; Mapd;>

0 0C  2  1 MFk;.

mg;NghJ fyf;Fk;NghJ #oypypUe;J ntg;g ,yhgk; Vw;gltpy;iy

vdf; fUJtjdhy;>
gdpf;fl;b ngw;w ntg;gk; = fNyhupkhdpapypUe;Jk; ePupypUe;Jk;
ntspNawpa ntg;gk;

(m3 - m2) L + (m3 - m2)cw2 = [m1 c1+ (m2 - m1) cw](1 - 2)

nra;Kiw
fyf;fpAld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m1 I mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. mjd; %d;wpy;
,uz;L gFjptiu ePu; ,l;L> kPz;Lk; jpzpT m2 I mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
me;ePupd; ntg;gepiy 1 I mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. tbjhnshd;wpy; <uypg;G
xw;wpnaLf;fg;gl;l rpwpa gdpff
; l;bfisj; jlitf;F xd;whff; fNyhupkhdpapDs;
cs;s ePupDs; ,l;Lf; fyf;Fq;fs;. xU gdpf;fl;bj; Jz;L Kw;whff; fiue;j
gpd;du; kw;iwa gdpf; fl;bj;Jz;il ,Lq;fs;. gdpf;fl;bj;Jz;L ePupy;
kpjg;gijj; jtpu;g;gjw;fhf tiyf;fyf;fpnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;Jq;fs;.

ntg;gepiy fzprkhd msT (Vwj;jho 5 oC) Fiwtile;j gpd;du;> gdpf;fl;b

,Ltij epWj;jp> fyitia ed;F fyf;fp> ePupd; ,opT ntg;gepiy 2 I
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. fNyhupkhdpia mjDs; cs;stw;NwhL kPz;Lk;
jpzpT m3I mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
fyf;fpAld; ntWq;fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m1 = .............
ePUld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m2 = ..............
ePupd; Muk;g ntg;gepiy 1 = ..............
fyitapd; ,Wjp ntg;gepiy 2 = ..............
65
 fNyhupkhdpapy; mlq;fpAs;stw;wpd; jpzpT m3 = ..............
fNyhupkhdpapy; ,Ue;j ePupd; jpzpT (m2- m1) = ..............
jputkhfpa gdpf;fl;bapd; jpzpT (m3- m2) = ..............

nfhs;ifapy; jug;gl;Ls;s Nfhitapy; m1, m2, 1 , 2, m3, cl, cw Mfpatw;iwg;

gpujpaPL nra;J L If; fhZq;fs;.

KbG
fzpjj
; y; %yk; ngw;w ngWkhdj;jpdg
; b> gdpff
; l;bapd; cUfypd; jd; ntg;gj;ij
KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
gdpff
; l;b Nru;f;f Kd;du;> gdpgLepiyia mz;zsthfj; Jzpe;J nfhs;tJ
nghUj;jkhdJ. mjd; %yk;> ,Wjp ntg;gepiy gdpgLepiyiaj; jhz;b
Fiwtile;J fNyhupkhdp kPJ gdp gbtjhy; Vw;glj;jf;f tOitj; jtpuj
; J
; f;
nfhs;syhk;.

fNyhupkhdpapy; cs;s ePupy; gdpf;fl;b ,l;Lf;fyf;Ftjhy; mjd; ntg;gepiy

miwntg;gepiyiatplf; FiwtilAk; NghJ #oypypUe;J ntg;gj;ijg;
ngWk;. fNyhupkhdpia ntg;gf; fhtypj;jputj;jhy; kiwg;gpLtjd; %yk;>
mjd; tpisthf Vw;glj;jf;f tOf;fis ,opthf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;.

,y;iyNay;> fyf;Fk; Kiwfspd; NghJ gad;gLj;Jk; <Lnra; Kiwiag;

gad;gLj;jyhk;. fNyhupkhdpia miwntg;g epiyapypUe;J Vwj;jho 5 oC
cau;j;jp> mt;ntg;gepiyia mjd; Muk;g ntg;gepiy vdf; nfhz;L>
,Wjp ntg;gepiy miwntg;gepiyapypUe;J 5 oC ,dhy; FiwtilAk; tiu
gdpf;fl;b ,l;Lf; fyf;Fq;fs;.

mg;NghJ miwntg;gepiyf;F Nkw;gl;l 5 oC apy; #oYf;F ,of;fg;gLk;

ntg;gk;> mt;ntg;gepiyf;Ff; fPohd 5 oC ,y; #oypy; ,Ue;J ngWk;
ntg;gj;Jld; <Lnra;ag;gLtjhy; #oypypUe;J ntg;gj;ijg; ngWk; tO
,opthFk;.

66
 gupNrhjid ,y:
28
fyit Kiwapy; ePupd; Mtpahjypd; jd;kiw ntg;gj;ijj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
fNyhupkhdp> fyf;fp> ntg;gkhdp> nfhjpeuP htpgn
; ghwp> ehw;Jyhj;juhR> ,urhadj;
juhR> fhtypj; jfL> (nu[p/Nghk;/ fd;dhu;)> gd;rd; mLg;G> Kf;fhyp> fk;gp
tiy> ( 0 - 50 oC) ntg;gkhdp

nfhs;if

c1 jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssTs;s Xu; cNyhfj;jpdhy; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s m1

jpzpTila fNyhupkhdpnahd;wpDs; (fyf;fpAld;) 1 Muk;g ntg;gepiyapy;
cs;s ePUld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m2 ck; cyu; nfhjpePuhtpiar;
nrYj;jpa gpd; fyitapd; cr;r ntg;gepiy 2 ck;> fNyhupkhdpAld;
fyitapd; jpzpT m3 ck;> ePupd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT cw ck; ePupd;
Mtpahjypd; jd; kiwntg;gk; L ck; Mapd;>
(ntg;g ,og;G epfotpy;iynadpd;)
nfhjpePuhtpapdhy; fNyhupkhdpAk; ePUk;
ntspNaw;wg;gl;l ntg;gk; = ngw;w ntg;gk;
(m3 - m2) L + (m3 - m2)cw ( - 2) = [m1 c1+ (m2 - m1) cw](2 - 1)

nfhjpeuP htpg; nghwp

nfhjpeuP htp gpwg;ghf;fp

ntg;gkhdp

fyf;fp

ntg;g fhtypj;jl;L
fNyhupkhdp

cU. 28.1

nra;Kiw
fyf;fpAld; fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpit mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. mjd;
fdtstpd; %d;wpy; ,uz;L gFjptiu ePu; ,l;L> kPz;Lk; jpzpit mse;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;. nfhjpePuhtp gpwg;ghf;fpapypUe;J nfhjpePuhtpg; nghwp Clhf>
nfhjpePuhtp njhlu;r;rpahf ntsptplg;gLk; NghJ cU. 28.1 ,y; Nghd;W
itf;fg;gl;Ls;s fNyhupkhdpapDs; ePu; Nkw;gug;gpy; njhLifAwr; nra;Aq;fs;.
fyitia ed;F fyf;fp> mjd; ntg;epiyia Vwj;jho 10 oC cau;e;j

67
 gpd;du;> nfhjpePuhtp nrYj;Jtij epWj;Jq;fs;. fyitia ed;F fyf;fp>
mJ milAk; cr;r ntg;gepiyia mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. fyitiaf;
nfhz;l fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpit mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
fyf;fpAld; ntWq;fNyhupkhdpapd; jpzpT m1 = ..............
fyf;fpAld; fNyhupkhdpapdJk; ePupdJk; jpzpT m2 = ..............
fyf;fpAld; fNyhupkhdp> ePu;> xLq;fpa
nfhjpePuhtpapd; jpzpT m2 = ..............
ePupd; Muk;g ntg;gepiy 1 = ..............
fyitapd; cr;r ntg;gepiy 2 = ..............

nfhs;ifapd;gb ePupd; Mtpahjypd; jd;kiw ntg;gg; ngWkhdj;ijf; (L)

fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jypd;gb> ePupd; Mtpahjypd; jd; kiw ntg;gj;ij KbT
nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
eP u pd; Mtpahjypd; jd; k iw ntg; g j; Jf; f hf cq; f Sf;F f; fpilj; j
ngWkhdj;ij> juTg; Gj;jfnkhd;wpypUe;J ngw;w epakg; ngWkhdj;Jld;
xg;gpLq;fs;. mjd; rjtPj tOitf; fzpAq;fs;. nfhjpePuhtpg; nghwpiaAk;
fhtypj;jfl;ilAk; gad;gLj;Jtjd; mtrpak; gw;wpf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.
nfhjp ePuhtpg; nghwpapDs; ePzl
; - jpwe;j Fohnahd;W GFj;jp itf;fg;gl;
Ls;sikf;Fk; nfhjpePuhtpg; nghwpapd; Foha;> fNyhupkhdpapDs; cs;s
ePupDs; mkpo;j;jg;glhikf;Fk; fhuzq;fisf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
ntg;g ,og;G fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; tOit ,opthf;fpf; nfhs;tjw;fhf> kpDf;fg;gl;l
fNyhupkhdpnahd;wpid> ntg;gf; fhtypg; nghUnshd;wpdhy; kiwf;fg;gl;L>
ntspg;ghj;jpu nkhd;wpDs; itg;gJ Xu; cj;jpahFk;. vdpDk; <Lnra; Kiw
NkYk; jpUj;jkhd KiwahFk;. ,q;F khwhr; #oy; epge;jidfspd; fPo;
gupNrhjidia elj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;. ntg;g ,og;igj; jtpug
; g
; jw;fhf cj;jpfisf;
ifahsyhfhJ.

ePupd; Muk;g ntg;gepiyia> miwntg;gepiyia tpl rpy ghiffs; (Vwj;jho

5 0C) Fspur; nra;J nfhjpePuhtp Nru;f;fj; njhlq;fyhk;. fyitapd; ,Wjp
ntg;gepiy> miw ntg;gepiyiatpl Vwj;jho 5 0C mjpfupfF ; khW nfhjpeuP htp
fyj;jiyf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; NghJ gupNrhjidapd; njhlf;fj;jpy; #oypypUe;J
fpilf;Fk; ntg;g eak;> gupNrhjidapd; ,Wjpg;gFjpapy; #oYf;F Vw;gLk;
ntg;g ,og;gpw;F <lhfpd;wJ. ePupd; Muk;g ntg;gepiyahdJ gdpgLepiyia
tplr; rw;W cau;thdjhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;.

