Unit V:

Graph Theory: Graphs and their properties, Degree, Connectivity, Path,

Cycle, Sub Graph, Rooted trees,
Minimum Spanning Trees: Prims Algorithm, Kruskal’s Algorithm, and
Planar Graphs.

Unit VI:
Graph Theory and Applications: Isomorphism, Eulerian and Hamiltonian
Graphs, Graph Colouring, Colouring maps and Colouring Vertices,
Colouring Edges, List Coloring, Perfect Graph: Definition properties and
Example, Bi-connected component and Articulation Points.

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 Graph Theory and
Applications
• Basic concepts
• Representation of Graphs
• Isomorphism and Sub
graphs
• Multi graphs and Euler
Circuits
• Hamiltonian graphs
• Spanning trees
• Planar graphs
• Chromatic number
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 Basic concepts and
notations.
• A Graph G is a pair of sets (V, E)
• where V = A set of vertices (nodes) and
• E = A set of edges (lines)
• V(G) = Set of vertices in G.
• E(G) = Set of edges in G.
• V(G) = Number of vertices in graph G = Order
of G.
• E(G) = Number of edges in graph G = Size of G .
•
ab
* *
•
c d
* *
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 Types of
graphs

• Non Directed Graph (Undirected graph): The elements of E are

unordered pairs (sets) of vertices. In this case an edge {u, v} is said
to join u and v or to be between u and v.
• Directed Graph: In a digraph the elements of E are ordered pairs of
vertices. In this case an edge (u, v) is said to be from u to v.
• Loop: An edge drawn from a vertex to itself.
• Multi Graph: If one allows more than one edge to join a pair of
vertices,
the result is then called a multi graph.
• Simple Graph: A graph with no loops and no parallel edges.
• Degree: Degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of
edges incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex contributes
twice to the degree of that vertex. The degree of the vertex ‘v’ is
denoted by deg(v).

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 Definition
s

• In-degree and Out-degree: In a digraph, the number of edges

incident to a vertex is called the in-degree of the vertex and the
number of vertices incident from a vertex is called its out-degree.
• The in-degree of a vertex ‘v’ in a graph G is denoted by deg+(v) .
• The out-degree of a vertex v is denoted by deg -(G).
• A loop at a vertex in a digraph is counted as one edge for both
in-degree and out-degree of that vertex.
• Neighbors: If there is an edge incident from u to v, or incident on u
and v, then u and v are said to be adjacent ( neighbors).
• (G) = minimum of all the degrees of vertices in a graph G.
• (G) = Maximum of all the degrees of vertices in a graph G.

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 Regular
graph

• Regular Graph: In a graph G, if (G) = (G) = k

i.e., if each vertex of G has degree k, then G is said to be a regular
graph
of degree k (k-regular).
• Ex: Polygon is a 2-regular graph .
• Ex: A 3-regular graph is a cubic graph.
• Complete Graph: A simple non directed graph with ‘n’ mutually
adjacent vertices is called a complete graph on ‘n’ vertices and may
be represented by Kn.
• Note: A complete graph on ‘n’ vertices has [{n(n – 1)}/ 2]edges,
and each of its vertices has degree ‘n-1’.
• Every complete graph is a regular graph.
• The converse of the above statement need not be true.

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 More
graphs

• Cycle Graph: A cycle graph of order ‘n’ is a connected graph whose

edges form a cycle of length n.
• Note: A cycle graph ‘Cn’ of order n has n vertices and n edges.
• Null Graph: A null graph of order n is a graph with n vertices and
no edges.
• Wheel Graph: A wheel graph of order ‘n’ is obtained by adding a
single
new vertex (the hub) to each vertex of a cycle graph of order n.
• Note: A wheel graph Wn has ‘n +1’ vertices and 2n edges.
• Bipartite Graph: A Bipartite graph is a non directed graph whose
set of vertices can be partitioned in to two sets M and N in such a
way that each edge joins a vertex in M to a vertex in N.

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 More
graphs.

• Complete Bipartite Graph: A complete Bipartite graph is a Bipartite

graph in which every vertex of M is adjacent to every vertex of N.
• If M = m and N = n then the complete Bipartite graph is denoted
by
Km , n. It has ‘m n’ edges.
• The number of edges in a bipartite graph is (n2/4).
• Degree Sequence: If v1, v2, ……, vn are the vertices of a graph G, then
the sequence{d1, d2,….., dn} where di = degree of vi is called the
degree sequence of G.
• Usually we order the degree sequence so that the degree sequence
is monotonically decreasing.

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 First theorem on graph
theory
• Sum of Degrees Theorem: If V = {v1 , v2 , ….., vn } is the vertex set of a
non directed graph G then
•
• deg (vi) = 2. E
n

• Proof: Wih=e1n the degrees are summed, each edge contributes a

count of one to the degree of each of the two vertices on which
the edge is incident.
• Hence, the theorem follows.