68
 gupNrhjid ,y:
29
kpDf;f pa fNyhupkhdpiaf; nfhz;L tspapd; rhuPu g;gjidj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
ntspNkw;gug;G kpDf;fg;gl;l fNyhupkhdpfs; ,uz;L> rpwpa gdpf;fl;bj;
Jz;Lfs; (NghJkhd msT)> fyf;fp> 0 - 50 0C ntg;gkhdpfs; ,uz;L>
fz;zhbj;jl;L> jhq;fpfs; ,uz;L

nfhs;if

gdpgLepiyapd;NghJ epuk;gpa ePuhtpaKf;fk; (po) x100%

rhuPug;gjd; =
miwntg;gepiyapy; epuk;gpa ePuhtpaKf;fk; (p)

Nkw;gug;G kpDf;fg;gl;l
T1 fNyhupkhdpfs; T2

cU. 29.1

nra;Kiw
fNyhupkhdpfspd; Nkw;gug;Gf;fis ed;F Jilj;J xU fNyhupkhdpapy;
miuthrpasTf;F ePu; ,Lq;fs;. cU. 29.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> jhq;fpfs;
%yk; T1, T2 ntg;gkhdpfis mikAq;fs;. cq;fsJ ntspr;Rthr tsp
fNyhupkhdpapd;ghy; nry;tijj; jLg;gjw;fhf fz;zhbj; jl;nlhd;wpid
glj; j py; fhl; b As; s thW jhq; f pfs; %yk; fNyhupkhdpfspd; vjpNu
nghUj;Jq;fs;. jlitf;F xd;W tPjk; gdpf;fl;bj;Jz;Lfis ,l;L> ePiuf;
fyf;Fq;fs;. xU gdpf;fl;bj; Jz;L fiue;j gpdd; u;> kw;iwa gdpff
; l;bj;Jz;L
vd;wthwhf ,l;Lf; fyf;Fq;fs;.

ePu; mlq;fpAs;s fNyhupkhdpapd; ntspNkw;gug;gpy; gdpgbtjhy; mjd;

kpDkpDg;G rw;Wf; FiwtilAk; re;ju;g;gj;ij kw;iwa fNyhupkhdpapd;
Nkw;gug;G kpDkpDg;Gld; xg;gl P ;L uPjpapy; mtjhdpAq;fs;. mt;thW rw;W
gdp Njhd;Wk; re;ju;gg
; j;jpy; ePu; mlq;fpAs;s fNyhupkhdpapy; cs;s ntg;gkhdp
thrpg;ig 1 mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. ,dp gdpf;fl;b Nru;g;gij epWj;jp>
njhlu;e;Jk; ePiuf; fyf;fpathW ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;f ,lkspAq;fs;.
fNyhupkhdp Nkw;gug;gpd; kpDkpDg;G kPzL ; k; Njhd;wp> gdp ePqF
; k; re;ju;gg
; ij

69
 mtjhdpjJ; mr;re;ju;gg ; g 2 mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
; j;jpy; T1 ntg;gkhdp thrpgi
,dp T2 ntg;gkhdp %yk; miwntg;gepiyia R mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.
cq; f sJ thrpg;G f;f isg; gpd; tUkhW Xu; ml; ltizapy; Fwpj; Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
gdpgL ntg;gepiy 1 = ..............
gdp kiwAk; ntg;gepiy 2 = ..............
miw ntg;gepiy R = ..............
1   2
Nkw;gb T1 ntg;gkhdp thrpg;Gf;fspd; ,ilg;ngWkhdk; fzpj;J
2
mjidg; gdpgLepiy vdf; fUJq;fs;.

epuk;gyhtpaKf;f ml;ltiznahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp> gdpgLepiyapy; epuk;gpa

ePuhtpaKf;fk; po IAk; miw ntg;gepiyapy; ePupd; Mtpahf;fk; p IAk;
fz;lwpAq;fs;. nfhs;ifapd;gb rhuPug;gjidf; fzpf;Ff.

KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jypd;gb> ngw;w ngWkhdj;ij rhuPug;gjdhf KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjidf; f hfr; rpwpa gdpf; f l; b j; J z; L fisg; gad; g Lj; J tjd;
mtrpaj;ijf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;. ngupa gdpf;fl;bj; Jz;Lfs; gad;gLj;jg;
gLkhapd; 1> 2 ntg;gepiyfis msf;Fk; NghJ vjpu;nfhs;s NeupLk;
,lu;g;ghLfisf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
fz;zhbj; jfl;ilj; njupT nra;Ak;NghJ> ntspr;Rthr tsp fNyhupkhdpapy;
gLtijj; jtpug
; g
; jw;Fk; fyf;Ftjw;Fj; jlq;fiy Vw;gLj;jhjthWk; NghJkhd
ePs mfyKilajhfj; njupT nra;J nfhs;tJ FwpjJ ; f; ftdQ; nrYj;Jq;fs;.

70
 gupNrhjid ,y:
30
Nrspd; Kiw %yk; cNyhfnkhd;wpd; ntg;gf; flj;jhiwj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
ntg;gf; flj;jhiwj; Jzptjw;fhf Nrs; cgfuzk;> (-10 oC - 110 oC) ,ur
ntg;gkhdpfs; ,uz;L (T1, T2), 0 - 50 0C ,ur ntg;gkhdpfs; ,uz;L (T3, T4)>
nfhjpePuhtpg; gpwg;ghf;fp> khwh mKf;f cgfuzk;> Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdp>
epWj;jw; fbfhuk;> 1000 ml Kfit> Kj;Jyhuj;juhR
nfhs;if

nfhjpePuhtpg;
nghwpapypUe;J ePu; toq;fYf;F
nfhjpePuhtp 
fOty;
njhl;bf;F

cU. 30.1
cU. 30.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW cgfuzj;jpdJ Nfhypd; ,il tpl;lk;
d Ak; Nfhypd; ntg;gepiyia msf;Fk; ,lq;fSf;F ,ilapyhd
J}uk; l ck; ntg;g epj;jpa re;ju;gg
; j;jpy; T1, T2, T3, T4 ntg;gkhdpfspd;
thrpg;Gf;fs; KiwNa 1, 2, 1, 2 ck; t I msf;Fk; Neuj;Js;
Kfitapy; Nru;e;j ePupd; jpzpT mw ck; ePupd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT
cw ck; Nfhy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;s jputpaj;jpd; ntg;gf; flj;jhW k ck;
Mapd;>
dQ d
=kA.
dt dl
2
mwCw  θ3 -θ4   d  1   2 
 kπ  
t 2 l

nra;Kiw
Kjypy; cgfuzj;jpd; gyifg;ngl;biaj; jpwe;J flj;jpf; Nfhypd; ,il
tpl;lj;Jf;fhf> xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd ,uz;L jpirfspd; topNa d1, d2
mstPLfis> Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jpg; ngWq;fs;. T1, T2
ntg;gkhdpfs; (-10 0C - 110 0C) ,lg;gl;Ls;s Foha;fSf;F ,ilNa cs;NsAk;
(l1) ntspNaAk; (l2) J}uq;fis Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdpapd; ntsp> cs; jil
fisg; gad;gLj;jpg; ngWq;fs;. ntg;gf; fhty; Vw;gLk; tifapy; %Lq;fs;.
71
 ntg;gkhdpAld; ed;F ntg;gj;njhLif Vw;gLk; tifapy;> T1, T2 ntg;gkhdpfs;
,lg;gl;l Foha;fspy; rpwpjsT tPjk; ,urk; ,l;L ehd;F ntg;gkhdpfisAk;
cU 30.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW nghUj;Jq;fs;. nfhjpePuhtpg; gpwg;ghf;fpapypUe;J
fpilf;Fk; nfhjpePuhtpapdhy; vg;NghJk; Mtp miw epuk;gp ,Ug;gij cWjpg;
gLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhf> nghwpia ,izAq;fs;. Nfhypdhy; ed;F ntg;gk;
mfj;JwpQ;rg;gLjtw;fhf Nfhypd; ntg;gg; gputhfj;jpirf;F vjpuhf ePiur;
Rw;Nwhl;lkhfr; nrYj;Jtjw;fhf khwh mKf;f epuypy; ,Ue;J tUk; ePu;g;
gputhfj;ij ntg;gkhdp miwAld; ,izAq;fs;. khwh mKf;f epuYf;F
ePu; fpilf;fr; nra;Aq;fs;. ehd;F ntg;gkhdpfsJk; ntg;gepiyfis Ie;J
epkplq;fSf;F xU jlit thrpjJ ; FwpjJ; f; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ehd;F ntg;gkhdp
fsJk; ntg;gepiy khwhepiyia mile;j gpd;du; (ntg;g epj;jpa epiy)
msg;gjw;Fg; NghJkhd msTf;F ntg;gepiyfspd; thrpg;Gf;fSf;F ,ilNa
NtWghL fhzg;gbd;> ntspg;gLj;jpf; Fohapd; fPo;> Vw;fdNt epWf;fg;gl;l
Kfitia itj;J> Vwj;jho 500 ml ePu; Nru;tjw;Fr; nrythFk; Neuk; t I
epWj;jw; fbfhuk; %yk; mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. T3, T4 ntg;gkhdp thrpg;Gf;
fSf;F ,ilapyhd tpj;jpahrk; NghJkhd msT ngupajy;yhtpbd;> H
cauj;ijg; nghUj;jkhdthW nrg;gQ; nra;J Njitahd ntg;gepiy
NtWghl;ilg; ngWf. thrpg;Gf;fisg; gpd;tUk; ml;ltizfspy; Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 30.1
d1(cm) d2(cm) ,ilg;ngWkhdk; d (cm)

nrg;Gf; Nfhypd; tpl;lk;

ml;ltiz 30.2
l1(cm) l2(cm) ,ilj;J}uk; l (cm)

T1, T2 ntg; g khdpfs; ,Lk;

Foha;f Sf;F ,ilapyhd
J}uk;

ntWk; Kfitapd; jpzpT mo = .......... kg

ml;ltiz 30.3
1(oC) 2(oC) 3(oC) 4(oC)
5 epkplq;fspd; gpd;du;
10 epkplq;fspd; gpd;du;
15 epkplq;fspd; gpd;du;
epj;jpa epiyapy;

72
 ePUld; Kfitapd; jpzpT m 1 = ..............
ePupd; jpzpT (m1 - m0) m w = ..............
ePu; xd;W Nru;tjw;Fr; nrythfpa Neuk; t = ..............
-1 -1
ePupd; jd;ntg;gf; nfhs;ssT 4200 J K kg vdf; fUjp> Nkw;gb juTfisf;
nfhz;L nfhs;ifapy; fhl;bAs;sthW k If; fzpf;Ff.

KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jypd;gb> ngw;w ngWkhdj;i jf; Nfhy; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s
cNyhfj;jpd; ntg;gf; flj;jhwhf KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
jug;gl;Ls;s cNyhfj;jpd; (nrg;G) ntg;gf;flj;jhiw> ngsjpf juTg;
Gj;jfnkhd;wpypUe;J ngw;W> mjid ePq;fs; ngw;w ngWNgw;Wld; xg;gpLq;fs;.
tpilapd; rjtPj tOitf; Fwpg;gpl;L> gupNrhjidia NkYk; jpUj;jkhf
elj;Jtjw;fhf cq;fsJ gpNuuizfisAk; fUj;Jf;fisAk; Kd;itAq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
nfhjpePuhtpg; gpwg;ghf;fpapypUe;J Mtp miwapDs; nfhjpePuhtp GFk;
gf;fj;jpw;Fk; epj;jpa ePu;g;gputhfj;ijr; nrg;Gf; FohapDs; GFj;j Ntz;ba
gf;fj;ijAk; njupT nra;Js;sduh vd;gijf; fUthf;Ff. (mt;thW njupT
nra;tJ fl;lhakhdJ.) rpy Mtp miwfspy; fPo;g;gFjp tha; ngupjhfTk;>
Nkw;gFjp tha; rpwpajhfTk; mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. mt;thwhd cgfuzq;fspy;
nfhjpeuP htpiaf; fPof
; F
; ohapd; %yk; mDg;gyhk;. cl;GFk; nfhjpeuP htp mg;NghJ
miw epuk;Gk; tiu ,irtilAk;.

73
 gupNrhjid ,y:
31
cyu;f ynkhd;wpd; mfj;jiliaAk; kpd;d paf;f tpiriaAk; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
cyu;fyk;> kpy;yp mk;gpau;khdp> ,yf;f (digital) Nthy;w;Wkhdp> ,upaepWj;jp
(0 - 100 > mkj;Jrhtp> ,izg;Gf; fk;gp> jilap (R) (10 

nfhs;if

(V)

(0,0) (A)
cU 31.1 cU 31.2

fyj;jpd; kpd;dpaf;f tpir E Ak; mfj;jil r ck; fyj;jpdhy; Rw;wpy;

Njhd;Wk; Xl;lk; I ck; cyu;fyj;jpd; KidfSf;F ,ilapyhd mOj;j
tpj;jpahrk; V ck; Mapd;>
E = V + Ir
V = -rI+ E
I ,w;F vjpNu V tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; = -r
ntl;Lj;Jz;L = E

nra;Kiw
cU 31.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Rw;iw mikj;J ,upaepWj;jpia cr;rg;
ngWkhdj;jpy; itj;J K jpwe;Js;s (OFF) NghJ Nthy;wW; khdpapd; thrpg;ig
ml;ltiz 31.1 Nghd;wNjhu; ml;ltizapy; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;. gpd;du; K
Mspia %b (ON) ,upaepWj;jpapd; jiliaf; Fiwj;jthW Xl;lk; I ,d;
ngWkhdj;ij 0.025A (25mA) tPjk; khw;wpathW I ,d; ngWkhdq;fSf;F
xg;ghd Nthy;w;Wkhdp thrpg;igAk; Nthy;w;Wkhdp thrpg;igAk; ml;ltiz
31.1 ,y; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 31.1

I (mA)

V (V)

74
 I ,w;F vjpNu V I tiughf;Fq;fs;. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidAk; ntl;Lj;Jz;ilAk;
fzpAq;fs;. Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb fyj;jpd; mfj;jil (r) iaAk; kpd;dpaf;f tpir
(E) iaAk; ngWq;fs;.

KbG
Nkw; g b ngWNgWfspd; g b> cyu; fyj; j pd; kpd; d paf; f tpiriaAk;
mfj;jiliaAk; KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjidapd; N ghJ cgfuzq; f spd; ghJfhg; G f; f hfg; gpuNahfpj; j
cj;jpfisAk; tOf;fis ,opthf;Ftjw;fhff; ifahz;l toptiffisAk;
fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
Rw;wpy; ghupa Xl;lk; gha;jy;> mjpf Neuk; Xl;lk; gha;jy; Mfpa ,uz;L
tplaq;fs; fhuzkhf cyu; fyk; Kidthf;f kiltjhy; rpwpJ Neuj;jpy;
cyu;fyk; ,wf;fkilAk;. cr;r Xl;lj;ij tiuaiwg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf 10 
jil gad;gLj;jg; gLk;. Rw;wpy; ,Lk; Mspf;fhf mkj;Jk; tif Mspiag;
gad; gLj; J k; N ghJ rpwpJ Neuk; khj; j puk; Xl; l k; ghar; nra;a yhk; .
kpd;njhLifia ed;F Vw;gLj;Jtjw;fhf mkj;Jk; tif Mspia ed;F
mkj;JtJ mtrpakhFk;. ,yf;f Nthy;w;Wkhdpapd; mfj;jil cau;
ngWkhdKilajhifahy;> Nthy;w;Wkhdpf;F Clhfg; ghAk; Xl;lj;ijg;
Gwf;fzpf;fyhk;. vdNt fyj;jpw;F Clhd mOj;j tpj;jpahrj;ij kpfj;jpUj;j
khfj; Jzptjw;fhf ,yf;f Nthy;w;Wkhdpnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;JtJ
mtrpakhFk;.

75
 gupNrhjid ,y:
32
kPw;wu; ghyj;i jg; gad;gLj;jp> cNyhfnkhd;wpd; jilapd;
ntg;gepiyf; Fzfj;i jj; Jzpjy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
fhtypl;l Vwj;jho 100 fk;gpr;RUs; (40 SWG), ikag;G+r;rpa fy;tNdhkhdp>
njhLifr; rhtp> nrUfpr;rhtpfs; ,uz;L> 2 V <a mkpyr; Nrkpg;Gf;fyk;>
njhluhf ,izf;fg;gl;l 1.2 V kpd;dpaf;f tpir nfhz;l Ni-Cd fyq;fs;
,uz;L> 0 - 100 0C ntg;gkhdp> fyf;fp> nte;ePu;j;njhl;b> fk;gptiy> Kf;fhyp>
gd;rd; RluLg;G> kPw;wu; ghyk;> 5 k jilap> (0 - 500  jilg;ngl;b>
,upaepWj;jp (0 - 100 > nrg;Gf;fk;gp

nfhs;if

cU 32.1
cU 32.1 ,w; fhl;bAs;sthW ghyj;ijr; rkepiyg;gLj;jp> 0 0C apy;
RUspd; jil R0 ck;> 0 0C apy; jil R ck; Mapd;>
R 
 R  R0 (1   ) >
RB (100  ) >  (RB - jilg;ngl;bapd; ngWkhdkhFk;)

,q;F  vd;gJ jilapapd; ntg;gepiyf;FzfkhFk;.


R  RB
(100  )

 R  R
  0   0
100     RB  RB
 ,w;F vjpNu  /(100  ) tiugpd;
RO RO
gbj;jpwd; = > ntl; Lj; Jz; L = (0,0) cU 32.2 (0C)
RB RB
/ jilapapd; ntg;gepiyf; Fzfk;  = gbj;jpwd;
ntl;Lj;Jz;L

76
nra;Kiw
cU. 33.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> Rw;iw ,izAq;fs;. ePiu ed;F fyf;fp>
ntg;gepiyia  gjpT nra;Jnfhs;Sq;fs;. K1 nrUfpr; rhtpia %b K2
rhtpiaj; jpwe;J gUkl;lhd rkepiy tPr;irf; fz;lwpAq;fs;. K2 rhtpia
%b> rupahd rkepiyg; Gs;spiaf; fhZq;fs;. ,dp nte;ePu;j;njhl;bia
ntg;gNkw;wpa thW ntg;gepiyia 10 0C msTfspy; cau;jj ; pathW xt;nthU
re;ju;g;gj;jpYk; ePupd; ntg;gepiyia khwhg;ngWkhdj;jpy; NgzpathW xg;ghd
ntg;gepiyfSf;fhf Vwj;jho MW  thrpg;Gfisg; ngw;W> ml;ltiz 32.1
,y; gjpT nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 32.1
 (0 C)
(cm)
 (cm)
100  

 ,w;F vjpNu tiuig tiuAq;fs;. tiugpd; gbj;jpwidAk;
100  
ntl;Lj;Jz;ilAk; fzpAq;fs;. Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb jilapapd; ntg;gepiyf;
Fzfk;  If; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
gad;gLj;jpa fk;gpr; RUs; Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s cNyhfj;jpd; (Cu) jilapd;
ntg;gepiyf;Fzfk;  I KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
 gupNrhjidapd; NghJ epfoj;jf;f tOf; fisAk; mtw;iw eptu;jj
; p nra;tjw;
fhfg; gpuNahfpf;fj;jf;f cj;jpfisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

 ePqf
; s; gad;gLj;jpa jputpaj;jpd; (Cu)  ,dJ epak ngWkhdj;ij ml;ltiz
nahd;wpypUe;J ngw;W ePq;fs; ngw;w ngWkhdj;jpd; rjtPj tO gw;wpf;
fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
fk;gpr; RUis Mf;Fk;NghJ Vwj;jho 2.5 cm tpl;lKila>
Vwj;jho 10 cm ePsKila cUis tbt kuf;fl;ilnahd;iwg;
ngw;W fhtyplg;gl;l 40 SWG nrk;Gf;fk;gpapdhy; Vwj;jho 5 m
Ig; ngw;W mf;fk;gpia ,uz;lhf kbj;J cU 32.3 ,y; fhl;b
As;sthW kpdN ; dhl;lk; fhuzkhf Vw;gLk; J}z;ly; jtpuf
; f
; g;gLk;
tifapy; fk;gpfspuz;ilAk; kuf;fl;il kPJ Rw;wpf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

cU. 32.3

77
 gupNrhjid ,y:
33
mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> ,uz;L fyq;f spd; kpd;d paf;f tpirfis
xg; g pLjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
mOj;jkhdp> 2V <a mkpyr; Nrkpg;Gf;fynkhd;W (my;yJ njhluhfj;
njhLf;fg;gl;l 1.2 Ni-Cd fyq;fs; ,uz;L) ,yf;fpshQ;rpf; fyk;> lhdpay;
fyk;> ikag; G+r;rpa fy;tNdhkhdp> ,U topr;rhtp> nrUFr;rhtpfs; ,uz;L>
5k ghJfhg;Gj;jilap> njhLifr;rhtp> ,izg;Gf;fk;gp

nfhs;if
2V
, U t o p r ; r h t p i a E1
fyj;Jld; njhLf;Fk;NghJ
fpilf;Fk; rkepiy ePsk;
l1 c k ; E2 f y j ; J l d ;
njhLf;Fk;NghJ fpilf;Fk;
rkepiy ePsk; l2 ck; Mapd>;
5kΩ
E1 l1

E 2 l2
cU. 33.1

nra;Kiw
cU 33.1 ,w; Nghd;W Rw;iw mikAq;fs;. K1 rhtpia> K2 rhtpiaj;
jpwe;J itj;J ,optopr;rhtpia E1 fyj;Jld; ,izAq;fs;. njhLifr;
rhtpia mOj;jkhdpf;fk;gpapd; A KidAld; njhLf;Fk;NghJ fy;tNdhkhdp
apd; jpUk;gy; xU jpirapYk; B KidAld; njhLf;Fk; NghJ fy;tNdhkhdpapd;
jpUk;gy; kw;iwa jpirapYk; fhl;lg;gLkhapd;> Rw;Wr; rupahdJ vd;gJ
cWjpahfpd;wJ. ,y;iyNay;> Fwpg;gpy; jug;gl;Ls;s tOf;fs; njhlu;ghff;
ftdQ; nrYj;jpr; Rw;iwr; nrg;gQ; nra;J nfhs;Sq;fs;. njhLifr;
rhtpapdhy; fk;gpapd; ntt;NtW ,lq;fisj; njhl;Lf; fy;tNdhkhdpapd;
jpUk;gy; G+r;rpakhFk; gUkl;lhd rkepiyg; Gs;spiag; ngWq;fs;. gpd;du;
K2 rhtpia %b> njhLifr; rhtpiag; gUkl;lhd rkdpiy Gs;spf;F
mz;ikapy; njhl;L> fy;tNdhkhdp thrpg;Gg; G+r;rpakhff; fhl;lg;gLkhW
rupahd rkdpiyg;Gs;spiag; ngWq;fs;. Fwpj;j rkdpiy ePsk; l1 I mse;J
thrpg;ig ml;ltizapy; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. ,Utopr; rhtpia E2
fyj;Jld; njhLj;J Kd;du; Nghd;Nw E2 fyj;Jf;fhf> cupa rupahd rkepiy
ePsk; l1 I mse;J thrpg;igf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
l1 = ................................ cm
l2 = ................................ cm
E1 l1

E 2 l2
l1, l2 ,w;F xg;ghd ngWkhdq;fisg; gpujpaPLnra;J> E1 ,w;F E2 tpfpjj;ijf;
fzpAq;fs;. 78
KbG
fyq;fspuz;bdJk; kpd;dpaf;f tpirfSf;F ,ilapyhd tpfpjj;jpd;gb>
fyq;fspd; kpd;dpaf;f tpir E1 : E2 If; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.
fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjidapd;NghJ gad;gLj;jpa cgfuzq;fspd; ghJfhg;Gf; fhf ePq;fs;
vLj; j Kw; g hJfhg; G f; f isAk; gupNrhjidapd; NghJ Vw; g lj; j f; f
tOf;fisAk; ,tw;iw ,opthf;fpf; nfhs;tjw;fhff; ifahsj;jf;f topKiw
fisAk; cj;jpfisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.
Fwpg;G
Rw;iw mikj;j gpd;du;> K1 rhtpia %b> ,Uopr; rhtpia E1 my;yJ E2
fyj;Jld; njhLj;j gpd;du;> njhLifr;rhtpia mOj;jkhdpf; fk;gpapd; A
KidAlDk; B KidAlDk; ntt;Ntwhfj; njhLifAwr; nra;Ak;NghJ
fy;tNdhkhdpapd; jpUk;gy; xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; xU jpirapYk; kw;iwa
re;ju;g;gj;jpy; kW jpirapYk; fhl;lg;gltpy;iynadpy; Rw;wpy; tO cs;sJ.
fy;tNdhkhdpapd; jpUk;gy; ,uz;L re;ju;g;gq;f spYk; xNu jpirapy;
fhl;lg;gl;ljhapd;>
(i) E1, E2 fyq;fspd; Neu;Kidfs; E0 fyj;jpd; Neu; KidAld; njhLifAwhJ
Kidfs; ,lk; khwpapUf;fyhk;.
(ii) mOj;jkhdpr; Rw;wpy; ahNjDk; ,lj;jpy; ,izg;G jsu;ej; pUf;f ,lKz;L.
(iii) E0 fyk; ,wf;fkile;jikahy;> mjd; kpd;dpaf;f tpir E1 my;yJ E2
fyq;fspd; kpd;dpaf;f tpirfis tplf; Fiwtile;jpUf;f ,lKz;L.
NkYk; njhLifr;rhtp A, B Kidfisj; njhLk;NghJ fy;tNdhkhdp jpUk;gy;
fhl;ltpyi ; ynadpy>; E1, E2 fyq;fs; njhLf;fg;gl;L
; s;s Rw;W> Jz;bf;fg;gl;Ls;sjh
vdg; guprPypj;J mjidj; jpUj;Jq;fs;.
 fyq;fspuz;bd; kpd;dpaf;f tpirfSf;F ,ilapyhd tpfpjj;ij tiuG
Kiwapy; NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngwyhk;. ,jw;fhf> mOj;jkhdpr; Rw;wpy;
jilapgn ; gl;bnahd;wpid ,izj;J> mjd; jilapd; ntt;NtW ngWkhdq;fSf;
Fupa l1, l2 ,w;fhd rpy thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;syhk;. mg;NghJ>

l1 E 1  E1 
  l1    l2
l2 E 2  E2 

E1
l2 ,w;F vjpNu l1 tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; %yk; E If; fhzyhk;. ntt;NtW
2
ePsKila fk;gp nfhz;l mOj;jkhdpfs; cs;sd. me;ePsq;fs; 2 m, 4 m,
6 m vd;wthwhf mikAk;. kPw;wu; Nfhnyhd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp> ePsj;ij
msf;Fk;NghJ mOj;jkhdpf; fk;gpapd; ePsk; njhlu;ghff; ftdQ; nrYj;Jjy;
Ntz;Lk;.

79
 gupNrhjid ,y:
34
mOj;jkhdpiag; gad;gLj;jp> fynkhd;w pd; mfj;j iliaj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
mOj;jkhdp> 2 V Nrkpg;Gf;fynkhd;W my;yJ njhluhf ,izf;fg;gl;l
1.2 V Ni-Cd fyq;fs; ,uz;L> cyu; fyk;> (0 - 50)jilg;ngl;b> mkj;J
rhtp> njhLifr;rhtpfs;> ikag;g+r;rpaf; fy;tNdhkhdp> ,izg;Gf;fk;gp

nfhs;if

mfj;jil r ck; kpd;dpaf;f tpir E ck; nfhz;l fynkhd;wpdhy; R

Gwj;jil xd;wpd; Clhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; nry;Yk; NghJ fyj;jpd;
KidfSf;Ff; FWf;fhf mOj;j tpj;jpahrk; V Mapd;>
2V
V  IR
E  I (R  r)
 R 
V  E
rR
V  kl 5 kΩ
ER
 kl
Rr
1  kr  1 k cU 34.1
  
l  E R E
>

1
1 1 l
,w;F vjpNu tiugpd;
R l
kr
gbj;jpwd; =
E
k
ntl;Lj;Jz;L =
E >1
gbj;jpwd; cU 34.2 R
r=
ntl;Lj;Jz;L

nra;Kiw

cU. 34.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> Rw;iw mikAq;fs;. gupNrhjid ,y. 33

,w;Nghd;W Rw;wpd; nrk;ikiag; guprPypAq;fs;. jilg;ngl;bapdJ jilapdJ
ngWkhdk; R = 50  MFkhW ,Lq;fs;. K1, K2 rhtpfis %b> K3 Ij;
jpwe;J fy;tNdhkhdpapd; jpwk;gy; G+r;rpakhFk; tiu njhLifr; rhtpapdhy;
fk;gpiaj; njhl;L> fpl;ba rkepiy mikitg; ngWq;fs;. K2 rhtpia %b>

80
 mOj;j tpj;jpahrk; V ,w;F xg;ghd rkepiy ePsk;  Ir; rupahf mse;J
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. R ,dJ ngWkhdk; 5  tPjk; FiwtilAkhW
R ,dJ MW ngWkhdq;fSf;fhf Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW rkdpiy ePsk;  I
mse;J gpd;tUk; ml;ltizapy; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
1 1
,w;F vjpNu I tiughf;Fq;fs;.
R 

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;ltiz 34.1

R (

 (cm)

1
R
  1

1

 cm 
1

tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; = ............

tiugpd; ntl;Lj;Jz;L = ............
gbj;jpwd;
r=
ntl;Lj;Jz;L
KbG
Nkw;gb fzpj;jypd;gb> fyj;jpd; mfj;jil r I KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
 thrpgG
; f;fisg; ngWk; re;ju;gg
; j;jpy; khj;jpuk; K2 rhtpia ed;F njhLifAWkhW
%Lq;fs;.
 R ,dJ ,opTg; ngWkhdj;ij 20 ,Yk; Fiwj;jhy; fyk; FWfpa Neuj;Js;
,wf;fkila ,lKz;L.