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 Corrollorie
s

• Cor. If G is a digraph,
1 then
• deg –(vi) =
deg+(vi) E
= n
• Cor.2. An undirected graphi=1 i= 1
n has an even n u mber of vertices of
odd degree. (Refer Text book for proof)
• Cor.3 If G is a k– regular graph , then k. V = 2. E .

• Cor.4 In a non directed graph G, If k = (G) and m = (G) then

• k. V 2. E m . V
•

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 Example
s
• Ex. A non directed graph contains 16 edges and all vertices are of
degree
2. Find the number of vertices in G ?
• Solution: By Sum of degrees theorem, if degree of each vertex is k,
then
• k. V = 2. E
• 2. V = 2.(16)
• V = 16

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 1) Ex. A simple non directed graph G contains 21 edges, 3 vertices of
degree 4 and the other vertices are of degree 2. Find the number of
vertices in the graph G ?

2) What is the number of vertices in an undirected connected graph with

27 edges, 6 vertices of degree 2, 3 vertices of degree 4 and remaining
vertices of degree 3?

3) If a simple non directed graph G contains 24 edges and all vertices

are of
same degree then find the number of vertices in G?
4) What is the largest possible number of vertices in a graph G, with 35
edges and all vertices are of degree at least 3 ?.

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 Exampl
e

• 1) A simple non directed graph G contains 21 edges, 3 vertices of

degree 4 and the other vertices are of degree 2. Find the number
of vertices in the graph G ?
• Solution: Let V = n . By Sum of degrees theorem,

• deg (vi) = 2. E
n
• 3x4 +m x 2= 2.(21)
m=(42-12)/2=15
• n = 3+15=18.

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 2) What is the number of vertices in an undirected connected graph
with 27 edges, 6 vertices of degree 2, 3 vertices of degree 4 and
remaining vertices of degree 3?

• Solution: Let V = n . By Sum of degrees theorem,

• deg (vi) = 2. E

• 6.(2) + 3.(4) + (n – 9 ). 3 = 2.(27)

• n = 19.

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 3) If a simple non directed graph G contains 24 edges and all vertices
are of
same degree then find the number of vertices in G?
• Solution: By Sum of degrees theorem, if degree of each vertex is k,
then
• k. V = 2. E
• k. V = 2.(24)
• V = 48/k ( k = 1,2,3,4,6,8,…)
• V(G) = 48, 24, 16, …

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 4) What is the largest possible number of vertices in a graph G,
with 35
edges and all vertices are of degree at least 3 ?.
• Solution: By Sum of degrees theorem, if degree of each vertex is
k, then
• k. V 2. E
• 3. VV (70/3
2.(35)= 23.33..)
• V 23
•
• The largest possible number of vertices = 23

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 Exampl
e

• Ex. Let G be a simple graph with n vertices. Then show that the
number of edges in G is less than or equal to {n.(n – 1)} / 2.

• Solution: In a simple graph, each edge correspond to a distinct

pair of vertices.
• The number of ways to choose a pair of vertices, out of n
vertices = C(n , 2) n. (n – 1 )
• = 2
•
• The maximum number of edges possible in G = {n.(n – 1)} / 2.
• The number of edges in G is less than or equal to {n.(n – 1)} /
2.

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 Ex. Which of the following degree sequences represent a simple non
directed
a) {2, 3, 3, 4, 4,graph
5} b) {2, 3, 4, 4, 5}
c) {1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6} d) {1, 3, 3, 3}
• Solution: a) Consider the degree sequence {2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5}
• Here, we have 3 vertices with odd degree.
• But, By sum of degrees theorem, An undirected graph should
contain an even number of vertices of odd degree.
• The degree sequence cannot represent a simple non directed
graph.

• b) Consider the degree sequence {2, 3, 4, 4, 5}

• Here, we have a vertex with degree 5.
• But, A simple non directed graph of order 5 cannot have a vertex
with degree 5.
• The degree sequence cannot represent a simple non directed
graph.

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 Contd.,

• c) Consider the degree sequence {1, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6}

Here, the order of the graph is 7 and we have 2 vertices with
degree 6.
• Since these two vertices are adjacent to all other vertices of the
graph, a vertex with degree 1 does not exist
• The degree sequence cannot represent a simple non directed
graph.

• d) Consider the degree sequence {1, 3, 3, 3 }

Here, the order of the graph is 4 and we have 3 vertices with
degree 3.
• Since these 3 vertices are adjacent to all other vertices of the
graph, a vertex with degree 1 does not exist.
• The degree sequence cannot represent a simple non directed
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 Ex. Show that a degree sequence with all distinct elements cannot
represent
a simple non directed graph.