81
 gupNrhjid ,y:
35
Fiwflj;jp ,Uthapnahd;Wf;f hf I -V tisapiag; ngwy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
1 N 400 l ,Uthap>mOj;jkhdp> [(Potentiometer) (B’Type)]> 100  1 W jilap>
(Nkw;gb vy;yh cgfuzq;fSf;Fk; gjpyhf Ma;T$lj;jpy; cs;s “Bipolar
Transistor Trainer ,d; KjyhtJ Rw;iwg; gad;gLj;jyhk;) 2 V NeNuhl;l tY
toq;fp> 0-1 V Nthy;w;Wkhdp (,jw;fhf 2.5 V tPr;Rf; nfhz;l xg;Gspg;
gd;khdpnahd;iwg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.)> 2.5 m kw;Wk; 25 m tPr;R nfhz;l
xg;Gspg; gd;khdp (,jw;fhf 2000 mtPr;R nfhz;l ,yf;fg; gd;khdp
kpfg; nghUj;jkhdJ.) ,izg;Gf;fk;gp> Rw;Wg;gyif (Bread Board/ Project
Board)
nfhs;if

V
+12 V
1 N 400 l
100 Ω
5 kΩ 1W

0V (0,0)

cU 35.1 cU. 35.2

VF ,w;F vjpNu IF I tiughf;Ftjhy;>

cU. 35.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;s rpwg;gpay;G
tisapapd; tbtk; fpilf;Fk;.

cU. 35.3

nra;Kiw
Nfhl;ghl;by; jug;gl;Ls;sthW Rw;iw mikAq;fs;. (Semiconductor Diode
Trainer ,d; Rw;iwg; gad;gLj;Jtjhapd;> mk;gpau;khdpAk; Nthy;w;WkhdpAk;
tY toq; f pAk; khj; j puNk Njit). Rw; w py; (A Kidapy; mOj; j k;
G+r;rpakhFkhW) VRI ,lQ;Ropahf me;jk; tiuapy; Row;wpr; Rw;Wf;F kpd;
toq;Fq;fs;. ,dpg; gbg;gbahf> Nthy;Wkhdp thrpg;ig 0.1 V apy; Muk;gpj;J>
0.1 V tPjk; khw;wpathW ml;ltizapy; fhl;bAs;sthW mjd; thrpg;igAk;
mk;gpau;khdp thrpg;igAk; gjpT nra;J ml;ltizg;gLj;Jq;fs;. Fiwe;j
Nthy;w;wsTfspd; NghJ Njitf;Nfw;g gd;khdpapd; nghUj;jkhd msTj;
jpl;lj;ijg; gad;gLj;Jq;fs;.

82
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;

ml;ltiz 35.1
VF 0 V 0.1 V 0.2 V 0.3 V 0.4 V 0.5 V 0.55 V 0.6 V 0.65 V 0.675 V 0.70 V 0.725 V

IF .....m .....m ......m .......m .......m .......m .....m ......m .......m .....m .......m ......m

VF ,w;F vjpNu IF I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

tiugpd; Vfgupkhzg;gFjpia Neu; Nfhl;bdhy; ePl;b> VF mr;R ntl;lg;gLk;
,lj;ij (Koq;fhy; Nthy;w;wsT Knee Voltage ) fhZq;fs;.

KbG
Nkw;gb ngWNgw;wpd;gb cq;fsJ Kbitf; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
gupNrhjidapd; thrpg;Gf;fis NkYk; jpUj;jkhfg; ngWtjw;fhfr; nra;a
Ntz;batw;iwf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
gpd;Kff;Nfhly; re;ju;g;gj;jpy; fpilf;Fk; nghrpT Xl;lk;  tifiar;
Nru;e;jjhifahy;> nghJthd Ma;T$lj;jpy; ,jid elj;JtJ rpukkhdJ.
1N 4001 ,w;fhfg; gpd;Kff; Nfhly; Nthy;w;wsT 50 V MFk; NghJ mJ
Vwj;jho MFk;.

5 kmOj;jkhdpff
; hf (Potentiometer) Nfhl;Ltif (B Type) iag; gad;gLj;Jjy;
Ntz;Lk;. nghJthf fd MSifahfg; (Volume Controller) gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
(A Type) tif jil klf;if Kiwapy; khWfpd;wikahy;> kpfr; rpwpa
khwypd;NghJ mjd; mOj;jj;ij Nfhl;L Kiwapy; khw;WtJ fbdkhdJ.
rhuh khwiy msg;gjw;fhf ,yf;f tif khdpfisg; gad;gLj;JjyhfhJ.
(Vnddpy; mtw;wpd; %yk; cWjpahd ngWkhdq;fisg; ngWtJ fbdkhdJ)

83
 gupNrhjid ,y:
36
jpuhd;rpw;wnuhd;iwg; gad;gLj;jp> nghJf; fhyp epiyaikg;gpy; IB ,w;Fk;
IC ,w;Fk; ,ilNa khWepiyr; rpwg;gpay;G tisapiag; ngwy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
2 SD 400 rpypf;fd; jpuhd;rpw;wu; xd;W> 5 kmOj;jg; gpupg;ghd;fs; ,uz;L>
[(Potentiometer) ('B’Type)]> 10 k> 1/4 w jilap> 100 > 1/2W jilap xd;W>
(Nkw;gb vy;yh cgfuzq;fSf;Fk; gjpyhf Ma;T$lj;jpy; cs;s “Bipolar
Transistor Trainer" ,d; KjyhtJ Rw;iwg; gad;gLj;jyhk;) 10V tPrR ; f; nfhz;l
xg;Gspg;gd;khdp> 100  mk;gpau;khdp my;yJ 50 tPr;R nfhz;l xg;gspg;
gd;khdp> 25 mtPr;R nfhz;l xg;Gspg; gd;khdp> 12 V NeNuhl;l tY toq;fp
(6 V Nrkpg;Gf;fykhapDk; NghJkhdJ)> Rw;Wg;gyif (Project/ Breadboard)
,izg;Gf;fk;gp

nfhs;if

+12 V

100 Ω

5 kΩ 5 kΩ
10 kΩ
2SD400
0V

cU 36.1 cU. 36.2

I B ,w; F vjpNu I C I tiughf; F tjhy; >

cU. 39.3 ,y; fhl; b As; s thW xU
tisapapd; tbtk; fpilf;Fk;. tisap apd;
Vfgupkhzg;gFjpapd; gbj;jpwd; jpuhd;rpww
; upd;
xl;l eak;  MFk;.
ΔIC
 =
ΔI B

cU 36.3

nra;Kiw
cU 36.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Rw;Wg;gyif kPJ Rw;iw mikAq;fs;. VR1,
VR2 Mfpa mOj;jg; gupg;Gf;fspuz;ilAk; G+uzkhf ,lg;gf;fk; Row;Wq;fs;
(eLKid> Gtpj;njhLg;G Kidf;F mUNf) ,d; Rw;Wf;F kpd; toq;Fq;fs;.
VR2 I nkJthf tyJGwk; Row;wp Nthy;w;Wkhdpapd; thrpg;ig (VE) 5 V
MFkhW mikAq;fs;. IB I khw;Wk; NghJ ,jd; thrpg;G NtWgLkhifahy;

84
 gupNrhjid KOtjpYk; (VCE) ,id khwhJ itj;jpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. IB
,dJ ngWkhdj;ij 0 njhlf;f k; 10  tPjk; mjpfupj;J Ib ,dJ
ngWkhdq;fSf;F xg;ghd IC ngWkhdq;fisg; ngw;W ml;ltiz 36.1 ,y;
gjpT nra;Aq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 36.1
IB  0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

IC m

IB ,w;F vjpNu IC I tiughf;Fq;fs;.

tiugpd; VfgupkhzgFjpapd; gbj;jpwidf; fhZq;fs;. Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb If;
fhZq;fs;.

KbG
jpuhd;rpw;wupd; xl;l eaj;ij KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
IB Ald; IC ,dJ elj;ijiaAk;> gupNrhjid NkYk; ntw;wpaspg;gjw;fhf
vLf;f Ntz;ba eltbf;iffisAk; fye;JiuahLq;fs;. jpuhd;rpw;wu; juTg;
Gj;jfnkhd;wpypUe;J 2SD 400 jpuhd;rpw;wupd;  ngWkhdj;ijj; Jzpe;J
cq;fsJ tpilAld; xg;gpLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
IB = 0 IAk; IC IAk; msf;f Ntz;Lkhapd; mjw;fhfTk; ikf;FNuh
mk;gpau;khdpnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. IC I msg;gjw;Fupa kw;iwa
mk;gpau;khdpf;fhf ,yf;fg; gd;khdpnahd;iwahapDk; gad;gLj;jyhk;.

85
 gupNrhjid ,y:
37
vspa mbg;g ilahd jUf;f g;g liyfspd; cz;i k ml;ltizfisg;
gupNrhjid uPjpapy; Nehf;FjYk; mjd; %yk; gliyfis
,dq;f hzYk;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;

7408, 7432, 7400, 7402, 7486, 74AS836 vDk; xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fs; (TTL
1
IC) MW> LED %d;W> 330> W jilapfs; %d;W> 5V tY toq;fp>
4
Rw;Wg;gyif> ,izg;Gf;fk;gp

nfhs;if

+5 V

330 
330  330 
0V
cU. 37.2
cU 37.1

gag;ig LED %yk; mtjhdpfF ; k;NghJ D3 LED ed;F xspUtjhy; gag;G

0 V vd;gJ mjhtJ jUf;fk; 0 re;ju;g;gk; vdTk; D3 LED xspUtjhy;
nga;g;G Neu; (+) 5 V vd;gJ mjhtJ jUf;fk; 1 vd;gJk; fhl;lg;gLk;.

nra;Kiw
Rw;Wg;gyif kPJ Rw;iwr; rupahf mikAq;fs;. xUq;fpize;j Rw;wpd;
7 Mk; Kid 5 V toq;fypd; kiw (-) KidAlDk; 14 Kidia Neu; (+)
KidAlDk; rupahf ,izAq;fs;. X1, X2 Kidfs; RahjPdkhf cs;sNghJ
Rw;Wf;F kpd; toq;Fq;fs;.

,dp gag;G A, B KidfSld; X1, X2 ,dhy; njhl;lthW> Neu;mOj;jk;

toq;fpathW D1, D2 xspuhikahy; my;yJ xspUtjhy; jUf;fk; 0 my;yJ
'1' ,w;F mika D3 gag;ig mtjhdpAq;fs;. cz;ik ml;ltiznahd;wpd;
ngWNgWfisg; gjpT nra;Aq;fs;. ,dp Rw;Wg;gyifapy; cs;s xUq;fpize;j
Rw;iw fow;wp NtW njhifapLQ; Rw;nwhd;iw ,izj;J ,t;twhf jug;gl;
Ls;sd. Vida xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fhf ntt;Ntwhf cz;ik ml;ltiz
fspy; ngWNgWfisf; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.

86
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 37.1 ml;ltiz 37.2 ml;ltiz 37.3

A B F A B F A B F
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
ml;ltiz 37.4 ml;ltiz 37.5 ml;ltiz 37.6

A B F A B F A B F
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
KbG
fpilf;Fk; cz;ik ml;ltizfisf; nfhz;L> xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;F
xg;ghd ,yf;fj;jpd;gb> ve;jj; jUf;fg;gliy vd;gij KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
Rw;wpy; LED fSld; njhluhf jilapnahd;wpid ,izg;gjd; mtrpaj;ijf;
fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s vy;yhj; xUq;fpize;j Rw;Wf;fSk; rkkhd ehd;F
gliyfisf; nfhz;litahFk;. ,q;F KjyhtJ gliy khj;jpuk;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. (Vida gliyfspd; nga;g;G Kidfisg; GtpAld;
njhLg;gJ kpfg; nghUj;jkhdJ)
,q;F TTL IC gad;gLj;jg;gl;ls;sikahy;> +5 V Nthy;ww; sT toq;fy; ,Ug;gJ
fl;lhakhdJ. CMOS IC gad;gLj;Jtjhapd; +3V njhlf;fk; +1.5 V tiuapyhd
ve;jnthU Nthy;w;wsT toq;fisAk; gad;gLj;jyhk;. mg;NghJ LED apdJ
fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; jilapfspd; ngWkhdq;fis khw;Wjy; Ntz;Lk;. LED apdJ
tptuf;$w;iw 2.0 V, 10 mA vdf; fUjpf; fzpj;jiyr; nra;Aq;fs;. Nkw;gb IC
,w;Fg;gjpyhf 4001> 4011> 4030> 4071> 4077> 4081 Mfpa CMOS IC fisAk;
Rw;wpy; nghUj;jkhdthW gad;gLj;jyhk;.
cjhuzk;: 9 V tY toq;fpiag; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ fl;Lg;ghl;Lj; jilapapd;
ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpf;Fk; tpjk; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sJ. R ,w;F Clhf Xkpd;
10
R
tpjpiag; gpuNahfpg;gjd; %yk; (9  2.0) 
1000
/ R = 700  ,w;fhf re;ijapy; eilKiwapy; ngwj;jf;f kpff; fpl;ba
ngWkhdkhfpa 680  jilapnahd;iwj; njupT nra;J nfhs;tJ nghUj;j
khdJ.
87
 gupNrhjid ,y:
38
fk;gp tbtj;jpYs;s cNyhfnkhd;wpd; (cUf;F)
aq;qpd; Fzfj;ijj; Jzpjy;

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
xNu tpiwg;ghd jhq;fpapy; (B) njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s Vwj;jho 3 m ePskhd
Vwj;jho 0.5 mm tpl;lKila rPuhd ,uz;L fk;gpfs;> kpy;yp kPw;wu;fspy;
gbtFf;if nra;ag;gl;Ls;s gpujhd mstpil (M) Ak; mjd; gf;fj;Nj
kw;iwa fk;gpAld; ,izf;fg;gl;l Ntzpau; mstpil (V), epiw Ve;jp>
kPw;wu; Nfhy;> Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rp> 1/2 kg gbj;njhFjp

nfhs;if
njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s Rik Mg ck;> fk;gpapd; FWf;F ntl;Lg;gug;gsT
A Ak; ePl;rp e ck; Muk;g ePsk;  ck; Mapd;>

,Oitj; jifg;G
aq;qpd; Fzfk; =
,Oit tpfhuk;
M g /A e
E=
e/ 

g 
e= M
AE
M ,w;F vjpNu e tiugpd;
g
gbj;jpwd; M =
AE
M
cU: 38.1 cU: 38.2

nra;Kiw
cU 38.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW gpujhd mstpil ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s fk;gp
(P) Neuhf nespT ,y;yhjthW <u;f;fg;gl;bUf;FkhW nghUj;jkhd xU
epiwiaj; njhq;ftpLq;fs;. Ntzpau; mstpil ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s fk;gpapy;
(Q) nghUj;jkhd epiw Ve;jpnahd;wpidj; njhq;ftpLq;fs;.
,dp 1/2 kg Muk;g epiwnahd;wpidj; jl;bd; kPJ itj;J kPzL; k; mstpilapd;
thrpg;igg; ngWf. gpd;du; jlitf;F 1/2 kg tPjk; epiw Nru;j;jthW> cupa
thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWf. ,t;thwhf Ie;J my;yJ MW thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W
gpdd
; u;> Nru;ej
; epiwfis mNj xOq;fpy; ePff; pathW Muk;g epiw fpilf;Fk;
tiuapy; thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWf. M ,w;F vjpNu e ,id tiughf;Ff. epiw
Nru;f;Fk;nghOJk; ePf;Fk;nghOJk; ngWNgWfis ntt;Ntwhf xNu tiuGj;
jhspy; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;f. ,uz;L tiuGfsJk; gbj;jpwd;fspd; ,il %yk;
fk;gp Mf;fg;gl;Ls;s cNyhfj;jpd; aq;qpd; Fzfj;ijf; fz;L nfhs;Sq;fs;.

jhq;fpapypUe;J Ntzpau; mstpilapd; g+r;rpak; tiuahd Q fk;gpapd; gypj

ePsj;ij kPww
; u; Nfhypdhy; mse;Jnfhs;Sq;fs;. Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzprr
; papd;
%yk; fk;gpapd; ntt;NtWgl;l %d;W ,lq;fspy; FWf;F ntl;L tpl;lj;ij
xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrt;tdhd ,uz;L tpl;lq;fspd; Clhfg; ngWq;fs;.
88
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 38.1
Ve;jpapy; Ntzpau; thrpg;G ePl;rp ,il
,lg;gl;Ls;s epiw epiw epiw epiw
Nru;fF
; k; ePf;Fk; Nru;fF
; k; ePf;Fk;
ePlr
; p (mm)
epiw (kg) NghJ (mm) NghJ (mm) NghJ (mm) NghJ (mm)
0
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
2

fk;gpapd; FWf;F ntl;L tpl;lk;: (i) ..... mm (ii) ..... mm (iii) ..... mm
(iv) ..... mm (v) ..... mm (vi) ..... mm
= ............... mm
jhq;fpapypUe;J Ntzpau; mstpilapd; g+r;rpak; tiuapy;
Q fk;gpapd; tpisT ePsk; = ............... mm
M ,w;F vjpNu e tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; = ............... m kg-1
fk;gpapdJ FWf;F ntl;L ,il tpl;lk; = ............... m
fk;gpapdJ FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;gsT = ............... m2

g = 10 m s-2 Ig; gad;gLj;jp A gug;gsit rJu kPww

; Uf;F khw;wp> gbj;jpwDf;fhf
toq;fg;gl;l #j;jpuj;jpd; JizAld; y If; fzpj;jwpAq;fs;.

KbG
fzpj;jy; %yk; fpilj;j ngWNgWfspd; %yk; fk;gpapd; aq;qpd; Fzfj;ij
KbT nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
E ,dJ epakg; ngWkhdj;ijj; juTg; Gj;jfnkhd;wpypUe;J ngw;W gupNrhjid
%yk; fpilj;j ngWNgWfSld; xg;gpl;L tOitf; fz;lwpeJ ; rjtPj tOitj;
Jzpf.

Fwpg;G
 xNu jhq;f papy;> xNu jputpaj;jpdhy; Mf;f g;gl;l ,uz;L fk;gpfs;
njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;sikahy; jhq;fp gjptjhNyh> ntg;gepiy fhuzkhfNth
ahNjDk; NtWghL Vw;gLtjd; tpisthf> Vw;glj;jf;f tO ,opthFk;.
 epiwnahd;wpid mg;Gwg;gLj;jp thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWtjd; %yk; fk;gpapd;
kPspay; vy;iy kPwg;gl;Ls;sjh vd;gijr; Nrhjpf;fyhk;.
 tOf;fis ,opthf;Ftjw;fhf ePqf
; s; ifahSk; cj;jpfisf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.
89
 gupNrhjid ,y:
39
jputnkhd;wpd; (ePu pd;) gpRf;F ikf; Fzfj;i j> kapu;j;Jisg; gha;r ;r y;
Kiwapy; Jzpjy; (GthNra; (Poiseuille) #j;jpuk; %yk;)

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Vwj;jho 25 cm ePsKila kapu;j;Jisf;Foha;> khwh mKf;f cgfuzk;>
msf;FQ;rhb (100 ml), kPww
; u; Nfhy;> jhq;fp> epWj;jw; fbfhuk;> efUk;
EZf;Ff;fhl;b> gUj;jp E}y; ,io> Ijhd iej;jpupf; mkpyk; rpwpjsT>
Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;Lf; fiury; rpwpjsT> ,izg;G wg;gu; Foha;fs;

nfhs;if

r MiuAk;  ePsKk; cila kapu;j;Jisf;F ohnahd;wpd; ,U

me;jq;fspYk; p mKf;f tpj;jpahrj;jpd; fPo;> t Neuj;Js; ghAk; jputf;
fdtsT V vdpd;> GthNra; #j;jpug;gb>
V p r 4

t 8
jput kl;lq;fspd; tpj;jpahrk; h ck; jputj;jpd; mlu;j;jp  ck;
<u;it Mu;KLfy; g ck; Mapd;> p = hg vdNt>