• Solution: Let G = {v1,v2,v3,…,vn}

• The possible degree sequences are {0,1,2,….,n –1} and {1,2,3,…,n}
• In a simple graph of order n, if there is a vertex with degree n – 1
then a vertex with degree 0 does not exist.
• A simple non directed graph of order ‘n’ cannot have a vertex with
degree n.
• The degree sequence with all distinct elements cannot represent a
simple non directed graph.

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 Representation of
Graphs

Adjacency list: One way to represent a graph with no multiple edges

is to use adjacency lists, which specify the vertices that are adjacent
to each vertex of the graph.
1) Adjacency matrix: The adjacency matrix of a graph is a
matrix with rows and columns labeled by the vertices and such that
its entry in row i, column j, i 6 = j, is the number of edges incident on I
and j. For instance the following is the adjacency matrix of the graph
of figure

21
2) Incidence matrix: The incidence matrix of a graph G is a
matrix with rows labeled by vertices and columns labeled
by edges, so that entry for row v column e is 1 if e is
incident on v, and 0 otherwise. As an example, the
following is the incidence matrix of graph of figure

22
 Minimal Spanning Tree: Let G be a connected graph where each edge
of G is labeled with a non negative cost. A spanning tree T where the
total cost C(T) is minimum is called a minimal spanning tree.

• Kruskal’s Algorithm: (For finding minimal spanning tree of a

connected weighted graph)
• Input: A connected graph G with non negative values assigned to
each
edge.
• Output: A minimal spanning tree for G.
• Method: 1) Select any edge of minimal value that is not a loop.
This is the first edge of T(if there is more than one edge of
minimal value, arbitrary choose one of these edges)
• 2) Select any remaining edge of G of having minimal value that
does not form a circuit with the edges already included in T.
• 3) Continue step 2 until T contain (n – 1) edges when n = |V(G)|

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 Prim’s
algorithm.
• Prim’s Algorithm: (For finding a minimal spanning tree)
• 1) Let G be a connected graph with non negative values assigned
to each edge. First let T be the tree consisting of any vertex V1 of
G.
• 2) Among all the edges not in T, that are incident on a vertex in T
and do not form a circuit when added to T, Select one of minimal
cost and add it to T.
• 3) The process terminates after we have added (n – 1) edges
• where n = |V(G)|.
•

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 Planar
Graphs

• A graph or a multi graph that can be drawn in a plane or on a sphere

so that its edges do not cross is called a planer graph.
• Ex : A complete graph on 4 vertices K4 is a planar graph.
• Ex : Tree is a planar graph.

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 • Map, Connected map : A particular planar representation of a finite
planer multi graph is called a map. We say that the map is
connected if the underlying multi graph is connected.
• It is also called as Planar representation of Graph.
• Region : A given map (planar graph) divide the plane into connected
areas called regions
• Degree of a region : The boundary of each region of a map consists
of a sequence of edges forming a closed path. The degree of
region ‘r’ denoted by deg (r) is the length of the closed path
bordering r .

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 Complete Graph K5 is Non-Planar:
Kirtowski Grpah-1 is K5

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 Complete Bi-Partite Graph K3,3 is Non-
Planar:
Kirtowski Grpah-2 is K3,3

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 Sum of degrees of regions
theorem

• If G is a planar graph with k regions, then the sum of the degrees of

the regions of G is equal to twice the number of edges in G.
i.e., deg (ri) = 2. E .
K

• Cor.1 In a planar gir=a1ph G, if the degree of each region is k then k.

R =2. E
• Cor.2 In a planar graph G, if the degree of each region is k , then k.
R 2. E
• In particular, If G is a simple connected planar graph ( A planar
graph with no loops and no parallel edges, and degree of each
region is 3), then
3. R ≤ 2 . E

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 Euler’s
formula
• Euler’s formula for planar graphs.
• Statement: If G is a connected planar graph, then
• V – E + R =2
• In other notation, n–e+f=2
•

32
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 Kurtowski
Theorem
• A graph G is not planar iff G contains a sub graph homeomorphic to
K3, 3 or K5 .

• Ex. A planar graph contains 25 vertices and 60 edges then find the
number of regions in the graph .
• Ex. What is the maximum number of edges possible in a planar
graph with eight vertices ?.
• Ex. What is the minimum number of vertices necessary for a graph
with
11 edges to be a simple planar graph?.
• Ex. Suppose that a connected planar graph has 20 vertices, each of
degree 3. In to how many regions does a representation of this
planar graph split the plane ?

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 Example
s
• Ex. Let G is a connected planar graph with 35 regions and degree of
each region is 6. Find the number of vertices in G ?.
• Theorem: Prove that a complete graph Kn is planar iff n 4.
• Theorem: Prove that a complete Bipartite graph Km, n is planar
• iffm 2 or n 2.

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