V h  g r 4

t 8 
V   g r 4 
 h
t  8  

V  g r 4
h ,w;F vjpNu tiugpd; gbj;jpwd; =
t 8 

V
t

cU 39.1 cU 39.2

90
nra;Kiw
kapu;j;Jisf; Fohia Kjypy; Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;Lf; fiurypdhYk;
,uz;lhtjhf Ijhd iej;jpupf; mkpyj;jpdhYk; ,Wjpapy; ePupdhYk; ed;F
fOtpf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. cUtpy; fhl;bAs;sthW mjid wg;gu;f; Fohapdhy;
khwh mKf;f cgfuzj;Jld; ,izj;J> Fohiaf; fpilahfj; jhq;fpAld;
,izAq;fs;. kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; jpwe;j me;jj;jpw;F mUNf gUj;jp
E}y; Jz;n lhd;wpidf; fl;b > Foha;thapiyj; jpwe;J kapu;j;Jisf;
FohapD}lhf nkJthf ePu; topAk; tifapy; khwh mKf;ff; fUtpia
mikAq;fs;. epWj;jw; fbfhuj;ij KLf;Fk; mNjNtis> Fohapd; jpwe;J
me;jj;jpf;Ff; fPNo msf;FQ;rhbia itAq;fs;. NghJkhd msT ePu;>
Vwj;jho 3 epkplk; vd;Dk; khwh Neuj;Js; msf;FQ; rhbapy; Nru;ej ;
gpd;du;> rhbia mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> ePuf
; ; fdtsitf; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
khwh mKf;f cgfuzj;jpd; ePu; kl;lj;Jf;Fk; kapuj;Jisf; Foha;f;Fk;
,ilapyhd epiyf;Fj;J cauj;ij (h) kPw;wu; Nfhiyg; gad;gLj;jp mse;J
nfhs;Sq;fs;. mKf;f epuypd; mikit khw;wp h ,dJ rpy ngWkhdq;fSf;fhf
Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngw;W ml;ltiz 39.1 ,y; Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;.

kPw;wu; Nfhiyg;gad;gLj;jp> kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; nkhj;j ePsj;ij mse;J

nfhs;Sq;fs;. efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;biag; gad;gLj;jp> xd;Wf;nfhd;W
nrt;tdhd ,uz;L jpirfspd; topNa kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; cs;tpl;lj;ij
mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 39.1
h (cm) V (cm3) V/t (m3 s-1)

ePu; gha;e;J nrd;w Neuk; (t) = ............. s

kapu;j;Jisf; Fohapd; nkhj;j ePsk; (  ) = ............. cm
kapu;jJ; isf;Fohapd; tpl;lk; (d1) = ............. cm
Kd;ida jpirf;Fr; nrt;tdhd jpirapd;
topNa tpl;lk; (d2) = ............. cm
 d1  d2 
,il tpl;lk; =   = ............. cm
 2 
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; ,il Miu (r) = ............. cm

nfhs;ifapy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s #j;jpuj;ijg; gad;gLj;jp> ePupd; gpRf;Fikf;

Fzfj;ijf; fzpf;Ff.

91
KbG
fzpj;jy; %yk; fpilj;j ngWNgWfspd; gb> ePupd; gpRf;Fikf; Fzfj;ij
KbT nra;f.

fye;Jiuahly;
Fwpj;j ntg;gepiyapy; ePupd; gpRf;Fikf; Fzfj;jpd; epakg; ngWkhdj;ij>
gupNrhjid %yk; ngw;w ngWNgWfSld; xg;gpLq;fs;. rjtPj tOitf;
fz;lwpAq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; cs; Miuiaj; JzpAk;NghJ mjDs;Ns ,urepu
nyhd;iwg; GFj;jp mjd; ePsj;ij efUk; EZf;Ff; fhlbapdhy; mse;J>
GFj;jpa ,urj;jpd; epiwia Kj;Jyhj;juhrpdhy; epWj;jwpe;J> Miuiaf;
fzpg;gjd; %yk;> NkYk; jpUj;jkhd ngWkhdj;ijg; ngwyhk;.

 Nfhitapy; r4 mlq;fpAs;sikapdhYk; r ,dJ ngWkhdk; jrk vz;zhifapdhYk;

,g;gupNrhjidapd; NghJ kpfj; jpUj;jkhfg; ngw Ntz;ba mstPL r
MFk;.

 h ,dJ ngWkhdj;Jf;fhf h ,w;F vjpNu V/t tiuG tisap tbtKilajhapd;

mJ jputj;jpd; fjpahdJ mtjp Ntfj;ij tpQ;rpAs;sikahy; epfOk;
nfhe;jspg;Gg; gha;r;ryhf KbT nra;ayhk;. vdNt tiugpd; gbj;jpwidf;
fhz;gjw;fhf Neu; Nfhl;Lg; gFjpiaNa gad;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk;.

92
 gupNrhjid ,y:
40
EZf;F f;f hl;b tOf;f pnahd;wpidg; gad;gLj;jp> ePupd;
gug; g pOitiaj; Jzpjy; .

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fp> ngj;jpupf;fpz;zk;> ehd;F Jyhj;juhR> ,urhadj;
juhR> Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdp> fk;gpj;Jz;Lfs; rpy> Ijhd Nrhbaikj
nuhl;irl;Lf; fiury;> Ijhd iej;jpupf; mkpyk; fiury;> Ez;khdpj; jpUFf;
fzpr;rp

nfhs;if

cU 40.1 cU 40.2

juhrpy; njhq;ftplg;gl;Ls;s tOf;fpapd; fPo;r; Rw;wsT kPJ njhopw;gLk;

gug;gpOit tpiriar; rkepiyg;gLj;Jk; Rik mg ck; ePupd; gug;gpOit
T ck; tOf;fpapd; ePsKk; jbg;Gk; KiwNa a Ak; b ck; vdpd;>
2 (a+b) T = mg
mg
T
2(a  b)

nra;Kiw
EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fpnahd;wpid vLj;J> Kjypy; Ijhd Nrhbaikjnuhl;
irl;Lf; fiurypYk;> gpd;du; iej;jpupf; fkpyf; fiurypYk; ,Wjpahf ePupYk;
ed;F fOtpr; Rj;jpfupj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. gpd;du; ft;tpfisAk; E}iyAk;
gad;gLj;jp mJ epiyf;Fj;jhf mikAkhW cU. 40.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW
njhq;ftpl;L> juhirr; rkepiyg;gLj;Jq;fs;. ,dp ePu; Kfitia nkJthf
cau;j;jp EZf;Ff;fhl;b tOf;fp> ePu;Nkw;gug;ig rw;Wj; njhLkhW cU.
40.2 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW mikAq;fs;. mg;NghJ juhrpd; rkepiy FiyAk;.
kPz;Lk; rkepiyiag; ngWtjw;fhf> Nkyjpfkhf ,lNtz;ba Rikiaf;
fhZq;fs;. tOf;fpia mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> mjd; ePsj;ij Ntzpau; ,Lf;fpkhdp
apdhYk; jbg;ig Ez;khdpj; jpUFf; fzpr;rpapdhYk; mse;J nfhs;Sq;fs;.

93
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
tOf;fpapd; mfyk; b = ............. cm
tOf;fpapd; ePsk; a = ............. cm
Nkyjpf Rik = ............. g

ePupd; gug;gpOit T ia nfhs;ifapd;gb fzpf;Ff.

KbG
fzpj;jy; %yk; fpilj;j ngWNgWfspd;gb> ePupd; gug;gpOitia KbT
nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
ePupd; gug;gpOitapd; epWkg;ngWkhdj;Jld; xg;gpl;L cq;fsJ ngWNgW
gw;wpf; fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
ePupd; gug;gpOit> ntg;gepiyAld; khWfpdw ; ikahy;> gupNrhjidia elj;Jk;
re;ju;gg; j;jpy; ePupd; ntg;gepiyiaf; FwpjJ
; itj;J> Fwpjj ; ntg;gepiyf;fika
KbT nra;tJ kpfg; nghUj;jkhdJ.

94
 gupNrhjid ,y:
41
kapu;j;Jis Vw;w Kiwapy; ePu pd; gug;gOitiaj; Jzpjy;.

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Vwj;jho 15 cm ePsKila kapu;j;Jisf;Foha;> efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;b>
Kfit> cauj;ijr; nrg;gQ; nra;aj;jf;f jhq;fp> nrq;Nfhz tbtpy;
tisf;fg;gl;l Fz;^rp my;yJ Rl;b> Rj;jkhd ePu;> Ijhd Nrhbaikj
nuhl;irl;Lf; fiury; rpwpjsT> Ijhd iej;jpupf; mkpyf; fiury; rpwpjsT>
jhq;fp> nky;ypa wg;gu; tisaq;fs;

nfhs;if

mlu;j;jp  ck; gug;gOit T ck; nfhz;l

jputnkhd;W> fz;zhbAld; mikf;Fk; njhLiff;
Nfhzk;  Mapd; > fz;zhb kapu;j ;Jisf;
FohapDs; Nkw;nrd;w jput epuypd; cauk; h
ck; kapu;j;Jisf; Fohapd; cs;tpl;lk; r ck;
Mapd;>
2T cos 
 h  g MFk;.
r
Rj; j khd eP u hdJ Rj; j khd fz; z hbAld;
mikf;F k; njhLiff; Nfhzk; G+r;r pakhff;
fUjg;gLk;. mg;NghJ>
2T
 h g
r
h  gr
T
2

cU. 41.1

nra;Kiw
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohia Kjypy; Nrhbaikjnuhl;irl;Lf; fiurypYk; gpd;
Ijhd iej;jpupf;fkpyf; fiurypYk; fOtp> gpd;du; Rj;jkhd ePupy; rpy
jlitfs; fOtp cyu;j;jpf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.

ePiuf;nfhz;l Kfitia> cauj;ij khw;wj;jf;f thq;fpd; kPJ itj;J>

tise;j Fz;^rpia my;yJ Rl;bia wg;gu; tisaj;jpdhy; ,izj;J
kapu;j;Jisf; Fohia cU. 41.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW> epiyf;Fj;jhf
mikAkhWk; Fohapd; fPo; me;jk; Kfitapy; cs;s ePupDs; rw;W mkpOkhWk;
jhq;fpapy; ,izj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;. Kfitapd; ePu; Nkw;gug;G> tise;j
Fz;^rp $u;KidAld; (my;yJ Rl;bapd; $u; KidAld;) njhLifailAkhW
thq;fpd; cauj;ijr; nrg;gQ; nra;Aq;fs;. ,dp kapu;j;Jisf;FohapDs;
ePupd; Vw;wk; G+u;j;jpaile;j gpd;du; Nkw;nrd;w ePu;epuypd; gpiwAUit> efUk;
EZf;Ff; fhl;b %yk; mtjhdpj;J> (,t;tpk;gk; jiyfPohff; fhzg;gLk;)
95
 mjDld; Ftpar; nra;J> gpiwAUtpd; mbg;gFjpia fpilf;fk;gp njhLk;
tifapy; EZf;Ff; fhl;biar; nrg;gQ; nra;J thrpgi
; g (h1) EZf;Ff;fhlbapd;
epiyf;Fj;J mstpil %yk; ngWq;fs;.

gpdd
; u; ePu; Kfitia mg;Gwg;gLj;jp> efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;bia epiyf;Fj;J
mstpil topNa gjpar; nra;J Rl;bapd; $u;Kidf;F mjid Ftpar;
nra;J> Rl;bapd; $u;Kid fpilf;fk;gpiaj; njhLkhW EZf;Ff;fhlbiar;
nrg;gQ; nra;J Fwpjj
; thrpgi
; g (h2) EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; epiyf;Fj;J mstpil
%yk; ngWq;fs;.

kapu;j;Jisf;F ohapd; tpl;lj;ijj; Jzptjw;fhf

efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; FWf;Ff; fk;gpia cU.
42.2 ,y; fhl; b As; s thW nghUe; j r; nra; J
xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd ,uz;L tpl;lq;fSf;Fupa
thrpg;Gf;fisg; (x1, x2 kw;Wk; y1, y2) ngw;Wf; Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;Sq;fs;.

cU. 41.2

thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
h1 = -------------- h2 = --------------
x1 = -------------- x2 = --------------
y1 = -------------- y2 = --------------
kapu;j;Jis Vw;wk; = (h1 - h2)
 ( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 ) 
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; ,iltpl;lk; =  
 2
d 
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; Miu = 2
 
nfhs;ifapd;gb> T ,dJ ngWkhdj;ijf; fzpAq;fs;.

KbG
fzpj;jy; %yk; T ,w;fhfg; ngw;w ngWkhdj;ij ePupd; gug;gpOitia KbT
nra;Aq;fs;.

fye;Jiuahly;
ngWNgWfspd; nrk;ikia mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;fhd gpNuuizfisf;
fye;JiuahLq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohia ePu; Kfitapy; mkpo;j;Jk; msit khw;Wtjd; %yk;>
Fohapy; xU rpy ,lq;fspy; kapu;j;Jis Vw;wj;ij mse;J gug;gpOitiaf;
fzpj;J> mg;ngWkhdq;fspd; ,ilg;ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWtjhy; kapu;jJ; isj;
Jthuk; rPuhff; fhzg;glhikahy; Vw;glj;jf;f tO ,opthf;fg;gLk;.

96
 gupNrhjid ,y:
42
Nafupd; Kiwapy; (Jaeger’s Method) jputnkhd;wpd; gug;G ,Oitiaj;
Jzpjy; .

nghUs;fSk; cgfuzq;fSk;
Nafupd; cgfuzj; njhFjp> Kfit> gug;G ,Oit msg;gjw;Fupa jputk;>
kz;nzz;nza; rpwpjsT> efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;b> kuf; Fw;wp (my;yJ
cauj;ij khw;wj;jf;f thq;F)> jhq;fpfs; ,uz;L

nfhs;if

gug;G ,Oitia msg;gjw;Fupa jputj;jpd; gug;gpOit T ck; mlu;j;jp

1 ck; nkypkhdpapy; ,lg;gl;Ls;s kz;nzz;nza;apd; mlu;j;jp 2
ck; cgfuzj;jpd; kapuj;Jisf;Fohapd; tpl;lk; r ck; nkypkhdpapd;
jput epuy;fSf;F ,ilapyhd cauq;fspd; cr;r tpj;jpahrk; h2 ck;
jput kl;lj;jpypUe;J kapuj;Jisf; Fohapd; me;jk; tiuapyhd Mok;
h1 ck; tspkz;ly mKf;fk;  ck; Mapd;>
FkpopDs; mKf;fk; (p1) = p0  h2 2 g
FkpOf;F ntspNa mKf;fk;(p2) = p0  h11g
Nkyjpf mKf;fk; = p2 p1
= (h22h11)g

cU. 42.1

nra;Kiw
cU. 42.1 ,y; fhl;bAs;sthW Nafu; cgfuzj; njhFjpapd; gFjpfis
,izAq;fs;. nkypkhdpapy; NghJkhd msT kz;nzz;nza; ( 2 ) ,Lq;fs;.
cgfuzj;jpy; cs;s kapu;jJ
; isf; Foha; epiyf;F j;jhf mikAkhW>
97
 jhq;fpnahd;wpd; %yk; ,izAq;fs;. gug;G ,Oitiaj; Jzpa Ntz;ba
jputj;ijr; rpwpa Kfitapy; ,l;L> glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthW kapu;j;Jisf;
Fohapd; fPo; me;jk; mj;jputj;jpDs; mkpoe
; j
; pUf;ff; $bathW Fw;wpnahd;wpd;
(cauj;ij khw;wf;$ba thq;nfhd;wpd); JizAld; ,izAq;fs;. tisj;j
Fz;^rpapd; Kid my;yJ Rl;bapd; Kid jput Nkw;gug;igj; njhLkhW
mjid kapu;j;Jisf; Fohapd; ntspg;Gwj;Nj ,izAq;fs;. ,dp ngupa
FLitapDs; ePu; rPuhfg; ghAkhW T1 Foha;thapiyj; jpwTq;fs;. mg;NghJ
FLitapDs; cs;s tspapd; mKf;fk; gbg;gbahf mjpfupj;J kapu;j;Jisf;
Fohapd; jputj;jpy; mkpo;e;Js;s me;jj;jpy; tspf;Fkpopnahd;W cUthfp>
nkJthf> tspf;Fkpopfshf ntspNaWk; re;ju;gg ; j;ijg; ngWq;fs;.

nkypkhdpapd; A, B Gaq; f spy; jputg; gpiwAUf;f Sf;F ,ilapyhd

cauq;fspd; cr;r tpj;jpahrk; h2 Ig; ngWtjw;fhf Kjypy; A Gaj;jpd;
jputg; gpiwAUit efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;bapd; %yk; mtjhdpj;J mjd;
cr;r caukhd miktpdN ; ghJ> efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bia jputg; gpiwAUtpd;
mbg;gFjpay; Ftpar; nra;J efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; epiyf;Fj;J
mstpilapd; thrpgG ; h1 Ig; ngWq;fs;. ,t;thwhf B Gaj;jpd; jputg;gpiwAUtpd;
mbg;gFjpapy; miktpd; NghJ efUk; EZf;Ff;fhlb thrpgG ; h2 Ig; ngWq;fs;.
thrpg;Gf;fisf; fPNo jug;gl;Ls;s ml;ltizapy; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;Sq;fs;.
gpd;du; Kfitia mg;Gwg;gLj;jp kapu;j;Jisf; FohAld; ,izf;fg;gl;l
Fz;^rpapd; my;yJ Rl;bapd; Kidia efUk; EZf;Ff;fhl;bapd; Clhf
mtjhdpj;J mjd; Kid fpilf; fk;gpiaj; njhLkhW FWf;Ff;fk;gp kPJ
Ftpar; nra;Aq;fs;. Fwpj;j thrpg;G h3 ,idg; ngWq;fs;. gpd; kapu;j;Jisf;
Fohapd; fPo; Edpiaf; Ftpag;gLj;jp Fwpj;;jthrpg;G h4 I ngWq;fs;

,dp kapuj
; J
; isf; Fohiaf; fpilahf> jhq;fpnahd;wpd;
%yk; ,izj;J mjd; cs;tpl;lj;ijj; Jzptjw;Fj;
Njitahd efUk; EZf;Ff; fhl;b thrpg;Gf;fshd
(fPNo glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sthW) y1 , y2 , x1 , x2
Mfpatw;iwg; ngWq;fs;. thrpg;Gf;fis fPNo jug;gl;
Ls;s ml;ltizapy; Fwpg;gpLq;fs;.

cU. 42.2
thrpg;Gf;fSk; fzpj;jYk;
ml;ltiz 42.1
h1 h2 h3 h4 y1 y2 x1 x1

h1 = (h3 - h4)
h2 = (h1 - h2)
 ( y2  y1 )  ( x2  x1 ) 
kapu;j;Jisf;Fohapd; tpl;lk; d   
 2 
1 ,2 ngWkhdq;fisAk; h1 , h2 Mfpatw;iwAk; Fohapd; Miu r ,dJ
ngWkhdj;ijAk; gpujpaPL nra;J nfhs;ifapd; gb T If; fzpj;jwpAq;fs;.

98
KbG
cq;fsJ fzpj;jypd;NghJ T ,w;fhff; fpilj;j ngWkhdj;ijj; jputj;jpd;
gug;G ,Oitahf KbG nra;Aq;fs;.

Fwpg;G
jputj;jpDs; cUthFk; tspfF ; kpopapd; Miu mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ GdypypUe;J
ePu;j;Jspfs; tpOk; tPjj;ij> T1 Foha; thapiyg; gad;gLj;jp> gbg;gbahff;
FiwAq;fs;. tspf; Fkpop fod;W NghFk; fzj;jpy; nkypkhdpapd; jput
kl;lq;fspd; tpj;jpahrk; cr;r msthFk; re;ju;g;gj;ijr; rpy jlitfs;
mtjhdpj;J> mt;thwhd cr;r re;ju;gg ; j;jpy; h1, h2 thrpg;Gf;fisg; ngWq;fs;.

Kfitapy; cs;s jputj;ij ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyfSf;F ntg;gNkw;wp> ntg;gepiyia

khwhJ itj;J> gupNrhjidia elj;Jtjd; %yk; ntg;gepiyf;Nfw;g
jputj;jpd; gug;G ,Oit khwiyf; fw;fyhk;.

99
 crhj;Jiz E}y;fs;

oykdhl" iS' ^2003&' m%dfhda.sl fN!;sl úoHdj - iageï*¾âf,ala" mkaksmsáh'

Breithaupt, J. (2003). Understanding Physics For Advanced Level – Fourth Edition, Nelson
Therone, Cheltenham, UK.

Edmonds Jr., D. S. (1993). Cioffari’s Experiments in College Physics – Nineth Edition,

D. C. Heath and Company, Massachusetts, USA.

Muncaster, R. (1993). A-level Physics – Fourth Edition, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd,
Cheltenham, UK.

Nelkon, M. & Ogborn, J. M. (1987). A-level Practical Physics – Fourth Edition. Heinemann
Educational Books, London, UK.

Tyler, F. (1961). A Laboratory Manual of Physics – Second Edition. Edward Arnold Publishers
Limited, London, UK.

Mather, U. B. (1951). Experiments in Physics for First Year Students – First Edition. Ceylon
University Press, Colombo.

Smith, C. J. (1947). Intermediate Physics, Edward Arnold Publishers Limited, Lincoln, UK.

100